Front cover

Introduction to
Storage Area Networks
Jon Tate
Pall Beck
Hector Hugo Ibarra
Shanmuganathan Kumaravel
Libor Miklas

Redbooks

International Technical Support Organization

Introduction to Storage Area Networks
January 2016

SG24-5470-06

Note: Before using this information and the product it supports, read the information in Notices on
page ix.

Seventh Edition (January 2016)

This edition applies to the products in the IBM Storage Area Networks (SAN) portfolio.

Copyright International Business Machines Corporation 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.
Note to U.S. Government Users Restricted Rights -- Use, duplication or disclosure restricted by GSA ADP Schedule
Contract with IBM Corp.

Contents
Notices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Trademarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .x
Summary of changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
January 2016, Seventh Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
IBM Redbooks promotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Now you can become a published author, too! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Comments welcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Stay connected to IBM Redbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Chapter 1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 The importance of communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Interconnection models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 The open systems interconnection model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Translating the OSI model to the physical world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Storing data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Redundant Array of Independent Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Storage area networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Storage area network components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.1 Storage area network connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.2 Storage area network storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.3 Storage area network servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 The importance of standards or models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Chapter 2. Storage area networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Storage area networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 The problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Using a storage area network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Infrastructure simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Information lifecycle management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Business continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Using the storage area network components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Storage area network connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Putting the components together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1 Fibre Channel architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Small Computer Systems Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Limitations of the Small Computer System Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Fibre Channel advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

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3.2 Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Optical cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Maximum power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Fiber in the storage area network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 Dark fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Classes of service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 Class 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Class 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Class 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 Class 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.5 Class 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.6 Class 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.7 Class F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Fibre Channel data movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Byte-encoding schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Data transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 Ordered set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2 Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.3 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.4 Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.5 In order and out of order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.6 Latency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.7 Open fiber control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Flow control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1 Buffer to buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.2 End to end. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.3 Controlling the flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.4 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 4. Ethernet and system networking concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Ethernet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Shared media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Ethernet frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 How Ethernet works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 Speed and bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5 10 GbE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6 10 GbE copper versus fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.7 Virtual local area network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.8 Interface virtual local area network operation modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.9 Link aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.10 Spanning Tree Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.11 Link Layer Discovery Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.12 Link Layer Discovery Protocol Type Length Values (LLDP TLVs) . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Storage area network IP networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 The multiprotocol environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Fibre Channel switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Fibre Channel routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5 Routers and gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.6 Internet Storage Name Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Delving deeper into the protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Fibre Channel over Internet Protocol (FCIP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

4.3.2 Internet Fibre Channel Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3.3 Internet Small Computer System Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Routing considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.5 Packet size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.6 TCP congestion control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.7 Round-trip delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Multiprotocol solution briefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Dividing a fabric into subfabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Connecting a remote site over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Connecting hosts by using Internet Small Computer System Interface . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 5. Topologies and other fabric services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5.1 Fibre Channel topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.1.1 Point-to-point topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.1.2 Arbitrated loop topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1.3 Switched fabric topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.1.4 Single switch topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1.5 Cascaded and ring topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.1.6 Mesh topology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.7 Core-edge topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.1.8 Edge-core-edge topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2 Port types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.1 Common port types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.2 Expansion port types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.3 Diagnostic port types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.3 Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3.1 Worldwide name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3.2 Tape device worldwide node name and worldwide port name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.3.3 Port address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3.4 The 24-bit port address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3.5 Loop address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.6 The b-type addressing modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.7 FICON address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4 Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.4.1 Fairness algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.2 Loop addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.5 Fibre Channel port initialization and fabric services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.5.1 Fabric login (FLOGI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.5.2 Port login (PLOGI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.5.3 Process login (PRLI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.6 Fabric services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.6.1 Management server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.6.2 Time server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.6.3 Simple name server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.6.4 Fabric login server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.6.5 Registered state change notification service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.7 Routing mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.7.1 Spanning tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.7.2 Fabric shortest path first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.8 Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.8.1 Hardware zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.8.2 Software zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.8.3 Logical unit number masking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

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Chapter 6. Storage area network as a service for cloud computing . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1 The cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Private and public cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Cloud computing components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Cloud computing models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Virtualization and the cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Cloud infrastructure virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Cloud platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Storage virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 SAN virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 IBM b-type Virtual Fabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Cisco virtual storage area network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 N_Port ID Virtualization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Building a smarter cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1 Automated tiering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 Thin provisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.3 Data deduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.4 New generation management tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.5 Business continuity and disaster recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.6 Storage on demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 7. Fibre Channel products and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1 The environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Storage area network devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Fibre Channel bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Arbitrated loop hubs and switched hubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 Switches and directors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.4 Multiprotocol routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.5 Service modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.6 Multiplexers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Application-specific integrated circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Fibre Channel transmission rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3 SerDes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4 Backplane and blades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Gigabit transport technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1 Fibre Channel cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2 Transceivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.3 Host bus adapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Inter-switch links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.1 Cascading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2 Hops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.3 Fabric shortest path first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.4 Non-blocking architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.5 Latency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.6 Oversubscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.7 Congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.8 Trunking or port-channeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 8. Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1 Management principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Management types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Connecting to storage area network management tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3 Storage area network fault isolation and troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8.2 Management interfaces and protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.1 Storage Networking Industry Association initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Simple Network Management Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Service Location Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Vendor-specific mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Management features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Vendor management applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1 b-type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 Cisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 SAN multipathing software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 9. Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1 Security in the storage area network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Security principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Access control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Auditing and accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3 Data security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.4 Securing a fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.5 Zoning, masking, and binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Data security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Storage area network encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.1 Basic encryption definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.2 Data-in-flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.3 Data-at-rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.4 Digital certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.5 Encryption algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.6 Key management considerations and security standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.7 b-type encryption methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.8 Cisco encryption methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 Encryption standards and algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6 Security common practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 10. Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Basic solution principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 Adding capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3 Data movement and copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4 Upgrading to faster speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Infrastructure simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 The origin of the complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 Storage pooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.3 Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.4 Migration to a converged network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Business continuity and disaster recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.1 Clustering and high availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.2 LAN-free data movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3 Disaster backup and recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Information lifecycle management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.1 Information lifecycle management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.2 Tiered storage management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.3 Long-term data retention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.5.4 Data lifecycle management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

10.5.5 Policy-based archive management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

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Chapter 11. Storage area networks and green data centers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.1 Data center constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 Energy flow in the data center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Data center optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 Strategic considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Green storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 Information lifecycle management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 Storage consolidation and virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.3 On-demand storage provisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.4 Hierarchical storage and tiering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.5 Data compression and data deduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 12. IBM Fibre Channel storage area network product portfolio . . . . . . . . . .
12.1 Classification of IBM SAN products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 SAN Fibre Channel networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Entry SAN switches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.1 IBM System Storage SAN24B-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.2 IBM System Storage SAN24B-4 Express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Midrange SAN switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.1 Cisco MDS 9396S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.2 IBM System Networking SAN96B-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.3 IBM System Storage SAN48B-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.4 Cisco MDS 9148S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch for IBM System Storage. . . .
12.5 Enterprise SAN directors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.1 Cisco MDS 9710 Multilayer Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.2 IBM System Storage SAN384B-2 and SAN768B-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.3 Cisco MDS 9706 Multilayer Director for IBM System Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.4 Cisco MDS 9500 Series Multilayer Directors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6 Specialty switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.1 IBM System Storage SAN42B-R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.2 Cisco MDS 9250i Multiservice Fabric Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.3 IBM System Storage SAN06B-R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 13. Certification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.1 The importance of certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 IBM Professional Certification Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 About the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.2 Certifications by product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.3 Mastery tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Storage Networking Industry Association certifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Brocade certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5 Cisco certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6 Open Group certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Related publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IBM Redbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Online resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Help from IBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Summary of changes
This section describes the technical changes made in this edition of the book and in previous
editions. This edition might also include minor corrections and editorial changes that are not
identified.
Summary of Changes
for SG24-5470-06
for Introduction to Storage Area Networks
as created or updated on January 14, 2016.

January 2016, Seventh Edition

This revision includes the following new and changed information.

New information
Chapter 12 contains the current IBM SAN portfolio at time of updating this book
(November). Editorial changes and corrections are included.

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Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

xi

xii

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

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Preface
The superabundance of data that is created by todays businesses is making storage a
strategic investment priority for companies of all sizes. As storage takes precedence, the
following major initiatives emerge:
Flatten and converge your network: IBM takes an open, standards-based approach to
implement the latest advances in the flat, converged data center network designs of today.
IBM Storage solutions enable clients to deploy a high-speed, low-latency Unified Fabric
Architecture.
Optimize and automate virtualization: Advanced virtualization awareness reduces the cost
and complexity of deploying physical and virtual data center infrastructure.
Simplify management: IBM data center networks are easy to deploy, maintain, scale, and
virtualize, delivering the foundation of consolidated operations for dynamic infrastructure
management.
Storage is no longer an afterthought. Too much is at stake. Companies are searching for
more ways to efficiently manage expanding volumes of data, and to make that data
accessible throughout the enterprise. This demand is propelling the move of storage into the
network. Also, the increasing complexity of managing large numbers of storage devices and
vast amounts of data is driving greater business value into software and services.
With current estimates of the amount of data to be managed and made available increasing at
60% each year, this outlook is where a storage area network (SAN) enters the arena. SANs
are the leading storage infrastructure for the global economy of today. SANs offer simplified
storage management, scalability, flexibility, and availability; and improved data access,
movement, and backup.
Welcome to the cognitive era.
The smarter data center with the improved economics of IT can be achieved by connecting
servers and storage with a high-speed and intelligent network fabric. A smarter data center
that hosts IBM Storage solutions can provide an environment that is smarter, faster, greener,
open, and easy to manage.
This IBM Redbooks publication provides an introduction to SAN and Ethernet networking,
and how these networks help to achieve a smarter data center. This book is intended for
people who are not very familiar with IT, or who are just starting out in the IT world.
Also, be sure to see the IBM Storage Redbooks portal for the latest material from the
International Technical Support Organization (ITSO):
http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/portals/storage

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

xv

Authors
This book was produced by a team of specialists from around the world working at the
International Technical Support Organization, Poughkeepsie Center.
Jon Tate is a Project Manager for IBM System Storage SAN
Solutions at the International Technical Support Organization
(ITSO), San Jose Center. Before Jon joined the ITSO in 1999, he
worked in the IBM Technical Support Center, providing Level 2
support for IBM storage products. Jon has 29 years of experience
in storage software and management, services, and support, and is
both an IBM Certified IT Specialist and an IBM SAN Certified
Specialist. He is also the UK Chairman of the Storage Networking
Industry Association.

Pall Beck is a SAN Technical Lead in IBM Nordic. He has 18 years

of experience working with storage, both for dedicated clients and
for large shared environments. Those environments include clients
from the medical and financial sector, which includes several of the
largest shared SAN environments in Europe. He is a member of the
SAN and SAN Volume Controller best practices community in the
Nordics and in EMEA. In his current job role, he is a member of the
Solutions Consultant Express+ (SCE+) Storage Deployment
Specialists, responsible for SCE+ storage deployments around the
globe. Pall is also a member of a team that helps in critical
situations and performs root cause analyzes. He is coauthor of the
Implementing SVC 5.1 and SVC Advanced Copy Services 4.2
Redbooks publications. Pall has a diploma as an Electronic
Technician from Odense Tekniske Skole in Denmark and an IR in
Reykjavik, Iceland. He is also an IBM Certified IT Specialist.
Hector Hugo Ibarra is an Infrastructure IT Architect who is
specialized in cloud computing and storage solutions at IBM
Argentina. Hector is the ITA Leader for The VMware Center of
Competence, designated in 2006. He specializes in virtualization
technologies and assisted several global IBM clients in deploying
virtualized infrastructures across the world. Since 2009, he has
worked as the Leader for the Argentina Delivery Center Strategy
and Architecture Services department, where major projects are
driven.
Since writing this book, Hector left IBM.

xvi

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Shanmuganathan Kumaravel is an IBM Technical Services

Specialist for the ITD-SSO MR Storage team of IBM India. He has
supported SAN and disk products from both IBM and Hewlett
Packard since August 2008. Previously, Shan worked for HP
product support, which provides remote support for HP SAN
storage products, servers, and operating systems, including HP
UNIX and Linux. Shan is a Brocade Certified SAN Designer
(BCSD), Brocade Certified Fabric Administrator (BCFA), and an HP
Certified Systems Engineer (CSE).
Libor Miklas is a Team Leader and an experienced IT Specialist,
who works at the IBM Delivery Center Central Europe in Czech
Republic. He offers 13 years of practical experience within the IT
industry. For the last six years, he has focused on backup and
recovery and storage management. Libor and his team support
midrange and enterprise storage environments for various global
and local clients, worldwide. He is an IBM Certified Deployment
Professional of the IBM Tivoli Storage Manager family of products
and holds a Masters Degree in Electrical Engineering and
Telecommunications.
Thanks to the International Technical Support Organization, Poughkeepsie Center, for their
contributions to this project.
Thanks to the authors of the previous editions of this book:
Angelo Bernasconi
Rajani Kanth
Ravi Kumar Khattar
Fabiano Lucchese
Peter Mescher
Richard Moore
Mark S. Murphy
Kjell E. Nystrm
Fred Scholten
Giulio John Tarella
Andre Telles
IBM
Special thanks to the Brocade staff for their unparalleled support of this residency in terms of
equipment and support in many areas:
Jim Baldyga
Silviano Gaona
Brian Steffler
Marcus Thordal
Steven Tong
Brocade Communications Systems
Special thanks to John McKibben
Cisco Systems

Preface

xvii

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xviii

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Chapter 1.

Introduction
Computing is based on information. Information is the underlying resource on which all
computing processes are based; it is a company asset. Information is stored on storage
media and is accessed by applications that are running on a server. Often, the information is
a unique company asset. Information is created and acquired every second of every day.
Information is the currency of business.
To ensure that any business delivers the expected results, they must have access to accurate
information, and without delay. The management and protection of business information is
vital for the availability of business processes.
This chapter introduces the concept of a network, storage, and the storage area network
(SAN), which is regarded as the ultimate response to all of these needs.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

1.1 Networks
A computer network, often simply called a network, is a collection of computers and devices
that are interconnected by communication channels. These channels allow for the efficient
sharing of resources, services, and information among the network.
Even though this definition is simple, understanding how to make a network work might be
complicated for people who are not familiar with information technology (IT), or who are just
starting out in the IT world. Because of this unfamiliarity, we explain the basic concepts of the
networking world that need to be understood.

1.1.1 The importance of communication

It is impossible to imagine the human world as stand-alone human beings, with nobody that
talks or does anything for each other. Much more importantly, it is hard trying to imagine how
a human being can work without using their senses. In our human world, we are sure you will
agree with us that communication between individuals makes a significant difference in all
aspects of life.
First of all, communication in any form is not easy, and we need many components. Factors
consist of a common language, something to be communicated, a medium where the
communication flows, and finally we need to be sure that whatever was communicated was
received and understood. To do that in the human world, we use language as a
communication protocol, and sounds and writing are the communication media.
Similarly, a computer network needs almost the same components as our human example,
but a difference is that all factors need to be governed to ensure effective communications.
This monitoring is achieved by the use of industry standards, and companies adhere to those
standards to ensure that communication can take place.
A wealth of information is devoted to networking history and its evolution, and we do not
intend to give a history lesson in this book. This publication focuses on the prevalent
interconnection models, storage, and networking concepts.

1.2 Interconnection models

An interconnection model is a standard that is used to connect sources and targets in a
network. Several well-known models in the IT industry are the open systems interconnection
model (OSI), Department of Defense (DoD), TCP/IP protocol suite, and
Fibre Channel (FC). Each model has its advantages and disadvantages. Its model is applied
where it has the maximum benefit in terms of performance, reliability, availability, cost
benefits, and so on.

1.2.1 The open systems interconnection model

The open systems interconnection model (OSI model) was a product of the open systems
interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is a way of
subdividing a communications system into smaller parts that are called layers. Similar
communication functions are grouped into logical layers. A layer provides services to its upper
layer while it receives services from the layer below. At each layer, an instance provides
service to the instances at the layer above and requests service from the layer below.

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

For this book, we focus on the Physical, DataLink, Network, and Transport layers.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The Physical Layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it
defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or
optical cable. This relationship includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, and
more.

Layer 2: DataLink Layer

The DataLink Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities. This layer also detects and possibly corrects errors that might occur in the
Physical Layer.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on another
network. The Network Layer provides this functionality while it maintains the quality of service
that is requested by the Transport Layer (in contrast to the DataLink Layer, which connects
hosts within the same network). The Network Layer performs network routing functions. This
layer might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers
operate at this layer by sending data throughout the extended network and making the
Internet access possible.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between users, providing reliable
data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a
specific link through flow control, segmentation and desegmentation, and error control.
Certain protocols are state-oriented and connection-oriented, which means that the Transport
Layer can track the segments and retransmit the segments that fail. The Transport Layer also
provides acknowledgment of successful data transfer.
Now that you know what an interconnection model is, what it does, and how important it is in
a network, we can compare the OSI model with other models. Figure 1-1 shows a
comparison table of various models.

Figure 1-1 Comparison table of OSI, TCP/IP, and FC models

Chapter 1. Introduction

The Fibre Channel model is covered later in this book.

1.2.2 Translating the OSI model to the physical world

To translate from theoretical models to reality, we introduce physical devices that perform
certain tasks for each layer on each model.

Local area networks (LANs) are a good place to start. We define LANs as a small or large
network that is limited within the same physical site. This site might be a traditional office or a
corporate building.
In Figure 1-2, you see a basic network where computers and a printer are interconnected by
using physical cables and interconnection devices.

Figure 1-2 Basic network topology

We must keep in mind that any model we choose defines the devices, cables, connectors,
and interface characteristics that we must implement to make it work. We must also support
the protocols for each model layer.
All of the network components are categorized into five groups:
End devices: An end device is a computer system that has a final purpose, such as
desktop computers, printers, storage, or servers.
Network interface: A network interface is an interface between the media and end devices
that can interact with other network interfaces and understands an interconnection model.
Connector: The connector is the physical element at the end of the media that allows a
connection to the network interface.
Media: Media is the physical path that is used to transmit an electrical or optical signal. It
might be wired or wireless, copper, or a fiber optic cable.
Network devices: These devices are used to interconnect multiple end devices as a single
point of interconnection, route communication through separate networks, or provide
network security. Examples of network devices are switches, routers, firewalls, and
directors.

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Each network component executes a particular role within a network, and all of them are
required to reach the final goal of making communication possible.

1.3 Storage
To understand what storage is, and because understanding it is a key point for this book, we
start from a basic hard disk drive (HDD). We then progress through to storage systems that
are high performance, fault tolerant, and highly available. During this explanation,
instructional examples are used that might sometimes not reflect reality. However, the basic
examples make it easier to understand for individuals who are just entering the world of
storage systems.
Note: We are aware that solid-state drives (SSD) and Flash arrays form an important part
of any data center today, but for this basic example, we use the HDD as our building block.

1.3.1 Storing data

Data is stored on HDDs on which data can be read and written. Depending on the methods
that are used to run those tasks, and the HDD technology on which the HDDs were built, the
read and write function can be faster or slower. The evolution of HDDs is incredible. We can
store hundreds of gigabytes on a single HDD, which allows us to keep all of the data we can
ever imagine. Even though this approach seems to bring us only advantages so far, one
question might be what happens if for any reason we are unable to access the HDD?
The first solution might be to have a secondary HDD where we can manually copy our
primary HDD to our secondary HDD. Immediately, we can see that our data is safe. But, how
often must we run those manual copies if we expect not to lose data and to keep it as
up-to-date as possible? To keep it as current as possible, every time we change something,
we must make another copy. But, must we copy the entire amount of data from one HDD to
the other, or must we copy only what changes?
Figure 1-3 shows a manual copy of data for redundancy.

Figure 1-3 Manual copy of data

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.3.2 Redundant Array of Independent Disks

Fortunately, technology exists that can help us. That technology is the Redundant Array of
Independent Disks (RAID) concept, which presents a possible solution to our problem. It is
clear that data needs to be copied every time that it changes to provide us with a reliable fault
tolerant system. It is also clear that it cannot be done in a manual way. A RAID controller can
maintain disks in synchronization and can also manage all of the writes and reads
(input/output (I/O)) to and from the disks.
Figure 1-4 shows a diagram of our RAID system. The A, B, and C values in the diagram
represent user data, such as documents or pictures.

Figure 1-4 Typical RAID scenario

This type of RAID scenario is known as RAID 1 or a mirrored disk.

Stand-alone disks provide the following advantages:
Redundancy to disk failure
Faster reading of data because the data can be read from either disk
Stand-alone disks provide the following disadvantages:
Slower when they are writing because data needs to be written twice
Only half of the total capacity can be used
Is any other RAID type available that can improve things further, while it conserves the
advantages and removes the disadvantages of RAID 1? Yes, and this type of RAID is known
as RAID 5. This scenario consists of dividing the user data into N-1 parts (where N is the
number of disks that are used to build the RAID) and then calculating a parity part. This parity
part permits RAID to rebuild the user data if a disk failure occurs.

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

RAID 5 uses parity or redundant information. If a block fails, enough parity information is
available to recover the data. The parity information is spread across all of the disks. If a disk
fails, the RAID requires a rebuild and the parity information is used to re-create the lost data.
Figure 1-5 shows this example.

Figure 1-5 Example of RAID 5 with parity

RAID 5 requires a minimum of three disks. In theory, no limitations exist to add disks. This
RAID type combines data safety with the efficient use of disk space. Disk failure does not
result in a service interruption because data is read from parity blocks. RAID 5 is useful for
people who need performance and constant access to their data.
In RAID 5+Spare, disk failure does not require immediate attention because the system
rebuilds itself by using the hot spare. However, the failed disk must be replaced as soon as
possible. A spare disk is an empty disk that is used by the RAID controller only when a disk
fails. Figure 1-6 shows this example.

Figure 1-6 RAID 5 with a hot spare

RAID 5 has better performance for I/O than RAID 1. Depending on the number of disks that
are used to build the RAID, the array disk space utilization is more than two-thirds. RAID 5 is
also managed by a RAID controller that performs the same role as in RAID 1.

Chapter 1. Introduction

Figure 1-7 shows a brief comparison among the most common RAID levels.
RAID types: RAID 1 and RAID 5 are the most common RAID levels. However, many other
levels are not covered in this book. Levels that are not described include RAID 0, 3, 4, and
6; or nested (hybrid) types, such as RAID 0+1 or RAID 5+1. These hybrid types are used in
environments where reliability and performance are key points to be covered from the
storage perspective.

