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1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 HISTORY OF EGG 4

3 STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE 10

VALUE OF EGGS

4 TYPES OF EGGS 27

5 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF EGGS 42

6 GRADING OF EGGS 52

7 HACCP IN EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS 60

8 EGG PRODUCTS: PRINCIPLE OPERATIONS 69

9 EGG PRODUCTS 76

10 PRE TREATMENT OF EGG PRODUCTS 108

11 DRIED EGG PRODUCTS 115

12 INDUSTRIAL USES OF EGG PRODUCTS 121

13 CONCLUSION 129

BIBLIOGRAPHY 131

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The history of poultry development in India is a success story par excellence.

Compared with meat, poultry industry has registered significant growth. From the

backyard, the poultry sector made a quantum jump to emerge as a dynamic industry

within a short span of time. Indian Poultry population is 3% of the world's poultry

population (Anon 2007a). For the poultry sector, India ranks the fourth largest egg

producer in the world (Bansal & Malhotra, 2006), producing around 1,890 thousand

tonnes or 46.2 billion eggs in 2006. India's egg production, however, is only 44

eggs/person/year or half of the worlds per capita egg consumption (Anon 2004b). The

overall rank is 17th in World Poultry production. Poultry exports are mostly to

Maldives and Oman. Indian poultry meat products have good markets in Japan,

Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. The industry which is dominated by the private

sector is showing a trend towards integration in operation. Automation in production

system is not a distant reality for India. There are an increasing number of farms around

major cities that are going for such automation. The industry is proud of its excellent

support sectors namely, feed, pharmaceuticals, equipment, etc.

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The breeding sector, which lately achieved self sufficiency, is now even

entering the export sector with parent hatching eggs/chicks. There is a huge

unorganized sector with backyard flock ranging from 25 to 250 birds. The demand for

free roaming indigenous chicken is substantial in many parts of the country. However,

the number of such birds is decreasing day by day in major producing belts. In recent

years, efforts were made towards development of birds that resembles the local ones

with respect to disease resistance, consumer preferred meat quality and rearing

requirements. The industry provides direct and indirect employment to one and four

million people respectively. Eggs and chicken meat are one of the cheapest sources of

protein available to Indians and as such can be of immense help in fighting protein

malnutrition in India. It is shown that out of Rs 900 ($20) as per capital expenditure on

food, only 1.75% (i.e. Rs.15.80 - approx. $0.36) is the expenditure on eggs and

chicken. Lately, with increasing production and subsequent impact on the market, the

industry has realized the importance of creating the demand for chicken and eggs

besides for processed products in the country. c

Eggs (Ê

 

) have been described as ³Nature¶s original functional

food´ (Hasler, 2000) and are a rich and well-balanced source of essential nutrients for

human diet composed by fatty acids, iron phosphorus, trace minerals, vitamin A, B6,

B12, D, E and K and proteins of high biological value (Coimbra et al., 2006; Stadelman

& Cotterill, 1995). With these properties, eggs are one of the few products that are used

throughout the world, and therefore the egg industry is an important segment of the

world food industry (Stadelman, 1995a, 1995b).

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Eggs are also considered the highest quality protein, yet compared to other

animal protein sources, eggs are the most inexpensive. Hen eggs are a primary source

of high quality proteins of low cost and offer a balanced distribution of minerals and

vitamins, particularly vitamins E, A, B12, B2 and folate (Surai & Sparks, 2001), as

well as high amounts of lipids, such as triacylglycerols, phospholipids and cholesterol

(Watkins, 1995).

Eggs contain a number of beneficial nutrients, some of which have functions

that are currently being studied. Egg yolks provide an excellent, highly bioavailable

source of the carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin (Handelman et al., 1999). Recent

research demonstrated the link between these dietary compounds and the macular

pigment of the retina of the eye (Landrum and Bone, 2001). Lutein and zeaxanthin are

the primary carotenoids found in the macular region. Sufficient quantities of these

nutrients in the diet are thought to reduce the risk of age related macular degeneration, a

leading cause of blindness in the elderly. In addition to possibly reducing the risk of

macular degeneration, lutein has been associated with a protective effect for early

atherosclerosis. Dwyer et al. (2001) reported that increased amounts of dietary lutein

from green leafy vegetables and egg yolks could be protective against atherosclerosis

by slowing the progression of atherosclerotic lesions in humans and animals. Early

arteriosclerosis was inversely related to levels of plasma lutein, which were affected by

dietary intake indicating an inverse relationship between dietary lutein and

arteriosclerosis development.c

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Humans have been consuming eggs since the dawn of human time. The history

is complicated and diverse; the culinary applications are innumerable. The eggs have

been consumed wherever these could be obtained. Different kinds of eggs were/still are

eaten in different parts of the world. Ostrich and chicken are the most common.

Because eggs are relatively easy to obtain, excellent protein sources, adaptable

to many different types of recipes (from simply boiled, fried, or stuffed to complicated

quiche, custards or meringue), and fit the bill for meatless fasting days required by

some religions. Eggs have been the object of much socio-religious symbolism and

tradition. Over time, some groups have encouraged the consumption/decoration of eggs

in celebration of certain events. Others have decided eggs are filthy food which must be

avoided.

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It is likely that female game birds were, at some time in the early history of

man, perceived as a source both of meat and of eggs. Men discovered that by removing

from the nest eggs that they did not wish to have hatch (or that they simply wished to

eat), they could induce the female jungle fowl to lay additional eggs and, indeed, to

continue to lay eggs through an extended laying season. Smith (1975)

Eggs have been known to, and enjoyed by, humans for many centuries. Jungle

fowl were domesticated in India by 3200 B.C.E. Record from China and Egypt show

that fowl were domesticated and laying eggs for human consumption around 1400

B.C.E., and there is archaeological evidence for egg consumption dating back to the

Neolithic age. The Romans found egg-laying hens in England, Gaul, and among the

Germans. The first domesticated fowl reached North America with the second voyage

of Columbus in 1493. Katz (2003)

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The egg tracks it name back to a prehistoric Indo-European source related to

words for 'bird'. The Old English term was B , which survived in Middle English as ey

(plural eyren). But in the fourteenth century the related egg was borrowed from Old

Norse. For a time the two forms competed with each other (William Caxton, in the

prologue to his Book of Eneydos (1490), asked 'What should a man in these day now

write, eggs or eyren, certainly it is hard to please every man'), and the Norse form did

not finally emerge as the winner until the late sixteenth century.

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Food historians tell us the practice was ancient but they do not venture an exact

place, date, or reason. The domestication of fowl (esp. chicken) greatly increased the

availability of eggs to ancient peoples. This is thought by some to have begun in China

in 6,000BC. Culinary evidence confirms breads and cakes using eggs were made by

Ancient Egyptian and Roman peoples. The reason most often sited was the recognition

that eggs worked as binding (thickening) agents. The food historians have not yet

ventured into this territory. Possibly it was a discovery based on trial and error. Many

foods and cooking methods (leavened bread, roasted meats, yoghurt) were "invented"

this way.

It is clear that Egyptians enjoyed their food. Nobles and priests were

particularly well served, with at least forty different kinds of bread and pastries, some

raised, some flat, some round, some conical, some plaited. There were some varieties

made with honey, others with milk, still others with eggs. Tannahill (1988)

Farming the prolific chicken has allowed us to make eggs a part of our diet

without harming its reproductive cycle. However, the very few ancient Greek recipes to

mention eggs date from after the time of Pericles, when the chicken was introduced to

Africa. It took some times for the habit of using eggs in cooking to catch on. We do

hear of thagomata, made from egg whites, and various stuffing using egg yolks. On the

other hand the classic cake offered as a sacrifice by the Romans, the libum, called for

one egg to a pound of flour. In the Roman period pastry cooks made much use of eggs

for desserts as well as cakes. Apicius (25 BC) invented baked custard: milk, honey and

eggs beaten and cooked in an earthenware dish on gentle heat. Eggs really made their

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way into the kitchen with Apicius, who mentioned them frequently in the Ars Magirica.

Beaten eggs were used as a thickening and to bind sauces and ragouts; hardboiled eggs

became an ingredient of various dishes, sometimes with cheese, but here is no evidence

that eggs were eaten just as they were, as a dish in themselves. This does not mean that

they were not so eaten; it could simply indicate that they were not thought interesting

enough for special mention.

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Because eggs embody the essence of life, people from ancient times to the

modern day have surrounded them with magical beliefs, endowing them with the power

not only to create life but to prophesy the future. Eggs symbolize birth and are believed

to ensure fertility. They also symbolize rebirth, and thus long life and even immortality.

Eggs represent life in its various stages of development, encompassing the mystery and

magic of creation. Creation myths commonly describe how the universe was hatched

from an egg, often laid by some mythical water bird swimming in the primordial

waters. Early mythmakers viewed both the sun and the egg as the source of all life; the

round, yellow yolk even symbolized the sun. Clearly, eggs had great symbolic

potential. In Europe of pagan and Christian times, eggs symbolized life and

resurrection. Human being have long consumed eggs of all sorts of hens, ducks, geese,

partridges, pigeons, pheasants, ostriches, peacocks, and other bird species. In legends,

fairies consumed eggs of mythical birds such as the phoenix. People ate eggs for a

variety of reasons. Some sought to absorb their magical properties by eating them.

Others ate them to ensure fertility. In the Slavonic and Germanic lands, people also

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smeared their hoes with eggs, in the hope of transferring the eggs' fertility to the soil. In

Iran, brides and grooms exchange eggs. In seventeenth century France, a bride broke an

egg when she first entered her new home. The perception of eggs a symbol of fertility

and embodiments of life force compelled people of certain cultures not only to shun

them as food but to avoid destroying them at all costs. Some people avoided eating

eggs laid by their tribal totems; certain groups of aborigines in Australia believed they

descended from the emu, so they placed strict taboos on eating eggs of these ancestral

birds. Though people frequently forbade the eating of eggs, eggs were often used for

divining purposes. Their widespread use in divination likely stemmed from the belief

that they symbolized life particularly life in the future. The Chinese and certain tribal

groups in southern Asia used the eggs of chickens or ducks to divine the future. One

method involved painting the eggs, boiling them, and reading the patterns in their

cracks. Another method involved tossing the eggs, and divining the future with eggs, a

process known as   . The concept of eggs as life symbols went hand in hand

with the concept of eggs as emblems of immortality, and particularly the resurrection of

Christ, who rose from a sealed tomb just as a bird breaks through an eggshell. The Jews

traditionally serve eggs at Passover as a symbol of sacrifice and rebirth. Andrews

(2000)

Eggs were not really part of the diet until poultry farming became common,

and, when they did, those most usually consumed were hen's eggs. It depends on the

sense in which the term is used. Not necessarily a religious taboo, but more of an

economic interdiction, since 'the egg is in the chicken, and the chicken is in the egg'.

The Mossi of Burkina Faso in Africa have never troubled themselves with such
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philosophical reflections, but simply common sense. They will not let their children eat

eggs for fear they will become thieves. The idea is not that he who steals an egg will

steal an ox but because he who steals an egg is stealing a chicken. Poultry lives at large

in the villages of Africa, laying eggs anywhere. Children must therefore be prevented

from eating future broods, which would be community property. An egg unnecessarily

stolen and eaten will never become a chicken. Moreover, and even more seriously, the

spirits will be offended, for all the poultry the Mossi eat has first been sacrificed to the

local tutelary spirits. The Mossi are a special example. All over the world, form the

dawn of time, eggs have been collected from birds' nests in times of need. In the Far

East the egg is not so important an item of diet as in Europe. It is a luxury for the rich,

with all the symbolic and philosophical connotations that might be expected. The dyed

or painted egg is an Easter tradition of the Christian West which has proved particularly

tenacious in Central Europe. The tradition of Easter eggs coincides with a self-

explanatory universal symbol, in this case creation, rebirth and spring.

Considering the strange biological history of the egg, it is not surprising that its

symbolic power is rivaled only by that of the cock. In Egypt eggs were hung in the

temples to encourage fertility, and everywhere, of course, they have been associated

with birth and renewal. The Hindu description of the beginning of the world saw it as a

cosmic egg. First here was nonbeing and then that nonbeing became existent and turned

into an enormous egg, which incubated for a year and then split open, with one part

silver and the other gold. The silver half became the earth; the gold, the sky; the outer

membrane, mountains; the inner, mist and clouds; the veins were rivers, and the fluid

part of the egg was the ocean, and from all of these came in turn the sun. In certain
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other religions the egg was equated with the sun and the yolk was seen as a kind of

mixture of earth and water. Smith (2000).

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An acquaintance with the formation and structure of eggs is necessary to

effectively preserve its quality during storage and marketing. Egg is basically nature's

device to produce a chick. So, it has the necessary infrastructure for the production and

nutritional requirements of developing embryos and newly hatched chick. There are

four main components of hen's egg:-

(a)c Shell.

(b)c Shell membranes.

(c)c Albumen or white.

(d)c Yolk.

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The yolk develops in the functional left ovary of the hen as an ovum largely

during the final 10 days before release. After ovulation or release, fully developed

ovum or yolk is engulfed in the oviduct where a gel of albumin or egg white is secreted

to surround the yolk for a few hours. Finally, the shell membranes and the calcareous

shell are deposited in the oviduct for nearly 16 hours before the egg is laid.


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The reproductive system of a hen consists of the ovary and the oviduct (see

figure 1).

(a)c )
! The right ovary is not functional. The left ovary, located

directly beneath the backbone opposite the last two ribs, secretes a

hormone that aids in balancing the body's glandular system, stores egg

yolks, and regulates their release. When a hen is hatched, the ovary

contains its lifetime complement of yolk cells - 3600 to 4000. Each

mature yolk is composed of the germ spot (germinal disc), a fatty

substance known as yolk, and the yolk membrane, called the vitelline

membrane. When a hen reaches sexual maturity, the yolks begin to

mature one at a time. During this maturation process, a large amount of

fatty substance is deposited in the sac formed by the vitelline membrane

(see figures 2 and 3). When the yolk is mature, the sac ruptures and

allows the yolk to escape. This rupture usually occurs along an avascular

zone known as the stigma, which has practically no blood vessels or

nerves (the remainder of the capsule has an abundant supply). The

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(b) )( At the time of embryonic development, the oviduct is a

paired structure. As the chick matures, the right ovary and oviduct fail to

develop, and diminish in size until they disappear by the time the hen

reaches maturity. The left oviduct functions to complete the

development of the egg and provides a channel to convey the yolk to the

exterior. It also stores sperm cells prior to fertilization of the germ spot.

The oviduct can be divided into five areas:

(i) *" This is the funnel shaped structure that receives

the yolk after it is released from the ovary. Although the main

function of the infundibulum is to pick up the yolk, it also serves

as a reservoir for male sperm that, if present, fertilize the germ

and set up embryonic growth.

(ii) $" When the yolk is released, peristalsis (wavelike

movements) of the infundibulum conveys the yolk into the

magnum, which is commonly referred to as the front, or anterior,

portion of the oviduct. The front part of the magnum secretes a

dense, plastic like gel made up of threadlike strands. This gel is

the chalaziferous layer. As the egg travels along the oviduct, it

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rotates, causing a rope-like twisting of the threads, which results

in the chalazae in the completed egg. The chalazae holds the yolk

in the center of the egg and ensures that the germ spot (germinal

disc) remains up when the egg is being incubated. The dense,

thick white (albumen) is secreted in the last part of the magnum,

and the chalazae and thick white are interwoven to provide a

firm support for the yolk.

(iii) " The isthmus is a constricted area of the oviduct

through which the developing egg passes. In the isthmus, the

inner and outer shell membranes are developed around the dense

white. The outer shell membrane is the thickest and conforms to

the shape of the egg. The shell membranes are formed before the

thin white is secreted.

(iv) 
 The uterus is a heavy walled part of the oviduct and

supplies the final complement of white and minerals (which pass

through the shell membranes by osmotic pressure); then the

shell, shell pigment, and cuticles are added.

(v) & This portion of the oviduct holds the completely

formed egg, allowing the exterior shell to dry and become hard

before the egg is released. The vagina is joined to the cloacae,

the opening through which the egg is laid.

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The shape of an egg is an ovate spheroid with one end larger than the other end.

The egg has cylindrical symmetry along the long axis. The avian eggshell is made of an

organic matrix (3.5%), comprising the eggshell membranes and some constituents

embedded in the layer of calcium carbonate (95%) in the form of calcite. The chicken

eggshell is a natural porous bioceramic resulting from the sequential deposition of the

different layers within the segments of the hen oviduct over a predetermined period. It

is a perfectly ordered structure with a polycrystalline organization throughout the

calcified shell described in many reviews (Hamilton, 1986; Tullet 1987; Nys et al.

1999, 2001, 2004)

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(a)   An eggshell is the outer covering of a hard-shelled egg and of

some forms of eggs with soft outer coats. The generalized eggshell

structure, which varies widely among species, is a protein matrix lined

with mineral crystals, usually of a calcium compound such as calcium

carbonate. It is calcium build up and is not made of cells. Harder eggs

are more mineralized than softer eggs.

Egg shell color is caused by pigment deposition during egg

formation in the oviduct and can vary according to species and breed,

from the more common white or brown to pink or speckled blue green.