RAID 0

RAID 1

RAID 5

Minimum #
Drive

Features

Data
Protection

No Protection

Single-drive
failure

Single-drive
failure

Read
Performance

High

High

High

Write
Performance

High

Medium

Low

Read
Performance
(degraded)

N/A

Medium

Low

Write
Performance
(degraded)

N/A

High

Low

100%

50%

67% -94%

Capacity
Utilization
Typical
Applications

High-end
workstations,
data logging,
real-time
rendering, very
transitory data

Operating
System,
transaction
databases

Data
warehousing,
web serving,
archiving

Figure 1-7 RAID-level comparison table

Our disk systems seem to be ready to support failures, and they are also high performance.
But what if our RAID controller fails? We might not lose data, but the data is not accessible. Is
a solution available to access this data?
It is almost the same scenario that we initially faced with only one disk as a storage system.
This type of scenario is known as a single point of failure (SPOF). We must add redundancy
by introducing a secondary RAID controller to our storage system.
Now, we are sure that no matter what happens, data is available to be used.
RAID controller role: The RAID controller role in certain cases is performed by the
software. This solution is less expensive than a hardware solution because it does not
require controller hardware; however, it is a slower solution.
We now have several physical HDDs that are managed by two controllers.

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Disk pools
When a logical storage volume needs to be provisioned to servers, first the storage RAID
needs to be created. To create the RAID, select the available HDDs and group them together
for a single purpose. The number of grouped HDDs depends on the RAID type that we
choose and the space that is required for provisioning.
To understand what is meant, a basic example is shown that uses the following assumptions:

Ten HDDs, which are named A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J, are included.

Two RAID controllers, which are named RC1 and RC2, support any RAID level.
Each RAID controller can manage any HDD.
Each RAID controller can act as a backup of the other controller, at any time.

The following tasks can be performed:

Select HDDs A, B, and F, and create a RAID 5 array that is managed by RC1. We call it
G1.
Select HDDs E, I, and J, and create a RAID 5 array that is managed by RC2. We call it G2.
Figure 1-8 shows these steps.

Figure 1-8 Disk pool creation

By issuing these simple steps, we create disk pools. These pools consist of grouping disks
together for a single purpose, such as creating a RAID level, in our case, RAID 5.
In 1.3.2, Redundant Array of Independent Disks on page 6, we mentioned nested (hybrid)
RAIDs, such as 5+0. These solutions are used when the amount of storage data is significant
and important for business continuity. RAID 50 consists of RAID 0 striping across lower-level
RAID 5 arrays. The benefits of RAID 5 are gained while the spanned RAID 0 allows the
incorporation of many more disks into a single logical drive. Up to one drive in each subarray
can fail without data loss.

Chapter 1. Introduction

Also, rebuild times are substantially shorter than the rebuild times of a single large RAID 5
array. See Figure 1-9.
Nested (hybrid) RAIDs: Nested or hybrid RAIDs are a combination of existing RAID levels
that create a RAID to reap the benefits of two separate RAID levels.

Figure 1-9 Nested (hybrid) RAID 5+0 or RAID 50

This nested RAID 50 can be managed by RC1 or RC2 so we have full redundancy.

Storage systems
We are not far away from building our basic storage system. However, to answer our previous
questions, we need to add two new components and an enclosure.
One of those two components is a CPU that processes all of the required instructions to allow
data to flow. Adding only one CPU creates a single point of failure (SPOF), so we add two
CPUs.
We almost have an independent system. This system must be able to communicate with
other systems in a network. Therefore, a minimum of two network interfaces are required to
be able to avoid a SPOF.

10

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Only one step is left. The last step is to put all of these hardware components into an
enclosure. Figure 1-10 shows our storage system.

Figure 1-10 Basic storage system

This scenario is only an example: This basic storage configuration is presented as an

example. However, a configuration can include as many CPUs, RAID controllers, network
interfaces, and HDDs as needed.

1.4 Storage area networks

The Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) defines the storage area network (SAN)
as a network whose primary purpose is the transfer of data between computer systems and
storage elements. A SAN consists of a communication infrastructure, which provides physical
connections. It also includes a management layer, which organizes the connections, storage
elements, and computer systems so that data transfer is secure and robust. The term SAN is
typically (but not necessarily) identified with block I/O services rather than file access
services.
In simple terms, a SAN is a specialized, high-speed network that attaches servers and
storage devices. The SAN is sometimes referred to as the network behind the servers. A SAN
allows an any-to-any connection across the network, by using interconnect elements, such as
switches and directors. The SAN eliminates the traditional dedicated connection between a
server and storage, and the concept that the server effectively owns and manages the storage
devices.

Chapter 1. Introduction

11

The SAN also eliminates any restriction to the amount of data that a server can access.
Traditionally, a server is limited by the number of storage devices that attach to the individual
server. Instead, a SAN introduces the flexibility of networking to enable one server or many
heterogeneous servers to share a common storage utility. A network might include many
storage devices, including disk, tape, and optical storage. Additionally, the storage utility might
be located far from the servers that it uses.
The SAN can be viewed as an extension to the storage bus concept. This concept enables
storage devices and servers to interconnect by using similar elements, such as LANs and
wide area networks (WANs).
The diagram in Figure 1-11 shows a tiered overview of a SAN that connects multiple servers
to multiple storage systems.

Client

Client

Client

Client

Client

Client

Client

Network and LANs

Windows

UNIX

IBM i

Power Systems

System z

Storage Area Network

DS4000

ESS

Tape

Tape

Figure 1-11 A SAN

SANs create new methods of attaching storage to servers. These new methods can enable
great improvements in both availability and performance. The SANs of today are used to
connect shared storage arrays and tape libraries to multiple servers, and they are used by
clustered servers for failover.
A SAN can be used to bypass traditional network bottlenecks. A SAN facilitates direct,
high-speed data transfers between servers and storage devices, potentially in any of the
following three ways:
Server to storage: This method is the traditional model of interaction with storage devices.
The advantage is that the same storage device might be accessed serially or concurrently
by multiple servers.
Server to server: A SAN might be used for high-speed, high-volume communications
between servers.
Storage to storage: This outboard data movement capability enables data to be moved
without server intervention, therefore freeing up server processor cycles for other
activities, such as application processing. Examples include a disk device that backs up its
data to a tape device without server intervention, or a remote device mirroring across the
SAN.

12

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

SANs allow applications that move data to perform better, for example, by sending data
directly from the source device to the target device with minimal server intervention. SANs
also enable new network architectures where multiple hosts access multiple storage devices
that connect to the same network.
The use of a SAN can potentially offer the following benefits:
Improvements to application availability: Storage is independent of applications and
accessible through multiple data paths for better reliability, availability, and serviceability.
Higher application performance: Storage processing is offloaded from servers and moved
onto a separate network.
Centralized and consolidated storage: Simpler management, scalability, flexibility, and
availability are possible.
Data transfer and vaulting to remote sites: A remote copy of data is enabled for disaster
protection and against malicious attacks.
Simplified centralized management: A single image of storage media simplifies
management.

1.5 Storage area network components

Fibre Channel (FC) is the predominant architecture on which most SAN implementations are
built. IBM Fibre Channel connection (FICON) is the standard protocol for IBM z/OS
systems and Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP) is the standard protocol for open systems. The
SAN components that are described in the following sections are FC-based (Figure 1-12).

System z
Windows
UNIX

Power
Systems

IBM i

LINUX

Figure 1-12 SAN components

Chapter 1. Introduction

13

1.5.1 Storage area network connectivity

The first element to consider in any SAN implementation is the connectivity of the storage and
server components, which typically use FC. The components that are listed in Figure 1-12 on
page 13 are typically used for LAN and WAN implementations. SANs, such as LANs,
interconnect the storage interfaces together into many network configurations and across
longer distances.
Much of the terminology that is used for SAN has its origins in Internet Protocol (IP) network
terminology. In certain cases, the industry and IBM use different terms for the same thing and,
in other cases, for different things.

1.5.2 Storage area network storage

The SAN liberates the storage device so that the storage device is not on a particular server
bus and attaches it directly to the network. Storage is externalized. It can be functionally
distributed across the organization. The SAN also enables the centralization of storage
devices and the clustering of servers, which potentially can help you achieve easier and less
expensive centralized administration that lowers the total cost of ownership (TCO).
The storage infrastructure is the foundation on which information relies. Therefore, the
storage infrastructure must support the business objectives and business model of a
company. In this environment, simply deploying more and faster storage devices is not
enough. A SAN infrastructure provides enhanced network availability, data accessibility, and
system manageability.
Important: Remember that a good SAN begins with a good design. This statement is not
only a maxim, but it must be your philosophy when you design or implement a SAN.

1.5.3 Storage area network servers

The server infrastructure is the underlying reason for all SAN solutions. This infrastructure
includes a mix of server platforms, such as Microsoft Windows, UNIX (and its various
versions), and z/OS. With initiatives, such as server consolidation and Internet commerce, the
need for SANs increases, making the importance of storage in the network greater.

1.6 The importance of standards or models

Why do we care about standards? Standards are the starting point for the potential
interoperability of devices and software from different vendors in the SAN marketplace. SNIA,
among others, defined and ratified the standards for the SANs of today, and will keep defining
the standards for tomorrow. All of the players in the SAN industry are using these standards
now because these standards are the basis for the wide acceptance of SANs. Widely
accepted standards potentially allow for the heterogeneous, cross-platform, and multivendor
deployment of SAN solutions.
Because all vendors accepted these SAN standards, ideally no problems will occur when you
connect products from different vendors in the same SAN. However, nearly every vendor has
an interoperability lab where it tests all kinds of combinations between their products and the
products of other vendors. Several of the most important aspects of these tests are reliability,
error recovery, and performance. If a combination passes the test, that vendor is going to
certify or support this combination.
14

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

IBM participates in many industry standards organizations that work in the field of SANs. IBM
thinks that industry standards must be in place and, if necessary, redefined for SANs to be a
major part of the IT business mainstream.
Probably the most important industry standards organization for SANs is the SNIA. IBM is a
founding member and a board officer in SNIA. The SNIA, other standards organizations, and
IBM are active participants in many of these organizations.

Chapter 1. Introduction

15

16

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Chapter 2.

Storage area networks

In Chapter 1, Introduction on page 1, we introduced the basics by presenting a network and
storage system. We also defined a standard storage area network (SAN) and briefly
described the underlying technologies and concepts of a SAN implementation.
In this chapter, we extend this discussion by presenting real-life SANs with well-known
technologies and platforms that are used in SAN implementations. We also describe several
trends that are driving the SAN evolution, and how they might affect the future of storage
technology.
And although SAN technology is different, many of the concepts can also be applied in the
Ethernet networking environment, which is covered in more depth later in this book.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

17

2.1 Storage area networks

This section describes the major motivators that drive SAN implementations and presents
several key benefits that this technology can bring to data-dependent businesses.

2.1.1 The problem

Distributed clients and servers are frequently chosen to meet specific application needs. They
might, therefore, run different operating systems, such as Windows Server, various UNIX
offerings, IBM VMware vSphere, or VMS. They might also run different database software, for
example, IBM DB2, Oracle, IBM Informix, or SQL Server. Therefore, they have different file
systems and different data formats.
The management of this multi-platform, multivendor, networked environment is increasingly
complex and costly. Software tools for multiple vendors and appropriately skilled human
resources must be maintained to handle data and storage resource management on the
many different systems in the enterprise. Surveys that are published by industry analysts
consistently show that management costs that are associated with distributed storage are
much greater. The costs are shown to be much greater than the cost of managing
consolidated or centralized storage. This comparison includes the costs of backup, recovery,
space management, performance management, and disaster recovery planning.
Disk storage is often purchased from the processor vendor as an integral feature. It is difficult
to establish whether the price you pay per gigabyte (GB) is competitive, compared to the
market price of disk storage. Disks and tape drives, which are directly attached to one client
or server, cannot be used by other systems, leading to inefficient use of hardware resources.
Organizations often discover that they need to purchase more storage capacity, even though
free capacity is available in other platforms.
Additionally, it is difficult to scale capacity and performance to meet rapidly changing
requirements, such as the explosive growth in server, application, and desktop virtualization.
You also need to manage information over its entire lifecycle, from conception to intentional
destruction.
Information that is stored on one system cannot readily be made available to other users. One
exception is to create duplicate copies and move the copy to the storage that is attached to
another server. Movement of large files of data might result in significant degradation of
performance of the LAN and wide area network (WAN), causing conflicts with mission-critical
applications. Multiple copies of the same data might lead to inconsistencies between one
copy and another copy.
Data that is spread on multiple small systems is difficult to coordinate and share for
enterprise-wide applications. Examples of enterprise-wide applications include Internet
commerce, enterprise resource planning (ERP), data warehouse, and business intelligence
(BI).
Backup and recovery operations across a LAN might also cause serious disruption to normal
application traffic. Even when you use fast Gigabit Ethernet transport, the sustained
throughput from a single server to tape is about 25 GB per hour. It takes approximately 12
hours to fully back up a relatively moderate departmental database of 300 GBs. This time
frame might exceed the available window of time in which the backup must be completed.
And, it might not be a practical solution if business operations span multiple time zones.

18

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

It is increasingly evident to IT managers that these characteristics of client/server computing

are too costly and too inefficient. The islands of information that result from the distributed
model of computing do not match the needs of the enterprise.
New ways must be identified to control costs, improve efficiency, and simplify the storage
infrastructure to meet the requirements of the modern business world.

2.1.2 Requirements
With this scenario in mind, you might consider several requirements for the storage
infrastructures of today:
Unlimited and just-in-time scalability: Businesses require the capability to flexibly adapt to
the rapidly changing demands for storage resources without performance degradation.
System simplification: Businesses require an easy-to-implement infrastructure with a
minimum amount of management and maintenance. The more complex the enterprise
environment, the more costs that are involved in terms of management. Simplifying the
infrastructure can save costs and provide a greater return on investment (ROI).
Flexible and heterogeneous connectivity: The storage resource must be able to support
whatever platforms are within the IT environment. This resource is essentially an
investment protection requirement that allows for the configuration of a storage resource
for one set of systems. It later configures part of the capacity to other systems on an
as-needed basis.
Security: This requirement guarantees that data from one application or system does not
become overlaid or corrupted by other applications or systems. Authorization also requires
the ability to fence off the data of one system from other systems.
Encryption: When sensitive data is stored, it must be read or written only from certain
authorized systems. If for any reason the storage system is stolen, data must never be
available to be read from the system.
Hypervisors: This requirement is for the support of the server, application, and desktop
virtualization hypervisor features for cloud computing.
Speed: Storage networks and devices must be able to manage the high number of
gigabytes and intensive I/O that are required by each business industry.
Availability: This requirement implies both the protection against media failure and the
ease of data migration between devices, without interrupting application processing. This
requirement certainly implies improvements to backup and recovery processes. Attaching
disk and tape devices to the same networked infrastructure allows for fast data movement
between devices, which provides the following enhanced backup and recovery
capabilities:
Serverless backup. This capability is the ability to back up your data without using the
computing processor of your servers.
Synchronous copy. This capability ensures that your data is at two or more places
before your application goes to the next step.
Asynchronous copy. This capability ensures that your data is at two or more places
within a short time. The disk subsystem controls the data flow.
In the following section, we describe the use of SANs as a response to these business
requirements.

Chapter 2. Storage area networks

19

2.2 Using a storage area network

The key benefits that a SAN might bring to a highly data-dependent business infrastructure
can be summarized into three concepts: infrastructure simplification, information lifecycle
management, and business continuity. These benefits are an effective response to the
requirements that were presented in the previous section, and they are strong arguments for
the adoption of SANs. These three concepts are briefly described.

2.2.1 Infrastructure simplification

Four major methods exist by which infrastructure simplification can be achieved. An overview
is provided for each of the major methods of infrastructure simplification:
Consolidation
Concentrating the systems and resources into locations with fewer, but more powerful,
servers and storage pools can help increase IT efficiency and simplify the infrastructure.
Additionally, centralized storage management tools can help improve scalability,
availability, and disaster tolerance.
Virtualization
Storage virtualization helps to make complexity nearly transparent. At the same time,
storage virtualization can offer a composite view of storage assets. This feature might help
reduce capital and administrative costs, and it provides users with better service and
availability. Virtualization is designed to help make the IT infrastructure more responsive,
scalable, and available.
Automation
Choosing storage components with autonomic capabilities can improve availability and
responsiveness, and can help protect data as storage needs grow. As soon as day-to-day
tasks are automated, storage administrators might be able to spend more time on critical,
higher-level tasks that are unique to the companys business mission.
Integration
Integrated storage environments simplify system management tasks and improve security.
When all servers have secure access to all data, your infrastructure might be better able to
respond to the information needs of your users.

20

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Figure 2-1 illustrates the consolidation movement from the distributed islands of information
toward a single, and, most importantly, simplified infrastructure.

Figure 2-1 Disk and tape storage consolidation

Simplified storage environments have fewer elements to manage. This type of environment
leads to increased resource utilization and simplified storage management. This environment
can provide economies of scale for owning disk storage servers. These environments can be
more resilient and provide an infrastructure for virtualization and automation.

2.2.2 Information lifecycle management

Information is an increasingly valuable asset, but as the amount of information grows, it
becomes increasingly costly and complex to store and manage it. Information lifecycle
management (ILM) is a process for managing information through its lifecycle, from
conception until intentional disposal. The ILM process manages this information in a manner
that optimizes storage and maintains a high level of access at the lowest cost.
A SAN implementation makes it easier to manage the information lifecycle because it
integrates applications and data into a single-view system, in which the information resides.
This single-view location can be managed more efficiently.
IBM Tivoli Productivity Center For Data was designed to support ILM.

Chapter 2. Storage area networks

21

2.2.3 Business continuity

The business climate in todays on-demand era is highly competitive. Clients, employees,
suppliers, and IBM Business Partners expect to be able to tap into their information at any
hour of the day, from any corner of the globe. Continuous business operations are no longer
optional; they are a business imperative to becoming successful and maintaining a
competitive advantage. Businesses must also be increasingly sensitive to issues of client
privacy and data security so that vital information assets are not compromised. Also, factor in
the legal and regulatory requirements, the inherent demands of participating in the global
economy, and accountability. All of a sudden, the IT manager can be overwhelmed.
Currently, with natural disasters seemingly occurring with more frequency, a disaster recovery
(DR) plan is essential. Implementing the correct SAN solution can help not only in real-time
recovery techniques, but it also can reduce the recovery time objective (RTO) for your current
DR plan.
Many specific vendor solutions require a SAN that runs in the background, such as IBM
VMware Site Recovery Manager (SRM), for business continuity.
A sound and comprehensive business continuity strategy is now considered a business
imperative, and SANs play a key role in this continuity. By deploying a consistent and safe
infrastructure, SANs make it possible to meet any availability requirements.

2.3 Using the storage area network components

The foundation that a SAN is built on is the interconnection of storage devices and servers.
This section further describes storage, interconnection components, and servers, and how
the various types of servers and storage are used in a typical SAN environment.

2.3.1 Storage
This section briefly describes the major types of storage devices that are available in the
market.

Storage systems
By being contained in a single box, a storage system (hard disk drive (HDD), solid-state drive
(SSD), or Flash) typically has a central control unit that manages all of the I/O. This
configuration simplifies the integration of the system with other devices, such as other disk
systems or servers.
We introduced you to the components of a storage system in Chapter 1, Introduction on
page 1. Depending on the specific functionality that is offered by a particular storage system,
you can make a storage system behave as a small, midsize, or enterprise solution. The
decision about the type of storage system that is more suitable for a SAN implementation
depends on the performance capacity and availability requirements for the particular SAN.
We describe the product portfolio in Chapter 12, IBM Fibre Channel storage area network
product portfolio on page 247.

22

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Tape systems
Tape systems, similar to disk systems, are devices that consist of all of the necessary
apparatus to manage the use of tapes for storage. In this case, however, the serial nature of a
tape makes it impossible for them to be treated in parallel. This treatment is because
Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) devices are leading to a simpler architecture
to manage and use.
Three types of tape systems exist: drives, autoloaders, and libraries. An overview of each
type of system is provided.

Tape drives
As with disk drives, tape drives are the means by which tapes can connect to other devices.
They provide the physical and logical structure for reading from, and writing to tapes.

Tape autoloaders
Tape autoloaders are autonomous tape drives that can manage tapes and perform automatic
backup operations. They are typically connected to high-throughput devices that require
constant data backup.

Tape libraries
Tape libraries are devices that can manage multiple tapes simultaneously. They can be
viewed as a set of independent tape drives or autoloaders. They are typically deployed in
systems that require massive storage capacity, or that need a type of data separation that
results in multiple single-tape systems. Because a tape is not a random-access media, tape
libraries cannot provide parallel access to multiple tapes as a way to improve performance.
However, they can provide redundancy as a way to improve data availability and
fault-tolerance.
The circumstances under which each of these systems, or even a disk system, might be used
strongly depends on the specific requirements of a particular SAN implementation. However,
disk systems are used for online storage because of their superior performance. Tape
systems are ideal for offline, high-throughput storage, because of the lower cost of storage
per byte.
The next section describes the prevalent connectivity interfaces, protocols, and services for
building a SAN.

2.3.2 Storage area network connectivity

SAN connectivity consists of hardware and software components that interconnect storage
devices and servers. The Fibre Channel model for SANs is introduced.

Standards and models for storage connectivity

Networking is governed by adherence to standards and models. Data transfer is also
governed by standards. By far the most common standard is Small Computer System
Interface (SCSI).
SCSI is an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard that is one of the leading
I/O buses in the computer industry.
An industry effort was started to create a stricter standard to allow devices from separate
vendors to work together. This effort is recognized in the ANSI SCSI-1 standard. The SCSI-1
standard (circa 1985) is rapidly becoming obsolete. The current standard is SCSI-2. The
SCSI-3 standard is in the production stage.

Chapter 2. Storage area networks

23

The SCSI bus is a parallel bus, which comes in several variants (Figure 2-2).
Fibre Channel: For more information about parallel and serial data transfer, see
Chapter 3, Fibre Channel internals on page 33.

Figure 2-2 SCSI standards comparison table

In addition to a physical interconnection standard, SCSI defines a logical (command set)

standard to which disk devices must adhere. This standard is called the Common Command
Set (CCS). It was developed more or less in parallel with ANSI SCSI-1.
The SCSI bus not has data lines and also several control signals. An elaborate protocol is
part of the standard to allow multiple devices to share the bus efficiently.
In SCSI-3, even faster bus types are introduced, with serial SCSI buses that reduce the
cabling overhead and allow a higher maximum bus length. The Fibre Channel model is
introduced at this point.
As always, the demands and needs of the market push for new technologies. In particular, a
push exists for faster communications without limitations on distance or the number of
connected devices.
Fibre Channel is a serial interface (primarily implemented with fiber-optic cable). Fibre
Channel is the primary architecture for most SANs. To support this interface, many vendors in
the marketplace produce Fibre Channel adapters and other Fibre Channel devices. Fibre
Channel brought these advantages by introducing a new protocol stack and by keeping the
SCSI-3 CCS on top of it.

24

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Figure 2-3 shows the evolution of Fibre Channel speeds. Fibre Channel is described in
greater depth throughout this publication.

Figure 2-3 Fibre Channel evolution

Figure 2-4 shows an overview of the Fibre Channel model. The diagram shows the Fibre
Channel, which is divided into four lower layers (FC-0, FC-1, FC-2, and FC-3) and one upper
layer (FC-4). FC-4 is where the upper-level protocols are used, such as SCSI-3, Internet
Protocol (IP), and Fibre Channel connection (FICON).

Figure 2-4 Fibre Channel model overview

Chapter 2. Storage area networks

25

Options for storage connectivity

In this section, we divided these components into three sections according to the abstraction
level to which they belong: lower-level layers, middle-level layers, and higher-level layers.
Figure 2-5 shows an example of each networking stack.

Figure 2-5 Networking stack comparison

Lower-level layers
As Figure 2-5 shows, only three stacks can directly interact with the physical wire: Ethernet,
SCSI, and Fibre Channel. Because of this configuration, these models are considered the
lower-level layers. All of the other stacks are combinations of the layers, such as Internet
SCSI (iSCSI), Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP), and Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE), which
are also called the middle-level layers.
We assume that you have a basic knowledge of Ethernet, which is typically used on
conventional server-to-server or workstation-to-server network connections. The connections
build up a common-bus topology by which every attached device can communicate with every
other attached device by using this common bus. Ethernet speed is increasing as it becomes
more pervasive in the data center. Key concepts of Ethernet are describer later in this book.

Middle-level layers
This section consists of the transport protocol and session layers.
Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE): FCoE is described later in this book. It is a vital
model for the Converged Network Adapter (CNA).

Internet Small Computer System Interface

Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) is a transport protocol that carries SCSI
commands from an initiator to a target. The iSCSI data storage networking protocol
transports standard SCSI requests over the standard Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) networking technology.
26

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

iSCSI enables the implementation of IP-based SANs, enabling clients to use the same
networking technologies, for both storage and data networks. Because iSCSI uses TCP/IP,
iSCSI is also suited to run over almost any physical network. By eliminating the need for a
second network technology just for storage, iSCSI has the potential to lower the costs of
deploying networked storage.

Fibre Channel Protocol

The Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP) is the interface protocol of SCSI on Fibre Channel (FC). It
is a gigabit speed network technology that is primarily used for storage networking. Fibre
Channel is standardized in the T11 Technical Committee of the International Committee of
Information Technology Standards (INCITS), an ANSI-accredited standards committee. FCP
started for use primarily in the supercomputer field, but FCP is now the standard connection
type for SANs in enterprise storage. Despite its name, Fibre Channel signaling can run on
both twisted-pair copper wire and fiber optic cables.

Fibre Channel over IP

Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP) is also known as Fibre Channel tunneling or storage tunneling.
It is a method to allow the transmission of Fibre Channel information to be tunneled through
the IP network. Because most organizations already have an existing IP infrastructure, the
attraction of being able to link geographically dispersed SANs, at a relatively low cost, is
enormous.
FCIP encapsulates Fibre Channel block data and then transports it over a TCP socket.
TCP/IP services are used to establish connectivity between remote SANs. Congestion control
and management and also data error and data loss recovery are handled by TCP/IP services
and do not affect Fibre Channel fabric services.
The major consideration with FCIP is that it does not replace Fibre Channel with IP; it allows
deployments of Fibre Channel fabrics by using IP tunneling. You might assume that the
industry decided that Fibre Channel-based SANs are appropriate. Another possible
assumption is that the IP connection is only needed to facilitate any distance requirement that
is beyond the current scope of an FCP SAN.

Fibre Channel connection

Fibre Channel connection (FICON) architecture is an enhancement of, rather than a
replacement for, the traditional IBM Enterprise Systems Connection (ESCON) architecture. A
SAN is Fibre Channel-based (FC-based). Therefore, FICON is a prerequisite for IBM z/OS
systems to fully participate in a heterogeneous SAN, where the SAN switch devices allow the
mixture of open systems and mainframe traffic.
FICON is a protocol that uses Fibre Channel as its physical medium. FICON channels can
achieve data rates up to 200 MBps full duplex and extend the channel distance (up to 100 km
(62 miles)). FICON can also increase the number of control unit images for each link and the
number of device addresses for each control unit link. The protocol can also retain the
topology and switch management characteristics of ESCON.

Higher-level layers
This section consists of the presentation and application layers.

Server-attached storage
The earliest approach was to tightly couple the storage device with the server. This
server-attached storage approach keeps performance overhead to a minimum. Storage is
attached directly to the server bus by using an adapter, and the storage device is dedicated to
a single server. The server itself controls the I/O to the device, issues the low-level device
commands, and monitors device responses.
Chapter 2. Storage area networks

27

Initially, disk and tape storage devices had no onboard intelligence. They merely ran the I/O
requests of the server. The subsequent evolution led to the introduction of control units (CUs).
These units are storage offload servers that contain a limited level of intelligence. The CUs
can perform functions, such as I/O request caching for performance improvements or dual
copying data (RAID 1) for availability. Many advanced storage functions are developed and
implemented inside the CU.

Network-attached storage
Network-attached storage (NAS) is basically a LAN-attached file server that serves files by
using a network protocol, such as Network File System (NFS). NAS refers to storage
elements that connect to a network and provide file access services to computer systems. An
NAS storage element consists of an engine that implements the file services (by using access
protocols, such as NFS or Common Internet File System (CIFS)) and one or more devices, on
which data is stored. NAS elements might be attached to any type of network.
From a SAN perspective, a SAN-attached NAS engine is treated just like any other server.
However, NAS does not provide any of the activities that a server in a server-centric system
typically provides, such as email, authentication, or file management.
NAS allows more hard disk storage space to be added to a network that already uses
servers, without shutting them down for maintenance and upgrades. With an NAS device,
storage is not a part of the server. Instead, in this storage-centric design, the server still
handles all of the processing of the data, but an NAS device delivers the data to the user.
An NAS device does not need to be located within the server, but an NAS device can exist
anywhere in the LAN. An NAS device can consist of multiple networked NAS devices. These
units communicate to a host by using Ethernet and file-based protocols. This method is in
contrast to the disk units that are already described, which use Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP)
and block-based protocols to communicate.
NAS storage provides acceptable performance and security, and it is often less expensive for
servers to implement (for example, Ethernet adapters are less expensive than Fibre Channel
adapters).
To bridge the two worlds and open up new configuration options for clients, certain vendors,
including IBM, sell NAS units that act as a gateway between IP-based users and
SAN-attached storage. This configuration allows the connection of the storage device and
shares the storage device between your high-performance database servers (attached
directly through FC) and your users (attached through IP). These users do not have strict
performance requirements.
NAS is an ideal solution for serving files that are stored on the SAN to users in cases where it
is impractical and expensive to equip users with Fibre Channel adapters. NAS allows those
users to access your storage through the IP-based network that they already have.

2.3.3 Servers
Each server platform (IBM z Systems, UNIX, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Sun Solaris, Linux, IBM i,
and Microsoft Windows Server) implements SAN solutions by using various interconnections
and storage technologies. The following sections review these solutions and the
implementation on each platform.

28

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Mainframe servers
A mainframe is a single, monolithic, and possibly multiple processor, high-performance
computer system. Apart from the fact that the IT evolution is pointing toward a more
distributed and loosely coupled infrastructure, mainframes still play an important role in
businesses that depend on massive storage capabilities.
The IBM System z is a processor and operating system mainframe set. Historically, the IBM
z Systems servers supported many operating systems, such as z/OS, IBM OS/390, VM,
VSE, and Transaction Processing Facility (TPF), which were enhanced over the years. The
processor to storage device interconnection also evolved from a bus and tag interface to
ESCON channels, and now to FICON channels. Figure 2-6 shows the various
processor-to-storage interfaces.

Figure 2-6 Processor-to-storage interface connections

Because of architectural differences, and strict data integrity and management requirements,
the implementation of FICON is somewhat behind that of FCP on open systems. However, at
the time of writing this book, FICON caught up with FCP SANs, and they coexist amicably.
For the latest news about IBM z Systems FICON connectivity, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/z/hardware/connectivity/index.html
In addition to FICON for traditional z Systems operating systems, IBM has standard Fibre
Channel adapters for use with z Systems servers that can implement Linux.

Chapter 2. Storage area networks

29

UNIX servers
Originally designed for high-performance computer systems, such as mainframes, todays
UNIX operating systems appear on many hardware platforms, ranging from Linux personal
computers to dedicated large-scale workstations. Because of the popularity and maturity of
UNIX, UNIX also plays an important role on both existing and earlier IT infrastructures.
The IBM Power Systems servers run a UNIX operating system that is called AIX. The
Power Systems servers offer various processor-to-storage interfaces, including SCSI,
serial-attached SCSI (SAS), and Fibre Channel. The Serial Storage Architecture (SSA)
interconnection is primarily used for disk storage. Fibre Channel adapters can connect to tape
and disk. Figure 2-7 shows the various processor-to-storage interconnection options for the
Power Systems family.

Figure 2-7 Power Systems processor-to-storage interconnections

The various UNIX system vendors in the market deploy variations of the UNIX operating
system. Each product offers unique enhancements. The various vendors UNIX operation
system implementations often support separate file systems, such as the journaled file
system (JFS), enhanced journaled file system (JFS2), and the IBM Andrew File System
(AFS). The server-to-storage interconnection is similar to Power Systems, as shown in
Figure 2-7.
For the latest IBM Power Systems storage products, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/product/power.html

30

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Microsoft Windows servers

Based on the reports of various analysts about growth in the Windows server market (both in
the number and size of Windows servers), Windows will become the largest market for SAN
solution deployment. More Windows servers will host mission-critical applications that benefit
from SAN solutions, such as disk and tape pooling, tape sharing, multipathing, and remote
copy.
The processor-to-storage interfaces on Intel servers that support the Microsoft Windows
Server operating system are similar to the interfaces that are supported on UNIX servers,
including SCSI and Fibre Channel.

Single-level storage
Single-level storage (SLS) is probably the most significant differentiator in a SAN solution
implementation on an IBM i server. This IBM i differentiator is a factor when compared to
other systems such as z/OS, UNIX, and Windows. In IBM i, both the major storage (memory)
and the auxiliary storage (disks) are treated as a large virtual address space that is known as
SLS.
Figure 2-8 compares the IBM i SLS addressing with the way that Windows or UNIX systems
work, by using the processor local storage. With 32-bit addressing, each process (job) has
4 GB of addressable memory. With 64-bit SLS addressing, over 18 million terabytes
(18 exabytes) of addressable storage are possible. Because a single page table maps all
virtual addresses to physical addresses, task switching is efficient. SLS further eliminates the
need for address translation, therefore speeding up data access.

Figure 2-8 IBM i versus 32-bit Windows Server or UNIX storage addressing

The IBM i SAN support was rapidly expanded. IBM i servers now support attachment to
switched fabrics and to most of the IBM SAN-attached storage products.
For more information, see this IBM i SAN website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/i/hardware/storage/

Chapter 2. Storage area networks

31

2.3.4 Putting the components together

After looking at all of these technologies and platforms, we can understand why it is a
challenge to implement true heterogeneous storage and data environments across different
hardware and operating system platforms. Examples of these environments include disk and
tape sharing across z/OS, IBM i, UNIX, and Windows Server.
One of the SAN principles, which is infrastructure simplification, cannot be easily achieved.
Each platform, with its operating system, treats data differently at various levels in the system
architecture, therefore creating several of these challenges:
Different attachment interfaces and protocols, such as SCSI, ESCON, and FICON
Different data formats, such as extended count key data (IBM ECKD), blocks, clusters,
and sectors
Different file systems, such as Virtual Storage Access Method (VSAM), JFS, JFS2, AFS,
and Windows Server New Technology File System (NTFS)
IBM i and the concept of single-level storage
Different file system structures, such as catalogs and directories
Different file naming conventions, such as AAA.BBB.CCC and DIR/Xxx/Yyy
Different data encoding techniques, such as EBCDIC, ASCII, floating point, and little or big
endian
Figure 2-9 shows a brief summary of these differences for several systems.

Figure 2-9 Hardware and operating system differences

32

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Chapter 3.

Fibre Channel internals

Fibre Channel (FC) is the predominant architecture on which SAN implementations are built.
Fibre Channel is a technology standard that allows data to be transferred at extremely high
speeds. Current implementations support data transfers at up to 16 Gbps or even more. The
Fibre Channel standard is accredited by many standards bodies, technical associations,
vendors, and industry-wide consortiums. Many products on the market take advantage of the
high-speed and high-availability characteristics of the Fibre Channel architecture.
Fibre Channel was developed through industry cooperation, unlike Small Computer System
Interface (SCSI), which was developed by a vendor and submitted for standardization
afterward.
Fibre or Fiber? Fibre Channel was originally designed to support fiber optic cabling only.
When copper support was added, the committee decided to keep the name in principle,
but to use the UK English spelling (fibre) to refer to the standard. The US English spelling
(fiber) is retained to refer generically to fiber optics and cabling.
Certain people refer to Fibre Channel architecture as the fibre version of SCSI. Fibre Channel
is an architecture that is used to carry intelligent peripheral interface (IPI) traffic, Internet
Protocol (IP) traffic, Fibre Channel connection (FICON) traffic, and Fibre Channel Protocol
(FCP) SCSI traffic. Fibre Channel architecture might also carry traffic that uses other
protocols, all on the standard Fibre Channel transport.
An analogy might be Ethernet, where IP, Network Basic Input/Output System (NetBIOS), and
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) are all used simultaneously over a single Ethernet
adapter. This configuration is possible because these protocols all have mappings to
Ethernet. Similarly, many protocols are mapped onto Fibre Channel.
FICON is the standard protocol for z/OS, and FICON will replace all Enterprise Systems
Connection (ESCON) environments over time. FCP is the standard protocol for open
systems. Both FICON and FCP use the Fibre Channel architecture to carry the traffic.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

33

3.1 Fibre Channel architecture

Before we delve into the internals of Fibre Channel, we describe why Fibre Channel became
the predominant storage area network (SAN) architecture.

3.1.1 Small Computer Systems Interface

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is the conventional, server-centric method of
connecting peripheral devices (disks, tapes, and printers) in the open client/server
environment. SCSI was designed for the personal computer and small computer
environment. SCSI is a bus architecture, with dedicated, parallel cabling between the host
and storage devices, such as disk arrays. This configuration is similar in implementation to the
Original Equipment Manufacturers Information (OEMI) bus and tag interface that was
commonly used by mainframe computers until the early 1990s.
In addition to being a physical transport, SCSI is also a protocol. This protocol specifies
commands and controls for sending blocks of data between the host and the attached
devices. The SCSI commands are issued by the host operating system in response to user
requests for data. Certain operating systems, for example, Microsoft Windows, treat all
attached peripheral devices as SCSI devices, and they issue SCSI commands to handle all
read and write operations. SCSI was used in direct-attached storage (DAS) with internal and
external devices that connected through the SCSI channel in daisy chain fashion.
Figure 3-1 shows typical SCSI device connectivity.

Figure 3-1 SCSI device connectivity

34

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

3.1.2 Limitations of the Small Computer System Interface

Several limitations of SCSI are described in the following topics.

Scalability limitations
The amount of data that is available to the server is determined by the number of devices that
can attach to the bus. The amount is also determined by the number of buses that are
attached to the server. Up to 15 devices can be attached to a server on a single SCSI bus. In
practice, because of performance limitations due to arbitration, commonly no more than four
or five devices are attached in this way. This factor limits the scalability in terms of the number
of devices that can connect to the server.

Reliability and availability limitations

SCSI shares aspects with bus and tag; for example, the cables and connectors are bulky,
relatively expensive, and prone to failure. Access to data is lost in a failure of any of the SCSI
connections to the disks. Data is also lost in the reconfiguration or servicing of a disk device
that is attached to the SCSI bus because all of the devices in the string must be taken offline.
In todays environment, when many applications need to be available continuously, this
downtime is unacceptable.

Speed and latency limitations

The data rate of the SCSI bus is determined by the number of transferred bits, and the bus
cycle time (measured in megahertz (MHz)). Decreasing the cycle time increases the transfer
rate. However, because of limitations that are inherent in the bus architecture, decreasing the
cycle time might also reduce the distance over which the data can be successfully
transferred. The physical transport was originally a parallel cable that consisted of eight data
lines to transmit 8 bits in parallel, plus control lines. Later implementations widened the
parallel data transfers to 16-bit paths (wide SCSI) to achieve higher bandwidths.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

35

A SCSI propagation delay in sending data in parallel along multiple lines leads to a
phenomenon that is known as skew. Skew means that all bits might not arrive at the target
device at the same time. Figure 3-2 shows this result.

Signal Skew on Parallel Data Bus

Input Signal

Driver Skew

Cable Skew

Receiver Skew

Data 1

Driver

Receiver

Data 2

Driver

Receiver

Data 3

Driver

Receiver

Data 4

Driver

Receiver

Clock

Driver

Receiver

Data valid window reduces

Figure 3-2 A SCSI propagation delay results in skew

Arrival occurs during a small window of time, depending on the transmission speed and the
physical length of the SCSI bus. The need to minimize the skew limits the distance that
devices can be positioned away from the initiating server to 2 meters (6.5 ft) - 25 meters
(82 ft). The distance depends on the cycle time. Faster speed means shorter distance.

36

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Distance limitations
The distances refer to the maximum length of the SCSI bus, including all attached devices.
Figure 3-3 shows the SCSI distance limitations. These limitations might severely restrict the
total GB capacity of the disk storage that can be attached to an individual server.

SCSI distance limitations

1-2 Host Systems

15 Devices per connection

Device

20 MB/sec

Device

Termination

.....

Up to 25 meters

Fast /Wide SCSI

1-2 Host Systems

15 Devices per connection

Device

40 MB/sec

Device

Termination

.....

Up to 12 meters

Ultra Wide SCSI

1-2 Host Systems

15 Devices per connection

Device

80 MB/sec

Device

Termination

.....

Up to 12 meters

Ultra2 SCSI

Figure 3-3 SCSI bus distance limitations

Device sharing
Many applications require the system to access several devices, or for several systems to
share a single device. SCSI can enable this sharing by attaching multiple servers or devices
to the same bus. This structure is known as a multi-drop configuration.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

37

Figure 3-4 shows a multi-drop bus structure configuration.

Multi-Drop Data/Control Bus

SCSI Initiator
Driver
Receiver

Terminator

Data Bus

Control Signals

Driver
Receiver

Driver
Receiver

Driver
Receiver

Driver
Receiver

Disk Drive

Disk Drive

Disk Drive

Disk Drive

Figure 3-4 Multi-drop bus structure

To avoid signal interference, and therefore possible data corruption, all unused ports on a
parallel SCSI bus must be terminated correctly. Incorrect termination can result in transaction
errors or failures.
Normally, only a single server can access data on a specific disk with a SCSI bus. In a shared
bus environment, it is clear that all devices cannot transfer data at the same time. SCSI uses
an arbitration protocol to determine the device that can gain access to the bus. Arbitration
occurs before and after every data transfer on the bus. While arbitration takes place, no data
movement can occur. This loss of movement represents an additional performance overhead
that reduces bandwidth utilization, substantially reducing the effective data rate that is
achievable on the bus. Actual rates are typically less than 50% of the rated speed of the SCSI
bus.
It is clear that the physical parallel SCSI bus architecture has several significant speed,
distance, and availability limitations. These limits make it increasingly less suitable for many
applications in todays networked IT infrastructure. However, the SCSI protocol is deeply
embedded in the way that commonly encountered operating systems handle user requests
for data. Therefore, requiring a move to new protocols is a major inhibitor to progress.

3.1.3 Fibre Channel advantages

Fibre Channel is an open, technical standard for networking that incorporates the channel
transport characteristics of an I/O bus, with the flexible connectivity and distance
characteristics of a traditional network.
Because of Fibre Channels channel-like qualities, hosts and applications see storage devices
that are attached to the SAN as though they are locally attached storage. Because of Fibre
Channels network characteristics, Fibre Channel can support multiple protocols and a broad
range of devices. And, Fibre Channel can be managed as a network. Fibre Channel can use
either optical fiber (for distance) or copper cable links (for short distance at low cost).

38

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Fibre Channel is a multiple layer network that is based on a series of American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) standards that define characteristics and functions for moving data
across the network. These standards include the definitions of physical interfaces, for
example:

Cabling, distances, and signaling

Data encoding and link controls
Data delivery in terms of frames
Flow control and classes of service
Common services
Protocol interfaces

Like other networks, information is sent in structured packets or frames, and data is serialized
before transmission. But, unlike other networks, the Fibre Channel architecture includes
significant hardware processing to deliver high performance.
Fibre Channel uses a serial data transport scheme that is similar to other computer networks,
which stream packets (frames) of bits, one behind the other, in a single data line to achieve
high data rates.

Serial Transfer

Skewed bit arrival

Streamed bit arrival

Target

Initiator

Parallel Transfer

Target

Initiator

Serial transfer does not suffer from the problem of skew, so speed and distance are not
restricted in the same way that parallel data transfers are restricted. Figure 3-5 shows the
process of parallel data transfers versus serial data transfers.

Data packet or frame

Impervious to cycle time and
distance

Data Valid Window

affected by cycle time and
distance

Figure 3-5 Parallel data transfers versus serial data transfers

Serial transfer enables simpler cabling and connectors, and also the routing of information
through switched networks. Fibre Channel can operate over longer distances, both natively
and by implementing cascading, and longer with the introduction of repeaters. Just as LANs
can be interlinked in wide area networks (WANs) by using high-speed gateways, campus
SANs can be interlinked to build enterprise-wide SANs.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

39

Whatever the topology, information is sent between two nodes, which are the source
(transmitter or initiator) and destination (receiver or target). A node is a device, such as a
server (personal computer, workstation, or mainframe) or peripheral device, such as a disk or
tape drive, or a video camera. Frames of information are passed between nodes, and the
structure of the frame is defined by a protocol. Logically, a source and target node must use
the same protocol, but each node might support several protocols or data types.
Therefore, Fibre Channel architecture is flexible in its potential application. Fibre Channel
transport layers are protocol independent, enabling the transmission of multiple protocols.
Using a credit-based flow control approach, Fibre Channel can deliver data as fast as the
destination device buffer can receive it. And low transmission overhead enables high
sustained utilization rates without the loss of data.
Therefore, Fibre Channel combines the best characteristics of traditional I/O channels with
the characteristics of computer networks:
High performance for large data transfers by using simple transport protocols and
extensive hardware assists
Serial data transmission
A physical interface with a low error rate definition
Reliable transmission of data with the ability to guarantee or confirm error-free delivery of
the data
The ability to package data in packets (frames, in Fibre Channel terminology)
Flexibility in terms of the types of information that can be transported in frames (such as
data, video, and audio)
Use of existing device-oriented command sets, such as SCSI and FCP
A vast expansion in the number of devices that can be addressed when compared to I/O
interfaces: a theoretical maximum of more than 15 million ports
Several factors make the Fibre Channel architecture ideal for the development of enterprise
SANs. One example is the high degree of flexibility, availability, and scalability of the
architecture. Other factors include the combination of multiple protocols at high speeds over
long distances, and the broad acceptance of the Fibre Channel standards by vendors
throughout the IT industry.
The following topics describe several key concepts that are mentioned in the previous pages
and that are behind Fibre Channel SAN implementations. We also introduce more Fibre
Channel SAN terminology and jargon that you can expect to encounter.