In general, chicken breeds with white ear lobes lay white eggs, whereas

chickens with red ear lobes lay brown eggs. Although there is no

significant link between shell color and nutritional value, there is often a

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cultural preference for one color over another. For example, in most

regions of the United States, chicken eggs are generally white; while in

the northeast of that country, and in countries as diverse as Costa Rica,

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Ireland, and the United Kingdom, they are generally light-brown. In

Brazil and Poland, white chicken eggs are generally regarded as

industrial and brown or reddish ones are preferred.

The outer protective covering of an egg is shell which comprises

around 11% of its total weight. It is mainly composed of calcium

carbonate. The shell contains numerous minute pores on the entire

surface, which are partially sealed by keratin. These pores allow loss of

carbon dioxide and moisture from the eggs. However, a few of them

(hardly 12-20) may permit bacterial penetration within the egg under

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specific circumstances. Thus shell structure consists of three basic

units:-

(i)c Outer cuticle made up of keratin.

(ii)c Middle spongy or calcareous layer.

(iii)c Inner mammary layer.

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  The shell is attached to the shell membranes. The

outer thick and inner thin membranes are usually inseparable except at

the broad end of the egg forming an air cell. The shell membranes are a

part of in built defense mechanism in the egg because of their role as an

effective barrier against bacterial invasion. The air cell continues to

increase in size during storage due to loss of moisture and shrinkage of

egg contents.c

cc %"  Egg white is the common name for the clear liquid (also

called the albumen or the glair/glaire) contained within an egg. It is the

cytoplasm of the egg, which until fertilization, is a single cell (including

the yolk). It consists mainly of about 15% proteins dissolved in water.

Its primary natural purpose is to protect the egg yolk and provide

additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo, as it is rich in proteins

and also of high nutritional value. Unlike the egg yolk, it contains a

negligible amount of fat. Egg whites have many culinary and non-

culinary uses for humans. The white or albumen portion of egg

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constitutes about 58% of the total weight of an egg It occurs in four

layers as follows:-

(i)c Outer thin layer.

(ii)c Outer thick layer.

(iii)c Inner thin layer.

(iv)c Inner thick white or chalaziferous layer.

The proportion of thin and thick white varies according to the

breed and age of the hen thick content is comparatively more. The inner

thick white layer surrounds the vitelline membrane of the yolk and its

firm mucin like fibers continue as chalazae, which has the specific

function of keeping the yolk in the centre.

(d)  Unlike mammals, the embryos of birds are not fed by the mother

during their development and have no possibility of elimination of

metabolic waste. Consequently, the egg yolk provides vital nutrients

(proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals) that are extremely well

metabolized by the chicken embryo. Egg yolk is also a very attractive

source of nutrients for humans: Its coefficient of digestive use is

comparable to that of milk, and the biologic value of proteins in the egg

is even superior to that of milk proteins (Bourgeois-Adragna 1994).

Besides, hen egg yolk is a multifunctional ingredient widely used in

many food products such as mayonnaise, salad dressings, cakes, pasta,

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creams, etc. Indeed, it possesses emulsifying, gelling, coloring,

aromatic, and antioxidant properties. Each constituent of yolk possesses

peculiar physical and chemical characteristics responsible for its own

functional properties. Environmental conditions(pH, ionic strength,

competition) and preservative treatment (heating, freezing, drying) can

influence and modulate these functional properties. Finally, due to its

original role as an embryonic chamber, yolk contains many constituents

essential for life. Thus yolk represents a major source of active

principles usable in medical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutraceutical,

and biotechnological industries. The yolk constitutes nearly 36% of the

total egg weight. It consists of the following four structures from

outside:-

(i)c Vitelline membrane.

(ii)c Concentric rings of light and dark yolk material.

(iii)c Latebra (cone like portion extending to the centre of yolk).

(iv)c Germinal disc (located in the cone of latebra).

The dry matter of the freshly laid yolk varies from 50 to 52%

according to the age of the laying hen and the duration of preservation.

A transfer of water from the white to the yolk takes place during the

storage of eggs (Kiosseoglou 1989; Thapon and ourgeois 1994; Li-Chan

et al. 1995). The compositions of fresh and dry yolks are presented in

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Table 1: the main components are lipids (about 65% of the dry matter)

and the lipid to protein ratio is about 2:1.

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Waterc 51.1c -c
Lipids c 3.6c 62.5c
Proteinsc 16.0c 33.0c
Carbohydratesc 0.6c 1.2c
Mineralsc 1.7c 3.5c

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As mentioned earlier, an egg consists of 11% shell, 53% albumen and 36%

yolk. The cuticle of egg shell is composed of a foaming layer of proteinaceous matter

especially keratin. It covers the calcified portion of the shell which is made up of

calcium carbonate (94%) with minor quantities of calcium phosphate (1%), magnesium

carbonate (1%) and proteinaceous material especially keratin. The true cell membrane

consists of protein fibers. The inner membrane is comparatively thick.

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Whole eggc 100c 65.5c 11.8c 11.0c 11.7c
Albumenc 53c 88.0c 11.0c 02c 0.8c
Yolkc 36c 48.0c 17.5c 32.5c 2.0c
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Egg albumen or white contains approximately 88% water. Most of the solid

content is protein. Lipid content is virtually absent. However, very minute quantity of

carbohydrate (0.5%) may be present. Albumen may be regarded as a protein system

consisting of microscopic fibers in a solution of numerous globular proteins. Some

important albumen proteins and their characteristics are presented in Table 3.

Egg yolk contains more than 50% solids, which are mainly lipids (32%) and

proteins (16%). Yolk lipid is composed of mostly triglyceride (65%), good amount of

phospholipids (28%) and controversial cholesterol (5%). The ash content of yolk is

about 1%.A little of carbohydrate, usually less than 0.5%, may also be present.

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Ovalbuminc 54c Phosphoglycoproteinc
Conalbuminc 13c Binds metal especially ironc
Ovomucoidc 11c Inhibits Trypsin c
Lysozyme (Globulin G1,G2, G3)c 10c Lyses some bacteriac
Ovomucinc 1.5c Sialoproteinc
Flavoproteinc 08c Binds riboflavinc
Ovoinhibitor c 0.1c Inhibits several proteases c
Avidin 0.05 Binds biotin

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Table 4 shows the nutritive value of a chicken egg. An egg contains about six

grams of protein. Egg protein is of such a high quality that its biological value has been

taken as 100 and it acts as a standard for evaluating the biological value of other food

proteins. All the essential amino acids required in human diet are present in egg

proteins. An egg also provides five to six grams of easily digestible fat, wherein the

proportion of much desired unsaturated fatty acids (especially oleic acid) is more as

compared to most other livestock products. Egg is an important source of fat soluble

vitamins (A, D, E and K) and water soluble vitamins of B complex group. However, it

does not contain vitamin C.

The values for the nutrients in one large egg are found in Table 5. Table 6 lists

the percentage of the recommended daily value for various nutrients for two large eggs

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Weight (g)c 50c 33c 17c
Water (%)c 73.7c 87.6c 51.1c
Food energy (Cal)c 81.5c 16.83c 59.16c
Protein (g)c 6.45c 3.60c 2.72c
Fat (total lipids, g)c 5.75c Tracec 1.65c
Total saturated FA (g)c 1 .65c -c 1.65c
Total unsaturated FA (g) 3.30 - 3.30

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Oleic (g) 2.2 - 2.2

Linoleic (g) 0.5 - 0.5
Cholesterol (mg) 230 - 230
Carbohydrate (g) 0.36 0.264 0.1
Fiber (g) 0 0 0
Ash (g) 0.5 0.231 0.2890
Calcium (mg) 27.0 2.97 23.97
Iron (mg) 1.15 0.033 1.117
Magnesium (mg) 5.5 2.97 2.72
Phosphorus (mg) 102.5 4.95 96.73
Potassium (mg) 64.5 45.87 16.66
Sodium (mg) 61.0 48.18 8.84
Vitamin A (IU) 590 0 590
Choline (mg) 253.0 0.4 253.0
Inositol (mg) 16.5 - -
Niacin (mg) 0.05 0.033 0.017
Riboflavin (mg) 0.15 0.089 0.076
Thiamine (mg) 0.055 - 0.037
Ascorbic acid (mg) 0 0 0

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in the diet and illustrates the nutrient density of eggs. While one large egg contributes

only 70 calories, it significantly contributes to the protein, vitamin B12, folate,

selenium, riboflavin, vitamin D, phosphorus, and vitamin A daily requirements.

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Caloriesc 70 kcalc
Total Fatc 4.5 gc

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Saturated Fatc 1.5 gc

Polyunsaturated Fatc 0.5gc
Monounsaturated Fatc 2.0 gc
Cholesterolc 213 mgc
Sodiumc 65 mgc
Potassium 60 mg
Total Carbohydrate 1g
Protein 6g

Choline is a nutrient naturally found in eggs that has been identified as

contributing to fetal memory and brain development. Choline is found in the form of

phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, which are types of phospholipids. Choline¶s

chief function in the body is as an important part of cellular compounds such as the

neurotransmitter acetylcholine and lecithin, a naturally occurring emulsifier present in

cell membranes and bile. One large egg contains approximately 300 milligrams

choline.

Eggs are good sources of choline since the recommended daily intakes range

from 425 to 550 milligrams for adults, including pregnant and lactating women

according to National Academy of Sciences (Zeisel, 2000). Eggs naturally contain

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Energyc 6c
Proteinc 20c
Essential Amino Acidsc 53c
Vitamin B12 c 16c
Folate c 12c

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Selenium c 34c
Vitamin B6 c 8c
Iron 8
Riboflavin 30
Vitamin D 12
Phosphorous 16
Zinc 8
Vitamin A 12

essential and functional nutrients to promote health. In addition, the nutrient content of

eggs can be modified to provide nutrients above and beyond what is normally found in

generic shell eggs.

With very little carbohydrates, egg has a remarkably low caloric value which

justifies its inclusion in the food for people on restricted diet. Egg is very good source

of important minerals such as iron, phosphorus, potassium and trace elements which are

necessary for the formation of blood, bone and soft tissues. Though cholesterol content

of egg yolk is comparatively high, it is not likely to significantly influence the blood

cholesterol level unless taken indiscriminately because cholesterol is found in blood,

nerve tissues and other parts of the human body as a normal constituent of the cell. c

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An egg is an ovum produced by a female animal for reproduction, often

prepared as food. Most edible eggs include chicken egg, duck eggs, quail eggs, goose

eggs, turkey eggs and turtle eggs. Roe and caviar are edible eggs produced by fish.

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Standard or commercially produced chicken eggs are used more often than any

other type of chicken egg and are the eggs most commonly found in markets. Chicken

eggs with white shells make up the bulk of the eggs sold, but sometimes eggs with

brown shells are available, especially in farmers markets. The color of the shell is

determined by the breed of the hen. The only difference between white and brown eggs

is the color - there is no difference in favor or nutritional value (Fig 4 and 5).c

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Fertile eggs are simply eggs that can be incubated and developed into chicks.

They have often been thought of as being more nutritious than non fertile eggs, but this

is not the case. There is no difference in the nutrient value between the two. Fertile eggs

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have higher production costs so they are more expensive for the consumer and they also

spoil more quickly than non fertile eggs (Fig 7).c

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Organic eggs are produced from hens that have been given feed in which all of

the ingredients were grown without the aid of commercial fertilizers, pesticides or

herbicides. This makes the cost of production more expensive which makes the price of

organic eggs higher than non organic. As far as nutrition is concerned, organic eggs are

no different than non organic eggs (Fig 8).

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Organic chicken eggs follow the USDA organic certification guidelines, and

will have the USDA seal on the carton (Fig 9). Like free-range hens, these hens must

have daily outdoor access in an area covered with natural vegetation. However, more

stringently, the vegetation cannot have been treated with chemical pesticides. Their
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feed and bedding (straw) must be wholly organic, i.e., free of chemical pesticides,

herbicides or fertilizers. They cannot be given any antibiotics or hormones. Should a

hen require antibiotics for medical reasons, it cannot be returned to an organic flock.

Once the eggs are laid, no artificial coloring or vitamins are added. Thus, the yolks can

be paler in color. However, the flavor is much more vibrant.

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Free- range is the name given to eggs produced by hens that have been raised

outdoors, however, because of climate; most hens are not raised entirely in the open.

For this reason, eggs may be called free-range if the hens have daily access to the

outdoors, but may not actually spend that much time outdoors. The nutrient content of

is the same for free-range eggs as it is with eggs produced from confined hens. The cost

of a free-range egg is higher because of additional costs encountered by free-range egg

producers (Fig 10).

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uail eggs are much smaller than chicken eggs, but the flavor is similar. Five

quail eggs are equal to one chicken egg. The shells are speckled and range in color

from dark brown to blue or white. uails are often hardboiled and served to garnish, or

accompaniment for salads (Fig 11).

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The shells range in color from dark brown to blue or white. uail eggs are often

hard-boiled and served as an hors d¶oeuvre with sea salt, with caviar, with baby greens

or other salad treatment, on gourmet pizza, as a soup garnish or other garnish treatment.

They can be fried and served with pancetta and brioche as a gourmet BLT. One of the

most famous uses is in sushi, atop sea urchin?

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Duck eggs are slightly larger than chicken eggs. The chalazae in a duck egg is

not as noticeable as it is in a chicken egg and the white is more transparent with less

yellow coloring. They have more flavor than chicken eggs, but they also have a higher

fat content and more cholesterol. The egg white has a greater level of albumin (the

protein of the egg white) than a chicken egg. Because of their richness and gelatinous

properties, duck eggs are well suited for dessert recipes. The duck eggs that are usually

available to consumers are quite large but producers sell duck eggs in sizes ranging

from very small to jumbo (Fig 12).

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Goose eggs are much larger than chicken or duck eggs. They have more flavor

than chicken eggs, are very rich, and like duck eggs, are best used in dessert dishes.

Goose eggs are extremely high in cholesterol (over 1200 mg per egg) and fat, so they

should be used sparingly (Fig 13).

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Turkey eggs are similar to chicken eggs, but are larger and have white to cream

colored shells with brown speckles. They are approximately 1 ½ times larger than a

chicken egg and are very high in cholesterol and fat, but the flavor is very similar.

Turkey eggs are rarely available to the consumer because most of the eggs are used for

hatching more turkeys, but they are sometimes available in specialty markets (Fig 14).

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Turtle eggs consist of a hard, oval outer eggshell, the egg white or albumin, the

egg yolk and various thin membranes. Every part of these eggs is edible, although the

eggshell is generally discarded. Sea turtle eggs do not possess any special medical

qualities but they can actually be detrimental to human health Sea turtle eggs have very

high levels of cholesterol, little to no nutritional value and often levels of toxins such as

cadmium and mercury greater than those considered safe by the US Food and Drug

Administration (Anon 2007c) (Fig 15).

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The ostrich egg, along with the emu egg, is the largest egg: twenty times as

large as a chicken egg. The ivory-colored shell is very thick, requiring a sharp knife to

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crack. Ostrich eggs are becoming more widely available, and can be found at Whole

Foods Markets (Fig 16).

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The egg of this small game bird is itself small. The shell is white, buff

or olive in color; the egg has a mild flavor.

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Emu eggs are becoming increasingly available from breeders; they have been

spotted at some Whole Foods Markets for $19.99 per egg (compared to a chicken¶s

daily output, a good breeding pair of emus can produce just 20 to 50 eggs per breeding

season). The shells are handsome and can range from teal to dark green. The empty

shells are much desired as crafts and objects d¶art. The emu is the second largest bird,

after the ostrich; a single emu egg is equivalent to about 10 hen¶s eggs. The yolk is a

paler yellow than a hen¶s egg; it accounts for about 45% of the egg, compared with

34% to 35% in a hen¶s egg; it contains more fat as well. The flavor is said to be

stronger; while they have been a part of the Bushmen¶s diet for 30,000 years, in

Australia today they are served largely as curiosities. If you want to hard-boil one, it

will take about 1 hour 45 minutes for a medium-sized emu egg (Fig 16).

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The guinea fowl egg has an ivory shell flecked with brown; it has a more

delicate flavor than that of a chicken egg.

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The gull egg, or sea gull egg, is considered a delicacy in England and

Scandinavia. Small in size, the shell is covered with light to dark brown blotches. It is a

small egg; not surprisingly because of the fish diet of the gull, the egg has a slightly

fishy flavor.
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In a day old egg, shell accounts for 11 per cent, the egg white for 58 per cent

and the yolk for 31 per cent of the total weight of the egg (Mudambi & Rao, 1994). The

egg composition of various species without shell per 100 g basis is given in Table 7.

The average weight of egg contents of some of the species is given in Table 8.

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In an effort to meet the growing demands of health conscious consumers, the

egg industry is developing new designer eggs. A small percentage of eggs (estimated 3

to 5%) sold are µDesigner Eggs¶ because they contain nutrients or added factors that set

them apart from generic eggs.