3.2 Layers
Fibre Channel (FC) is broken up into a series of five layers. The concept of layers, starting
with the International Organization for Standardization/open systems interconnection
(ISO/OSI) seven-layer model, allows the development of one layer to remain independent of
the adjacent layers. Although a Fibre Channel contains five layers, those layers follow the
general principles that are stated in the ISO/OSI model.
The series of five layers that make up a Fibre Channel can be categorized into the following
layers:
Physical and signaling layer
Upper layer
40

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Fibre Channel is a layered protocol. Figure 3-6 shows the upper and physical layers.

Application
FC-4

Protocol Mapping Layer

(Multimedia/Channels/Networks)

FC-3

Common Services

FC-2

Signaling Protocol
(Framing/Flow Control)

FC-1

Transmission Protocol
(Encode/Decode)

FC-0

Physical Interface/Media

Upper
Layers

Physical
Layers

Figure 3-6 Fibre Channel upper and physical layers

The FC layers are briefly described next.

Physical and signaling layers

The physical and signaling layers include the three lowest layers: FC-0, FC-1, and FC-2.

Physical interface and media: FC-0

The lowest layer, FC-0, defines the physical link in the system, including the cabling,
connectors, and electrical parameters for the system at a wide range of data rates. This level
is designed for maximum flexibility, and this level allows the use of many technologies to
match the needs of the configuration.
A communication route between two nodes can be made up of links of different technologies.
For example, in reaching its destination, a signal might start out on copper wire and be
converted to single-mode fiber for longer distances. This flexibility allows for specialized
configurations, depending on IT requirements.

Laser safety
Fibre Channel often uses lasers to transmit data, and can, therefore, present an optical health
hazard. The FC-0 layer defines an open fiber control (OFC) system, and it acts as a safety
interlock for point-to-point fiber connections that use semiconductor laser diodes as the
optical source. If the fiber connection is broken, the ports send a series of pulses until the
physical connection is re-established and the necessary handshake procedures are followed.

Transmission protocol: FC-1

The second layer, FC-1, provides the methods for adaptive 8B/10B encoding to bind the
maximum length of the code, maintain DC-balance, and provide word alignment. This layer is
used to integrate the data with the clock information that is required by serial transmission
technologies.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

41

Framing and signaling protocol: FC-2

Reliable communications result from the FC-2 framing and signaling protocol of the FC. FC-2
specifies a data transport mechanism that is independent of upper-layer protocols. FC-2 is
self-configuring and supports point-to-point, arbitrated loop, and switched environments.
FC-2, which is the third layer of the Fibre Channel Physical and Signaling interface (FC-PH),
provides the transport methods to determine the following factors:

Topologies that are based on the presence or absence of a fabric

Communication models
Classes of service that are provided by the fabric and the nodes
General fabric model
Sequence and exchange identifiers
Segmentation and reassembly

Data is transmitted in 4-byte ordered sets that contain data and control characters. Ordered
sets provide the availability to obtain bit and word synchronization, which also establishes
word boundary alignment.
Together, FC-0, FC-1, and FC-2 form the FC-PH.

Upper layers
The upper layer includes two layers: FC-3 and FC-4.

Common services: FC-3

FC-3 defines functions that span multiple ports on a single-node or fabric. Functions that are
currently supported include the following features:
Hunt groups
A hunt group is a set of associated node ports (N_ports) that is attached to a single node.
This set is assigned an alias identifier that allows any frames that contain the alias to be
routed to any available N_port within the set. This process decreases the latency in
waiting for an N_port to become available.
Striping

Striping is used to multiply bandwidth by using multiple N_ports in parallel to transmit a

single information unit across multiple links.
Multicast

Multicast delivers a single transmission to multiple destination ports. This method includes
the ability to broadcast to all nodes or a subset of nodes.
Upper-layer protocol mapping: FC-4
The highest layer, FC-4, provides the application-specific protocols. Fibre Channel is equally
adept at transporting both the network and channel information and allows both protocol
types to be transported concurrently over the same physical interface.
Through mapping rules, a specific FC-4 describes how upper-layer protocol (ULP) processes
of the same FC-4 type interoperate.
A channel example is FCP. This protocol is used to transfer SCSI data over Fibre Channel. A
networking example is sending IP packets between the nodes. FICON is another ULP in use
today for mainframe systems. FICON is a contraction of Fibre Connection and refers to
running ESCON traffic over Fibre Channel.

42

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

3.3 Optical cables

An optical fiber is a thin strand of silica glass and its geometry is quite like a human hair. In
reality, it is a narrow, long glass cylinder with special characteristics. When light enters one
end of the fiber, it travels (confined within the fiber) until it leaves the fiber at the other end.
Two critical factors stand out:
Little light is lost in its journey along the fiber.
Fiber can bend around corners and the light stays within it and is guided around the
corners.
An optical fiber consists of two parts: the core and the cladding. See Figure 3-7 on page 45.
The core is a narrow cylindrical strand of glass and the cladding is a tubular jacket that
surrounds it. The core has a (slightly) higher refractive index than the cladding. Therefore, the
boundary (interface) between the core and the cladding acts as a perfect mirror. Light
traveling along the core is confined by the mirror to stay within it, even when the fiber bends
around a corner.
When light is transmitted on a fiber, the most important consideration is the kind of light. The
electromagnetic radiation that we call light exists at many wavelengths. These wavelengths
go from invisible infrared through all of the colors of the visible spectrum to invisible ultraviolet.
Because of the attenuation characteristics of fiber, we are only interested in infrared light for
communication applications. This light is usually invisible because the wavelengths that are
used are typically longer than the visible limit of around 750 nanometers (nm).
If a short pulse of light from a source, such as a laser or an LED, is sent down a narrow fiber,
it is changed (degraded) by its passage. It emerges (depending on the distance) much
weaker, lengthened in time (smeared out), and distorted in other ways. The reasons for this
transformation are described in the following topics.

3.3.1 Attenuation
The pulse is weaker because all glass absorbs light. More accurately, impurities in the glass
can absorb light but the glass itself does not absorb light at the wavelengths of interest. In
addition, variations in the uniformity of the glass cause the scattering of the light. Both the rate
of light absorption and the amount of scattering depend on the wavelength of the light and the
characteristics of the particular glass. Most light loss in a modern fiber is caused by
scattering.

3.3.2 Maximum power

A practical limit exists to the amount of power that can be sent on a fiber. This limit is about
half a watt (in a standard single-mode fiber) because of several non-linear effects that are
caused by the intense electromagnetic field in the core when high power is present.

Polarization
Conventional communication optical fiber is cylindrically symmetric, but it contains
imperfections. Light traveling down such a fiber is changed in polarization. (In current optical
systems, this change does not matter, but in future systems, it might become a critical issue.)

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

43

Dispersion
Dispersion occurs when a pulse of light is spread out during transmission on the fiber. A short
pulse becomes longer and ultimately joins with the pulse behind, making the recovery of a
reliable bit stream impossible. (In most communications systems, bits of information are sent
as pulses of light: 1 = light, 0 = dark. But even in analog transmission systems where
information is sent as a continuous series of changes in the signal, dispersion causes
distortion.) Many kinds of dispersion exist, and each kind works differently. The three most
important kinds of dispersion are described.

Material dispersion (chromatic dispersion)

Both lasers and LEDs produce a range of optical wavelengths (a band of light) rather than a
single narrow wavelength. The fiber has different refractive index characteristics at different
wavelengths; therefore, each wavelength travels at a different speed in the fiber. Therefore,
certain wavelengths arrive before other wavelengths, and a signal pulse disperses (or smears
out).

Modal dispersion
When you use a multimode fiber, the light can take many paths or modes as it travels within
the fiber. The distance that is traveled by light in each mode differs from the distance that is
traveled in other modes. When a pulse is sent, parts of that pulse (rays or quanta) take many
different modes (usually all available modes). Therefore, certain components of the pulse
arrive before other components of the pulse. The difference between the arrival time of light
that takes the fastest mode, versus the arrival time of light that takes the slowest mode,
obviously becomes greater as the distance becomes greater.

Waveguide dispersion
Waveguide dispersion is a complex effect, and it is caused by the shape and index profile of
the fiber core. However, this effect can be controlled by careful design and, in fact, waveguide
dispersion can be used to counteract material dispersion.

Noise
One of the great benefits of fiber optical communications is that the fiber does not pick up
noise from outside the system. However, various kinds of noise can come from components
within the system. Mode partition noise can be a problem in single-mode fiber, and modal
noise is a phenomenon in multimode fiber.
It is not our intention to delve any deeper into optical than the information that is already
described.

3.3.3 Fiber in the storage area network

Fibre Channel can be run over optical or copper media, but fiber-optic cables offer a major
advantage in noise immunity. For this reason, fiber-optic cabling is preferred. However, copper
is also used. In the short term, a mixed environment likely needs to be tolerated and
supported. Although, a mixed environment is less likely to be needed as SANs mature.
In addition to the noise immunity, fiber-optic cabling provides distinct advantages over copper
transmission lines that make it an attractive medium for many applications. The following
advantages are at the forefront:

44

Greater distance capability than is generally possible with copper

Insensitivity to induced electromagnetic interference (EMI)
No emitted electromagnetic radiation, such as Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
No electrical connection between two ports

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

 Not susceptibility to crosstalk

Compact and lightweight cables and connectors
However, fiber-optic and optical links have drawbacks. The drawbacks include the following
considerations:
Optical links tend to be more expensive than copper links over short distances.
Optical connections do not lend themselves to backplane-printed circuit wiring.
Optical connections might be affected by dirt and other contamination.
Overall, optical fibers provide a high-performance transmission medium that was refined and
proven over many years.
Mixing fiber-optical and copper components in the same environment is supported, although
not all products provide that flexibility. Product flexibility needs to be considered when you
plan a SAN. Copper cables tend to be used for short distances, up to 30 meters (98 feet), and
they can be identified by their DB-9, 9-pin connector.
Normally, fiber-optic cabling is referred to by mode or the frequencies of lightwaves that are
carried by a particular cable type. Fiber cables come in two distinct types (Figure 3-7).

Single-Mode Fiber
Cladding (125 um)
Core ( 9 um)

Multi-Mode Fiber
Cladding (125 um)
Core (50 um or 62.5 um)

Figure 3-7 Cable types

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

45

The cable types are described:

Multi-mode fiber for shorter distances
Multi-mode cabling is used with shortwave laser light and has either a 50-micron or a
62.5-micron core with a cladding of 125 micron. The 50-micron or 562.5-micron diameter
is sufficiently large for injected light waves to be reflected off the core interior.
Multi-mode fiber (MMF) allows more than one mode of light. Common multi-mode core
sizes are 50 micron and 62.5 micron. MMF fiber is better suited for shorter-distance
applications. Where costly electronics are heavily concentrated, the primary cost of the
system is not the cable. In this case, MMF is more economical because it can be used with
inexpensive connectors and laser devices, therefore reducing the total system cost.
Single-mode fiber for longer distances
Single-mode fiber (SMF) allows only one pathway, or mode, of light to travel within the
fiber. The core size is typically 8.3 micron. SMFs are used in applications where low signal
loss and high data rates are required. An example of this type of application is on long
spans between two system devices or network devices, where repeater and amplifier
spacing needs to be maximized.
Fibre Channel architecture supports both short wave and long wave optical transmitter
technologies in the following ways:
Short wave laser
This technology uses a wavelength of 780 nanometers, and it is only compatible with
MMF.
Long wave laser
This technology uses a wavelength of 1300 nanometers. It is compatible with both SMF
and MMF.

46

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Table 3-1 lists the cable types and their speed and distance.
Table 3-1 Fibre Channel modes, speeds, and distances
Fiber mode

Speed (MBps)

Transmitter

Medium

Distance

Single-mode fiber

1600

1310 nm
longwave light

1600-SM-LC-L

0.5 m - 10 km

1490 nm
longwave light

1600-SM-LZ-I

0.5 m - 2 km

1310 nm
longwave light

800-SM-LC-L

2 m - 10 km

800-SM-LC-I

2 m - 1.4 km

1310 nm
longwave light

400-SM-LC-L

2 m - 10 km

400-SM-LC-M

2 m - 4 km

400-SM-LL-I

2 m - 2 km

1550 nm
longwave light

200-SM-LL-V

2 m - 50 km

1310 nm
longwave light

200-SM-LC-L

2 m - 10 km

200-SM-LL-I

2 m - 2 km

1550 nm
longwave light

100-SM-LL-V

2 m - 50 km

1310 nm
longwave light

100-SM-LL-L

2 m - 10 km

100-SM-LC-L

2 m - 10 km

100-SM-LL-I

2 m - 2 km

800

400

200

100

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

47

Fiber mode

Speed (MBps)

Transmitter

Medium

Distance

Multi-mode fibera

1600

850 nm
shortwave light

1600-M5F-SN-I

0.5 m - 125 m

1600-M5E-SN-I

0.5 - 100 m

1600-M5-SN-S

0.5 - 35 m

1600-M6-SN-S

0.5 - 15 m

800-M5F-SN-I

0.5 - 190 m

800-M5E-SN-I

0.5 - 150 m

800-M5-SN-S

0.5 - 50 m

800-M6-SN-S

0.5 - 21 m

400-M5F-SN-I

0.5 - 400 m

400-M5E-SN-I

0.5- 380 m

400-M5-SN-I

0.5 - 150 m

400-M6-SN-I

0.5- 70 m

200-M5E-SN-I

0.5 - 500 m

200-M5-SN-I

0.5 - 300 m

200-M6-SN-I

0.5 - 150 m

100-M5E-SN-I

0.5 - 860 m

100-M5-SN-I

0.5 - 500 m

100-M6-SN-I

0.5 - 300 m

100-M5-SL-I

2 - 500 m

100-M6-SL-I

2 - 175 m

800

400

200

100

a. See Table 3-2 for multi-mode fiber (MMF) details.

Table 3-2 shows the MMF designations, optical multi-mode (OM) numbering, fiber-optic cable
diameters, and FC media designation.
Table 3-2 Optical multimode designations

48

Multi-mode fiber

Fiber diameter (microns)

FC media designation

OM1

62.5 m

M6

OM2

50 m

M5

OM3

50 m

M5E

OM4

50 m

M5F

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

3.3.4 Dark fiber

To connect one optical device to another optical device, a form of fiber-optic link is required. If
the distance is short, a standard fiber cable suffices. Over a slightly longer distance, for
example from one building to the next building, you might need to lay a fiber link. You might
need to lay this fiber underground or through a conduit. This process is not as simple as
connecting two switches together in a single rack.
If the two units that need to be connected are in separate cities, the problem is much larger.
Larger, in this case, is typically associated with more expensive. Because most businesses
are not in the business of laying cable, they lease fiber-optic cables to meet their needs.
When a company leases equipment, the fiber-optic cable that they lease is known as dark
fiber.
Dark fiber generically refers to a long, dedicated fiber-optic link that can be used without the
need for any additional equipment. It can be used while the particular technology supports the
need.
Certain forward-thinking services companies laid fiber-optic links beside their pipes and
cables. For example, a water company might dig up a road to lay a main pipe. Other examples
include an electric company that might take a power cable across a mountain range by using
pylons. Or, a cable TV company might lay cable to all of the buildings in a city. While they
perform the work to support their core business, they might also lay fiber-optic links.
But these cables are merely cables. They are not used in any way by the company who owns
them. They remain dark until the user puts their own light down the fiber, therefore, the term
dark fiber.

3.4 Classes of service

Applications might require different levels of service and guarantees for delivery, connectivity,
and bandwidth. Certain applications need bandwidth that is dedicated to the application
during the data exchange. An example of this type of application is a tape backup. Other
applications might be bursty in nature and not require a dedicated connection, but they might
insist that an acknowledgment is sent for each successful transfer. The Fibre Channel
standards provide different classes of service to accommodate different application needs.
Table 3-3 provides brief details of the separate classes of service.
Table 3-3 Fibre Channel classes of service
Class

Description

Requires an
acknowledgment

Dedicated connection with full bandwidth

Yes

Connectionless switch-to-switch communication for

frame transfer and delivery

Yes

Connectionless switch-to-switch communication for

frame transfer and delivery

No

Dedicated connection with a fraction of bandwidth

between ports by using virtual circuits

Yes

Dedicated connection for multicast

Yes

Switch-to-switch communication

Yes

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

49

3.4.1 Class 1
In class 1 service, a dedicated connection source and destination are established through the
fabric during the transmission. Class 1 service provides acknowledged service. This class of
service ensures that the frames are received by the destination device in the same order in
which they are sent. This class reserves full bandwidth for the connection between the two
devices. It does not provide for a good utilization of the available bandwidth because it blocks
another possible contender for the same device. Because of this blocking and the necessary
dedicated connections, class 1 is rarely used.

3.4.2 Class 2
Class 2 is a connectionless, acknowledged service. Class 2 makes better use of available
bandwidth because it allows the fabric to multiplex several messages on a frame-by-frame
basis. While frames travel through the fabric, they can take separate routes, so class 2
service does not guarantee in-order delivery. Class 2 relies on upper-layer protocols to take
care of the frame sequence. The use of acknowledgments reduces available bandwidth,
which needs to be considered in large-scale busy networks.

3.4.3 Class 3
No dedicated connection is available in class 3, and the received frames are not
acknowledged. Class 3 is also called datagram connectionless service. It optimizes the use of
fabric resources, but it is now up to the upper-layer protocol to ensure that all frames are
received in the correct order. The upper-layer protocol also needs to request to the source
device the retransmission of missing frames. Class 3 is a commonly used class of service in
Fibre Channel networks.

3.4.4 Class 4
Class 4 is a connection-oriented service, which is similar to class 1. The major difference is
that class 4 allocates only a fraction of the available bandwidth of the path through the fabric
that connects two N_ports. Virtual circuits (VCs) are established between two N_ports with
guaranteed quality of service (QoS), including bandwidth and latency. Like class 1, class 4
guarantees the in-order delivery of frames and provides an acknowledgment of delivered
frames. However, now the fabric is responsible for multiplexing frames of different VCs. Class
4 service is intended for multimedia applications, such as video, and for applications that
allocate an established bandwidth by department within the enterprise. Class 4 is included in
the FC-PH-2 standard.

3.4.5 Class 5
Class 5 is called isochronous service, and is intended for applications that require immediate
delivery of the data as it arrives, with no buffering. Class 5 is not clearly defined yet, and it is
not included in the FC-PH documents.

50

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

3.4.6 Class 6
Class 6 is a variant of class 1, and it is known as a multicast class of service. It provides
dedicated connections for a reliable multicast. An N_port might request a class 6 connection
for one or more destinations. A multicast server in the fabric establishes the connections,
receives the acknowledgment from the destination ports, and sends the acknowledgment
back to the originator. When a connection is established, the connection is retained and
guaranteed by the fabric until the initiator ends the connection. Class 6 was designed for
applications, such as audio and video, that require multicast functionality. Class 6 is included
in the FC-PH-3 standard.

3.4.7 Class F
Class F service is defined in the Fibre Channel Switched Fabric (FC-SW) standard and the
FC-SW-2 standard for use by switches that communicate through inter-switch links (ISLs). It
is a connectionless service with notification of non-delivery between E_ports that are used for
the control, coordination, and configuration of the fabric. Class F is similar to class 2. The
major difference is that class 2 works with N_ports that send data frames. Class F is used by
E_ports for the control and management of the fabric.

3.5 Fibre Channel data movement

To move data bits with integrity over a physical medium, a mechanism must exist to check
that this movement happened and that integrity is not compromised. This review is provided
by a reference clock, which ensures that each bit is received as it was transmitted. In parallel
topologies, you can perform this review by using a separate clock or strobe line. While data
bits are transmitted in parallel from the source, the strobe line alternates between high or low
to signal to the receiving end that a full byte was sent. If 16-bit and 32-bit wide parallel cables
are used, the strobe line indicates that multiple bytes were sent.
The reflective differences in fiber-optic cabling mean that intermodal, or modal, dispersion
(signal degradation) might occur.
This dispersion might result in frames that arrive at different times. This bit error rate (BER) is
referred to as the jitter budget. No products are entirely jitter-free. This jitter budget is an
important consideration when you select the components of a SAN.
Because serial data transports have only two leads, transmit and receive, clocking is not
possible by using a separate line. Serial data must carry the reference timing, which means
that clocking is embedded in the bit stream.
Embedded clocking, though, can be accomplished by different means. Fibre Channel uses a
byte-encoding scheme (covered in more detail in 3.5.1, Byte-encoding schemes on
page 52) and clock and data recovery (CDR) logic to recover the clock. From this recovery, it
determines the data bits that make up bytes and words.
Gigabit speeds mean that maintaining valid signaling, and ultimately valid data recovery, is
essential for data integrity. Fibre Channel standards allow for a single bit error to occur only
once in a million bits (1 in 1012 ). In the real IT world, this rate equates to a maximum of one
bit error every 16 minutes. However, actual occurrence is significantly less frequent.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

51

3.5.1 Byte-encoding schemes

To transfer data over a high-speed serial interface, the data is encoded before transmission
and decoded on reception. The encoding process ensures that sufficient clock information is
present in the serial data stream. This information allows the receiver to synchronize to the
embedded clock information and successfully recover the data at the required error rate. This
8b/10b encoding finds errors that a parity check cannot. A parity check does not find the
even-numbered bit errors, only the odd numbers. The 8b/10b encoding logic finds almost all
errors.
First developed by IBM, the 8b/10b encoding process converts each 8-bit byte into two
possible 10-bit characters.
This scheme is called 8b/10b encoding because it refers to the number of data bits that are
input to the encoder and the number of bits that are output from the encoder.
The format of the 8b/10b character is of the format Ann.m:
A represents D for data or K for a special character.
nn is the decimal value of the lower 5 bits (EDCBA).
The (.) is a period.
m is the decimal value of the upper 3 bits (HGF).

Figure 3-8 shows an encoding example.

8-bit characters - hexadecimal 59

25

Notation D

5b/6b Encoder

3b/4b Encoder

A = first bit sent, j = last bit sent

Running disparity negative

Running disparity positive

10-bit characters

Figure 3-8 8b/10b encoding logic

The following steps occur in the encoding example that is shown in Figure 3-8:
1.
2.
3.
4.

52

Hexadecimal representation x59 is converted to binary: 01011001.

The upper 3 bits are separated from the lower 5 bits: 010 11001.
The order is reversed, and each group is converted to decimal: 25 2.
The letter notation D (for data) is assigned and becomes D25.2.

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Running disparity
The conversion of the 8-bit data bytes results in two 10-bit results. The encoder must choose
one of these results to use. This decision is achieved by monitoring the running disparity of
the previously processed character. For example, if the previous character showed a positive
disparity, the next character that is issued might have an encoded value that represents
negative disparity.
In the example that is used in Figure 3-8 on page 52, the encoded value, when the running
disparity is either positive or negative, is the same. This outcome is legitimate. In certain
cases, the encoded value differs, and in other cases, the encoded value is the same.
In Figure 3-8 on page 52, the encoded 10-bit byte has 5 bits that are set and 5 bits that are
unset. The only possible results of the 8b/10b encoding are shown:
If 5 bits are set, the byte is said to have neutral disparity.
If 4 bits are set and 6 bits are unset, the byte is said to have negative disparity.
If 6 bits are set and 4 bits are unset, the byte is said to have positive disparity.
The rules of Fibre Channel define that a byte that is sent cannot take the positive or negative
disparity above one unit. Therefore, if the current running disparity is negative, the next byte
that is sent must have one of these properties:
Neutral disparity:
Keeping the current running disparity negative.
The subsequent byte needs to have either neutral or positive disparity.
Positive disparity:
Making the new current running disparity neutral.
The subsequent byte has either positive, negative, or neutral disparity.
Number of bits: At any time or at the end of any byte, the number of set bits and unset bits
that passes over a Fibre Channel link differ only by a maximum of two.

K28.5
In addition to the fact that many 8-bit numbers encode to two 10-bit numbers under the
8b/10b encoding scheme, other key features exist.
Certain 10-bit numbers cannot be generated from any 8-bit number. Therefore, it is not
possible to see these particular 10-bit numbers as part of a flow of data. This outcome is
useful because these particular 10-bit numbers can be used by the protocol for signaling or
control.
These characters are referred to as comma characters. Instead of the prefix D, they use the
prefix K.
The only one character that gets used in Fibre Channel is the one that is known as K28.5,
and it has a special property.
Table 3-4 shows the two 10-bit encodings of K28.5.
Table 3-4 10-bit encoding of K28.5
Name of character

K28.5

Encoding for current running disparity of either negative or

positive
Negative

Positive

001111 1010

110000 0101

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

53

All of the 10-bit bytes that are possible by using the 8b/10b encoding scheme have either 4, 5,
or 6 bits that are set. The K28.5 character is special because it is the only character that is
used in Fibre Channel that has 5 consecutive bits that are set or unset. All other characters
have four or fewer consecutive bits of the same setting.
When you determine the significance of the bit settings, consider two things:
The 1s and 0s actually represent light and dark on the fiber (assuming fiber optic medium).
A 010 pattern effectively is a light pulse between two periods of darkness. A 0110
represents the same, except that the pulse of light lasts for twice the length of time.
Because the two devices have their own clocking circuitry, the number of consecutive set
bits, or consecutive unset bits, becomes important. For example, device 1 is sending to
device 2, and the clock on device 2 is running 10% faster than the clock on device 1. If
device 1 sent 20 clock cycles worth of set bits, device 2 counts 22 set bits. (This example
is provided merely to illustrate the point.) The worst possible case that you can have in
Fibre Channel is 5 consecutive bits of the same setting within 1 byte: the K28.5.
Because K28.5 is the only character with five consecutive bits of the same setting, Fibre
Channel hardware can look out for it specifically. Because K28.5 is used for control, this
setting is useful. This setting allows the hardware to be designed for maximum efficiency.

64b/66b encoding
Communications of 10 Gbps and 16 Gbps use 64/66b encoding. Sixty-four bits of data are
transmitted as a 66-bit entity. The 66-bit entity is made by prefixing one of two possible 2-bit
preambles to the 64 bits to be transmitted. If the preamble is 01, the 64 bits are entirely data.
If the preamble is 10, an 8-bit type field follows, plus 56 bits of control information and data.
The preambles 00 and 11 are not used, and they generate an error, if seen.
The use of the 01 and 10 preambles guarantees a bit transmission every 66 bits, which
means that a continuous stream of 0s or 1s cannot be valid data. It also allows easier clock
and timer synchronization because a transmission must be seen every 66 bits.
The overhead of the 64B/66B encoding is considerably lower than the more common 8b/10b
encoding scheme.

3.6 Data transport

For Fibre Channel devices to be able to communicate with each other, strict definitions must
exist about the way that data is sent and received. Because of this need, certain data
structures are defined. It is fundamental to understanding Fibre Channel that you have at
least minimal knowledge of the way that data is moved around. You also need a basic
understanding of the mechanisms that are used to accomplish this data movement.

3.6.1 Ordered set

Fibre Channel uses a command syntax, which is known as an ordered set, to move the data
across the network. The ordered sets are 4-byte transmission words that contain data and
special characters that have a special meaning. Ordered sets provide the availability to obtain
bit and word synchronization, which also establishes word boundary alignment. An ordered
set always begins with the special character K28.5. Three major types of ordered sets are
defined by the signaling protocol.

54

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

The frame delimiters, the start-of-frame (SOF), and end-of-frame (EOF) ordered sets
establish the boundaries of a frame. They immediately precede or follow the contents of a
frame. Eleven types of SOF and eight types of EOF delimiters are defined for the fabric and
N_port sequence control.
The two primitive signals, idle and receiver ready (R_RDY), are ordered sets that are
designated by the standard to have a special meaning. An idle is a primitive signal that is
transmitted on the link to indicate that an operational port facility is ready for frame
transmission and reception. The R_RDY primitive signal indicates that the interface buffer is
available for receiving further frames.
A primitive sequence is an ordered set that is transmitted and repeated continuously to
indicate specific conditions within a port. Or, the set might indicate conditions that are
encountered by the receiver logic of a port. When a primitive sequence is received and
recognized, a corresponding primitive sequence or idle is transmitted in response.
Recognition of a primitive sequence requires the consecutive detection of three instances of
the same ordered set. The primitive sequences that are supported by the standard include
the following settings:
Offline state (OLS)
The offline primitive sequence is transmitted by a port to indicate one of the following
conditions:
The port is beginning the link initialization protocol.
The port received and recognized the NOS protocol.
The port is entering the offline status.
Not operational (NOS)
The not operational primitive sequence is transmitted by a port in a point-to-point or fabric
environment to indicate that the transmitting port detected a link failure. Or, the NOS might
indicate an offline condition that is waiting for the OLS sequence to be received.
Link reset (LR)
The link reset primitive sequence is used to initiate a link reset.
Link reset response (LRR)
Link reset response is transmitted by a port to indicate that it recognizes a link reset
sequence and performed the correct link reset.

Data transfer
To send data over Fibre Channel, though, we need more than merely the control
mechanisms. Data is sent in frames. One or more related frames make up a sequence. One
or more related sequences make up an exchange.

3.6.2 Frames
Fibre Channel places a restriction on the length of the data field of a frame at 528
transmission words, which is 2112 bytes. See Table 3-5 on page 56. Larger amounts of data
must be transmitted in several frames. This larger unit that consists of multiple frames is
called a sequence. An entire transaction between two ports is made up of sequences that are
administered by an even larger unit that is called an exchange.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

55

Frame arrival: Certain classes of Fibre Channel communication guarantee that the frames
arrive at the destination in the same order in which they were transmitted. Other classes do
not. If the frames arrive in the same order in which they were sent, the delivery is
considered an in order delivery of frames.
A frame consists of the following elements:

SOF delimiter
Frame header
Optional headers and payload (data field)
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) field
EOF delimiter

Figure 3-9 shows the layout of a Fibre Channel frame.

32 bit
24 bit
24 bit
start of dest port src port
frame address address
Word 0 Word 1 Word 2

SOF

Control
information
Words 3-6

24 byte FC header

Frame payload
(0 - 2112 bytes)

SCSI data

CRC

CRC

End of
frame
delimiter

EOF

Figure 3-9 Fibre Channel frame structure

Framing rules
The following rules apply to the framing protocol:
A frame is the smallest unit of information transfer.
A sequence has at least one frame.
An exchange has at least one sequence.

Transmission word
A transmission word is the smallest transmission unit that is defined in Fibre Channel. This
unit consists of four transmission characters, 4 x 10 or 40 bits. When information that is
transferred is not an even multiple of 4 bytes, the framing protocol adds fill bytes. The fill bytes
are stripped at the destination.
Frames are the building blocks of Fibre Channel. A frame is a string of transmission words
that are prefixed by a SOF delimiter and followed by an EOF delimiter. Table 3-5 shows the
way that transmission words make up a frame.
Table 3-5 Transmission words in a frame
SOF

Frame header

Data payload transmission words

CRC

EOF

1 TW

6 TW

0-528 TW

1 TW

1 TW

Frame header
Each frame includes a header that identifies the source and destination of the frame. The
frame also includes control information that manages the frame, sequences, and exchanges
that are associated with that frame.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Table 3-6 shows the structure of the frame header.

Table 3-6 The frame header
Byte 0

Byte 1

Byte 2

Word 0

R_CTL

Destination_ID (D_ID)

Word 1

Reserved

Source_ID (S_ID)

Word 2

Type

Frame Control (F_CTL)

Word 3

SEQ_ID

DF_CTL

Word 4

Originator X_ID (OX_ID)

Word 5

Parameter

Byte 3

Sequence Count (SEQ_CNT)

Responder X_ID (RX_ID)

The abbreviations in Table 3-6 are explained:

Routing control (R_CTL): This field identifies the type of information that is contained in
the payload and where in the destination node it might be routed.
Destination ID: This field contains the address of the frame destination. This field is
referred to as the D_ID.
Source ID: This field contains the address where the frame comes from. This field is
referred to as the S_ID.
Type: The type field identifies the protocol of the frame content for data frames, such as
SCSI, or a reason code for control frames.
F_CTL: This field contains control information that relates to the frame content.
SEQ_ID: The sequence ID is assigned by the sequence initiator. The sequence ID is
unique for a specific D_ID and S_ID pair while the sequence is open.
DF_CTL: The data field control specifies whether optional headers are present at the
beginning of the data field.
SEQ_CNT: This count identifies the position of a frame within a sequence. This field is
incremented by one for each subsequent frame that is transferred in the sequence.
OX_ID: This field identifies the exchange ID that is assigned by the originator.
RX_ID: This field identifies the exchange ID that is assigned to the responder.
Parameter: The parameter field specifies the relative offset for data frames, or information
that is specific to link control frames.

3.6.3 Sequences
The information in a sequence moves in one direction from a source N_port to a destination
N_port. Various fields in the frame header are used to identify the beginning, middle, and end
of a sequence. Other fields in the frame header are used to identify the order of frames in
case they arrive out of order at the destination.

3.6.4 Exchanges
Two other fields of the frame header identify the exchange ID. An exchange is responsible for
managing a single operation that might span several sequences, possibly in opposite
directions. The source and destination can have multiple exchanges active at a time.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

57

Using SCSI as an example, a SCSI task is an exchange. The SCSI task is made up of one or
more information units. The following information units (IUs) are relevant for this SCSI task:

Command IU
Transfer ready IU
Data IU
Response IU

Each IU is one sequence of the exchange. Only one participant sends a sequence at a time.
Figure 3-10 shows the flow of the exchange, sequence, and frames.

Figure 3-10 Fibre Channel (FC) exchange, sequence, and frame flow

3.6.5 In order and out of order

When data is transmitted over Fibre Channel, the data is sent in frames. These frames carry
a maximum of only 2112 bytes of data, which is often not enough to hold the entire set of
information to be communicated. In this case, more than one frame is needed. Certain
classes of Fibre Channel communication guarantee that the frames arrive at the destination in
the same order in which they were transmitted. Other classes do not. If the frames arrive in
the same order that they were sent, this delivery is considered an in-order delivery of frames.
In certain cases, it is critical that the frames arrive in the correct order, and in other cases, it is
not as important. In the latter case, which is considered out of order, the receiving port can
reassemble the frames in the correct order before the port passes the data out to the
application. It is, however, common for switches and directors to guarantee in-order delivery,
even if the particular class of communication allows for the frames to be delivered out of
sequence.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

3.6.6 Latency
The term latency means the delay between an action that is requested and the action
occurring.
Latency occurs almost everywhere because it takes time and energy to perform an action.
The following areas highlight where you need to be aware of the latency in a SAN:

Ports
Switches and directors
Inter-Chassis Links in a DCX director
Long-distance links
Inter-Switch Links
Application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs)

3.6.7 Open fiber control

When you work with lasers, potential dangers exist to the eyes. Generally, the lasers in use in
Fibre Channel are low-powered devices that are designed for quality of light and signaling
rather than for maximum power. However, they can still be dangerous.
ATTENTION: Never look into a laser light source. And never look into the end of a fiber
optic cable unless you know exactly where the other end is. You also need to know that no
one can connect a light source to it.
To add a degree of safety, the concept of open fiber control (OFC) was developed. The
following actions describe this concept:
A device is turned on, and it sends out low-powered light.
If the device does not receive light back, it assumes that no fiber is connected. This feature
is a fail-safe option.
When the device receives light, the device assumes that a fiber is connected and then
switches the laser to full power.
If one of the devices stops receiving light, the device reverts to the low-power mode.
When a device transmits at low power, it is not able to send data. The device is merely waiting
for a completed optical loop.
OFC ensures that the laser does not emit light that will exceed the class 1 laser limit when no
fiber is connected. Non-OFC devices are guaranteed to be below class 1 limits at all times.
The key factor is that the devices at each end of a fiber link must either both be OFC or both
be non-OFC.
All modern equipment uses non-OFC optics, but it is possible that certain existing equipment
might use OFC optics.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

59

3.7 Flow control

Now that you know that data is sent in frames, you also must understand that devices need to
temporarily store the frames as they arrive. The data frames must be stored until they are
assembled in sequence and then delivered to the upper-layer protocol. Because of the
potential high bandwidth of the Fibre Channel, it is possible to inundate and overwhelm a
target device with frames. A mechanism must exist to prevent this situation. The ability of a
device to accept a frame is called its credit. This credit is typically referred to as the number of
buffers (its buffer credit) that a node maintains for accepting incoming data.

3.7.1 Buffer to buffer

Buffer-to-buffer credits are the maximum number of frame transfers that a port can support.
During login, node ports (N_ports) and fabric ports (F_ports) at both ends of a link establish
its buffer-to-buffer credit (BB_Credit). Each port states the maximum BB_Credit that it can
offer and the lower of the two BB_Credits is used.

3.7.2 End to end

At login, all N_ports establish an end-to-end credit (EE_Credit) with each other. During data
transmission, a port must not send more frames than the buffer of the receiving port can
handle. The sending port must first get an indication from the receiving port that it processed
a previously sent frame.

3.7.3 Controlling the flow

Two counters are used to accomplish successful flow control: The BB_Credit_CNT and
EE_Credit_CNT, and both counters are initialized to 0 during login. Each time that a port
sends a frame, the port increments the BB_Credit_CNT and EE_Credit_CNT by one. When
the port receives a receiver ready (R_RDY) indication from the adjacent port, it decrements
the BB_Credit_CNT by one, and when it receives an acknowledgment (ACK) from the
destination port, it decrements the EE_Credit_CNT by one. At certain times, the
BB_Credit_CNT might be equal to the BB_Credit, or the EE_Credit_CNT might become
equal to the EE_Credit of the receiving port. If this situation happens, the transmitting port
must stop sending frames until the related count is decremented.
The previous statements are true for class 2 service. Class 1 is a dedicated connection, so it
does not need to care about the BB_Credit; only the EE_Credit is used (EE Flow Control).
Class 3, however, is an unacknowledged service, so it uses only the BB_Credit (BB Flow
Control), but the mechanism is the same in all cases.

3.7.4 Performance
You can see the importance of the number of buffers in overall performance. You need
enough buffers to ensure that the transmitting port can continue sending frames without
stopping to be able to use the full bandwidth. Using sufficient buffers is important with
distance. At 1 Gbps, a frame occupies about 75 m (246 ft) - 4 km (2.48 miles) of fiber, which
depends on the size of the data payload. In a 100 km (62 miles) link, many frames can be
sent before the first frame reaches its destination. You need an ACK back to start replenishing
the EE_Credit or an R_RDY indication to replenish the BB_Credit.

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For a moment, consider frames with 2 KB of data. These frames occupy approximately 4 km
(2.48 miles) of fiber. You are able to send about 25 frames before the first frame arrives at the
far end of the 100 km (62 miles) link. You are able to send another 25 frames before the first
R_RDY or ACK indication is received. Therefore, you need at least 50 buffers to allow for
non-stop transmission at a 100 km (62 miles) distance with frames of this size. If the frame
size is reduced, more buffers are required to allow non-stop transmission. In brief, the buffer
credit management is critical in long-distance communication. Therefore, the correct buffer
credit allocation is important to obtain optimal performance. Incorrect allocation of the buffer
credit might result in a delay of transmission over the Fibre Channel link. As a preferred
practice, always refer to the default buffer and maximum buffer credit values for each model of
switch from each vendor.

Chapter 3. Fibre Channel internals

61

62

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Chapter 4.

Ethernet and system networking

concepts
In this chapter, we introduce you to Ethernet and system networking concepts. We also
describe the storage area network (SAN) Internet Protocol (IP) networking options and how
we arrive at converged networks.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

63

4.1 Ethernet
In Chapter 1, Introduction on page 1, we briefly introduced the network and the importance
of the models. The Ethernet standard fits into layer 2 of the open systems interconnection
(OSI) model. The standard refers to the media access layer that devices are connected to
(the cable) and compete for access by using the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol.

Ethernet is a standard communications protocol that is embedded in software and hardware

devices, intended for building a local area network (LAN). Ethernet was designed by Bob
Metcalfe in 1973, and through the efforts of Digital, Intel, and Xerox (for whom Metcalfe
worked), DIX Ethernet became the standard model for LANs worldwide.
The formal designation for standardization of the Ethernet protocol is sometimes referred to
as IEEE 802.3. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) proposed a
working group in February 1980 to standardize network protocols. The third subcommittee
worked on a version that is nearly identical to Ethernet, although insignificant variances exist.
Therefore, the generic use of the term Ethernet might refer to IEEE 802.3 or DIX Ethernet.
Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers that communicate over a shared
coaxial cable that acts as a broadcast transmission medium. The methods that were used
were similar to those methods that were used in radio systems. The common cable that
provided the communication channel was likened to the luminiferous aether (light-bearing
aether) in 19th century physics. From this reference, the name Ethernet was derived.

4.1.1 Shared media

Because all communications happen on the same wire, any information that is sent by one
computer is received by all computers, even if that information is intended for just one
destination. The network interface card (NIC) interrupts the CPU only when applicable
packets are received. The card ignores information that is not addressed to it. Use of a single
cable also means that the bandwidth is shared, so that network traffic can be extremely slow
when many stations are simultaneously active.
Collisions reduce throughput by their nature. In the worst case, when numerous hosts with
long cables exist that attempt to transmit many short frames, excessive collisions can reduce
throughput dramatically.
Ethernet networks are composed of broadcast domains and no clock signal is on the wire
(which serial connections often have). Instead, Ethernet systems must determine whether the
wire is in use, and if not, the system must send enough data to enable the remote station to
allow it to synchronize correctly. This synchronization mechanism, which is combined with the
ability to detect other computers that are attempting to access the wire, is a formalized
protocol that is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

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4.1.2 Ethernet frame

Figure 4-1 shows an Ethernet frame.

Figure 4-1 Ethernet frame

The Ethernet frame that is shown in Figure 4-1 contains the following components:
Preamble: A preamble is a stream of bits that are used to allow the transmitter and
receiver to synchronize their communication. The preamble is an alternating pattern of 56
binary ones and zeros. The preamble is immediately followed by the Start Frame
Delimiter.
Start Frame Delimiter: The Start Frame Delimiter is always 10101011. It is used to
indicate the beginning of the frame information.
Destination Media Access Control: The destination Media Access Control (MAC) is the
address of the system that is receiving data. When a NIC is listening to the wire, the NIC is
checking this field for its own MAC address.
Source Media Access Control: The source Media Access Control (MAC) is the MAC
address of the system that is transmitting data.
Length: This field is the length of the entire Ethernet frame, in bytes. Although this field can
hold any value 0 - 65,534, it is rarely larger than 1500. This smaller value is typically the
maximum transmission frame size for most serial connections. Ethernet networks tend to
use serial devices to access the Internet.
Data/pad, which is also known as payload: The data is inserted in the data/pad or
payload. This location is where the IP header and data are placed if you are running IP
over Ethernet. This field contains Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) information if you
are running IPX/Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) protocol (Novell). The following
specific fields are contained within the data/pad section of an IEEE 803.2 frame:

Destination service access point (DSAP)

Source service access point (SSAP)
Control bits for Ethernet communication (CTRL)
Network layer interface (NLI)
Frame check sequence (FCS)

Frame check sequence: This field contains the frame check sequence (FCS), which is
calculated by using a cyclic redundancy check (CRC). The FCS allows Ethernet to detect
errors in the Ethernet frame and reject the frame if the frame appears damaged.

4.1.3 How Ethernet works

When a device that is connected to an Ethernet network wants to send data, it first checks to
ensure that it has a carrier on which to send its data (typically a piece of copper cable that is
connected to a hub or another machine). This step is known as Carrier Sense.

Chapter 4. Ethernet and system networking concepts

65

All machines in the network are free to use the network whenever they choose if no one else
is transmitting. This setup is known as Multiple Access.
You are required to have a means of ensuring that when two machines start to transmit data
simultaneously, the resultant corrupted data is discarded. Also, retransmissions must be
generated at differing time intervals. This assurance is known as Collision Detection.
Figure 4-2 shows a bus Ethernet network.

Figure 4-2 Bus Ethernet network

In Figure 4-2, assume that machine 2 wants to send a message to machine 4, but first it
listens to make sure that no one else is using the network.
If the path is all clear, machine 2 starts to transmit its data on to the network. Each packet of
data contains the destination address, the sender address, and the data to be transmitted.
The signal moves down the cable, and the signal is received by every machine in the network.
But, because the signal it is only addressed to machine 4, the other machines ignore the
signal. Machine 4 then sends a message back to machine 2 to acknowledge the receipt of the
data.
But what happens when two machines try to transmit at the same time? A collision occurs,
and each machine has to back off for a random period before it tries to transmit again.
Figure 4-3 shows what happens when two machines transmit simultaneously.

Figure 4-3 Machine 2 and machine 5 are both trying to transmit simultaneously

The resulting collision in Figure 4-3 destroys both signals. Each machine knows that this
result happened because they do not hear their own transmission within a certain period.
This time period is the propagation delay. The propagation delay is equivalent to the time that
it takes for a signal to travel to the furthest part of the network and back again.
Both of the machines then wait for a random period before they try to transmit again. On small
networks, this process all happens so quickly that it is virtually unnoticeable. However, as
more machines are added to a network, the number of collisions rises dramatically and
eventually results in slow network response. The exact number of machines that a single
Ethernet segment can handle depends on the applications that are used, but the general
consideration is that 40 - 70 users are the limit before network speed is compromised.

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Figure 4-4 shows two scenarios: hub and switch. The hub is where all of the machines are
interconnected so that only one machine at a time can use the media. In the switch network,
more than one machine can use the media at a time.

Figure 4-4 Hub and switch scenarios

An Ethernet hub changes the topology from a bus to a star-wired bus. As an example,
assume again that machine 1 is transmitting data to machine 4. But this time, the signal
travels in and out of the hub to each of the other machines.
Collisions can still occur but hubs have the advantage of centralized wiring, and they can
automatically bypass any ports that are disconnected or have a cabling fault. This centralized
wiring makes the network much more fault tolerant than a coax-based system where
disconnecting a single connection shuts down the whole network.
With a switch, machines can transmit simultaneously. Each switch reads the destination
addresses and switches the signals directly to the recipients without broadcasting to all of the
machines in the network.
This point-to-point switching alleviates the problems that are associated with collisions and
considerably improves the network speed.