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Calories 147 158 185 171 185
Total Fat 9.9 g 11.1 g 13.8 g 11.9 g 13.3 g
Saturated Fat 3.1 g 3.6g 3.7 g 3.6 g 3.6 g
Cholesterol 423 mg 844 mg 884 mg 933 mg 852 mg
Carbohydrate 0.8 g 0.4 g 1.5 g 1.2 g 1.3 g
Protein 12.6 g 13.1 g 12.8 g 13.7 g 13.9 g
Vitamin A 487 IU 543 IU 674 IU 554 IU 650 IU
Calcium 53 mg 64 mg 64 mg 99 mg 60 mg
Iron 1.8 mg 3.6 mg 3.8 mg 4.1 mg 3.6 mg
Sodium 140 mg 141 mg 146 mg 151 mg 138 mg

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Chicken 58 55.8 31.9 12.3
Duck 80 52.6 35.4 12.0
Goose 200 52.5 35.1 12.4
uails 10 47.4 31.9 20.7
Turkey 85 55.9 32.3 11.8

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The possibilities for designer eggs are limitless. Designer eggs may be

categorized as:-

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(a)c Nutritionally enhanced.

(b)cValue added, and

(c)c Added processing.

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Nutritionally enhanced eggs are produced by hens fed diets with modified feed

content. Altering the content of the feed of the laying hen produces eggs with enhanced

nutrient content. The designer eggs currently available include vegetarian eggs and

eggs with modified fat content. Hens fed an all grain diet, free of animal fat and

byproducts, lay eggs marketed as vegetarian eggs. Vegetarian eggs may differ slightly

in nutrient content from generic shell eggs depending on the nutrient content and

quality of the vegetarian feed. This type of designer egg appeals to individuals who are

lacto-ovo-vegetarians.

Eggs with modified fat content have become very popular and are available in

many parts of the country. Modified fat content eggs are marketed as containing less

cholesterol, less saturated fat, higher amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, higher vitamin E

content, and high amounts of iodine when compared to generic shell eggs. The reported

cholesterol level of modified fat eggs is 190 mg per egg in comparison to 215 mg in

generic eggs, and the saturated fat content is 1.0 grams compared with 1.5 grams in

generic eggs. The differences in the nutrient profile of the modified fat eggs are due to

the nutrient content of the feed for the hens. Hens are typically fed all grain diets

supplemented with canola oil, bran, kelp and vitamin E.

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Studies have shown that diets high in omega-3 fatty acids can reduce heart

disease risk. Hens fed diets high in omega-3 fatty acids produce eggs with high omega-

3 fatty acid content in the yolks. The type of omega-3 fatty acid in the feed can be

linolenic acid from flaxseed or docosahexanoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid

(EPA) from marine algae or fish oil. Individuals who do not eat or do not have access

to fish products can consume an adequate amount of omega-3 fatty acids by

incorporating omega-3 eggs into their diet. Table 9 shows a comparison of the types of

fats found in two types of designer eggs as well as generic shell eggs.

Several studies have evaluated the effects of designer eggs on plasma levels of

certain nutrients in humans. In a controlled trial, Surai  al. (2000) fed human

volunteers one designer egg or one table egg each day for eight weeks. The designer

eggs were enriched in vitamin E, lutein, selenium, and DHA. The designer eggs had 26

times more vitamin E, 16 times higher carotenoid content, over 7 times greater

selenium content, and 6 times higher DHA content than generic eggs. Plasma samplesc

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Total Fat (g)c 4.5c 4.0c 4.5c
Saturated Fat (g)c 1.5c 1.2c 1.5c
Linolenic acid (mg)c 17c >50c 1000c
DHA (mg)c 18c >50c 100-150c
Total Omega 3 (mg)c 33c >100c 100-150c
Linoleic Acid (mg)c 500c >100c 100c
Cholesterol (mg)c 213c 190c 213c

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Vitamin E (IU) 1.1 7.5 6.0

were collected before and after the eight-week feeding period. Alpha-tocopherol

(vitamin E), lutein and DHA significantly increased in the plasma of subjects fed

designer eggs when compared to subjects fed generic shell eggs. The studies concluded

that DHA, vitamin E and lutein from eggs may improve the diet and could result in

beneficial health parameters.

In a similar study, Farrell (1998) enriched eggs with omega-3 fatty acids and fed

human volunteers, the enriched eggs for twenty two weeks. The subjects consumed

seven eggs per week for the first twenty weeks and approximately 10 eggs per week for

the last two weeks. The control group received the same number of generic eggs.

Consumption of one enriched egg per day significantly increased levels of EPA, DHA

and total omega-3 fatty acids in blood. High density lipoprotein (HDL) levels gradually

rose in the subjects throughout the 24 week feeding study while total blood cholesterol

levels and triacylglycerol levels did not increase. The studies concluded that eggs

enriched with EPA and DHA could contribute to the dietary intake of omega-3

polyunsaturated fatty acids and could be an alternative source of omega-3 fatty acids to

fish.

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Organic and free-range eggs are marketed as value added eggs and are available

in many parts of the United States. Organic eggs are produced under the guidelines of

the USDA National Organic Standard Board with third party certification. Everything

that affects the production of the egg must be certified organic for the egg to be
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considered organic, from the hen¶s feed to the amount and type of space the hens live

in, to the chemicals in the wash water. Organic eggs have the same nutrient content as

generic eggs if the feed is of the same quality (Watkins, 1995).

Free range eggs are produced by hens that are not kept in cages. Hens have

daily access to outdoors, depending on the climate. The nutrient content of free-range

eggs is identical to generic eggs if the feed quality is equivalent. Free-range eggs are

not nutritionally enhanced unless the feed is modified.

Some eggs are marketed as µHormone Free¶. This description may be

misleading to consumers since all eggs are produced from hens that are not given

hormones (Anonymous 1999).

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New technologies continue to be introduced in food processing. The latest one

commercialized for eggs is pasteurization of shell eggs. Pasteurization has been used

for years for liquid egg products; however, the technology to pasteurize a whole shell

egg is relatively new. The process involves heating eggs to specific temperatures in

water baths designed to heat the egg enough to destroy pathogenic bacteria but not

enough to coagulate the proteins. The eggs are held in the water baths for long periods

of time at carefully controlled temperatures. The eggs are then cooled and packaged.

Eggs pasteurized in the shell are exempt from the United States Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) refrigeration rule effective June 2001 and the safe handling

instruction rule effective September 2001.

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Other new technologies are in the development process to improve the safety of

shell eggs. One such technology is irradiation. The FDA approved irradiation for

treatment of shell eggs in 2000. To date, irradiated eggs have not yet been produced for

the consumer market.

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Bird eggs are a common food source. The most commonly used bird eggs are

those from the chicken, duck, and goose, but smaller eggs such as quail eggs are

occasionally used as a gourmet ingredient. Most commercially produced chicken eggs

intended for human consumption are unfertilized, since the laying hens are kept without

any roosters. Fertile eggs can be purchased and eaten as well, with little nutritional

difference. Fertile eggs will not contain a developed embryo, as refrigeration prohibits

cellular growth. Chicken eggs are widely used in many types of cooking. Dishes that

use eggs range from both sweet to savory dishes. Eggs may be pickled, hardboiled and

refrigerated; or eaten raw, though the latter is not recommended for people who may be

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susceptible to salmonella, such as the elderly, the infirm or pregnant women (Anon

2007 d).

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Phospholipids are an important component of egg yolk lipoproteins. They

contain both hydrophilic head groups and lipophilic fatty acid groups and therefore

present good emulsifying properties. Egg yolk is an excellent natural emulsifier and it

is used widely in the food industry and in home cooking. Egg yolk lipids are natural

surfactants which have many applications in the food and other industries. Recently, the

demand for modified lecithin (a mixture of phospholipids having a higher content of

phosphatidylcholine) has been increasing. Pure phospholipids or their lyso derivatives

enhance oil/water emulsification compared to commercial lecithin. The general

phospholipid application areas include confectionery, snack foods, fast foods, noodles,

bakery products, margarine, dairy products, ice cream, yoghurt, milk drinks, meat and

poultry processing. (Davis & Reeves, 2002)

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Eggs play an important role in food preparation. The three most acknowledged

uses of eggs are: liquid egg will coagulate or solidify when heated (to produce cakes,

etc.); aeration (whipping creates lighter and airier products; and emulsification of egg

yolk phospholipids and lipoproteins will produce salad dressings and sauces. (David &

Reeves, 2002)

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Eggs and egg products are obviously used in the food industry for their

nutritional value, but also for their functional properties which make them

indispensable in numerous manufacturing processes. These properties, and their uses,

are summarized in Table 10.

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The whole egg, and more particularly the yolk, has a characteristic and very

highly valued flavour. The flavours are bound on the lipids of the yolk which contains

over a hundred volatile compounds. The colour of the yolk determines the attraction

and acceptability of the egg for the consumer. The colour of the vitellus depends on

how rich it is in xanthophyll and carotenoid pigments, which come from the hen¶s diet.

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Egg proteins are responsible for the coagulation which takes place as a result of

the action of physical or chemical agents. The egg moves from a fluid state to a solid

state called the coagulum. Thermal coagulation takes place from 62°C upwards in the

case of the white and from 65°C upwards in the case of the yolk. The principal proteins

of the white (ovalbumin and conalbumin) have good gelling properties. Ovomucoid

alone does not coagulate. The proteins in the yolk are also subjected to thermal

coagulation with the exception of livetins and phosvitin.

Salt and sucrose protect against heat denaturation and allow the temperature of

pasteurization to increase by 6 and 3°C respectively. However, they also increase the
c

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resistance of micro-organisms. This protective effect can be explained by a reduction in

the quantity of free water available in the soluble phase. Modifying the structure of the

protein bound water improves the heat stability of the mixture and delays denaturation.

On the other hand, at the pH of egg yolk, sodium chloride reduces the protein

load, affects the hydrogen bonds and increases the role of the hydrophobic bonds.

Proteins can

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Aromatic Numerous Chicken diet c All food
(entire)c volatile Storage condition industriesc
compoundsc
Technological processesc
Colourant Xanthophylls Chicken diet Colourantsc Biscuit industry
(yellow)c Carotenoidsc Light Baking industry
Presence of salt Desserts
Drying Pastac

Coagulant Coagulatable Time/ temperature, Carrageenan Biscuit industry

(entire)c proteinsc pH, ionic strength Alginates Baking industry
Presence of sugars Modified Processed
Dilution starchesc meatsc
Technological processesc
Binder Proteinsc Additives increasing Polysaccharides Ice-cream
(entire)c viscosity Pectins Pasta
Technological processesc Gelatins Processed
Gums meatsc
Proteinsc
Anti Proteinsc Presence of yolk Polysaccharidesc Confectionery
crystallizer Presence of cations c
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Technological processesc
Foamer Globulins Age of egg Caseins and Biscuit industry
(white)c Lysozyme Homogenisation Caseinates Baking industry
Ovomucin Beating conditions Whey proteinsc Confectionery
Ovalbuminc pH Ready-made
Dilution mealsc
Presence of salt or
sugars
Presence of yolk
Technological processes

Emulsifier Lecithins Beating conditions Soya lecithins Biscuit industry

(yellow)c Lipoproteins pH Dairy proteinsc Baking industry
Cholesterolc Dilution Processed
Presence of salt or meats
sugars (croquettes)
Presence of white Emulsified
Technological processes saucesc

therefore aggregate with each other if the temperature is sufficiently high for

denaturation to occur.The gelling properties of the yolk proteins are associated with the

lipoproteins. LDLs are denatured from 60°C upwards, lose their fluidity at 65°C and

form a gel at 85°C. The gel obtained is more stable than bovine ovalbumin or

serumalbumin gel prepared under the same conditions. Unlike these two proteins, the

lipovitellenins (LDL) produce gels that are stable between pH 4 and 9.

Modifications to functional properties after freezing±thawing are small and

essentially associated with an increase in viscosity. The first constituents of the yolk to

be affected by freezing are the LDLs and the gelling of the yolk in cold conditions is

due to the protein±protein interactions following the rupture of the lipoproteins. In

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addition, the concentration of salts in the non-frozen phase will also be responsible for

particle degradation.

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The high emulsifying properties of egg yolk are attributed to the phospholipids

and in particular to the lecithins present in the form of lipoprotein complexes. Livetins

and lipovitellins help to reduce surface tension and facilitate the formation of the

emulsion, but do not influence stability. The LDLs contribute most to emulsion

stability.

The hydrophobicity of the LDLs is higher than that of bovine serumalbumin or

that of b-lactoglobulin. The lipid constituents that surround the apoprotein on the

surface of the micelle produce a hydrophobic environment which facilitates the

adsorption of the apoprotein at the interface while the emulsion is being formed.

Denaturing the LDLs by heat processing reduces emulsifying activity and capacity, as

well as the emulsion stability.

The high viscosity of egg yolk provides the emulsions with good stability.

There is a linear relationship between the stability of the emulsion and the square root

of the viscosity. Adding egg white to the yolk reduces the stability of the emulsions

formed and this effect is essentially linked to a drop in viscosity. This observation is

important, since industrial egg yolk can sometimes contain up to 20% egg white.

The viscosity of the yolk increases when sodium chloride is added as this

improves the stability of the emulsions but results in a significant reduction in the

c
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emulsifying capacity of the constituents of the yolk. Salt causes the protein and

lipoprotein complexes of the yolk to dehydrate, with the sodium chloride using some of

the water to dissolve it. Dehydrated proteins would tend to group together, thus

resulting in increased viscosity, but this would make migration and adsorption at the

interface more difficult. In addition, salting allows functional properties to be retained

more effectively following heat processing. Finally pasteurization, freezing and

concentration make little difference to the emulsifying properties.

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Foaming capacity is a very valuable property of the white, and involves the

ovomucin, the globulins and the ovalbumin. The proteins in the egg white show

maximum foaming performances both at their µnative¶ pH (pH 8±9) and in the region of

their isoelectric pH (4±5).

Sodium chloride increases bulking and reduces foam stability. This is probably

the result of a drop in viscosity of the protein solution. The Ca2+ ions can improve

stability by forming bridges between the carboxylic groups of the protein.

Carbohydrates depress the foam expansion but improve its stability. So, when

manufacturing meringues or other products that need to swell, it is better to add the

sucrose towards the end of the operation when the foam has already expanded. In this

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way, the foam stabilizing role played by the glycoprotein of the egg white (ovomucoid,

ovalbumin) is linked to their capacity to retain water in the lamellae.

It is well known that low concentrations of contaminating lipids (less than

0.1%) seriously damage the foaming properties of proteins by placing themselves at the

air/water interface, thus preventing, through competitive adsorption, the most favorable

conformation of protein films. Egg white is particularly sensitive to excessive beating.

Beating egg white or ovalbumin for more than 6±8 min causes a partial aggregation±

coagulation of proteins at the air/water interface. These proteins, which cannot be

dissolved, are not properly adsorbed at the interface and do not form a coherent

interfacial film, hence the viscosity of the liquid lamellae is not sufficient to create

good foam stability.

Moderate heat processing used prior to foam formation improves the foaming

properties of numerous proteins, one of which is egg white. These foams also have the

property of retaining their structure during heating. However, severe drying processes

seriously damage their swelling properties, because they reduce solubility.

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Egg white and, to a certain extent, the yolk possess excellent binding properties,

with the latter involving the water-holding, lipid retention and adhesion properties. In

addition, egg white possesses an anti-crystallization capacity; for example it delays the

crystallization of sucrose in a saturated solution and improves the homogeneity and the

texture of confectionery products. Whereas the coagulating and emulsifying properties

of the yolk are functional properties which are extensively involved in the physical
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behavior of foods and their characteristics of taste, the binding capacity of the mineral

elements is a property which is rarely brought to the fore.

However, the remarkable ability of the constituents of egg yolk to bind minerals

could be used for nutritional purposes. The proteins responsible for this would actually

allow the essential mineral elements to be conveyed in a form the organism can

assimilate. Phosvitin has moreover been described as the protein which conveys iron

for the embryo. It is possible to isolate two phosvitin±Fe3+ complexes of different

colours, with their stoichiometric ratio equal to 2. In one case the iron is linked by a

tetrahedric bond, and in the second case by an octahedric bond.

In the case of egg yolk, all the proteins, with the exception of the livetins, are

phosphorylated and capable of binding minerals, but the phosvitin possesses by far the

greatest chelating capacity. The Scatchard diagram shows 140 sites for binding

magnesium and 160 for calcium with similar affinity constants. These values can be

similar to the number of phosphate groups of the phosvitin.