4.1.4 Speed and bandwidth

By convention, network data rates are denoted either in bits (bits per second or bps) or bytes
(bytes per second or Bps). In general, parallel interfaces are quoted in bytes and serial in bits.
The following numbers are simplex data rates, which might conflict with the duplex rates that
vendors sometimes use in promotional materials. Where two values are listed, the first value
is the downstream rate and the second value is the upstream rate.
All quoted figures are in metric decimal units:
1 Byte = 8 bits
1 Kbps = 1,000 bits per second
1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bits per second

Chapter 4. Ethernet and system networking concepts

67

1 Gbps = 1,000,000,000 bits per second

1 KBps = 1,000 bytes per second
1 MBps = 1,000,000 bytes per second
1 GBps = 1,000,000,000 bytes per second
1 TBps = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes per second

These figures go against the traditional use of binary prefixes for memory size. These decimal
prefixes are established in data communications.
Table 4-1 lists the technology rates and the medium.
Table 4-1 Technology rates and medium
Technology

Rate (Bit per second)

Rate (Byte per second)

Media

Fast Ethernet
(100BASE-X)

100 Mbps

12.5 MBps

UTP Cat 5

Gigabit Ethernet
(1000BASE-X)

1000 Mbps

125 MBps

UTP Cat 5e/6

10 Gigabit Ethernet
(10GBASE-X)

10000 Mbps

1250 MBps

UTP Cat 7 - fiber

4.1.5 10 GbE
From its origin more than 25 years ago, Ethernet evolved to meet the increasing demands of
packet-based networks. Ethernet provides the benefits of proven low implementation cost,
reliability, and relative simplicity of installation and maintenance. Because of these benefits,
the popularity of Ethernet grew to the point that nearly all of the traffic on the Internet
originates or terminates with an Ethernet connection. Furthermore, as the demand for
ever-faster network speeds increased, Ethernet adapted to handle these higher speeds and
the surges in volume demand that accompany them.
The IEEE 802.3ae 2002 (the 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 GbE) standard) differs in certain
respects from earlier Ethernet standards in that it operates only in full-duplex mode.
(Collision-detection protocols are unnecessary.)
Ethernet can now progress to 10 gigabits per second while it retains its critical Ethernet
properties, such as the packet format. The current capabilities are easily transferable to the
new standard.
The 10 Gigabit Ethernet technology continues the evolution of Ethernet in terms of speed and
distance, while it retains the same Ethernet architecture that is used in other Ethernet
specifications. However, one key exception exists. Because 10 Gigabit Ethernet is a
full-duplex-only technology, it does not need the CSMA/CD protocol that is used in other
Ethernet technologies. In every other respect, 10 Gigabit Ethernet matches the original
Ethernet model.

4.1.6 10 GbE copper versus fiber

After the decision is made to implement 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 GbE) functionality,
organizations must consider the data carrying techniques that facilitate such bandwidth.
Copper and fiber cabling are the preeminent technologies for data transmission and they
provide their own unique benefits and drawbacks.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Copper is the default standard for transmitting data between devices because of its low cost,
easy installation, and flexibility. It also possesses distinct shortcomings. Copper is best when
used in short lengths, typically 100 meters (328 feet) or less. When copper is employed over
long distances, electromagnetic signal characteristics hinder performance. In addition,
bundling copper cabling can cause interference, which makes it difficult to employ copper
cabling as a comprehensive backbone. For these reasons, copper cabling is the principal
data carrying technique for communication among personal computers and LANs, but not
campus or long-distance transmission.
Conversely, fiber cabling is typically used for remote campus connectivity, crowded
telecommunications closets, long-distance communications, and environments that need
protection from interference. An example of this environment is a manufacturing area.
Because fiber cabling is reliable and less susceptible to attenuation, fiber cabling is optimum
for sending data beyond 100 meters (328 ft).
However, fiber costs more than copper. Therefore, the use of fiber cabling is typically limited
to those applications that demand it.
As a result, most organizations use a combination of copper and fiber cabling. As these
companies transition to 10 GbE functionality, they must have a solid understanding of the
various cabling technologies. Companies must also have a sound migration strategy to
ensure that their cabling infrastructure will support their network infrastructure both today and
in the future.
The IEEE 802.3 Higher Speed Study Group formed in 1998, and the development of 10GigE
began the following year. By 2002, the 10GigE standard was first published as IEEE Std
802.3ae-2002. This standard defines a normal data rate of 10 Gigabits, making it 10 times
faster than the Gigabit Ethernet.
Subsequent standard updates ensued in relation to the first 10GigE version that was
published in 2002. The IEEE 802.3ae-2002 fiber and the 802.3ak-2004 in 2004 were later
consolidated into IEEE 802.3-2005 in 2005. In 2006, 802.3an-2006, which is a
10 Gigabit Base-T copper twisted pair, and an enhanced version with fiber-LRM PMD
followed, which were known as 802.3aq-2006. Finally, in 2007, the 802.3ap-2007 with copper
backplane evolved.
As a result of these standards, two major types of 10 Gigabit Ethernet cabling, fiber and
copper, are available.
The following standards apply to the 10 Gigabit Ethernet fiber cabling:
10GBASE-LX4: This standard supports ranges of 240 meters - 300 meters (790 ft - 980 ft)
over traditional multi-mode cabling. This range is achieved by using four separate laser
sources that operate at 3.125 Gbps in the range of 1300 nm on unique wavelengths. The
10GBASE-LX4 standard also supports 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) over
System Management Facilities (SMF).
10GBASE-SR: Over obsolete 62.5 micron multi-mode fiber cabling (OM1), this standard
has a maximum range of 26 meters - 82 meters (85 ft - 269 ft), depending on the cable
type. Over standard 50 m 2000 MHzkm OM3 multi-mode fiber (MMF), this standard has
a maximum range of 300 meters (980 ft).
10GBASE-LR: This standard has a specified reach of 10 kilometers (6.2 miles), but
10GBASE-LR optical modules can often manage distances of up to 25 kilometers
(16 miles) with no data loss.

Chapter 4. Ethernet and system networking concepts

69

 10GBASE-LRM: This standard supports distances up to 220 meters (720 ft) on

FDDI-grade 62.5 m MMF. This fiber was originally installed in the early 1990s for Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), 100BaseFX networks, and for 260 meters (850 ft) on
OM3. The reach of 10GBASE-LRM is not as far as the older 10GBASE-LX4 standard.
10GBASE-ER: This extended range has a reach of 40 kilometers (25 miles).
10GBASE-ZR: Several manufacturers introduced 80 km (49.7 miles) range ER pluggable
interfaces under the name 10GBASE-ZR. This 80 km (49.7 miles) PHY is not specified
within the IEEE 802.3ae standard. Manufacturers created their own specifications that are
based on the 80 km (49.7 miles) PHY that is described in the OC-192/STM-64
SDH/SONET specifications.
A 10G Ethernet connection can also run over Twinax cabling and twisted-pair cabling. The
following standards apply to the 10 Gigabit Ethernet copper cabling:
10GBASE-CX4: This standard was the first 10G copper standard that was published by
802.3 (as 802.3ak-2004). It is specified to work up to a distance of 15 m (49 ft). Each lane
carries 3.125 gigabaud (Gbaud) of signaling bandwidth.
10GBASE-T or IEEE 802.3an-2006: This standard was released in 2006 to provide
10 Gbps connections over unshielded or shielded twisted-pair cables, over distances up to
100 meters (328 ft).
Cables that are needed to carry 10GBASE-T: Category 6A, or better, of balanced
twisted-pair cables that are specified in ISO 11801 amendment 2 or ANSI/TIA-568-C.2 are
needed to carry 10GBASE-T up to distances of 100 m (328 ft). Category 6 cables can
carry 10GBASE-T for shorter distances when it is qualified, according to the guidelines in
ISO TR 24750 or TIA-155-A.
The following standards refer to the 10 Gigabit Ethernet copper backplane cabling:
10GBASE-X
10GBASE-KX4
10GBASE-KR

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4.1.7 Virtual local area network

A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a networking concept in which a network is logically
divided into smaller virtual LANs. The Layer 2 traffic in one VLAN is logically isolated from
other VLANs (Figure 4-5).

Figure 4-5 Isolation at Layer 2

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71

Figure 4-6 shows two methods for maintaining isolation of VLAN traffic between switches.

Figure 4-6 VLAN tagging

The first method uses a single link for each VLAN. This method does not scale well because
it uses many ports in networks that have multiple VLANs and multiple switches. Also, this
method does not use link capacity efficiently when traffic in the VLANs is not uniform.
The second method is VLAN tagging over a single link in which each frame in tagged with its
VLAN ID. This method is highly scalable because only a single link is required to provide
connectivity to many VLANs. This configuration provides for better utilization of the link
capacity when VLAN traffic is not uniform.
The protocol for VLAN tagging of frames in a LAN environment is defined by the

IEEE 802.1p/q standard (priority tagging and VLAN identifier tagging).

Inter-switch link (ISL): ISL is another protocol for providing the VLAN tagging function in a
network. This protocol is not compatible with the IEEE 802.1p/q standard.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Tagged frames

FCS - 4

Payload
46 - 1500 (Std)
up to 9K
2 (Jumbo)
1

Type - 2

Tag - 4

SA - 6

DA - 6

Type
0x8100
Priority - 3
CFI - 1

SFD - 1

Preamble - 7

The IEEE 802.1p/q standard provides a methodology for information, such as VLAN
membership and priority, that is added to the frame (Figure 4-7).

VLAN ID
12 bits

Figure 4-7 IEEE 802.1p/q tagged Ethernet frame

The standard provides an additional 4 bytes of information to be added to each Ethernet

frame. A frame that includes this extra information is known as a tagged frame.
The 4-byte tag has four component fields:
The type field is 2 bytes and has the hexadecimal value of x8100 to identify the frame as
an 802.1p/q tagged frame.
The priority field is 3 bits and allows a priority value of eight different values to be
included in the tag. This field has the P portion of the 802.1p/q standard.
The Canonical Format Indicator field is 1 bit and identifies when the contents of the
payload field are in canonical format.
The VLAN ID field is 12 bits and identifies the VLAN that the frame is a member of, with
4,096 different VLANs that are possible.

4.1.8 Interface virtual local area network operation modes

Interfaces on a switch can operate in two virtual local area network (VLAN) modes: single
VLAN mode or multiple VLAN mode.

Single virtual local area network mode

The single VLAN mode operation is also referred to as access mode. A port that is operating in
this mode is associated with a single VLAN. Incoming traffic does not have any VLAN
identification. When the untagged frames enter the port, the VLAN identification for the VLAN
that is configured for the port is added to the inbound frames.
Switch ports: Certain vendors use terms other than access mode for ports that are
operating in the single VLAN mode. The switch ports of those vendors might be configured
to operate in the single VLAN mode. This step can be performed by configuring a Port
VLAN ID (PVID) and by adding the port as a member of the VLAN.

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73

Multiple virtual local area network mode

The multiple VLAN mode operation is also referred to as trunk mode. A port that is operating
in this mode can receive frames that have VLAN tags. The port is also configured with VLANs
to which the port is allowed to send and receive frames.
With the IEEE 802.1Q specification, untagged traffic on a multi-VLAN port can be associated
with a single VLAN, which is referred to as the native VLAN for the port (Figure 4-8). By using
this provision, traffic with no VLAN tag can be received and associated with the VLAN that is
configured as the PVID or native VLAN. Outbound traffic for this VLAN on a port that is
configured in this manner is transmitted with no tag. This method allows the receiving device
to receive the frame in an untagged format.
This method provides compatibility with existing devices. Compatibility is also provided for
devices that are configured in the single VLAN mode and that are attached to a port that is
configured as a multi-VLAN port.

Figure 4-8 Multiple VLAN mode link

Variations in the meaning of trunk: The term trunk is used to express different ideas in
the networking industry. When you use this term, remember that other individuals might
use the term in a different manner. Trunk can mean that a port is operating in multiple
VLAN mode or it can mean a link aggregated port.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

4.1.9 Link aggregation

Link aggregation combines multiple physical links to operate as a single larger logical link.
The member links no longer function as independent physical connections, but as members
of the larger logical link (Figure 4-9).

Figure 4-9 Link aggregation

Link aggregation provides greater bandwidth between the devices at each end of the
aggregated link. Another advantage of link aggregation is increased availability because the
aggregated link is composed of multiple member links. If one member link fails, the
aggregated link continues to carry traffic over the remaining member links.
Each of the devices that is interconnected by the aggregated link uses a hashing algorithm to
determine on which of the member links the frames will be transmitted. The hashing algorithm
might use various information in the frame to make the decision. This algorithm might include
a source MAC, destination MAC, source IP, destination IP, and more. It might also include a
combination of these values.

4.1.10 Spanning Tree Protocol

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) provides Layer 2 loop prevention. STP is available in different
forms, such as existing STP, Rapid STP (RSTP), Multiple STP (MSTP), and VLAN STP
(VSTP). RSTP is a common default STP. This form provides faster convergence times than
STP. However, certain existing networks require the slower convergence times that are
provided by basic STP.

The operation of Spanning Tree Protocol

STP uses Bridge Protocol Data Unit (BPDU) packets to exchange information with other
switches. BPDUs send out hello packets at regular intervals to exchange information across
bridges and detect loops in a network topology.

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The following types of BPDUs are available:

Configuration BPDUs
These BPDUs contain configuration information about the transmitting switch and its
ports, including switch and port MAC addresses, switch priority, port priority, and port cost.
Topology Change Notification (TCN) BPDUs
When a bridge must signal a topology change, it starts to send TCNs on its root port. The
designated bridge receives the TCN, acknowledges it, and generates another TCN for its
own root port. The process continues until the TCN reaches the root bridge.
STP uses the information that is provided by the BPDUs in several ways:

To elect a root bridge

To identify root ports for each switch
To identify designated ports for each physical LAN segment
To prune specific redundant links to create a loop-free tree topology

All leaf devices calculate the best path to the root device. The devices place their ports in
blocking or forwarding states that are based on the best path to the root. The resulting tree
topology provides a single active Layer 2 data path between any two end stations.

Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol

RSTP provides better reconvergence time than the original STP. RSTP identifies certain links
as point to point. When a point-to-point link fails, the alternate link can make the transition to
the forwarding state.
An RSTP domain has the following components:
The root port is the best path to the root device.
The designated port indicates that the switch is the designated bridge for the other switch
that is connecting to this port.
The alternative port provides an alternative root port.
The backup port provides an alternative designated port.
RSTP was originally defined in the IEEE 802.1w draft specification and later incorporated into
the IEEE 802.1D-2004 specification.

Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol

Although RSTP provides faster convergence time than STP, it still does not solve a problem
that is inherent in STP. This inherent issue is that all VLANs within a LAN must share the
same spanning tree. To solve this problem, we use MSTP to create a loop-free topology in
networks with multiple spanning-tree regions.
In an MSTP region, a group of bridges can be modeled as a single bridge. An MSTP region
contains multiple spanning-tree instances (MSTIs). MSTIs provide different paths for different
VLANs. This functionality facilitates better load sharing across redundant links.
An MSTP region can support up to 64 MSTIs, and each instance can support 1 - 4094
VLANs.
MSTP was originally defined in the IEEE 802.1s draft specification and later incorporated into
the IEEE 802.1Q-2003 specification.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

VLAN Spanning Tree Protocol

With VSTP, switches can run one or more STP or RSTP instances for each VLAN on which
VSTP is enabled. For networks with multiple VLANs, VSTP enables more intelligent tree
spanning. This level of tree spanning is possible because each VLAN can have interfaces that
are enabled or disabled depending on the paths that are available to that specific VLAN.
By default, VSTP runs RSTP, but you cannot have both stand-alone RSTP and VSTP running
simultaneously on a switch. VSTP can be enabled for up to 253 VLANs.

Bridge Protocol Data Unit protection

BPDU protection can help prevent STP misconfigurations that can lead to network outages.
Receipt of BPDUs on certain interfaces in an STP, RSTP, VSTP, or MSTP topology can lead
to network outages.
BPDU protection is enabled on switch interfaces that are connected to user devices or on
interfaces on which no BPDUs are expected, such as edge ports. If BPDUs are received on a
protected interface, the interface is disabled and the interface stops forwarding the frames.

Loop protection
Loop protection increases the efficiency of STP, RSTP, VSTP, and MSTP by preventing ports
from moving into a forwarding state that might result in a loop opening in the network.
A blocking interface can transition to a forwarding state in error if the interface stops receiving
BPDUs from its designated port on the segment. This transition error can occur when a
hardware error is on the switch or a software configuration error is between the switch and its
neighbor.
When loop protection is enabled, the spanning tree topology detects root ports and blocked
ports and ensures that both root ports and blocked ports keep receiving BPDUs. If a loop
protection-enabled interface stops receiving BPDUs from its designated port, it reacts as it
might react to a problem with the physical connection on this interface. It does not transition
the interface to a forwarding state, but instead it transitions the interface to a loop-inconsistent
state. The interface recovers and then transitions back to the spanning-tree blocking state as
soon as it receives a BPDU.
You must enable loop protection on all switch interfaces that have a chance of becoming root
or designated ports. Loop protection is the most effective when it is enabled on the entire
switched network. When you enable loop protection, you must configure at least one action
(alarm, block, or both).
An interface can be configured for either loop protection or root protection, but not for both.

Root protection
Root protection increases the stability and security of STP, RSTP, VSTP, and MSTP by
limiting the ports that can be elected as root ports. A root port that is elected through the
regular process has the possibility of being wrongly elected. A user bridge application that is
running on a personal computer can also generate BPDUs and interfere with root port
election. With root protection, network administrators can manually enforce the root bridge
placement in the network.

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Root protection is enabled on interfaces that must not receive superior BPDUs from the root
bridge and must not be elected as the root port. These interfaces become designated ports
and are typically on an administrative boundary. If the bridge receives superior STP BPDUs
on a port that enabled root protection, that port transitions to a root-prevented STP state
(inconsistency state), and the interface is blocked. This blocking prevents a bridge that must
not be the root bridge from being elected the root bridge. After the bridge stops receiving
superior STP BPDUs on the interface with root protection, the interface returns to a listening
state. This state is followed by a learning state and ultimately back to a forwarding state.
Recovery back to the forwarding state is automatic.
When root protection is enabled on an interface, it is enabled for all of the STP instances on
that interface. The interface is blocked only for instances for which it receives superior
BPDUs. Otherwise, it participates in the spanning tree topology. An interface can be
configured for either root protection or loop protection, but not for both.

4.1.11 Link Layer Discovery Protocol

Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP) is a vendor-independent protocol for network devices to
advertise information about their identity and capabilities. It is referred to as Station and
Media Access Control Connectivity Discovery, which is specified in the 802.1ab standard.
With LLDP and Link Layer Discovery ProtocolMedia Endpoint Discovery (LLDP-MED),
network devices can learn and distribute device information about network links. With this
information, the switch can quickly identify various devices, resulting in a LAN that
interoperates smoothly and efficiently.
LLDP-capable devices transmit information in Type Length Value (TLV) messages to neighbor
devices. Device information can include specifics, such as chassis and port identification, and
system name and system capabilities.
LLDP-MED goes one step further, exchanging IP-telephony messages between the switch
and the IP telephone. These TLV messages provide detailed information about the
Power over Ethernet (PoE) policy. With the PoE Management TLVs, the switch ports can
advertise the power level and power priority that is needed. For example, the switch can
compare the power that is needed by an IP telephone that is running on a PoE interface with
available resources. If the switch cannot meet the resources that are required by the IP
telephone, the switch can negotiate with the telephone until a compromise on power is
reached.
The switch also uses these protocols to ensure that voice traffic gets tagged and prioritized
with the correct values at the source itself. For example, the 802.1p class of service (COS)
and 802.1Q tag information can be sent to the IP telephone.

4.1.12 Link Layer Discovery Protocol Type Length Values (LLDP TLVs)
The basic TLVs include the following information:
Chassis identifier: The MAC address that is associated with the local system.
Port identifier: The port identification for the specified port in the local system.
Port description: The user-configured port description. This description can be a maximum
of 256 characters.
System name: The user-configured name of the local system. The system name can be a
maximum of 256 characters.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

 System description: The system description contains information about the software and
the current image that are running on the system. This information is not configurable, but
it is taken from the software.
System capabilities: The primary function that is performed by the system. The
capabilities that are supported by the system, for example, bridge or router. This
information is not configurable, but it is based on the model of the product.
Management address: The IP management address of the local system.
Additional 802.3 TLVs include the following details:
Power by way of medium dependent interface (MDI): A TLV that advertises MDI power
support, a Power Sourcing Equipment (PSE) power pair, and power class information.
MAC/PHY configuration status: A TLV that advertises information about the physical
interface, such as auto-negotiation status, support, and multistation access unit (MAU)
type. The information is not configurable, but it is based on the physical interface structure.
Link aggregation: A TLV that advertises whether the port is aggregated and its aggregated
port ID.
Maximum frame size: A TLV that advertises the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the
interface that is sending LLDP frames.
Port VLAN: A TLV that advertises the VLAN name that is configured on the interface.
LLDP-MED provides the following TLVs:
LLDP MED capabilities: A TLV that advertises the primary function of the port. The
capability values range 0 - 15. The device class values range 0 - 255:

0: Capabilities
1: Network policy
2: Location identification
3: Extended power by way of MDI-PSE
4: Inventory
5 - 15: Reserved

LLDP-MED device class values:

0: Class not defined

1: Class 1 device
2: Class 2 device
3: Class 3 device
4: Network connectivity device
5 - 255: Reserved

Network policy: A TLV that advertises the port VLAN configuration and associated Layer 2
and Layer 3 attributes. The following attributes are included:

Policy identifier
Application types, such as voice or streaming video
802.1Q VLAN tagging
802.1p priority bits
Diffserv code points

Endpoint location: A TLV that advertises the physical location of the endpoint.
Extended power by way of MDI: A TLV that advertises the power type, power source,
power priority, and power value of the port. It is the responsibility of the PSE device
(network connectivity device) to advertise the power priority on a port.

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4.2 Storage area network IP networking

Now that we introduced the protocols at a high level, what are the strategic differences
between them all? Do I need them all, any, or none? What are the benefits that these
technologies can offer? The following list provides a few of the benefits that you can gain:

Departmental isolation and resource-sharing alleviation

Technology migration and integration
Remote replication of disk systems
Remote access to disk and tape systems
Low-cost connection to SANs
Inter-fabric routing
Overcoming distance limitations

People do not want to make a large financial investment without knowing that they will get a
return. The appeal of these protocols is that they immediately provide benefits. Because
these protocols are standards-based protocols, they allow the use of both the existing TCP/IP
and Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP) infrastructure, they support existing Fibre Channel
devices, and they enable the simplification of the infrastructure by removing any SAN islands.

4.2.1 The multiprotocol environment

Any technology comes with its unique jargon and terminology. Typically, a term is borrowed
from the networking world, but it might have a separate meaning. It is not our intent to cover
every unique description. However, we make several distinctions that we think are important
for a basic introduction to routing in an IP SAN.

4.2.2 Fibre Channel switching

A Fibre Channel switch filters and forwards packets between Fibre Channel connections on
the same fabric, but it cannot transmit packets between fabrics. As soon as you join two
switches, you merge the two fabrics into a single fabric with one set of fabric services.

4.2.3 Fibre Channel routing

A router forwards data packets between two or more fabrics. Routers use headers and
forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets.
Each separate fabric has its own addressing scheme. When fabrics are joined by a router, a
way to translate the addresses between the two fabrics must exist. This mechanism is called
network address translation (NAT), and it is inherent in all of the IBM System Storage
multiprotocol switch/router products. NAT is sometimes referred to as FC-NAT to differentiate
it from a similar mechanism that exists in IP routers.

4.2.4 Tunneling
Tunneling is a technique that allows one network to send its data through the connection of
another network. Tunneling works by encapsulating a network protocol within packets that are
carried by the second network. For example, in a Fibre Channel over Internet Protocol (FCIP)
solution, Fibre Channel packets can be encapsulated inside IP packets. Tunneling raises
issues of packet size, compression, out-of-order packet delivery, and congestion control.

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4.2.5 Routers and gateways

When a Fibre Channel router needs to provide protocol conversion or tunneling services, it is
a gateway rather than a router. However, it is common usage to broaden the term router to
include these functions. FCIP is an example of tunneling. Internet Small Computer System
Interface (iSCSI) and Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP) are examples of protocol
conversion.

4.2.6 Internet Storage Name Service

The Internet Storage Name Service (iSNS) protocol facilitates automated discovery,
management, and configuration of iSCSI and Fibre Channel devices that exist on an
IP network. iSNS provides storage discovery and management services that are comparable
to the services that are in Fibre Channel networks. Therefore, the IP network seems to
operate in a similar capacity as a SAN. Coupling this capability with its ability to emulate Fibre
Channel fabric services, iSNS allows for a transparent integration of IP and Fibre Channel
networks. This integration is possible because it can manage both iSCSI and Fibre Channel
devices.

4.3 Delving deeper into the protocols

We introduced all of the protocols at a high level. Now, in greater depth, we show the methods
by which the protocols handle Fibre Channel traffic.

4.3.1 Fibre Channel over Internet Protocol (FCIP)

FCIP is a method for tunneling Fibre Channel packets through an IP network. FCIP
encapsulates Fibre Channel block data and transports it over a TCP socket, or tunnel. TCP/IP
services are used to establish connectivity between remote devices. The Fibre Channel
packets are not altered in any way. They are simply encapsulated in IP and transmitted.
Figure 4-10 shows FCIP tunneling, assuming that the Fibre Channel packet is small enough
to fit inside a single IP packet.

Fibre Channel frame

SOF

IP
Hdr

FC
Hdr

SCSI data

CRC EOF

IP payload (FC frame)

CRC

IP datagram
Figure 4-10 FCIP encapsulates the Fibre Channel frame into IP packets

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81

The major advantage of FCIP is that it overcomes the distance limitations of basic Fibre
Channel. It also enables geographically distributed devices to be linked by using the existing
IP infrastructure, while it keeps the fabric services intact.
The architecture of FCIP is outlined in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Request for
Comments (RFC) 3821, Fibre Channel over TCP/IP (FCIP), which is available at this
website:
http://ietf.org/rfc/rfc3821.txt
Because FCIP simply tunnels Fibre Channel, creating an FCIP link is similar to creating an
ISL. And, the two fabrics at either end are merged into a single fabric. This merger creates
issues in situations where you do not want to merge the two fabrics for business reasons, or
where the link connection is prone to occasional fluctuations.
Many corporate IP links are robust, but it can be difficult to be sure because traditional
IP-based applications tend to be retry-tolerant. Fibre Channel fabric services are not as
retry-tolerant. Each time the link disappears or reappears, the switches renegotiate and the
fabric is reconfigured.
By combining FCIP with Fibre Channel-to-Fibre Channel (FC-FC) routing, the two fabrics can
be left unmerged, each with its own separate Fibre Channel services.

4.3.2 Internet Fibre Channel Protocol

Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP) is a gateway-to-gateway protocol. It provides Fibre
Channel fabric services to Fibre Channel devices over an IP network. iFCP uses TCP to
provide congestion control, error detection, and recovery. The primary purpose of iFCP is to
allow interconnection and networking of existing Fibre Channel devices at wire speeds over
an IP network.
Under iFCP, IP components and technology replace the Fibre Channel switching and routing
infrastructure. iFCP was originally developed by Nishan Systems, which was acquired by
McDATA in September 2003. McDATA was then acquired by Brocade.
To learn more about the architecture and specification of iFCP, see the document at this
website:
http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietf-ips-ifcp-14

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A myth exists that iFCP does not use encapsulation. In fact, iFCP encapsulates the Fibre
Channel packet in much the same way that FCIP encapsulates the Fibre Channel packet. In
addition, iFCP maps the Fibre Channel header to the IP header and a TCP session
(Figure 4-11).

Fibre Channel frame

SOF

FC
Hdr

SCSI data

CRC EOF

d
pe
ap
M

IP
TCP
Hdr

IP payload (FC frame)

CRC

IP datagram
Figure 4-11 iFCP encapsulation and header mapping

iFCP uses the same iSNS mechanism that is used by iSCSI.

iFCP also allows data to fall across IP packets and share IP packets. Certain FCIP
implementations can achieve a similar result when they run software compression, but not
otherwise. FCIP typically breaks each large Fibre Channel packet into two dedicated IP
packets. iFCP compression is payload compression only. Headers are not compressed to
simplify diagnostics.
iFCP uses one TCP connection for each fabric login (FLOGI). FCIP typically uses one
connection for each router link (although more connections are possible). A FLOGI is the
process by which a node port (N_port) registers its presence on the fabric; obtains fabric
parameters, such as classes of service that are supported; and receives its N_port address.
Because a separate TCP connection exists for each N_port to N_port couple under iFCP, you
can manage each connection to have its own quality of service (QoS) identity. A single
incidence of congestion does not have to drop the sending rate for all connections on the link.
Although all iFCP traffic between a specific remote and local N_port pair must use the same
iFCP session, the iFCP session can be shared across multiple gateways or routers.

4.3.3 Internet Small Computer System Interface

The Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) protocol has a client/server architecture.
Clients (called initiators) issue SCSI commands to request services from logical units on a
server that is known as a target. A SCSI transport maps the protocol to a specific
interconnect.
The SCSI protocol is mapped over various transports, including Parallel SCSI, Intelligent
Peripheral Interface (IPI), IEEE-1394 (firewire), and Fibre Channel. All of these transports are
ways to pass SCSI commands. Each transport is I/O specific, and the distance capabilities of
each transport are limited.
The iSCSI protocol is a means of transporting SCSI packets over TCP/IP to take advantage
of the existing Internet infrastructure.
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A session between a iSCSI initiator and an iSCSI target is defined by a session ID. This
session ID is a combination of an initiator part (ISID) and a target part (Target Portal Group
Tag).
The iSCSI transfer direction is defined in relation to the initiator. Outbound or outgoing
transfers are transfers from an initiator to a target. Inbound or incoming transfers are transfers
from a target to an initiator.
For performance reasons, iSCSI allows a phase-collapse. A command and its associated
data might be shipped together from initiator to target, and data and responses might be
shipped together from targets.
An iSCSI name specifies a logical initiator or target. It is not tied to a port or hardware
adapter. When multiple NICs are used, they generally all present the same iSCSI initiator
name to the targets because they are paths to the same SCSI layer. In most operating
systems, the named entity is the operating system image.
The architecture of iSCSI is outlined in IETF RFC 3720, Internet Small Computer Systems
Interface (iSCSI), at this website:
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3720.txt
Figure 4-12 shows the format of the iSCSI packet.

Figure 4-12 iSCSI packet format

Testing on iSCSI latency shows a difference of up to 1 ms of additional latency for each disk
I/O as compared to Fibre Channel. This delay does not include factors, such as trying to
perform iSCSI I/O over a shared, congested, or long-distance IP network, all of which might
be tempting for certain clients. iSCSI generally uses a shared 1 Gbps network.

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iSCSI naming and discovery

Although we do not go into an in-depth analysis of iSCSI in this book, an iSCSI initiator has
methods to understand the devices that are in the network:
In small networks, you can use the sendtargets command.
In larger networks, you can use the Service Location Protocol (SLP) or multicast
discovery.
In large networks, we suggest that you use iSNS.
iSNS: At time of writing this book, not all vendors can deliver iSNS.
For more information about drafts that describe iSCSI naming, discovery, and booting, see
this website:
http://www.ietf.org/proceedings/02mar/220.htm

4.3.4 Routing considerations

As you might expect with any technology, you must consider a unique set of characteristics.
The following topics briefly describe the issues or items to consider in a multiprotocol Fibre
Channel environment.

4.3.5 Packet size

The standard size of a Fibre Channel packet is 2,148 bytes, and the standard IP packet size
is 1,500 bytes (with a 1,460-byte payload). Because one packet is larger than the other
packet, the larger packet must be accommodated.
When you transport Fibre Channel over IP, you can use jumbo IP packets to accommodate
larger Fibre Channel packets. Remember that jumbo IP packets must be turned on for the
whole data path. In addition, a jumbo IP packet is incompatible with any devices in the
network that do not have jumbo IP packets enabled.
Alternatively, you can introduce various schemes to split Fibre Channel packets across two IP
packets. Certain compression algorithms can allow multiple small Fibre Channel packets or
packet segments to share a single IP packet.
Each technology and each vendor might implement this procedure differently. The key point is
that they all try to avoid sending small, inefficient packets.

4.3.6 TCP congestion control

Sometimes, standard TCP congestion mechanisms might not be suitable for tunneling
storage. Standard TCP congestion control is designed to react quickly and severely to
network congestion, but to recover slowly. This design is suited to traditional IP networks that
are variable and unreliable. But for storage applications, this approach is not always
appropriate and this approach might cause disruption to latency-sensitive applications.
When three duplicate unanswered packets are sent on a traditional TCP network, the sending
rate backs off by 50%. When packets are successfully sent, the sending rate performs a
slow-start linear ramp-up again.

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Certain vendors tweak the back-off and recovery algorithms. For example, the tweak causes
the send rate to drop by 12.5% each time that congestion is encountered. And the algorithm
is tweaked so that the network can recover rapidly to the full sending rate by doubling each
time until the full rate is regained.
Other vendors take a simpler approach to achieve a similar outcome.
If you are sharing your IP link between storage and other IP applications, either of these
storage-friendly congestion controls might affect your other applications.
For more information about the specification for TCP congestion control, see this website:
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2581.txt

4.3.7 Round-trip delay

Round-trip link latency is the time that it takes for a packet to make a round trip across the
link. The term propagation delay is also sometimes used. Round-trip delay generally includes
both inherent latency and delays because of congestion.
Fibre Channel cable has an inherent latency of approximately 5 microseconds for each
kilometer each way. Typical Fibre Channel devices, such as switches and routers, have
inherent latencies of around 5 microseconds each way. IP routers might vary 5 - 100
microseconds in theory, but when they are tested with filters that are applied, the results are
more likely to be measured in milliseconds.
This type of measurement is the essential problem with tunneling Fibre Channel over IP. Fibre
Channel applications are generally designed for networks that have round-trip delays that are
measured in microseconds. IP networks generally deliver round-trip delays that are measured
in milliseconds or tens of milliseconds. Internet connections often have round-trip delays that
are measured in hundreds of milliseconds.
Any round-trip delay that is caused by more routers and firewalls along the network
connection also must be added to the total delay. The total round-trip delay varies
considerably depending on the models of routers or firewalls that are used, and the traffic
congestion on the link.
So, how does this latency affect you? If you are purchasing the routers or firewalls yourself,
we recommend that you include the latency of any particular product in the criteria that you
use to choose the products. If you are provisioning the link from a service provider, we
recommend that you include at least the maximum total round-trip latency of the link in the
service level agreement (SLA).

Time of frame in transit

The time of frame in transit is the actual time that it takes for a specific frame to pass through
the slowest point of the link. Therefore, it depends on both the frame size and link speed.
The maximum size of the payload in a Fibre Channel frame is 2,112 bytes. The Fibre Channel
headers add 36 bytes to this measurement, for a total Fibre Channel frame size of 2,148
bytes. When you transfer data, Fibre Channel frames at or near the full size are typically
used.
If we assume that we are using jumbo frames in the Ethernet, the complete Fibre Channel
frame can be sent within one Ethernet packet. The TCP and IP headers and the Ethernet
medium access control (MAC) add a minimum of 54 bytes to the size of the frame. This
addition creates a total Ethernet packet size of 2,202 bytes, or 17,616 bits.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

For smaller frames, such as the Fibre Channel acknowledgment frames, the time in transit is
much shorter. The minimum possible Fibre Channel frame is one with no payload. With FCIP
encapsulation, the minimum size of a packet with only the headers is 90 bytes, or 720 bits.
Table 4-2 lists the transmission times of this FCIP packet over various common wide area
network (WAN) link speeds.
Table 4-2 FCIP packet transmission times over different WAN links
Link type

Link speed

Large packet

Small packet

Gigabit Ethernet

1250 Mbps

14 s

0.6 s

OC-12

622.08 Mbps

28 s

1.2 s

OC-3

155.52 Mbps

113 s

4.7 s

T3

44.736 Mbps

394 s

16.5 s

E1

2.048 Mbps

8600 s

359 s

T1

1.544 Mbps

11 400 s

477 s

If we cannot use jumbo frames, each large Fibre Channel frame must be divided into two
Ethernet packets. This requirement doubles the amount of TCP, IP, and Ethernet MAC
overhead for the data transfer.
Normally, each Fibre Channel operation transfers data in only one direction. The frames that
move in the other direction are close to the minimum size.

4.4 Multiprotocol solution briefs

The solution briefs in the following sections show how you can use multiprotocol routers.

4.4.1 Dividing a fabric into subfabrics

Assume that you have eight switches in your data center, and they are grouped into two
fabrics of four switches each. Two of the switches are used to connect the development and
test environment, two of the switches are used to connect a joint-venture subsidiary company,
and four of the switches are used to connect the main production environment.
The development and test environment does not follow the same change control disciplines
as the production environment. Also, systems and switches can be upgraded, downgraded, or
rebooted on occasions (usually unscheduled and without any form of warning).
The joint-venture subsidiary company is up for sale. The mandate is to provide as much
separation and security as possible between it and the main company, and the subsidiary.
The backup and restore environment is shared among the three environments.
In summary, this environment requires a degree of isolation, and a degree of sharing. In the
past, this requirement was accommodated through zoning. Certain fabric vendors might still
recommend that approach as the simplest and most cost-effective. However, as the
complexity of the environment grows, zoning can become complex. Any mistakes in setup
can disrupt the entire fabric. Adding FC-FC routing to the network allows each of the three
environments to run separate fabric services and provides the capability to share the tape
backup environment.

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In larger fabrics with many switches and separate business units, for example, in a shared
services-hosting environment, separation and routing are valuable. These features are
beneficial in creating many simple fabrics, rather than a few more complex fabrics.

4.4.2 Connecting a remote site over IP

Suppose that you want to replicate your disk system to a remote site, perhaps 50 km
(31.06 miles) away synchronously, or 500 km (310.68 miles) away asynchronously. By using
FCIP tunneling or iFCP conversion, you can transmit your data to the remote disk system
over a standard IP network. The router includes Fibre Channel ports to connect network
devices, or switches and IP ports to connect to a standard IP WAN router. Standard IP
networks are generally much lower in cost to provision than traditional high-quality dedicated
dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) networks. Standard IP networks also often
have the advantage of being understood by internal operational staff.
Similarly, you might want to provision storage volumes from your disk system to a remote site
by using FCIP or iFCP.
Low-cost connections: FCIP and iFCP can provide a low-cost way to connect remote
sites by using familiar IP network disciplines.

4.4.3 Connecting hosts by using Internet Small Computer System Interface

Many hosts do not require high-bandwidth, low-latency access to storage. For such hosts,
Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) might be a more cost-effective connection
method. iSCSI can be thought of as an IP SAN. You are not required to provide a Fibre
Channel switch port for every server. You do not need to purchase Fibre Channel host bus
adapters (HBAs), or to lay Fibre Channel cable between the storage and servers.
The iSCSI router has both Fibre Channel and Ethernet ports to connect to servers that are
located either locally on the Ethernet, or remotely, over a standard IP WAN connection.
The iSCSI connection delivers block I/O access to the server so that it is application
independent. That is, an application cannot really tell the difference between direct SCSI,
iSCSI, or Fibre Channel, because all three I/Os are delivery SCSI block I/Os.
Different router vendors quote different limits on the number of iSCSI connections that are
supported on a single IP port.
iSCSI places a significant packetizing and depacketizing workload on the server CPU. This
workload can be mitigated by using the TCP/IP offload engine (TOE) Ethernet cards.
However, because these cards can be expensive, they somewhat undermine the low-cost
advantage of iSCSI.
iSCSI provides low-cost connections: iSCSI can be used to provide low-cost
connections to the SAN for servers that are not performance critical.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Chapter 5.

Topologies and other fabric

services
In this chapter, we introduce Fibre Channel (FC) topologies and other fabric services that are
commonly encountered in a storage area network (SAN).
We also provide an insight into the emerging converged topology and the option to merge FC
to Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE).

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

89

5.1 Fibre Channel topologies

Fibre Channel-based networks support three types of base topologies: point-to-point,
arbitrated loop, and switched fabric. A switched fabric is the most commonly encountered
topology today and it has subclassifications of topology. Figure 5-1 shows the various
classifications of SAN topology.

Figure 5-1 SAN topologies

5.1.1 Point-to-point topology

A point-to-point connection is the simplest topology. It is used when exactly two nodes exist,
and future expansion is not predicted. Media is not shared, which allows the devices to use
the total bandwidth of the link. A simple link initialization is needed before communications
can begin.
Fibre Channel is a full-duplex protocol, which means that both paths transmit data
simultaneously. For example, Fibre Channel connections that are based on the 1 Gbps
standard can transmit at 100 Megabytes per second (MBps) and receive at 100 MBps
simultaneously. For Fibre Channel connections that are based on the 2 gigabits per second
(Gbps) standard, they can transmit at 200 MBps and receive at 200 MBps simultaneously.
This speed also extends to 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, and 16 Gigabytes per second (GBps)
technologies.

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Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Figure 5-2 shows a simple point-to-point connection.

Figure 5-2 Point-to-point connection

5.1.2 Arbitrated loop topology

Arbitrated loop topology: Although this topology is rarely encountered anymore and
considered a historical topology, we include it for historical reasons only.
Our second topology is Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL). FC-AL is more useful for
storage applications. It is a loop of up to 126 node loop ports (NL_ports) that is managed as a
shared bus. Traffic flows in one direction, carrying data frames and primitives around the loop
with a total bandwidth of 400 MBps (or 200 MBps for a loop-based topology on 2 Gbps
technology).
Using arbitration protocol, a single connection is established between a sender and a
receiver, and a data frame is transferred around the loop. When the communication comes to
an end between the two connected ports, the loop becomes available for arbitration and a
new connection might be established. Loops can be configured with hubs to make connection
management easier. A distance of up to 10 km (6.2 miles) is supported by the Fibre Channel
standard for both of these configurations. However, latency on the arbitrated loop
configuration is affected by the loop size.

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A simple loop, which is configured by using a hub (Figure 5-3).

Figure 5-3 Arbitrated loop

We describe FC-AL in more depth in 5.4, Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop protocols on
page 114.

5.1.3 Switched fabric topology

Our third topology, and the most useful topology that is used in SAN implementations, is Fibre
Channel Switched Fabric (FC-SW). It applies to switches and directors that support the
FC-SW standard; that is, it is not limited to switches as its name suggests. A Fibre Channel
fabric is one or more fabric switches in a single, sometimes extended, configuration. Switched
fabrics provide full bandwidth for each port that is compared to the shared bandwidth for each
port in arbitrated loop implementations.
One key differentiator is that if you add a device into the arbitrated loop, you further divide the
shared bandwidth. However, in a switched fabric, adding a device or a new connection
between existing devices or connections actually increases the bandwidth. For example, an
8-port switch (assume that it is based on 2 Gbps technology) with three initiators and three
targets can support three concurrent 200 MBps conversations or a total of 600 MBps
throughput. This total equates to 1,200 MBps if full-duplex applications are available.

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Figure 5-4 shows a switched fabric configuration.

Figure 5-4 Sample switched fabric topology

This configuration is one of the major reasons why arbitrated loop is considered a historical
SAN topology. A switched fabric is typically referred to as a fabric.
In terms of switch interconnections, the switched SAN topologies can be classified as the
following types:
Single switch topology
Cascaded and ring topology
Mesh topology

5.1.4 Single switch topology

The single switch topology has only one switch and no inter-switch links (ISLs). It is the
simplest design for infrastructures that do not need any redundancy. Because of the issues
with this topology introducing a single point of failure (SPOF), this topology is rarely used.

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Figure 5-5 indicates a single switch topology with all of the devices connected to same switch.

Figure 5-5 Single switch topology

5.1.5 Cascaded and ring topology

In a cascaded topology, switches are connected in a queue fashion (Figure 5-6).

Figure 5-6 Cascade topology

Even in a ring topology, the switches connect in a queue fashion, but the ring topology forms
a closed ring with an additional ISL (Figure 5-7).

Figure 5-7 Ring topology

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5.1.6 Mesh topology

In a full mesh topology, each switch is connected to every other switch in the fabric
(Figure 5-8).

Figure 5-8 IBM SAN768B connected to form a mesh topology

In terms of a tiered approach, the switched fabric can be further classified with the following
topologies:
Core-edge topology
Edge-core-edge topology

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5.1.7 Core-edge topology

In core-edge topology, the servers are connected to the edge fabric and the storage is
connected to core switches. Figure 5-9 shows the core-edge topology.

Figure 5-9 Core-edge topology

5.1.8 Edge-core-edge topology

In this topology, the server and storage are connected to the edge fabric and the core switch
connectivity is used only for scalability in terms of connecting to edge switches. This
configuration expands the SAN traffic flow to long distance by dense wavelength division
multiplexing (DWDM), connecting to virtualization appliances, and encryption switches. Also,
the servers might be isolated to one edge and storage can be at the other edge, which helps
with management.

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Figure 5-10 shows the edge-core-edge topology.

Figure 5-10 Edge-core-edge topology

5.2 Port types

The basic building block of the Fibre Channel is the port. Various kinds of Fibre Channel port
types exist.

5.2.1 Common port types

The following list provides the various kinds of Fibre Channel port types and their purpose in
switches, servers, and storage:
F_port: This port type is a fabric port that is connected to a node port (N_port) in a
point-point manner to a switch.
FL_port: This port type is a fabric loop port that is connected to a loop device. It is used to
connect a node loop port (NL_port) to the switch in a public loop configuration.
TL port: A Cisco-specific translative loop port type. It is a translative loop port that is
connected with non-fabric-aware, private loop devices.