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When eggs are stored, the conversion of ovalbumin into à-ovalbumin and the

dissociation of the ovomucin±lysozyme complex, with destruction of the ovomucin gel,

are important reactions from a technological point of view, since they result in at least

partial loss of gelling and foaming properties and liquefaction of the egg white. These

reactions are essentially due to a rise in pH. In fact, eggs permanently lose CO2 which

migrates through the membranes and the shell. This phenomenon, which can be

accelerated by a rise in temperature, results in an increase of the pH of the albumen

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from 7.6 to a maximum value of 9.7. Several processes allow the rise in pH and its

detrimental consequences to be reduced. It is thus possible to maintain an egg¶s quality

for approximately 6 months at -1°C (temperature slightly higher than its freezing point)

and 90% relative humidity, in order to reduce loss of water by evaporation. Another

solution consists of storing the eggs in an atmosphere that contains 2.5% CO2.The

reduction in the porosity of eggs, either by soaking in oil, or by briefly heating in water

in order to coagulate a thin layer of proteins under the shell, or by using impermeable

packaging, has also been tested. In all cases refrigeration is favourable. Later we will

see that the whole liquid egg, the yolk or the white can also be stored by adding sucrose

and/or salt, with or without prior concentration by ultra filtration or even after

dehydration.(Linden and Lorient, 1999)

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Eggs ideally fit the requirements of a functional food. The levels of certain

nutrients (vitamin E and DHA could be increased in the eggs to such an extent that

consumption of a single egg could deliver these nutrients in amounts comparable or

higher than the daily requirement (Surai  al., 2000). However, a significant barrier to

increasing egg consumption in western countries is the perception that egg

consumption is associated with a rise in blood cholesterol levels (Yaffee  al., 1991)

and as a consequence is deleterious to health and life expectancy. In this respect, expert

opinion on the role of dietary cholesterol in the development of heart disease has

changed recently, indicating that (for the general population) dietary cholesterol makes

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no significant contribution to atherosclerosis or risk of cardiovascular disease

(McNamara, 2000). Furthermore, results of many studies (Simopoulos, 2000: Ginsberg

 al,. 1994: McNamara, 1995) have shown that relatively large numbers of eggs can be

consumed without any significant changes to plasma cholesterol. Docosahexaenoic acid

(DHA) can be easily incorporated into egg yolk through manipulation of the laying hen

diet. Given this ability, the egg has been proposed as an alternative food source to fish

for this important fatty acid. While the nutritional profile of these eggs is comparable

with fish and functionally identical to standard eggs, the specific health benefits of

consuming these eggs must be identified. Several studies suggest have that when DHA

is provided in the diet in a form other than through fish or supplements, the health

benefits of DHA are duplicated (Elswykl, 1999).

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Grading is the sorting out of eggs into different categories according to the

interior quality and the individual weight of an egg. The practice brings more profit for

the salesman.

Grading of eggs is very important for orderly marketing. It provides a common

understanding to producers, dealers and consumers and to avoid confusion, uncertainty

among them. In India, most of the egg sold for table purpose, are not graded, since the

marketing procedure of egg is not yet well developed. With, the development of the

desired marketing facilities (efforts are being made in this direction), grading of egg

will become imperative.

Based on the quality of eggs, two grades and according to size, four classes

have been adopted. Grading for internal quality is done by candling while for noting the

weight of an individual egg, there are various types of automatic devices in the market.

The Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking Eggs) Rules, 1937, require that

the mark on each egg shall consist of the word µAGMARK¶ together with the grade

designation placed centrally in a circle of not less than ½ inch diameter by means of

rubber stamp. Indian Standard Institute (ISI) has formulated specification for grading

table egg and is given in the Table 11.

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A Extra 60 715 596 and Clean, Upto 4 Color Fairly
Large and and above unbroken mm in reasonably well
above above and sound, depth, firm, clear centered,
A Large 53-59 631- 526-595 shape practically may be practically
normal regular or slightly free from
714
better weak defects,
A 45-52 535- 446-525 outline is
Medium 630 distinct
A Small 38-44 456- 382-445
534
B Extra 60 715 596 and Clean to 8mm in Clear may May be
Large and and above moderately depth, be slightly slightly
above above stained & may be weak off
B Large 53-59 631- 526-595 sound, free & centered,
714 shape slightly outline
slightly bubbly slightly
B 45-52 535- 446-525 abnormal visible
Medium 630
B Small 38-44 456- 382-445
534

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How recently an egg was laid has a bearing on its freshness but is only one of

many factors. The temperature at which it is held, the humidity and the handling all

play their part. These variables are so important that an egg one week old, held under

ideal conditions, can be fresher than an egg left at room temperature for one day. The

ideal conditions are temperatures that don¶t go above 4oC and a relative humidity of 70

to 80%. Proper handing means prompt gathering, washing and oiling of the eggs within

a few hours after laying. Most commercially produced eggs reach supermarkets within
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a few days of leaving the laying house. If the market and the buyer handle them

properly, they will still be fresh when they reach the table. As an egg ages, the white

becomes thinner and the yolk becomes flatter. These changes do not have any great

effect on the nutritional quality of the egg or its functional cooking properties in

recipes. Appearance may be affected, though. When poached or fried, the fresher the

egg, the more it will hold its shape rather than spread out in the pan. On the other hand,

if you hard cook eggs that are at least a week old, you will find them easier to peel after

cooking and cooling than fresher eggs. Inspection of eggs can be accomplished based

on density or light. (Anon 2007h)

As an egg ages it gets lighter through evaporation and the air space grows.

Hence the old water test for freshness - a fresh egg sinks and an old egg floats. When

broken a fresh egg shows a clear distinction between the thick inner white and the thin

outer white. With age this becomes less distinct and the egg spreads more on a flat

surface.

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Many factors affect egg quality. Sometimes the cause is not a single factor but a

combination of factors. A few of these problems can be prevented or reduced by good

hen management. Producers should remember that genetics, feed quality and

environment play a role in egg quality. The most reliable factor is age. A young pullet

produces smaller eggs with strong egg shells and albumen that stands high. As the hen

ages, the shells thin, and the albumen begins to weaken and run. Hens can be molted to
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induce another egg cycle, which will improve egg quality, or they will need to be

replaced with young pullets.

Table 12 summarizes factors that may affect egg quality and suggest corrective

measures. As more emphasis is placed on egg quality, it is important that all possible

defects be eliminated.

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Thin, sandy, Age of hens Replace after 12 to 14 months of lay.
misshapen,
Arasan (Tetrame Thylthiuram Do not include arasan treated grains in the
rough, ridged or Disulfide); used to control mold diet of layers. Law requires that treated grain
soft
and fungus growth. be dyed.
Sulfanilamide (sulfa drugs) Use according to accepted recommendations.
High constant temperatures Control temperature. Provide plenty of water.
Respiratory diseases (Newcastle, Follow a recommended program for
infectious bronchitis and vaccination and disease prevention in poultry.
laryngotracheitis)
High salt (NaCI) Feed less salt.
Drugs for rodent control Keep rat bait away from poultry.
Fright Avoid sudden noises. Approach birds
cautiously.
Reduced calcium intake Provide 3 percent calcium during cool
weather. Provide 4 percent calcium during
warm weather.
Heredity Select strains that produce eggs of good shell.
Abnormal color Nicarbazine; a treatment for Do not feed to layers.
(brown to coccidiosis in broilers.
yellow)
Chlortetracycline (600-800 Use according to accepted recommendations.
gm./ton), Aureomycin

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Gas lead in lines or burners Maintain tight connections in gas line, keep
burners in excellent working condition and
provide ventilation in areas where gas is used
to heat egg rooms.
White to brown Iron (FeSO4), (7H2O) 0.1 ppm Have iron content checked in water used for
washing eggs. Keep below 0.1 ppm.
Faded color Low calcium in diets of turkeys. Raise calcium levels for increased shell color
and improved shell thickness.
Mottling of shell Water retained by protein in Do not mistake for a crack or cracks in the
(bright spots or spongy layer of the shell. shell. Maintain 80 percent humidity in egg
moist room.
appearance
around pores,
observed by
candling)
Porosity Age and breed of hens, Keep hen house cooler, hold eggs in cool
environmental temperatures, and place, sell hens after 12 to 14 months of lay
season of year. or molt, and select strain bred for good shell
texture.
Tremulous or Rough handling Observe and make necessary alterations in
moving air cell egg handling practices.
(observed by
candling)
Tainted shells Paradichlorbenzene (moth Do not feed to birds.
repellant)
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Pink egg whites Cottonseed meal (often found in Avoid using in the diet of layers.
cattle rations)

Weak, thin or Age of hens Replace hens after 12 to 14 months of lay.

watery whites
Ammonia from droppings Better ventilation, use superphosphate on
litter and manure and remove droppings
regularly.
Increased alkalinity, (pH)-Loss of Use a shell coating such as oil or refrigerated
CO2 temperatures (40 to 55°F).
Respiratory diseases (Newcastle, Follow a recommended program for
infectious bronchitis, and vaccination and disease prevention in poultry.
laryngotracheitis)

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Heredity Select strains of known egg white (albumen)

quality.
Arasan Do not use arasan treated grains in the diet of
layers.
Vanadium Use sources of phosphorus in feeds known to
have low amounts or none.
High environmental temperatures Collect eggs often (three to five times a day)
and hold in refrigerated temperatures (40 to
55°F.).
Sulfanilamide (sulfa drugs) Use according to accepted recommendations.
Flecks or spots Partially cooked Avoid excessive heat when washing eggs.
in albumen
Blood and meat spots Select strains known for clear egg whites
(albumen).
Green rot and Microorganisms, including Maintain clean nesting materials. Gather eggs
other types of bacteria, molds, and fungi frequently (three to five times a day). Use
microbial clean water for washing eggs. Maintain
spoilage. temperature of egg wash water (100 to
120°F.) above that of the egg at all times. Use
recommended amounts of detergents and
sanitizers. Keep equipment clean. Use clean
packing materials. Keep eggs refrigerated.
Green rot is easily detected with an ultraviolet
lamp candler. Other types of advanced
spoilage are easily detected with regular
candling techniques. Egg wash water
containing 0.4 ppm of iron can promote
bacterial spoilage.
Cloudy white Prompt oiling of newly laid shell Delay oiling for one to six hours after eggs
eggs. are laid.
Prompt refrigeration of newly laid Keep eggs refrigerated below 45°F.
shell eggs at 32 to 39°F.
Off-odors and Chemicals for treating Use chemicals recommended for lice and
flavors parasites.Odorous flowers, fruits, mite control. Do not use materials capable of
and vegetables in egg storage imparting odors or flavors to eggs such as
areas. BHC, Lindane or Hexaphene. Do not store
flowers, fruits and vegetables in the same area
with eggs.
Blood and meat Hemorrhaging before and during Tranquilizers, vitamins A and K, and
spots ovulation. aureomycin
Breed Select strains with low incidence.

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Continuous intermittent periods of Use 14 hours of light.

light
Color or pigment caused by Select strains with low incidence
porphyrin as found in the brown
shell egg.

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Olive- or 5 percent or more cottonseed meal Avoid its use in the diet of layers. Do not
salmon-colored (found in some cattle diets). allow freerange poultry to consume spilled
yolks cattle feed.
Platinum yolks Possible infection (causative agent Antibiotics. (200 gm auremycin and 2 lbs NF-
(colorless yolks) unknown) 180 per ton of feed for seven days.)
Colorless yolks Lack of xanthophyll Consideration should be given to the source
of xanthophyll such as yellow corn meal,
alfalfa leaf meal, etc.
Green yolks 100 to 250 mg of sodium Avoid feeding to hens.
chlorophyllin in feed.
Seed pods of Shepherd¶s purse and Use clean grains in feeding programs.
pennycress
Greenish-brown 5 gm or more of pimiento peppers Use smaller amounts for a desirable color in
yolks daily to each hen egg yolks.
Orange-pink Red pepper Avoid feeding to hens.
yolks
Yellow to Seaweed meal (algae), dehydrated Feed recommended levels of xanthophyll
orange yolks alfalfa meal, corn gluten meal, bearing materials for desired egg yolk color.
flower petal meal, dried chili Yellow =13 mg of xanthophyll per lb of feed
peppers, powdered African red Yellow =13 mg of xanthophyll per lb of feed
peppers, dried sweet potatoes, Orange = 34 mg of xanthophyll per lb of feed.
dried carrots, corn oil products, Maximum color will be present 10 days after
food grade fat soluble dyes, etc. the hens are placed on feeds for yolk color.
Misplaced egg Large end up with yolk in large Use accepted quality control practices while
yolk end ± thin egg white and/or fat gathering and storing eggs in a cooled
content of yolk. Large end up with atmosphere.
yolk in small end ± thin egg white
and/or water content of yolk.
Blood and meat Hemorrhages (ovarian, may be Select strains with low incidence. Older
spots inherited) breeds have approximately 30 percent blood
spots in eggs.

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Mottled or Nicarbazine Do not feed to layers.

blemished yolks
Cottonseed meal Avoid feeding to layers.
Piperazine citrate Do not use frequently or continuously.
Movement of water from egg white Cool eggs quickly and keep cool. Use other
across vitelline membrane into accepted quality control practices.
yolk material
Thick, pasty, Crude cottonseed oil (malvalic acid Avoid feeding to layers.
rubbery or and sterculic acid)
cheese-like
Yolks laid internally Remove offending birds from the flock.
Apparent Unknown The egg positioned with the small end down
misplaced egg may help correct this situation.
yolk (observed
in the whole egg
by candling).
Off-odors and Chemicals for treating parasites. Use of chemical recommended for the lice
flavors Odorous fruits and vegetables in and mite control. Do not use materials
egg storage area. capable of imparting odors or flavors to eggs
such as BHC, Lindane or Hexaphene. Do not
store flowers, fruits, vegetables or petroleum
products with eggs.
Chemicals or egg washing Do not place egg-washing powders or liquids
compounds directly on eggs.
Flat Weak vitelline membrane Gather eggs often (three to five times a day).
Maintain temperatures of 40 to 55°F. Market
often.
Stuck yolks Newcastle disease Use recommended vaccine.
Storage at high temperature Store at 40 to 55°F.

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For many years, food industries, government and regulatory bodies responsible

for food safety have recognised hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) as a

useful tool to achieve food safety control. Recently, there are a number of excellent

texts outlining practical approaches to the application of HACCP that are being used as

guidelines with the most authoritative being that by the Codex Alimentarius

(1997).However, very few adequately address the important issues of validation and

verification (Mayes, 1999). The Codex Alimentarius (1997) definition of µµvalidation¶¶

and µµverification¶¶ is; µobtaining evidence that the elements of the HACCP plan are

effective¶ and µthe application of methods, procedures, tests and other evaluations, in

addition to monitoring to determine compliance with the HACCP plan¶, respectively.

HACCP is a recognized method for assisting processors to make a safe product,

using a preventative rather than a reactive approach to processing problems. HACCP is

only one tool in producing a safe high quality product. Each plant is expected to have

good manufacturing practices and standard sanitation operating procedures in place.

This chapter will deal with shell eggs with a few comments on egg products. When

developing a HACCP plan, determine what product(s) you will be producing under the

plan. If your operation receives nest run eggs which are washed and sent directly to a

breaking room, you will need to decide if you want one HACCP plan for the complete

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operation or separate HACCP plans for the shell egg operation and egg products

operation. Know what your final product will be. What might be a hazard for a shell

eggs might not be a hazard for an egg product. Involve a variety of employees in the

planning stages. If your employees are involved in the planning stages they feel more a

part of the plan. They also can provide very plant specific information.

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To outline the process, follow the movement of the eggs from the time they are

received (or enter your plant) until they are loaded for distribution. An effective way to

accomplish this is to draw a detailed flow chart.

Once the flow chart has been developed, take the flow chart out to your plant

and make sure it is truly reflective of your process. Observe your employees to see if

there is a potential hazard that may not have been reflected on the flow chart.

The next step in the process is to determine the potential hazards for each block

on the flow chart. Numerous production and processing changes have occurred within

the commercial egg industry over the past twenty years. Clearly, egg producers and

processors feel that the quality of eggs being delivered to consumers in the United

States is at an all time high. However, the Salmonella enteritidis (SE) situation

essentially redefined consumers¶ views of egg quality. Prior to SE egg quality was

defined by consumers in physical and visual terms, but the SE situation focused

consumer attention on the microbial load contained on or in eggs. Published data show
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that the contamination rate in positive flocks from England was 1 egg/10,000 with eight

or less organisms as compared with 2.59 eggs/ 10,000 in the United States. Research

has shown that SE proliferation declines with temperature and at 45°F the organism

stops replicating. In addition, when SE is exposed to these lower temperatures during

storage, it is more easily killed during cooking. Currently, the USDA has no

temperature requirement for post-processing egg storage. Current shell egg processing

technology limits processors¶ ability to lower the internal egg temperature in very short

periods of time.

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The temperature of incoming eggs may vary from season to season and from

operation to operation. Off-line processing plants can expect initial internal egg

temperatures of 62 to 68°F (16.7 to 20°C). While egg temperatures may decline slightly

since pre-processing coolers are generally held between 50 to 60°F, egg temperatures at

processing will generally reflect initial internal temperatures because eggs are allowed

to warm before processing. In in-line operations, egg temperatures generally range

from 88 to 96°F (31.1 to 35.6°C) when they reach the processing area. Egg

temperatures at processing is very important since USDA regulations require that wash

water temperature be a minimum of 90°F, or 20°F warmer than the warmest egg.

Contact between wash water and eggs during processing causes internal egg

temperatures to increase. Although blow drying causes a slight decrease, internal egg

temperatures generally continue to rise throughout the process. This temperature

increase can continue up to 6 hours after the eggs are placed in the cooler.

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Egg ³cleaning´ during washing is related to wash water temperature, water

characteristics, detergent, defoamer and water pH. Although wash water temperature

must be a minimum of 90°F, most processors use wash water much hotter. In North

Carolina, we found temperatures ranged from 115° to 120°F. In 1955, Hillerman

reported that wash water kept at 115°F would increase internal egg temperature by

0.4°F/second. Alkaline cleaning formulations give an initial pH in the wash water near

11 and wash water pH during operation is usually in the range of 10 to 11 which is

unfavorable for growth of most bacteria. Research has shown when wash water pH

increase from neutral to 10 or above, bacterial counts always decrease regardless of the

water temperature. On the other hand, a temperature above 122°F (50°C) is needed to

reduce bacterial counts without the influence of pH. Defoamers play an important role

in egg washing. When defoamers are not dispensed properly, the foam in the wash

tanks build up and overflow the sides of the tank When this happens, it can have an

effect on the water temperature and pH. I have seen some processors take dirty eggs

exiting from the washer and put them in water to ³soak´ of some of the dirt before

returning them to the washer. This is a real hazard! Soaking in water for as little as 1 to

3 minutes can facilitate microbial penetration through the egg¶s shell. Internal

temperature of the egg continues to rise due to the high surface temperatures of the

rollers and candling lights. We have found that five minutes, after the eggs were

processed, their surface temperature was 76 to 80°F, a 12 to 14° increase in temperature

since entering the process.c

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Packaging materials for shell eggs are great insulators. As much as a week is

required for the center egg in a pallet to reach the ambient storage temperature. Growth

rate of SE is directly proportional to the temperature at which the eggs were stored.

Holding eggs at 39 to 46°F (4 to 8°C) reduced the heat resistance of SE. Thus, not only

does the refrigeration reduce the level of microbial multiplication in shell eggs, but it

lowers the temperature at which the organism is killed during cooking.

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The flow chart and hazard analysis developed in Step One is used to identify

points in the process at which control is needed. For each hazard we noted during our

analysis we need to determine when and where control might be needed. A critical

control point (CCP) is the point at which a hazard must be controlled to produce a safe

product. It means the hazard cannot be controlled in another part of the process and that

loss of control can mean producing an unsafe product. There are several decision trees

available to help determine which hazards are truly CCP¶s. We identified wash water as

a potential biological hazard. The first question in the decision tree is, ³Do preventive

measures exist for the identified hazard´? The answer to this question is, ³yes´. The

two preventive measures we identified were pH and temperature. The second question

is, ³Does this step reduce or eliminate the likely occurrence of a hazard to an acceptable

level?´ We could answer, ³no´. The third question is, ³Could contamination with

identified hazard occur in excess of acceptable levels or could these increase to

unacceptable levels´? We would answer, ³yes´ because of the recycling of the wash

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water. The next question is, ³Will a subsequent step eliminate identified hazard or

reduce the likely occurrence to an acceptable level´? We would have to answer, ³no´ to

this question which would make it a CCP.

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For each CCP identified, a limit must be set. In other words, the determination

of what the acceptable range is for each of your CCPs is the next step. In the case of

the wash water CCP example we just did, we have three potential limits. We can

choose to go with pH, water temperature or a combination of pH and water

temperature. Based on the preventive measures discussed during our hazard analysis,

we could choose a pH of 10 or above or a water temperature above 122°F (50°C) or

some combination of the two. Careful consideration must be given when setting limits.

If a limit is not met, you have stated that your process is out of control and you have

potentially produced adulterated product. Make sure you can live with the limit you set

on a daily basis. It is also important to determine where this limit will be met. If you

have a dual wash system, does the limit apply to both tanks? It is a good idea to run

some tests to get a baseline data set so that you will know under what conditions you

are operating prior to implementing your HACCP plan. Either the pH or temperature

measurements would help you determine if you were controlling the microbial level in

the wash water. However, a microbial test would not be practical since it would take

too long to get the results of the test back. For the sake of our example, let¶s choose the

critical limit to be a pH of 10 or above in both wash tanks.

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The determination of when, where and how measurements will be gathered and

recorded, will require that data be obtained to answer a number of questions. How

much does the factor vary over time? How stable are repeated measurements using a

given method? At what point during processing do significant changes in the factor

tend to occur? To carry through with our example, we could elect to monitor pH on a

continuous basis or take a measurement at a given interval. The same person needs to

take the measurement or monitor the continuous chart. How often will we need to

decide who will do the monitoring? The key to determining time is the potential suspect

product that would be produced. If a measurement it taken and it is found to be outside

the critical limit, the product that was produced since the previous measure which was

within the critical limit is called ³suspect product´.

How much product will you product between monitoring measurements? If

your measurement exceeded the critical limit, your product is potentially adulterated.

Therefore, you need to balance monitoring times with product being produced. For our

example, we will state that our quality control person will take pH measurements in

both wash tanks every two hours.

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Specific actions to be taken in the event of a deviation must be outlined for

every CCP. It is important also that the employee monitoring the CCP immediately take

corrective action. For example, if the monitor finds the pH to be 9.5 instead of 10.0

corrective action must be taken immediately. Specific procedures should be written that

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tell the employee how to correct the pH, what to do with the product that was produced

since the previous monitoring time when the pH was within the critical limit.

Instructions should be specific enough for the employee to carry out the corrective

action immediately. Planned procedures should include: What actions must be taken?

In our example, do they add more detergent? How much more should be added? How

does the employee know when the process is back in control? What happens to the

product that was produced? Should it be reprocessed? Do you hold the product and run

microbial tests? How do you insure that adulterated product is not being shipped? The

employ must also document what action was taken. Taking measurements and not

taking action as a result of these measurements is not only fruitless, it is dangerous

from a legal perspective since you have identified a problem and chosen to ignore it.

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All data obtaining during monitoring must be recorded immediately. Any

corrective actions must also be recorded. You will probably want to design record

keeping forms which meet the specific needs of your HACCP plan. Do not mix your

quality record with your HACCP records. HACCP records should contain only safety

related data. Calibration records for your pH meters, thermometers or other equipment

you might use in monitoring should be a part of your HACCP plan. Any employee

training related to your HACCP plan should also be documented. Remember, if it is not

documented you cannot prove you did it. All these records do not help you if you don¶t

review them. Management should review the HACCP records to look for trends.

HACCP can help you locate potential problem before they occur.

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Management personnel should be responsible for verifying that the system

works. This might include monitoring that measurements are being taken and recorded

at the appropriate time. Verification can also include things like microbial tests to

verify that your plan is doing what you intended.

Although HACCP plans are not currently mandatory, processors who develop

and implement plans for their facilities now many be in stronger marketing positions

than those who do not. Furthermore, the development and implementation of a well

designed HACCP plan will provide a processor with a way to insure the production of a

safe, high quality egg for market.

„


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Of the 76 billion eggs consumed in 2004, more than 30 percent were in the form

of egg products (eggs removed from their shells). Liquid, frozen, and dried egg

c
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products are widely used by the foodservice industry as ingredients in other foods, such

as prepared mayonnaise and ice cream.c

The term ³egg products´ refers to eggs that are removed from their shells for

processing. The processing of egg products includes breaking eggs, filtering, mixing,

stabilizing, blending, pasteurizing, cooling, freezing or drying, and packaging. This is

done at United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)-inspected plants.

Egg products include whole eggs, whites, yolks and various blends with or

without non-egg ingredients that are processed and pasteurized and may be available in

liquid, frozen, and dried forms.

Egg products are not a new invention. Commercial egg drying began in St.

Louis, Missouri, about 1880. The first commercial production of frozen whole eggs

began in 1903; separated eggs, in 1912. 1951 saw the first commercial egg breaking

machines. No-cholesterol refrigerated or frozen egg substitutes first became available

to consumers in 1973. They consist of egg whites, artificial color, and other non-egg

additives. Specific questions about egg substitutes should be directed to the

manufacturer or to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Egg products are used widely by the foodservice industry and the commercial

food industry. They are scrambled or made into omelets, or used as ingredients in egg

dishes or other foods such as mayonnaise or ice cream. Food manufacturers use

pasteurized egg products because of their convenience and ease in handling and storing.

Because egg products are pasteurized, institutional foodservice operators, such as fast

c
c

food chains, restaurants, hospitals, and nursing homes, use egg products to ensure a

high level of food safety. Some egg products are sold in retail food stores.


c  ( c" "  c

The principal operations involved in the technology of producing egg products

are summarised in Fig 19.



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This operation consists of breaking the eggs individually, as bulk-breaking is

prohibited. The egg, placed automatically on a type of egg-cup, is struck by two blades

which thus separate the egg into two half shells, with the white being separated from

the yolk when it reaches a receiving spatula. Certain breaking machines are now

equipped with a scanner to detect the presence of yolk in the whites.

Receiving Eggs

Breaking

White Whole Yolk

c
c

Pasteurisation Ultrafiltration Pasteurisation Ultrafiltration

Salting/ Sugaring Salting/ Sugaring Salting/ Sugaring

Freezing Drying Freezing Drying Pasteurisation

c cccccccccFresh Concentrated or Drying

Liquid Pasteurized Whole Eggs Liquid Yolk
Whites
Dry
Frozen Dried Yolk
Whites Whites
Whole Whole
Frozen Eggs Dried Eggs
Pasteurised Whitesc

Concentrated Whitesc


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The quality of white±yolk separation greatly depends on the state of freshness,

and the storage conditions of the eggs, and therefore influences the subsequent

functional properties of the egg products obtained. For example, migration of yolk into

the white impairs the foaming capacity of the egg white. Further to this operation, it is

possible to obtain liquid egg products in the form of yolks, whites or whole eggs, which

are then strained in order to eliminate shell debris and to ensure the homogeneity of the

products.


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The main techniques used to extract egg proteins for commercial use are as

follows:

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± by ion exchange in order to extract avidin, flavoproteins, ovoglobulins

and lysozyme;

±c affinity chromatography used to extract the proteins which exhibit

biological activity, such as avidin, flavoprotein, conalbumin;

± gel-filtration used as a preparatory stage in the separation of ovomucin

and as a method of effecting quantitative analysis of the lysozyme.

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± reduction or increase in ionic strength, for example in order to prepare

ovomucin, or to precipitate lysozyme using NaCl;

± ammonium sulphate, in order to separate the proteins in the mixture:

separation of ovalbumin and ovomucoid.


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The purpose of this process is to eliminate pathogenic micro-organisms such as

the salmonella present in liquid egg products, by applying time scales of 2.5 min at 58

or 64.4°C, depending on whether this involves whole eggs, yolks or whites. The

treatments employed require plate exchangers, with a corrugated surface, tubular ones

or those with hot incubators in order to pasteurize dehydrated whites (six days at 52

°C). Generally speaking, high pasteurization reduces the foaming capacity of egg

whites and has no effect on the emulsifying capacity of the yolks, if these are salted in

advance.


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c

These operations are used to prepare the egg products for subsequent

treatments, so as to retain their functional properties and improve storage. Salting is an

operation employed prior to extracting lysozyme from the egg white, as a means of

increasing the coagulation temperature with a view to using more severe heat

treatments applied to the whole eggs and yolks. Sugaring is used for the same reasons.


-cc  3
c

This is applied to egg whites in order to eliminate glucose and avoid the

phenomena associated with the Mallard reaction during heat processing. It operates

either by means of fermentation, by incorporating bacteria or yeasts, or by means of an

enzyme (prohibited in France) using glucose oxidase and catalase. Generally speaking,

foaming capacity is improved in egg whites that have had their sugar removed.

c
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Ultrafiltration is the technique most frequently used for concentrating egg

products which have between 11 and 33% dry matter for the white, from 24 to 48% for

the whole egg and 46% for the yolk. It is used either to obtain products to be marketed

in a concentrated form, or as a preliminary stage before dehydration. The advantage of

this procedure is that it does not involve heat and is therefore practically non-

denaturing for egg products, apart from the whites whose foaming properties reduce

slightly. In addition, these egg products, which are liquid at intermediate moisture

contents, can be kept from between six months and one year at ambient temperature.


0c 
6c

This is applied to liquid egg products which need to be stored. They need to be

pasteurized no later than 12 hours after breaking. This is carried out in cells or in

tunnels at 45°C or on shelling cylinders which permit products in the form of straws to

be obtained. These are easy to measure out and quickly defrost. From the point of view

of functional properties, the viscosity of the yolks and the whole eggs increases after

rapid thawing, whereas it is almost stable for the whites. Retaining these qualities is

directly associated with the rate of freezing.


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This allows the water content of the various egg products to be lowered by

means of various processes:

c
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!c This is applied to previously concentrated egg products,

with sucrose removed from the whites, salted or sugared to limit

denaturation. Centrifugal spraying is generally preferred to spraying by

pressure (nozzle) which is not as easy to use.

G 
6 c
!cThis permits products of excellent quality to be obtained

from the frozen egg product, but it is still very costly for industrial use.

Emulsifying and foaming properties are affected since after rehydration

the yolks are more viscous and protein solubility reduces during storage.


c c

c

To date this technique has not received authorization, but trials carried out

reveal its advantages in reducing pathogenic flora and in improving egg product

storage. Doses applied using electron accelerators or X-rays vary from 2 to 4kGy.

Problems with taste and smell are encountered in connection with egg products which

have been frozen in the absence of oxygen. The foaming capacity of the whites tends to

increase.

„

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Although per capita consumption of fresh eggs has declined since 1950, the

utilization of eggs in other food products has increased. As ingredients, egg products

are tailored to suit the specific needs of the food processor. For example, the foaming

properties of the white or yolk are important in bakery products; egg yolk serves as an

emulsifier in mayonnaise and salad oils; and the addition of eggs to meats or other

foods enhances their binding properties.

Egg products, in the form of liquid, dried, or frozen eggs, are used as

ingredients in many kinds of food products. In addition, specialty egg products are sold

as convenience foods directly to the consumer or to food-service establishments.


c &
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c The egg products can be broadly classified as:

(a)c Pasteurized Shell Eggs.

(b) Liquid Egg Products.

(c) Dried/ Powdered Egg Products.

(d) Frozen Egg Products.

c
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Pasteurized shell eggs are heated for a period of time to destroy any bacteria

that might be present, but the process does not cook the eggs. The eggs are more

expensive than eggs that are not pasteurized, but they are a good alternative for use in

raw or partially cooked egg recipes. The eggs can be used in egg dishes and as an

ingredient in baked items in the same manner as eggs that are not pasteurized. The

shells of the eggs are stamped to signify that the eggs have been pasteurized. Look for

pasteurized eggs in most large supermarkets.

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Refrigerated liquid egg products have become increasingly popular, especially

in food-service establishments. Liquid egg products may be delivered in a variety of

packages, including bulk tank trucks, smaller portable tanks or ³totes,´ paper cartons,

hermetically sealed polyethylene bags, lacquer-coated tins, and plastic pails. These

products include liquid egg whites, liquid egg yolks, and various blends of the whites

and yolks. Normally, liquid egg products are pasteurized at 60° C (140° F) for 3.5
c

c
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minutes and have a shelf life of two to six days. Some liquid egg products are

processed using ultra pasteurization and aseptic packaging techniques to extend their

shelf life to about six weeks.


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Eggs without the shells are available as a pasteurized white and yolk blend and

are usually packaged in one cup and one pint containers. The pasteurization process

destroys any harmful bacteria that may be present in the eggs at the time of processing.

Unopened containers will keep for as long as three months under proper refrigeration.


" "c'4cc 

When egg whites are required for an uncooked dish, you can purchase

pasteurized liquid egg whites. The egg whites are usually packaged in easy pour

containers and are convenient for cooks who use more egg whites than yolks.

(Pasteurized whole eggs and pasteurized egg yolks can also be purchased.)

In recipes that call for uncooked egg whites, pasteurized egg whites are much

safer to consume than eggs that are not pasteurized; however, because of the

pasteurization process, the beating time necessary to create stiff peaks may be three to

five times longer than the beating time required for egg whites that are not pasteurized.

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Like egg whites and whole eggs without the shell, pasteurized egg yolks are

available in many large supermarkets. The egg yolks are often packaged in easy pour

containers, usually in one cup and one pint sizes. Pasteurized egg yolks are convenient

for cooks who use more egg yolks than egg whites in their recipes.

c""c'4cc 


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Egg substitutes are packaged and sold as refrigerated or frozen food items. The

main reason for using egg substitutes is to cut down or eliminate the high cholesterol

c
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content of eggs. All of the cholesterol is contained within the yolk of an egg, so most

substitutes are produced using egg whites only.

A number of ingredients are added as substitutions for the yolks. Some of these

additional ingredients may include tofu, skim milk, starch, and artificial flavorings. Egg

substitutes are often used for scrambling or for preparing omelets. There are a variety

of liquid egg substitutes available in most supermarkets.

c"c'4cc 


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c The other liquid egg products include

˜c Liquid Sugared Egg Yolks

˜c Liquid Salted Egg Yolks

˜c Liquid Salted Whole Eggs

˜c Liquid Salted Egg Blends (33% or 30% egg solids)

c
c


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Dried or dehydrated eggs are less expensive to ship, more convenient to use,

and easier to store than fresh whole eggs. Spray dryers are used to produce a high-

quality egg product with foaming and emulsification properties similar to those of fresh

eggs. The dehydrated eggs are packed in containers ranging from small pouches to

large drums, depending on their commercial application. Several types of dried egg

products are produced for various applications in the food industry ( cake

mixes, salad dressings, pasta). These products include dried egg white solids,

instant egg white solids, stabilized (glucose removed) whole egg solids, and various

blends of whole egg and yolk with sugar or corn syrup. Most dried egg products have a

storage life of one year when refrigerated.

Dried egg products are usually produced by spray drying although some egg

white is dried on trays to produce a flake or granular form (Potter 1973). Before the egg

white is dried, glucose is removed. This produces dried egg products with excellent

storage stability. Whipping aids may be added for good whipping properties to produce

dried egg white products. Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), cake volume enhancer, is added

at a level of less than 0.1% by weight of the liquid prior to drying.



c 
c c

Powdered whole eggs are another alternative to fresh eggs and are convenient to

use and store. They can be used for most types of egg dishes or recipes requiring eggs

as an ingredient. To use the powder, it is simply blended with water to produce a liquid,

which is then used the same as fresh eggs. Powdered egg products are pasteurized and
c

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do not require refrigeration, which makes the products safe to use and easy to store.

Powdered whole egg products are available in most supermarkets.


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Pasteurized powdered egg whites are another egg product that is readily

available. Some powdered egg whites contain no other ingredients, while others contain

additives to help build volume and stabilize the foam when beating egg whites. The

freeze-dried egg whites are simply blended with water to produce liquid egg whites,

which makes the product convenient to use. Powdered egg whites also have a very long

shelf life (over one year). Refrigeration is not required. Look for powdered egg whites

in most supermarkets.


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Like powdered egg whites, powdered egg yolks are blended with water to

produce liquid egg yolks, which makes the product convenient to use. The freeze-dried

yolks have a very long shelf life (over one year) and do not require refrigeration.

Powdered egg yolks are available in most supermarkets.


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Meringue powder is composed basically of dried egg whites with the addition of

some sugar and gum. Meringue, which is used for a variety of recipes, can be created

when the powdered product is added to water and is then whipped.

Like most other uncooked egg products, meringue powder is pasteurized, so it is

free of possible bacterial contamination when it is packaged. It is very useful when

preparing dishes requiring uncooked meringues, alleviating the concern that is

associated with the use of raw eggs in a recipe. It also has a long shelf life (over one

year) and does not require refrigeration. Meringue powder is available in most

supermarkets.

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Most powdered egg substitutes are produced using the egg whites only, with

other ingredients added as a substitution for the yolks. This results in a product that is

low in calories and has no cholesterol or fat. Some of the ingredients used instead of the

yolks include starch, yeast extract, gum, and artificial flavorings and color. Some

c
c

powdered egg substitutes are completely egg free and are produced from ingredients

that simulate the texture and flavor of eggs.

Powdered egg substitutes are often used in cooking. Some of the products are

even suitable for scrambling or for preparing omelets, in which case, the products are

blended with water and then cooked in the same fashion as shell eggs. Look for

powdered egg substitutes in your local supermarket

c".c 
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c The other dried egg products include

˜c Dried Free-Flowing Egg Yolks

˜c Dried Free-Flowing Whole Eggs

˜c Dried Egg Whites ± Type H-40 (std.)

˜c Dried Egg Whites ± Type Angel

˜c Dried Egg Whites ± Type C-30

c

c
c

˜c Fortex 26 Egg Blend

˜c Fortex 231 Egg Blend

˜c Fortex 500 Egg Blend

˜c Albumen Flakes


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c Eggs are broken in a shelling dessicator and yellows and whites are separated

manually. The white albumin contains excess of glucose which is reduced by direct

distillation of albumin in retort vessel. The distillation albumin is dried in tray drier and

pasteurized before canning. The yellow albumin is pasteurized and deep freezed at 20o

C. in plate freezers for marketing to egg powder manufacturers. The food grade

albumin flakes are utilized as extenders and wetting agent in bakery and confectionery

industry. These end user industries are high demand sectors with 30% to 40% yearly

growth.


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Frozen egg products are often preferred as ingredients in certain food products.

Salt, sugar, or corn syrup is normally added to yolks or whole eggs prior to freezing in

order to prevent gelation or thickening of the products. Egg whites freeze well without

any additives. Egg products are frozen at í23° C (í9° F) and are packed in different-

c
c

sized pouches and waxed or plastic cartons. Products include egg whites, egg yolks,

salted


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Several types of uncooked egg products are frozen for long term storage.

Various blends of whites and yolks can be purchased, as well as eggs that have been

separated. Like refrigerated liquid eggs, frozen uncooked egg products are pasteurized.

The products are available in most large supermarkets.


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6 cc
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A number of frozen egg products are already fully cooked. These frozen

products include convenience foods that are microwavable, such as scrambled egg

products, omelets, fried eggs, and complete breakfasts featuring eggs. Look for these

products in the freezer case in your local supermarket.


, c 
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c The other frozen egg products include

˜c Frozen Salted Whole Eggs

˜c Frozen Plain Egg Yolks

˜c Frozen Salted Egg Yolks

˜c Frozen Sugared Egg Yolks

c
c

˜c Frozen Egg Whites w/Guar Gum

˜c Frozen Special Blend


-c (  c

Eggs that are pickled are usually marinated in a liquid solution and packaged in

jars. The marinade may consist of a mixture of vinegar, herbs, and spices, or it may be

composed of a solution containing cider or pickled beet juice. Pickled eggs are served

in salads or as an hors d'oeuvre, appetizer, or garnish. Pickled eggs require refrigeration

after the jar is opened.c

c"0c (  c


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c Recently, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore-570 020,

India, has developed egg albumen cubes, egg yolk cubes and egg chips containing

different millet flours.


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c
c

c Egg albumen and egg yolk were separately mixed with optimized quantities of

wheat semolina, rice flour and common salt to obtain dough, dough steamed, and cut

into 20 mm cubes, fried in sunflower oil, cooked and packed in metalized polyester

bags and stored at ambient temperature (27 2°C) for 60 days. Fried egg albumen cubes

(EAC) and egg yolk cubes (EYC) contained 31.5 and 14.5% moisture, 4.5 and 35.0%

fat, 9.9 and 8.3% salt and 14.2 and 12.7% protein, respectively. Standard plate counts

and yeast and moulds were in the narrow range of 1-2 log cfu/g in both EAC and EYC

(Modi et al 2008). Sensorily, EAC were preferred to EYC by the panelists and both

products were judged acceptable (score > 6.0 on a 9-point Hedonic scale) when stored

at 27 2°C up to 60 days.


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c Whole liquid egg was homogenized and mixed with optimized quantities of

refined wheat flour, rice flour, corn starch, spices, salt and millet flour, viz., pearl millet

(Pennisetum vulgare), barley (Hordeum vulgare), or sorghum (Sorghum vulgare). The

dough was flattened in to 2 3 mm thick sheet, cut in to 2.5 - 3 cm strips and fried in

refined sunflower oil to obtain ready-to-eat egg chips. The cooled chips were packed in

metalised polyester bags, sealed with air or nitrogen-gas, and stored at ambient

temperature (27O 2O C) for 4 months. All the products were sensorily acceptable

during storage up to 4 months and barley egg chips, however, were judged superior by

the panelists compared to chips containing pearl millet or sorghum flours (Yashoda et

al 2007).c

c
c

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There are five basic methods for cooking eggs. The basic principle of egg

cooking is to use a medium to low temperature and time carefully. When eggs are

cooked at too high a temperature or for too long at a low temperature, whites shrink and

become tough and rubbery; yolks become tough and their surface may turn gray-green.

Eggs, other than hard-cooked, should be cooked until the whites are completely

coagulated and the yolks begin to thicken.

 "
c ( c+c cc



For each serving, break and slip 2 eggs into a greased ramekin, shallow baking

dish or 10-ounce custard cup. Spoon 1 tablespoon Half and Half, light cream or

milk over eggs. Bake in preheated 325 degrees F. oven until whites are completely set

and yolks begin to thicken but are not hard, about 12 to 18 minutes, depending on

number of servings being baked.

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Place eggs in single layer in a saucepan and add enough water to come at least 1

inch above eggs. Cover and quickly bring just to boiling. Turn off heat. If necessary,

remove the pan from the burner to prevent further boiling. Let the eggs stand, covered,

in the hot water, the proper amount of time.

 " "
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3„ 

c
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Let stand in hot water about 15 minutes for large eggs. (Adjust the time up or

down by about 3 minutes for each size larger or smaller.) To help prevent a dark

surface on the yolks, immediately run cold water over the eggs or place them in ice

water until completely cooled. (Unfortunately it is almost impossible to cook eggs to

this stage at altitudes above 10,000 feet.)

 " " "c*3„ c

Let stand in hot water about 4 to 5 minutes depending on desired doneness.

Immediately run cold water over the eggs or place them in ice water until cool enough

to handle. To serve out of the shell, break the shell through the middle with a knife.

With a teaspoon, scoop the egg out of each shell half into a serving dish. To serve in an

egg cup, place the egg in the cup small-end down, slice off the large end of the egg with

a knife or egg scissors and eat from the shell with a spoon.

 " c 
 c+( ccc"c"c*c*ccc

In a 7- to 8-inch omelet pan or skillet over medium-high heat, heat 1 to 2

tablespoons butter until just hot enough to sizzle a drop of water. (If one use sa very

large pan, more butter will be needed.) Break and slip 2 eggs into the pan. Immediately

reduce the heat to low. Cook slowly until whites are completely set and yolks begin to

thicken but are not hard, covering with lid, spooning butter over the eggs to baste them,

or turning the eggs to cook both sides.

 " ,c  "3( c&

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Use just enough butter to grease a 7" to 8" omelet pan or skillet or substitute

a light coating of vegetable pan spray and/or a nonstick pan. Over medium-high heat,

heat the butter or the coated pan until just hot enough to sizzle a drop of water. Break

and slip the eggs into the pan. Immediately reduce the heat to low. Cook until the edges

turn white, about 1 minute. Add about 1 teaspoon water for each 2 eggs. (Decrease the

proportion slightly for each additional egg being fried.) Cover the pan tightly to hold in

steam. Cook until the whites are completely set and the yolks begin to thicken but are

not hard.

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In a saucepan or deep omelet pan, bring 1 to 3 inches of water or other liquid to

boiling. Reduce the heat to keep the water gently simmering. Break cold eggs, one at a

time, into a custard cup or saucer or break several into a bowl. Holding the dish close to

the water's surface, slip the eggs, 1 by 1, into the water. Cook until the whites are

completely set and the yolks begin to thicken but are not hard, about 3 to 5 minutes.

With a slotted spoon, lift out the eggs. Drain them in a spoon or on paper towels and

trim any rough edges, if desired.

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For each serving, beat together 2 eggs, 2 tablespoons milk and salt and pepper

to taste until blended. In a 7" to 8" omelet pan or skillet over medium heat, heat

2 teaspoons butter until just hot enough to sizzle a drop of water. Pour in the egg
c

c
c

mixture. As the mixture begins to set, gently draw an inverted pancake turner

completely across the bottom and sides of the pan, forming large soft curds. Continue

until the eggs are thickened and no visible liquid egg remains. Do not stir constantly.

 c „ c4" 

Some utensils and gadgets are designed especially for preparing eggs, although

egg cooking can be accomplished with the usual pots, pans, beaters and bowls

ordinarily found in most kitchens. Some are limited to egg use only such as the electric

egg cooker, while others such as custard cups come in handy for a variety of foods.

 
c ( 
c

Incthe old days, cooks had to rely on muscle power to whip eggs. They used an

assortment of whisks, large and small, flat and balloon-shaped, many of which are still

available. A really determined good cook could whip up an angel food cake by

separating the egg whites onto a large platter and attacking them vigorously with a

hickory rod. In 1870,cthe rotary hand beater was invented, beating out all competition

along with mountains of meringue. It is still a handy and inexpensive tool. Most used

today are the electric stand mixer or the portable electric mixer. Blenders and some

food processors can whip up a whole egg, a yolk or a mixture, but they will not produce

stiffly beaten egg whites.

  "c (c

There has long been a great controversy about the merits if any, of the copper

bowl in producing volume in beaten egg whites. The fact is that the copper in the bowl
c

c
c

reacts with the albumen of the egg whites much like cream of tartar to stabilize the egg

white foam. A stainless steel or glass bowl with the addition of cream of tartar works

just as well and is much less expensive. Plastic and wooden bowls are not suitable for

beating egg whites because they tend to absorb fat. Any film or residue will keep the

whites from forming a stable foam. Size and shape of bowls are important. Use the

bowl size, large or small, specified in a recipe when using an electric stand mixer. A

deep bowl with enough room for expansion is best for a rotary beater or portable

electric mixer. For hand whipping with a balloon whisk, the bowl should be rounded at

the bottom, at least 10 inches across the top and 5 or 6 inches deep.

  c „ c4" c (!c

cc

There are several pieces of equipment and specialty gadgets for eggs.

+c cccc „

A small cup made of porcelain, heat-proof glass or pottery with a screw-

on top. An egg is broken into the cup, the top screwed on and the cup

submerged in simmering water until the egg is cooked. The egg is eaten

directly from the Coddler.

+cccc „

c
c

An electric appliance which steam-cooks eggs in the shell. Most egg

Cookers also have inserts or cups for steam-poaching. Some also have a

flat insert for cooking omelets, fried eggs or scrambled eggs.

+(c ccccc „
 c 

A shallow, slope-sided skillet, 6 to 8 inches in diameter. These range

from inexpensive, light-weight pans to sophisticated electric models,

some of which cook the crepes on what appears to be the outside of the

pan. Crepes can be made in almost any small shallow pan with sloping

sides. A small omelet pan will do a nice double-duty job.

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A small container designed to hold a soft-cooked egg upright in its shell

for table service.

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Small,cdeep, individual bowl-shaped dishes designed for oven use. They

are useful for cooking or serving other foods as well as custards.

+*c ccc "  c 

A shallow slope-sided skillet, usually 7 to 10 inches in diameter. A

double omelet pan consists of 2 shallow rectangular or semicircular pans

attached by hinges. Each pan has a handle. Some purists insist that an

omelet pan should be well seasoned, never washed with detergent and
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used only for omelets. More practical cooks insist that a slope-sided pan

with a nonstick coating is fine for omelets and forcsauteing, frying, and

other purposes.

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A sharp pointed tool for gently pricking a very small hole in the large

end of an eggshell before hard-cooking. A clean, preferably sterilized,

thumbtack, pin or needle can also be used for piercing. Piercing may

allow some air to escape and some water to seep into the egg during

cooking which may make peeling easier. Piercing also often produces

hairline cracks in the shell.

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A rack that holds 1-egg-sized cups over simmering water, or a small

colander-like form that holds an egg as it poaches in simmeringcwater.

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A round shallow straight-sided ceramic or porcelain dish, usually with

scalloped edges, for use in the oven.cSometimes it is alsoccalled a flan or

tart dish and is available in many sizes. A pie plate or pan of the same

size will substitute nicely.

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A round band with or without a handle to hold a fried or poached egg

during cooking.

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A circular gadget for opening soft cooked eggs. When its scissors type

handle is operated, a series of teeth or a blade clips off the top of the

egg.

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A small cup centered in a round frame made of plastic, metal or ceramic.

The cup catches the yolk while slots around the frame let the white slip

through to a container beneath.

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A device which cuts a hard cooked egg into neat slices with one swift

stroke. It has an indented tray in which the egg rests and a cutting

mechanism of parallel wires. To chop an egg, carefully reverse the

sliced egg in the tray and cut through again.

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A deep, straight-sided dish designed for oven use. It may also serve as a

casserole dish. Soufflé dishes are available in different sizes. A straight-

sided casserole, uncoated saucepan or baking dish of the same size can

be substituted.
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Similar to a slicer, it cuts the egg into 6 equal parts rather than into

slices. The wedger holds the egg upright as wires are pulled over to cut

the wedges. When the wires are drawn down only partway, the egg can

be opened to hold a stuffing or to resemble a flower.

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c The various egg recipes are as follows:-

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A white cake, tall and light in texture, leavened only by beaten egg whites.

Before the invention of the egg beater, making this heavenly delight required a deep

platter, a whisk and a very strong arm for whipping the egg whites. The electric mixer

has simplified the process.

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A misnomer for eggs cooked in the shell. Although hard and soft-boiled are

terms often used in conversation, the proper term is hard-cooked or soft-cooked. Eggs

should not be boiled because high temperatures make them tough and rubbery.

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An egg cooked in a coddler c

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Also known as stuffed eggs. Hard-cooked eggs are peeled and cut in half.

The yolks are removed, mixed with a moistener such as mayonnaise and seasonings

and then piled back into the whites. The word "devil" originally referred to the

combination of spices including dry mustard with which the eggs were highly

seasoned.

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A popular combination of chopped hard cooked eggs, a moistener such

as mayonnaise and seasonings, often served as a sandwich filling or in scooped-out

tomatoes or lettuce cups.

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A beverage of eggs, milk, sugar and flavoring. Rich cream may take the place

of part or all of the milk. Spirits are often added at holiday time. Eggnog may be served

hot or cold, but it should be prepared as a stirred custard.

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An elongated hard cooked egg processed for the foodservice industry. When sliced,

every piece is a center cut for attractive service. An Oriental specialty made by

wrapping an egg rich dough around a savory filling and deep-fat frying. In many

countries, egg rolls often are served as appetizers.

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An unfolded Italian version of the omelet. A frittata cooks on top of the stove

until almost set. It is finished off under the broiler or turned over or the pan may be

removed from the heat, covered, and allowed to stand until the top of the omelet is

completely cooked. A frittata may contain any combination of cooked vegeta bles,

seafood, meat, poultry, grain or cheese you like.

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Egg-soaked bread, sauted in butter. Another name for this breakfast specialty

is Pain Perdu, French for lost bread. Thrifty cooks of the 15th century developed this

trick for using nearly stale bread which would otherwise be lost.

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A rich, lemon-flavored butter sauce thickened with egg yolks. The French chef

who created this sauce named it for Holland probably because Holland was famous for

its butter, a main ingredient in the sauce. Hollandaise sauce is often served over

asparagus or poached salmon. Many sauces are based on Hollandaise such as Bearnaise

and Mousseline. Because Hollandaise can curdle if even slightly overcooked, it needs

close attention, low heat and constant stirring.

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A salad dressing made of eggs, oil, vinegar or lemon juice and seasonings. The

egg yolk acts as an emulsifying ingredient to keep the oil and the vinegar from

separating. In making mayonnaise, remember to add the oil to the egg-liquid mixture

very slowly.
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A foam of beaten egg white and sugar. Eggfoams were used in pastries much

earlier, but the name meringue from a pastry chef named Gasparini in the Swiss town

of Merhrinyghen. In 1720, he created a small pastry of dried egg foam and sugar from

which, the simplified meringue evolved. Its fame spread and Marie Antoinette is said to

have prepared the sweet with her own hands at the Trianon in France.

The most critical factor in making meringue is humidity. Because of its high

sugar content, meringue can absorb moisture from the air and become limp and sticky.

For best results, make meringue on a bright, dry day.There are several kinds of

meringues, each suited to a special use. The differences are in the ratio of egg white to

sugar, the method of mixing or the method of cooking.

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Used to top pies and puddings. The usual ratio is 2 tablespoons of sugar to 1 egg

white. The meringue is beaten until soft peaks form, then swirled over a hot, precooked

pie filling or pudding and baked until peaks are lightly browned. A 3-egg-white

meringue will cover a 9-inch pie. Bake it in a preheated 350 degrees F oven 12 to 15

minutes. For a meringue containing more egg whites, bake at 325 degrees F for 25 to

30 minutes.

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A confection or a foundation for fillings of fruits or puddings. Hard meringue is

produced by increasing the proportion of sugar to 4 tablespoons of sugar per egg white

and beating until stiff peaks form.

The meringue may be baked on a baking sheet greased with unsalted shortening

(not oil) or on a baking sheet lined with waxed paper, brown paper or foil. It may be

piped through a pastry tube or shaped gently with a spoon or spatula. It may also be

baked in a greased pie plate, cake pan or springform pan depending upon its intended

use. When baked in a pie plate, the meringue forms a delicate crust for such fillings as

chocolate or lemon and the result is often known as Angel Pie. Meringue baked in a

cake or springform pan is often served with whipped crearn and fruit and is called

Schaum Torte or Pavlova.

The texture of the finished meringue can be varied from dry and crisp to chewy

depending upon the oven temperature and baking time. Meringue baked or, more

properly, dried in a preheated 225O F. oven for 1 to 1-1/2 hours until a cake tester or

toothpick inserted in the center comes out clean, will be white, dry and crisp. The oven

should be turned off and the meringue left in the oven for at least an hour longer. A

shorter baking time will produce a chewier center. For a light golden hue, bake at 250

degrees F for less time, or until the center is done as desired.

Hard meringues may be stored for several months in a tightly sealed container

with waxed paper between the layers. If meringue should lose its crispness, reheat it in

a preheated 250 degrees F oven for 15 to 20 minutes.

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Also known as Boiled Frosting, this is made by beating hot sugar syrup into

beaten egg whites. Italian meringue may he used to frost cakes. As a topping like soft

meringue. As a base for frozen desserts, baked like hard merengue or may be poached.

When folded into whipped cream, it becomes Chantilly Meringue which may be

combined with fruit as a filling for Cream Puffs or used as a frosting.

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These are also known its Snow Eggs or V 
 

 and are often served

with custard or fruit sauce. They are also the islands in Floating Island Pudding. Soft,

hard and Italian meringue mixtures may be poached. To poach, drop the meringue

mixture by spoonsful onto simmering milk or water and simmer, uncovered, until firm -

about 5 minutes. Smaller spoonsful will not need to he turned over but large ones may

require turning halfway through the cooking time. Remove from the liquid with a

slotted spoon and drain on absorbent paper. Chill until used.

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A soft confection made from sugar, corn syrup, egg white and gelatin.

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An egg-rich, hollowcbread baked in small cups or pans. A very hot oven creates

the steamcinside the batter that polls them to magnificent heights.

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All unsweetened, open-faced custard pie served hot or cold as an entrée,

appetizer or snack. It requires onIy a few ingredients - eggs, milk, seasonings and

whatever else youmight wish to add in the way of chopped vegetables, meat, poultry,

seafood of shredded cheese. uiche can be madecin a conventional pie plate or pan or

in a special dish called a quiche dish.

uiches are traditionalIy made in a pastry crust, but crusts made from mashed potatoes,

cooked rice or spinach, bread crumbscor cereals are also delicious and do not contain

the high fat content of pastry

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A roasted egg which appears on the Jewish Passover Plate as part of the ritual.

The egg is hard-cooked then roasted in the oven until the shell becomes brown.

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Eggs are a time-honored thickener for sauces, but they fill more than that

primary function. Eggs enrich flavor, add color and increase nutritive value. Milk or

cream sauces thickened with eggs are used to bind casseroles and meat loaves. When

sweetened, such sauces are served with desserts. Eggs are also used in butter sauces are

emulsions of butter and other liquids. On heating, the egg both thickens and strengthens

the emulsion Hollandaise is the best known sauce of this type. Other egg sauces include

those in which chopped hard-cooked eggs are all ingredient such as Polonaise

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A puffy, delicate, light-as-air creation. Savory or sweet, hot or cold, soufflés are

sensational and impressive whether served as a main dish, accompaniment or dessert!

Strictly speaking, a true soufflé consists of a thick white sauce blended with beaten egg

yolks and leavened by stiffly beaten whites. It may also contain finely chopped or

pureed meats, cheese, seafood or vegetables and is always served hot. Condensed

cream soups or quick-cooking tapioca cooked in milk is sometimes substituted for the

white sauce. For sweet or dessert soufflés sugar is added to the sauce.

A soufflé needs to cling to the sides of the container to reach its

maximum height, so the container should not be buttered. However, buttering the sides

and bottom of the container and then dusting them lightly with grated Parmesan cheese,

cornmeal or very fine crumbs lends flavor and a nice crusty texture. For dessert

souffles, dust with sugar.

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An airy foam cake similar to angel food cake except that sponge cake may be

made with egg yolks or with whole eggs. True sponge cakes contain neither shortening

nor baking powder.

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A custard mixture poured over layers of bread and cheese and baked. The strata

was created to use up stale bread and cheese.

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It is an ethereal dessert made by whisking together egg yolks, wine

(traditionally marsala) and sugar. This beating is done over simmering water so that the

egg yolks cook as they thicken into a light, foamy custard. Traditional zabaglione must

be made just before serving. The warm froth can be served either as a dessert by itself

or as a sauce over cake, fruit, ice cream or pastry. In France it is

called    or    .

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Refrigeration, drying or freezing are the best ways to preserve egg quality. Fresh

eggs are so readily available that long storage periods are rarely necessary. However,

centuries before modern methods of production, transportation and refrigeration

became known, man did his ingenious best to preserve the egg intact.

The ancient Chinese stored eggs up to several years by immersion in a variety of

such imaginative mixtures as salt and wet clay; cooked rice, salt and lime; or salt and

wood ashes mixed with a tea infusion. Although the Chinese ate them with no ill effects

of which we are aware, the eggs thus treated bore little similarity to fresh eggs, some

exhibiting greenish-gray yolks and albumen resembling brown jelly.

Immersion in different liquids too numerous to mention was explored, lime water

being a favorite in the 18th century. During the early 20th century, water glass was

used with considerable success. Water glass, a bacteria-resistant solution of sodium

silicate, discouraged the entrance of spoilage organisms and evaporation of water from

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eggs. It did not penetrate the egg shell, imparted no odor or taste to the eggs and was

considered to have somewhat antiseptic properties. However, it did a rather poor job at

relatively high storage temperatures. Eggs preserved in a water glass solution and

stored in it cool place keep 8 to 9 months.

Dry packing in various substances ranging from bran to wood ashes was used

occasionally, but costs of transporting the excess weight of the packing material far

exceeded thecdubious advantages.

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Immersion of the egg for ashort time in boiling water to coagulate a thin film

of albumen immediately beneath the shell membrane, was rather extensively practiced

by housewives of the late 19th century. Mild heating destroyed spoilage organisms but

did not cook the eggs. If kept in a cool place, thermo stabilized eggs coated with oil

keep several months although some mold growth may take place.

During the first half of the 20th century, storing eggs in refrigerated warehouses

was a common practice. Preservation was later improved with the introductioncof

carbon dioxide into the cold storage atmosphere. Today, very few, if any, cold storage

eggs find their way to the retail market.

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A thin film of odorless,ctasteless mineral oil sprayed on eggs before cartoning.

The oil replaces the natural bloom, the protective coating on the outside of the egg,

which is removed during washing.

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A hot air assay was set up for the surface decontamination of table eggs

experimentally contaminated by Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. A hot air

apparatus was built and a treatment of two shots of 8 s at 600oC with an interval of 30 s

of cold air was chosen and applied on contaminated eggs. The S. Enteritidis load on

eggshells as well as the quality traits of the egg components of 190 treated and 190 not

treated eggs was investigated during 24 days of storage at 20oC. Hot air treatment

reduced the S. Enteritidis load on eggshells of up to 1.9 log. No significant changes to

any of the quality traits tested were recorded. These results suggest the usefulness of

hot air pasteurisation for the surface decontamination of table eggs.

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The aim of this study was to compare some physico-chemical properties (O2

and CO2 in the package headspace, weight loss, pH, albumen and yolk water content

and colour, Haugh unit) of non packed eggs and eggs packed in high barrier plastic

pouches with three atmospheres (air, 100% N2, 100% CO2) during 28 days of storage

at 25oC. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) permitted a strong reduction of the

weight loss from the product. While the greatest quality decline was observed for the

control eggs (not packed), eggs packed in CO2 maintained the initial values of Haugh

unit during storage and the albumen pH was about 2 units lower than in the control
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group. Nevertheless, the light yellow colour of CO2 sample albumen deepened and the

shell gradually developed a powdery surface. MAP with 100% N2 did not promote any

additional benefits to the eggs in comparison with the product packed in air.

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Egg yolk in liquid and dried form is used widely in the food industry as

ingredients for many processed foodstuffs. These ingredients, especially dried egg yolk

powder, are very susceptible to oxidation due to the high content of unsaturated fatty

acids and phospholipids. Natural mixed tocopherols can help protect egg products from

oxidation.

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Gamma irradiation at 3 kGy dose appeared to be the optimum for treating liquid

egg white (LEW) and liquid egg yolk (LEY) at room temperature followed by cold

storage at 4 1 degree C. In addition, gamma irradiation at 3 kGy dose had no

significant effects neither on the amino acid composition of LEW and LEY nor on fatty

acid profiles of LEY lipids. The sensory preference did not alter either for the liquid

egg samples or for scrambled egg samples that prepared from irradiated liquid egg

products.

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Whereas the pre-treatment of whole egg and yolk pulp is fairly simple, it is

necessary to expose the albumin pulp to a comprehensive pre-treatment; i.e. a

fermentation and ammonium treatment. The fermentation serves to break down the

glucose in the egg pulp, because the glucose is detrimental to the quality of the dried

egg products.

In the storage, heating, and drying stages, the glucose will react with the protein

and give the so-called "Maillard Reaction". The reaction will cause a brownish colour

and some insoluble compounds. Furthermore, the amount of glucose affects the

whipping properties of powdered egg white and the keeping quality of the powdered

product. As a rule of thumb the shelf life of the egg powder is doubled if made from

fermented products.


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As for the albumin, it is important to preserve its whipping properties, and the

albumin is therefore always fermented before drying. For whole egg and yolk powder

the quality requirements of the relevant market will decide, whether the two products

must be fermented before drying. Fermentation processes for albumin, whole egg and

yolk are largely identical though with minor differences. The different fermentation

methods used for albumin are described in the following. The description conclusively

lists a number of points, on which the fermentation of whole egg and yolk differs.

As mentioned formerly, the fermentation serves to remove the glucose in the

albumin. Fresh albumin contains only a few hundreds percent of fat, but during storage

of shell eggs some part of the yolk fat will extrude and blend with the albumin. Some

small parts of yolk may also be found in the albumin after the breaking and add to the

fat content in the albumin. The fermentation process also serves to remove this extra fat

from the albumin.

To that end a strong foaming is created during the fermentation process causing

the fat and other undesirable elements to lodge in the foam and will then be removed

together with the layer of foam. In order to get the right intensity of foaming up, the

fermentation tanks must comply with very specific dimensioning standards. The

fermentation is a biological process, which can be split up in three groups depending on

whether yeast, bacterial or enzyme fermentation is used.

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This process, for which very specific kinds of yeast are used, has not been found

as popular as the two others. The reason is that a yeasty flavour or odour is usually

evident in the product. In the fermentation process glucose is converted into alcohol

and carbon dioxide. These elements are volatile and will escape during the drying.


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This process has been preferred for many years, because the finished egg

powder has excellent whipping qualities, solubility, odour, and taste. As fermentation

agent the bacteria inherent in the albumin may be used, but the process will be difficult

to control. Hence, special bacteria cultures are used, though these may vary in

composition from one egg processing plant to another. The cultures are either single

strain cultures or mixed cultures. They must not contain proteolytic organisms.


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The albumin is heated in the plate heat exchanger to approx. 30oC, and then led

to the fermentation tanks. The pH-value is adjusted here to about 7.0; for example by

adding acetic acid. This may be adjusted and controlled automatically by a pH-unit.

The acetic acid is added during agitation and at a slow rate so that a local denaturation

of the serum proteins is avoided. During the fermentation process, which takes about

36-48 hours, some organic acids and carbon dioxide will develop depending on the type

of bacteria used. Some of these elements are volatile and will escape during the drying

process.

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The bacterial fermentation gives a product with a very high bacterial count. It is

therefore essential to keep a constant rigid control of the glucose content during the

processing. When the glucose has been removed, the fermentation must be stopped in

order to avoid undesirable transformations of the albumin. Countermeasures are taken

in the form of aftertreatment and pasteurization.


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This process is gaining ever wider acceptance, because the process is faster and

easier to control and moreover precludes undesirable transformations. One other

important advantage is that the processing is possible not only at 30oC, but also in the

temperature range from 2oC to 15oC. The fermentation time will be longer in the lower

temperature ranges. In the low temperature area the rapid bacterial development in the

albumin, which would occur at higher temperatures, is avoided.

The enzymatic fermentation involves adding of glucose oxidase, which through

oxidation, trans-forms the glucose into gluconic acid. The liquid egg products contain

only a small percentage of the oxygen required for the glucose removal. Normally,

hydrogen peroxide is added to provide the extra oxygen.


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In order to release the oxygen from hydrogen peroxide the enzyme catalase

must be present. Normally, catalase has been added in the enzymatic agents prepared

specially for egg products fermentation purposes. The catalase ensures at the same time

that the hydrogen peroxide has fully decomposed on completion of the fermentation.

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The pH-value is reduce d to 6.5 -7.3, before the fermentation is started by adding for

example nitric acid to albumin at the appropriate temperature.

A portion of the hydrogen peroxide is then added followed by the enzymatic

agent. Stirring must take place for proper dispersion of the agents. The foaming starts

shortly after the enzymes have been added. Limited amounts of hydrogen peroxide are

added continuously to the albumin under the fermentation process, which is completed

within 10-16 hours. The doses are reduced stepwise according to plan.

In this manner hydrogen peroxide is added according to the requirements only.

Incessant stirring must be kept up to disperse the hydrogen peroxide, also in order to

give the enzymes new operating fields. As formerly mentioned the development of the

fermentation must be checked, although there is little danger of undesired

transformations, particularly so at a low temperature. After the fermentation process the

egg white is after-treated, filtered, and pasteurized.


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The serum proteins in albumin are more sensitive to heat than those contained

in whole egg and yolk, while on the other hand salmonellae and coliform are more

easily killed in the albumin. Despite this, albumin cannot be heated to a temperature,

which is high enough to guarantee a safe or satisfactory product in respect of bacteria

without a coagulation of the serum proteins.

Albumin must undergo some initial treatment prior to its pasteurization in order

to ensure that there will be no survival of salmonellae and coliform bacteria. The

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purpose of the processing methods used is either to weaken the bacteria to such an

extent that they will be killed at some lower temperature - or to stabilize the serum

proteins so as to allow a rising of the temperature during pasteurization.


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The ammonia treatment belongs to the former category. This treatment is given

to fermented albumin before drying and takes place as soon as the fermentation process

is completed. The albumin is transferred to a tank; ammonia water is added, until the

pH-value has risen to at least 10.3. The ammonia must be poured in with the agitator in

motion, and the admixing could be performed automatically by a pH-plant.

The ammonia treatment is carried out at a temperature of 15 C min. and takes

about 24 hours. This treatment is to be followed by pasteurization at 51-52oC for three

minutes. Because of the low temperature there will be no coagulation of the serum

proteins. This method will give by far the best end product - an egg albumin powder

with unreduced whipping qualities. It is to be emphasized, however, that the method is

applicable only, if the albumin is going to be dried. The ammonia will evaporate in the

drying process and is undetectable in the finished product.

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The pre-treatment of whole egg and egg yolk pulp is fairly uncomplicated

compared to the pre-treatment of albumin. After breaking/separation, the pulp is

filtered and pasteurized. In some cases, depending on the final product specification,

the pulp may, however, also be homogenized and fermented. For whole egg and yolk

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the enzymatic process seems the most desirable. The other two processes may give

disagreeable odours and flavours in the finished product; presumably because of lipase

activity.

The pump and filter treatment ensures that the product is homogenous, when it

enters the fermentation tanks. For some uses it appears necessary to homogenize whole

egg and yolk prior to their fermentation. For this purpose a conventional dairy type

homogenizer can be used. The amount of enzyme and hydrogen peroxide added is

adjusted according to the amount of glucose contained in whole egg and yolk,

respectively.

On adding the hydrogen peroxide the foaming-up should be rather less than

with fermentation of albumin. Fermentation time is approximately six hours for whole

egg and approximately four hours for yolk. Constant agitation is necessary during the

process. When the glucose content has been reduced to the desired level, the product is

pasteurized and dried.

The fermentation tanks must be insulated so to ensure a constant temperature

throughout the processing period. The agitator must be designed to handle the product

gently. A pH unit for automatic checking and adjustment of the pH value is preferable

also.

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The largest consumers of eggs have long recognized that shell eggs are

unsuitable as raw material in a food industry geared to modernization. Frozen eggs

have been found much more reliable and convenient. In the course of modernization,

however, large egg consumers, faced with the need to further improve product quality

and expand product varieties had to reduce manufacturing costs.

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More efficient processing techniques were sought. This led to a fuller use

of spray drying due to spray dried products being found a most suitable dry raw

material for the food industry. The advantage to the food industry of spray dried egg

products can be summarized as follows:

G Spray dried products are successfully handled in fully automated

processing lines.

G Spray dried products possess more standard constant compositions and

overall properties than any other previous form of egg products.

G Spray dried products are readily tailor-made to meet required product

specifications. This means it is possible to ensure the standardized properties of

bakery constituents; an important aspect for mechanized product handling and

packaging.

G Spray dried products are always ready for use. (They require no

overnight swelling or melting etc.).

G The costs of product transport and storage are considerably reduced, and

thus long distance and even overseas transport is possible.

The above points are the main reasons why spray dried whole egg, egg yolk and

egg white has been widely preferred by manufacturers. The main users of egg products

are bakeries, confectionery, macaroni, and noodle manufacturers, the meat handling

industry, large scale catering, hotels, etc. Even though the spray drying in these cases

will be the main process, it cannot be emphasized too much that the pre-treatment of
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the various products have a very great influence on the quality of the finished product,

and therefore we will also deal with these processes.

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The spray drying process enables removal of nearly all the water from a heat

sensitive biological product like eggs in such a way that the valuable constituents are

not only unaffected but even further refined. The basic feature of spray drying, which

enables this, is the atomization of the liquid egg product into a spray of droplets that is

dispersed into hot air.

The spray has an extensive surface area, and moisture evaporation is virtually

instantaneous. Because of that the product temperature is maintained well below levels

that cause potential heat damage and deterioration in the valuable properties of egg
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products. Successful application of spray drying requires obtaining a spray of well-

defined characteristics (droplet size and size distribution) and optimum spray-air

mixing through control of atomization, drying air properties and air distribution.

A carefully chose solution gives a good result. Careful selection of all

processing stages and especially close control of the spray drying stage enable the

meeting of desired dried egg properties. This include moisture content, particle and

bulk density, particle size distribution, colour, baking and foaming properties, etc. To

select the correct type of a spray drying plant, it has been found that a conventional

drying chamber with a conical bottom is the most suitable.

For separation of the fines in the drying air, cyclones, or bag filters are used,

and powder from the drying chamber and the powder separators is conveyed by a

pneumatic conveying system, whereby the total amount of powder is discharged at a

single bagging-off point.

In the case of a spray dryer for egg white, all drying air and powder are passed

through a bag filter. The bag filter discharges the product into a pneumatic cooling

system. The resulting powder will be non-agglomerated with a relatively high bulk

density. If an agglomerated powder is preferred, it is recommended to use the MSDŒ/

FSDΠplant. The MSDΠis the only option for agglomerated egg white.

c
c

c ** (c*c
( cc
 cc c( "(c4!c"

c*c
!3


 c c c


c 
"c
" c " c

c The drying (thermal) treatment caused substantial chemical modifications in

processed egg. In particular, the furosine amount increased significantly, varying from

15 to 500 mg/100 g protein after drying. The furosine content of the liquid pasteurised

sample (15.2 mg/100 g protein) is evidence of fresh raw material (shell egg). In fact,

Rossi et al. (1996) and Hidalgo et al. (1995) found similar values in fresh and

pasteurised eggs (one day after laying) since the pasteurisation process did not

significantly influence the furosine level of whole egg (Hidalgo et al., 1996)

The COPs (Cholesterol Oxidation Products) in liquid pasteurised egg were

about 24.5 g/g fat. The spray-drying process doubled the COPs content, reaching

values of 54.7 g/g fat. Only Į-epo showed a different trend, because its amount

increased more than 7 times.

There was no significant variation of tocols in pasteurized and spray-dried egg,

whereas retinols showed a trans±cis isomerization, in accordance with data reported for

dairy products by Panfili et al. (1998).

 "c 
 c " c

The storage at 40 C did not significantly affect the glucose and furosine

amounts. In samples stored at 200 C, glucose decreased markedly, reaching 1/5 of the

initial value after a 12-month storage (from 0.74 to 0.15 g/100 g dry basis). However, a
c

c
c

proportional increase of furosine in samples stored at the same temperature was not

observed. A 20% increase of furosine was observed only during the first 3 months then

the value slightly decreased.

 c „ ccc( 
c

Cholesterol in egg samples was 2.6 g/100 g fat; after 12 months of storage at

200 C the oxidation affected about 0.6% of cholesterol since COPs concentration

reached 167 g/g fat. The storage at 40 C did not cause significant variation of COPs

concentration. The storage at 200 C caused a significant increase of total COPs in the

first 6 months. Successively, during the following six months, the COPs increase

appeared to be statistically insignificant. Some pathways of degradation or secondary

reactions of COPs probably reduced their concentration, as already observed in other

matrices (Boselli, Caboni, Frega, & Lercker, 2004; Rodriguez-Estrada, Penazzi,

Caboni, Bertacco, & Lercker, 1997)

„



%'cc cc  „c

c
c

Egg products are widely used within the food industry for their first class

functional properties (Table 13). Although their cost remains high in comparison with

other protein binders (milk, blood, soya proteins, for example), the excellent foaming or

coagulating properties of the white, and the emulsifying properties of the yolk, give

them unquestionable advantages.

"
c (c1 c*c" cc

(c

A comparative study has allowed us to understand certain functional properties

of some spray-dried egg powders, by comparing the results between these and other

egg products (fresh, frozen, etc.). As far as the results obtained for the whole egg are

concerned, this study showed that the temperature and gelling time were very close, no

matter what product was tested, and that in particular there were very few differences at

this level between powders and fresh eggs; the gelling strength depended more on the

pH than on the form of the whole egg (powder, fresh, etc.). The emulsifying capacity of

the whole eggs did, however, depend on the form of the product; it was significantly

higher in the case of the fresh egg than in the case of a powder. With regard to the

results obtained with egg whites, the gelling times of the white are comparable, whether

these are fresh, frozen or powdered. The gelling temperatures of these different

products are also very close, but slightly lower in the case of the fresh egg. However,

gels of egg whites obtained from powders are firmer than those obtained using other

forms of white. The emulsifying properties of egg white powders are closely linked

 c
c%) cc"c*cc c

(c! c*c c
( c

c
c

! c %) c '"c*(

c
Liquid egg Functional properties similar to Must be used immediately
products eggs in shells before knowing the results
Great flexibility of use Preparation of the microbiological
of à la carte products varying the checksc
dry extract, salt, sugar
Depending on salt or sugar
concentrations Æ sale limit at 3 °C
varies from 5 days to 1 month
Frozen egg Increased viscosity and return to Storage at -20°C and
products normal value possible by adding mastery of thawing
salt and/or sugar Not very flexible to use
Bacteriological quality identical to Modified functional
the fresh product if used properties and sample
immediately after thawing heterogeneous after
thawingc
Powdered egg Cheap transport and storage costs Functional properties
Storage over 1 year at 20°C reduced (in particular
Stable bacteriological quality swelling capacity,
coloration)
Increased viscosity of rehydrated
eggs Removal of sugar from
whites for successful
storage
Rehydration operation not
yet masteredc

with the pH of the product. The emulsifying properties of fresh egg whites are

consistently higher than those of powdered ones.

The foaming capacity of powdered egg whites, are on the other hand,

consistently higher than those of fresh or frozen egg whites. This might seem surprising

because, generally speaking, drying damages the foaming properties of proteins;

however, powdered egg whites undergo pre-treatment (de-sugaring) and above all post-

treatment (oven-drying) which increases the foaming capacity and the gelling capacity.

c
c

The various stabilities of foams from powdered whites seem, on the other hand, to be

very close, at a given pH, to those of fresh and frozen egg whites.We should also point

out that the emulsifying capacity of powdered yolks is clearly lower than that of fresh

egg yolks. On the other hand, the stability of egg yolk emulsions obtained from

powders is higher than that obtained with fresh eggs.

Measurements of viscosity carried out on egg yolks have shown that egg yolk

from powder possesses a viscosity which is approximately ten times higher than the

fresh yolk between 25 and 60°C. On the other hand, at a temperature of 70°C, the

viscosities are more or less the same.

" "c cc

(ccc
 c

Because of their functional and nutritional properties, and in their various forms

(liquids, dehydrated, frozen), egg ingredients allow the manufacture of the following

types of products:

G Shelled hard-boiled eggs.

G Frozen or dehydrated omelettes.

G Hard-boiled egg cubes for egg salads and aperitifs.

G Egg sausage.

G Egg ketchup ± flavoured sauce based on egg yolk.

c
c

G Drinks ± orange juice mixed with whole liquid eggs, egg liqueurs,

eggnog.

G Scotch eggs ± hard-boiled eggs covered with sausage meat.

G Egg white yoghurts.

G Ready-to-use mixes.

Work has been carried out using dehydrated egg products, with a view to

modifying them for ready-to-use mixes: powdered pancake mix, powdered flavoured

omelettes, cooked meat mixes, vegetable pâtés, poundcakes, etc.

" c $ ( c*c ((cc 

"( (c c

As a result of using and developing fractionation techniques, certain egg white

and yolk proteins with useful biological properties can be used and purified, such as the

following.

" 
c 5
(c*c c cc

G Lysozyme: this is well known for its anti-trypsic and anti-bacterial

qualities especially in relation to the vegetative cells of „
 




 
, hence its potential use in the dairy and pharmaceutical

industries.

G Conalbumin: its chelating properties allow it to transport mineral

substances within the organism.

c
c

G Ovomucoid, the ovoinhibitor: these proteins are essentially used for their

anti-trypsic properties.

G Avidin and flavoprotein: these have nutritional advantages because they

transport biotin and riboflavin respectively.

"  "c 5

(c*c c c

G Lecithin is used in cosmetic and food products, but for economic reasons

it is extracted from soya.

G Phosvitin: on the one hand this protein provides a higher and more easily

assimilated source of phosphorus than casein, and on the other it

possesses antioxidant properties.

"  c 5
(c*c c c

These are hardly ever exploited commercially, firstly because of problems of

collection, and secondly because of the relatively low tonnages which limits such uses

as:

G incorporation in metals;

G use as fertiliser;

G use of the keratin present in the cuticle with a view to extracting

cysteine, which is already carried out using poultry feathers.

c
c

" ,c %"(

c

 cc

Several of the egg white proteins have been found to have antibacterial

properties. Lysozyme and avidin are now being commercially separated using cation-

exchange resins for several applications. Samuelson et al., 1985 found that a

combination of lysozyme and EDTA was effective against Salmonella typhimurium on

broiler legs. Avidin (avidin-biotin system) is used widely as a medical diagnostic tool.

There are likely many opportunities for using egg white proteins for antibacterial

properties since we have the technologies to separate egg white proteins commercially.

" -c %5c*

"cc

The food industry continues to utilize more and more natural antioxidants.

Negbenebor and Chen (1985) observed that adding egg white to ground poultry meat

decreased oxidation during cooking. In another study, Froning et al. (1986) observed

that conalbumin was an effective antioxidant when added to ground turkey meat. Lu

and Baker (1986) further noted that phosvitin (a yolk protein with metal binding

capabilities) was an effective antioxidant. More work on the potential of conalbumin

and phosvitin as natural antioxidants is needed.

" .c % c*

"cc

c
c

Antibodies from eggs may have application against microorganisms in humans

and livestock or poulty (Gibbins, 1977). Serum antibodies of hyperimmunised hens are

efficiently transferred and accumulated in the egg yolk (Fichtali et al., 1994). There are

also efficient cation exchange chromatigraphic techniques for separating these

antibodies from egg yolk. Coleman (1998) reported that antibodies from eggs can be

effectively used to treat mastitis in dairy cows. Antibodies from eggs may also have

potential in treating AIDS.

" 0c  c ( c"c*

"cc c
 c

c Edible films, which can carry antioxidants, antimicrobial and spices, have

created recent interest. Film formation from several proteins, polysaccharide and lipid

substances have been studied. Germadios et al. (1996) prepared edible egg white films.

Properties of egg albumen films were similar to other protein films. Egg albumen films

were clearer and more transparent than wheat gluten, soy protein isolates and corn zein

films. They indicated that albumen films could be used for water soluble packets

(pouches) for ingredients in the food, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries.

" 0c (
cc
 c
c  (c
c

Gibbons, 1997 indicates that there are potential approaches for increasing egg

albumen proteins in the egg through genetic engineering. If this can be accomplished,

there are exciting possibilities for greatly enhancing functional properties and

increasing novel proteins. Proteins such as lysozyme, conalbumin, and avidin may be

possibly increased for use in many applications.

c
c

" c 6c*cc c$ "

  c

Shell egg waste has long been a concern of the egg industry. Egg shells are

sometimes centrifuged to remove albumen. In some cases, the egg shells including

membranes are dried and used as a calcium source in laying rations. Froning and

Bergquist (1990) reported on use of extrusion technology to utilize egg shells in laying

rations. Other firms have spread the waste shells on land as a fertilizer source.

Recently, MacNeil(l997) at Penn State University has developed a patent for separating

egg shell membranes from the egg shell. They have found that the shell membranes is

largely collagen. They reported that 5,066 tons of shell membranes are available in the

U.S. They estimated that 10% of the shell membrane is collagen representing a yield

614,000 lbs. Mac Neil is presently working on a procedure to extract collagen from

shell membranes. Sugaro (1998) reported that the egg shell membrane protein can be

used to grow human skin fibroblasts for severe burn situations. Egg membrane protein

is also being used in many cosmetics in Japan.

„



„
„'
c

c
c

With the myriad uses for eggs, they can¶t help but find their way into many

formulating decisions. Whether it¶s for a functional outcome, flavor or textural

attributes, eggs can e a unique and cost effective addition to any meal. We shouldn¶t

overlook taking eggs past the breakfast applications that we are familiar with. Eggs can

also find their way into salads, soups, appetizers, sandwiches or main course

preparations. They combine well with other proteins, vegetables, cheese and many

savory ingredients.

Consumers today want simple to prepare, convenient, healthy and natural foods,

and eggs continue to provide a viable option for these characteristics. However, Indian

egg processing industry is passing through a very crucial stage. The other countries are

imposing veterinary guarantees for processed egg products. Lack of formulation of

policies and standards on poultry products make it more difficult meet the international

market requirements. The small initial investment, short gestation time, availability of

quality chicks, quick and assured better returns, availability of trained veterinary

manpower, better understanding and knowledge of scientific methods of feeding and

health, governmental measures for easy availability of loans and subsidies would play a

major role to boost poultry industry and to overcome poverty and malnutrition.


c
 (c

The development of egg products and processed products based on eggs on the

market shows how dynamic the industry is in finding solutions for the need to improve

added value and increase consumption, which is an essential condition for improved
c

c
c

commercial use. However, although numerous investigations carried out to date have

made an effective contribution to this development, efforts in terms of research must be

intensified. Among the priority routes to take, we could cite the following:

G Developing products that have been adapted to changes in consumer

habits (semi-processed, processed products).

G Adjusting egg products adapted for industrial use which consist of either

egg proteins only, or mixtures that combine them with proteins of other

origins (milk, gluten, legumes, etc.).

G The search for new fractionation techniques capable of extracting certain

constituents of eggs having a high added value at a competitive price.

G Looking for new storage techniques capable of retaining functional

qualities more successfully.

c The egg is loaded with highly potential chemicals and components. There are

tremendous possibilities with the egg. As an industry, we need to capitalize on these

opportunities in the future.c

((' % c

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c
c

Anon (1983) Grade designation and definition of quality of table egg. ISI code. Bureau of
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