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 G_port: This generic port type can operate as either an expansion port (E_port) or an
F_port. A port is defined as a G_port after it connects, but it did not receive a response to
loop initialization, or it did not yet complete the link initialization procedure with the
adjacent Fibre Channel device.
L_port: This loop port type is a loop-capable node or switch port.
U_port: This type is a universal port: a more generic switch port than a G_port. It can
operate as either an E_port, F_port, or FL_port. A port is defined as a U_port when it is
not connected or it did not yet assume a specific function in the fabric.
N_port: This port type is a node port that is not loop capable. It is a host end port that is
used to connect to the fabric switch.
NL_port: This port type is a node port that is loop capable. It is used to connect an
equipment port to the fabric in a loop configuration through an L_port or FL_port.
Figure 5-11 shows the common port types of the switch and nodes.

Figure 5-11 Common port types

5.2.2 Expansion port types

The following ports are found in a multi-switch fabric where switches are interconnected
through an FC link:
E_Port: This type is an expansion port. A port is designated as an E_Port when it is used
as an ISL to connect to the E_Port of another switch to enlarge the switch fabric.
EX_Port: This type of E_Port is used to connect a multiprotocol router to an edge fabric.
An EX_Port follows standard E_Port protocols. An EX_Port supports Fibre Channel
Network Address Translation (FC-NAT), but it does not allow fabric merging across
EX_Ports.

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 VE_Port: A virtual E_Port is a port that emulates an E_Port over a Fibre Channel over
Internet Protocol (FCIP) link. VE_Port connectivity is supported over point-to-point links.
VEX_Port: VEX_Ports are routed VE_Ports, just as Ex_Ports are routed E_Ports.
VE_Ports and VEX_Ports behave and function in the same way.
TE_port: The TE_port provides standard E_port functions and it also allows for the routing
of multiple virtual SANs (VSANs). This capability is accomplished by modifying the
standard Fibre Channel frame (VSAN tagging) on ingress and egress of the VSAN
environment. It is also known as a Trunking E_port.
Figure 5-12 shows a fabric with expansion ports.

Figure 5-12 Fabric with expansion ports

5.2.3 Diagnostic port types

D_port is a diagnostic port type that can be enabled only on the 16 Gbps b-type switches with
Fabric Operating System 7.0. This system uses the Spinfab test. It performs electrical loop
back and optical loop back. It measures link distance and it also performs stress tests with a
link saturation test.

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Figure 5-13 shows the various test options. You can perform long-distance cable checks also
with D_port diagnostic capabilities.

Figure 5-13 D_port type diagnostics

Additional diagnostic port types are shown:

MTx_port is a CNT port that is used as a mirror for viewing the transmit stream of the port
to be diagnosed.
MRx_port is a CNT port that is used as a mirror for viewing the receive stream of the port
to be diagnosed.
SD_port is a Cisco switched port analyzer (SPAN) destination diagnostic port that is used
for diagnostic capture with a connection to a SPAN.
ST_port is the Cisco port type for Remote Strategic Position Analysis (RSPAN) monitoring
in a source switch. This switch is an undedicated port that is used for RSPAN analysis, and
it is not connected to any other device.

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Figure 5-14 shows the Fibre Channel port types that are specific to Cisco.

Figure 5-14 Cisco Fibre Channel port types

5.3 Addressing
All devices in a Fibre Channel environment have an identity. The way that the identity is
assigned and used depends on the format of the Fibre Channel fabric. For example,
addressing is performed differently in an arbitrated loop and in a fabric.

5.3.1 Worldwide name

All Fibre Channel devices have a unique identity that is called a worldwide name (WWN). This
identification is similar to the way that all Ethernet cards have a unique Media Access Control
(MAC) address.
Each N_port has its own WWN, but it is also possible for a device with more than one Fibre
Channel adapter to have its own WWN. Therefore, for example, a storage server can have its
own WWN and incorporate the WWNs of the adapter within it. Therefore, a soft zone can be
created by using the entire array, or individual zones can be created by using particular
adapters. In the future, this ability will be available for the servers.
This WWN is a 64-bit address, and if two WWN addresses are put into the frame header, 16
bytes of data is left for identifying the destination and source address. So, 64-bit addresses
can affect routing performance.
Each device in the SAN is identified by a unique WWN. The WWN contains a vendor identifier
field, which is defined and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), and a vendor-specific information field.
Currently, two formats of the WWN are defined by the IEEE. The original format contains
either a hex 10 or hex 20 in the first 2 bytes of the address. This address is then followed by
the vendor-specific information.

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Figure 5-15 shows both the old and new WWN formats.

Figure 5-15 Worldwide name (WWN) addressing scheme

The new addressing scheme starts with a hex 5 or 6 in the first half-byte, which is followed by
the vendor identifier in the next 3 bytes. The vendor-specific information is then contained in
the following fields. Both of these formats are currently in use and they depend on the
hardware manufacturer standards to follow either of the formats. However, the vendor ID and
company ID are assigned uniquely by the IEEE standards, and each vendor and its identifier
are in the following text file:
http://standards.ieee.org/develop/regauth/oui/oui.txt
A worldwide node name (WWNN) is a globally unique 64-bit identifier that is assigned to each
Fibre Channel node or device. For servers and hosts, the WWNN is unique for each host bus
adapter (HBA). For a server with two HBAs, each HBA has a WWNN (two WWNNs total for
the server). For a SAN switch, the WWNN is common for the chassis. For storage, the
WWNN is common for each controller unit of midrange storage. And, in high-end enterprise
storage, the WWNN is unique for the entire array.
A worldwide port number (WWPN) is a unique identifier for each FC port of any Fibre
Channel device. For a server, we have a WWPN for each port of the HBA. For a switch, the
WWPN is available for each port in the chassis; and for storage, each host port has an
individual WWPN.

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Server worldwide node name and worldwide port name

Figure 5-16 shows a WWNN for each HBA. Every port in the HBA has an individual WWPN.

Figure 5-16 Server worldwide node name and worldwide port name

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Storage area network worldwide node name and worldwide port name
Figure 5-17 shows that the WWNN is for the entire SAN switch chassis and the WWPN is for
each FC port in the SAN switch chassis.
Fabric-assigned PWWNs: The new 16 Gbps b-type switches with Brocade Fabric OS
(FOS) 7.0 can also have a virtual WWPN that is defined by switches that are called
fabric-assigned PWWNs (FAPWWNs). These FAPWWNs can be used for pre-configuring
zoning before the physical servers are connected. This feature helps to simplify and
accelerate server deployment and improve operational efficiency by avoiding the wait time
for setting up physical connectivity. This feature also requires that servers use Brocade
HBAs/adapters with an HBA driver version 3.0.0.0 or higher, which can be configured to
use FAPWWN.

Figure 5-17 SAN switch worldwide node name and worldwide port name

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Storage worldwide node name and worldwide port name

Disk storage has an individual WWNN for the entire storage system, and the individual FC
host port have unique WWPNs (Figure 5-18). The diagram shows a dual-controller module.

Figure 5-18 Storage worldwide node name and worldwide port name

Worldwide node name (WWNN): The IBM virtualization storage systems use WWNN
differently. For example, each node in an IBM SAN Volume Controller or the
IBM Storwize V7000 has an individual and unique WWNN.
For the IBM DS8000, each Storage Facility Image has a unique individual WWNN.

5.3.2 Tape device worldwide node name and worldwide port name
For tape devices, each drive inside the tape library has an individual WWPN and WWNN.
Figure 5-19 shows that multiple drive libraries have an individual WWNN and WWPN for each
drive.

Figure 5-19 Tape device worldwide node name and worldwide port name

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5.3.3 Port address

Because of the potential effect on routing performance by using 64-bit addressing, another
addressing scheme is used in Fibre Channel networks. This scheme is used to address ports
in the switched fabric. Each port in the switched fabric has its own unique 24-bit address. With
this 24-bit address scheme, a smaller frame header exists, and this configuration can speed
up the routing process. With this frame header and routing logic, the Fibre Channel is
optimized for high-speed frame switching.
With a 24-bit addressing scheme, this configuration allows for up to 16 million addresses. This
address space is larger than any practical SAN design that is available today. A relationship
must exist between this 24-bit address and the 64-bit address that is associated with the
WWNs. We explain this relationship in the following section.

5.3.4 The 24-bit port address

The 24-bit address scheme removes the performance overhead of the manual administration
of addresses by allowing the topology itself to assign addresses. This configuration is not like
WWN addressing where the addresses are assigned to manufacturers by the IEEE standards
committee and are built into the device at the time of manufacture. If the topology assigns the
24-bit addresses, another device must be responsible for maintaining the addressing scheme
from WWN addressing to port addressing.
In the switched fabric environment, the switch is responsible for assigning and maintaining the
port addresses. When a device with a WWN logs in to the switch on a specific port, the switch
assigns the port address to that port. The switch also maintains the correlation between the
port address and the WWN address of the device of that port. This function of the switch is
implemented by using the name server.
The name server is a component of the fabric operating system that runs inside the switch.
The name server is essentially a database of objects in which a fabric-attached device
registers its values.
Dynamic addressing also removes the partial element of human error in addressing
maintenance and provides more flexibility in additions, moves, and changes in the SAN.
A 24-bit port address consists of the following parts:
Domain (bits 23 - 16)
Area (bits 15 - 08)
Port or arbitrated loop physical address: AL_PA (bits 07 - 00)

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Figure 5-20 shows how the address is built.

24-bit Port Addressing scheme

Domain
Bits 23

Port

Area
16 15

Fabric Loop Identifier

08 07

00

AL_PA

Figure 5-20 Fabric port address

The following functions provide the significance of several of the bits that make up the port
address:
Domain
The most significant byte of the port address is the domain. This byte is the address of the
switch. A domain ID is a unique number that identifies the switch or director to a fabric. It
can be either static or dynamic. Static (insistent) domain IDs are a requirement for Fibre
Channel connection (FICON). Each manufacturer has a range of numbers and a
maximum number of domain IDs that can be used in a fabric.
One byte allows up to 256 possible addresses. Because many of these addresses are
reserved, such as the address for broadcast, only 239 addresses are available. This
number means that you can theoretically have as many as 239 switches in your SAN
environment. The domain number allows each switch to have a unique identifier if you
have multiple interconnected switches in your environment.
Area
The area field provides 256 addresses. This part of the address is used to identify the
individual ports. Therefore, to have more than 256 ports in one switch in a director class of
switches, you must follow the shared area addressing.
Port
The final part of the address provides 256 addresses for identifying attached N_ports and
NL_ports.
A simple calculation is used to arrive at the number of available addresses:
Domain x area x ports
This calculation means that 239 x 256 x 256 = 15,663,104 addresses are available.
Depending on the fabric topology, the fabric addressing format of the device differs.
In a fabric topology, devices have an addressing format type of DDAA00. For example, the
address 020300 indicates that the device belongs to the switch with domain ID 02. This
switch is connected to port 03 and the ALPA address is 00, which indicates that this device is
not a loop fabric device. That is, it is a switched fabric device. For any switched fabric device,
the ALPA ID is always 00.

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5.3.5 Loop address

An NL_port, like an N_port, has a 24-bit port address. If no switch connection exists, the two
upper bytes of this port address are zeros (x00 00) and referred to as a private loop. The
devices on the loop have no connection with the outside world. If the loop is attached to a
fabric and an NL_port supports a fabric login, the upper 2 bytes are assigned a positive value
by the switch. We call this mode a public loop.
Because fabric-capable NL_ports are members of both a local loop and the greater fabric
community, a 24-bit address is needed as an identifier in the network. In this case of public
loop assignment, the value of the upper 2 bytes represents the loop identifier, and this ID is
common to all NL_ports on the same loop that logged in to the fabric.
In both public and private arbitrated loops, the last byte of the 24-bit port address refers to the
arbitrated loop physical address (AL_PA). The AL_PA is acquired during the initialization of
the loop and might, in a fabric-capable loop device, be modified by the switch during login.
The total number of available AL_PAs for arbitrated loop addressing is 127. This number is
based on the requirements of 8b/10b running disparity between frames.

5.3.6 The b-type addressing modes

IBM b-type (the IBM original equipment manufacturer (OEM) agreement with Brocade is
referred to as b-type) has three addressing modes: native mode, core PID mode, and shared
area addressing mode.

Native mode is used in traditional switches that support a maximum of 16 ports. This number
is used because in native mode, the fabric addressing format that is used is DD1A00. The
area part of the fabric address always has a prefix of 1. Therefore, it supports a port count
from hexadecimal 10 to 1F (a maximum of 16 ports).

Core PID mode is used to support a maximum of 256 ports for each domain or switch. This
number is used because in core PID mode, the area part of the fabric address supports
addresses from hexadecimal 00 to FF (a maximum of 256 ports). The fabric addressing
format that is used for this mode is DDAA00.

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Figure 5-21 shows the native and core PID modes with the example FC address of two
devices.

Figure 5-21 Native versus core addressing mode

Shared addressing mode is used when more than 256 ports are used in the same domain or
switch. This mode is used in directors with high port density. The port addressing in these
directors uses the same area numbers for two ports by having the third byte of the
FC address (node addresses) as 80 for higher port numbers. By using the area ID more than
one time, this mode enables more than 256 ports to exist in a single domain.
Figure 5-22 shows port 24. Port 25 shares the area ID with port 32, and port 33 of the FC4-48
port.

Figure 5-22 Shared addressing mode

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5.3.7 FICON address

FICON generates the 24-bit FC port address field in yet another way. When communication is
required from the FICON channel port to the FICON control unit (CU) port, the FICON
channel (by using FC-SB-2 and FC-FS protocol information) provides the address of its port,
the source port address identifier (S_ID), and the address of the CU port. This CU port
address is the destination port address identifier (D_ID) when the communication is from the
channel N_port to the CU N_port.
The Fibre Channel architecture does not specify how a server N_port determines the
destination port address of the storage device N_port with which it requires communication.
This determination depends on the node and N_port implementation. A server can determine
the address of the N_port with which it wants to communicate in two ways:
The discovery method. The address is determined by knowing the WWN of the target
node N_port, and then by requesting a WWN for the N_port port address from a Fibre
Channel Fabric Service. This service is called the fabric name server.
The defined method. The address is determined by the server (processor channel) N_port
having a known predefined port address of the storage device (CU) N_port, with which it
requires communication. This later approach is referred to as port address definition. It is
the approach that is implemented for the FICON channel in the FICON native (FC) mode.
This method is performed by using either the z/OS hardware configuration definition
(HCD) function or an input/output configuration program (IOCP). These functions are used
to define a 1-byte switch port, which is a 1-byte FC area field of the 3-byte Fibre Channel
N_port port address.
The Fibre Channel architecture (FC-FS) uses a 24-bit FC port address (3 bytes) for each port
in an FC switch. The switch port addresses in a FICON native (FC) mode are always
assigned by the switch fabric.
For the FICON channel in FICON native (FC) mode, the Accept (ACC ELS) response to the
Fabric Login (FLOGI) in a switched point-to-point topology provides the channel with the
24-bit N_port address to which the channel is connected. This N_port address is in the ACC
destination address field (D_ID) of the FC-2 header.

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The FICON CU port also performs a fabric login to obtain its 24-bit FC port address.
Figure 5-23 shows how the FC-FS 24-bit FC port address identifier is divided into three fields.

Figure 5-23 FICON port addressing

Figure 5-23 shows the FC-FS 24-bit port address and the definition of usage of that 24-bit
address in an IBM z Systems server and 9672 G5/G6 environment. Only the 8 bits that make
up the FC port address are defined for the z Systems server and 9672 G5/G6 to access a
FICON CU.
The FICON channel in FICON native (FC) mode that works with a switched point-to-point FC
topology (single switch) provides the other 2 bytes that make up the 3-byte FC port address of
the CU to be accessed.
The z Systems and 9672 G5/G6 processors, when they work with a switched point-to-point
topology, require that the Domain and the AL_port (Arbitrated Loop) field values are the
same for all of the FC F_ports in the switch. Only the area field value differs for each switch
F_port.
For the z Systems server and 9672 G5/G6, the area field is referred to as the port address
field of the F_port. This field is only a 1-byte value. When the access to a CU that is attached
to this port is defined, by using the z Systems HCD or IOCP, the port address is referred to as
the link address.

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The 8 bits for the domain address and the 8-bit constant field are provided from the Fabric
Login initialization result (Figure 5-24). The 8 bits and the 1 byte for the port address (1-byte
link address) are provided from the z Systems or 9672 G5/G6 CU link definition (by using
HCD and IOCP).

Figure 5-24 FICON single switch: Switched point-to-point link address

FICON address support for cascaded switches

The Fibre Channel architecture (FC-FS) uses a 24-bit FC port address of 3 bytes for each
port in an FC switch. The switch port addresses in a FICON native (FC) mode are always
assigned by the switch fabric.
For the FICON channel in FICON native (FC) mode, the Accept (ACC ELS) response to the
Fabric Login (FLOGI) in a two-switch cascaded topology provides the channel with the 24-bit
N_port address to which the channel is connected. This N_port address is in the ACC
destination address field (D_ID) of the FC-2 header.
The FICON CU port also performs a fabric login to obtain its 24-bit FC port address.

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Figure 5-25 shows that the FC-FS 24-bit FC port address identifier is divided into three fields:
Domain
Area
AL (Port)

Figure 5-25 FICON addressing for cascaded directors

Figure 5-25 shows the FC-FS 24-bit port address and the definition usage of that 24-bit
address in a z Systems environment. The 16 bits that make up the FC port address must be
defined for the z Systems to access a FICON CU in a cascaded environment. The FICON
channel in the FICON native (FC) mode that works with a two-switch cascaded FC topology
provides the remaining byte that makes up the full 3-byte FC port address of the CU to be
accessed.
It is required that the Domain, Switch @, AL_Port, and the Arbitrated Loop field values are the
same for all of the FC F_ports in the switch. Only the Area field value differs for each switch
F_port.
The z Systems Domain and Area fields are referred to as the port address field of the F_port.
This field is a 2-byte value. When access is defined to a CU that is attached to this port (by
using the z Systems HCD or IOCP), the port address is referred to as the link address.

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The 8 bits for the constant field are provided from the Fabric Login initialization result
(Figure 5-26). The 16 bits for the port address and 2-byte link address are provided from the z
Systems CU link definition by using HCD and IOCP.

Figure 5-26 Two cascaded directors and FICON addressing

As a footnote, FCP connectivity is device-centric and defined in the fabric by using the WWPN
of the devices that are allowed to communicate. When an FCP device attaches to the fabric, it
queries the name server for the list of devices that it is allowed to form connections with (that
is, the zoning information). FICON devices do not query the name server for accessible
devices because the allowable port and device relationships are defined on the host.
Therefore, the zoning and name server information does not need to be retrieved.

5.4 Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop protocols

To support the shared behavior of Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL), many
loop-specific protocols are used. These protocols are used in the following ways:

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Initialize the loop and assign addresses.

Arbitrate for access to the loop.
Open a loop circuit with another port in the loop.
Close a loop circuit when two ports complete their current use of the loop.
Implement the access fairness mechanism to ensure that each port has an opportunity to
access the loop.

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5.4.1 Fairness algorithm

The way that the fairness algorithm works is based around the IDLE ordered set and the way
that arbitration is performed. To determine that the loop is not in use, an NL_port waits until it
sees an IDLE go by and it can arbitrate for the loop by sending an arbitrate primitive signal
(ARB) ordered set. If a higher-priority device arbitrates before the first NL_port sees its own
ARB come by, it loses the arbitration. But, if it sees that its own ARB went all the way around
the loop, it won arbitration. It can then open a communication to another NL_port. When it
finishes, it can close the connection and either arbitrate for the loop or send one or more
IDLEs. If it complies with the fairness algorithm, it takes the option of sending IDLEs. That
action forces lower-priority NL_ports to successfully arbitrate for sending IDLEs, which allows
lower-priority NL_ports to successfully arbitrate for the loop. However, no forces any device to
operate the fairness algorithm.

5.4.2 Loop addressing

An NL_port, like an N_port, has a 24-bit port address. If no switch connection exists, the two
upper bytes of this port address are zeros (x00 00) and referred to as a private loop. The
devices on the loop have no connection with the outside world. If the loop is attached to a
fabric and the NL_port supports a fabric login, the upper 2 bytes are assigned a positive value
by the switch. We call this mode a public loop.
Because fabric-capable NL_ports are members of both a local loop and a greater fabric
community, a 24-bit address is needed as an identifier in the network. If a public loop
assignment exists, the value of the upper 2 bytes represents the loop identifier. This identifier
is common to all NL_ports on the same loop that logged in to the fabric.
In both public and private arbitrated loops, the last byte of the 24-bit port address refers to the
arbitrated loop physical address (AL_PA). The AL_PA is acquired during initialization of the
loop and might, in fabric-capable loop devices, be modified by the switch during login.
The total number of available AL_PAs for arbitrated loop addressing is 127, which is based on
the requirements of the 8b/10b running disparity between frames.
As a frame terminates with an end-of-frame (EOF) character, the current running disparity is
forced to be negative. In the Fibre Channel standard, each transmission word between the
end of one frame and the beginning of another frame also leaves the running disparity
negative. If all 256 possible 8-bit bytes are sent to the 8b/10b encoder, 134 emerge with
neutral disparity characters. Of these 134, seven are reserved for use by Fibre Channel. The
127 neutral disparity characters that left are assigned as AL_PAs. Stated another way, the
127 AL_PA limit is the maximum number, minus the reserved values, of neutral disparity
addresses that can be assigned for use by the loop. This number does not imply that we
recommend this amount, or load, but only that it is possible.
Arbitrated loop assigns priority to AL_PAs based on numeric value. The lower the numeric
value, the higher the priority.
It is the arbitrated loop initialization that ensures that each attached device is assigned a
unique AL_PA. The possibility for address conflicts arises only when two separated loops are
joined without initialization.
IBM z Systems: IBM System z9 and z Systems servers do not support the arbitrated
loop topology.

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5.5 Fibre Channel port initialization and fabric services

You learned that different port types exist. At a high level, port initialization starts with port
type detection. Then, the speed and active state detection occurs where the speed is
negotiated according to the device that is connected, and then the port initializes to an active
state. In this active state, every F_port and FL_port that has an N_port or NL_port that is
connected, as well as the Extended Link Service (ELS) and the Fibre Channel Common
Transport (FCCT) protocol, are used for further switch-port to node-port communication.
Data flow can happen only after this initialization completes. We now review the services that
are responsible for the port initialization in a fabric switch.
The following three login types are available for fabric devices:
Fabric login (FLOGI)
Port login (PLOGI)
Process login (PRLI)
In addition to these login types, we also describe the roles of other fabric services, such as
the fabric controller, management server, and time server.

5.5.1 Fabric login (FLOGI)

After the fabric-capable Fibre Channel device is attached to a fabric switch, it carries out a
fabric login (FLOGI).
Similar to port login, FLOGI is an extended link service command that sets up a session
between two participants. A session is created between an N_port or NL_port and the switch.
An N_port sends a FLOGI frame that contains its node name, its N_port name, and service
parameters to a well-known address of 0xFFFFFE.
The switch accepts the login and returns an accept (ACC) frame to the sender. If several of
the service parameters that are requested by the N_port or NL_port are not supported, the
switch sets the appropriate bits in the ACC frame to indicate this status.
NL_ports derive their AL_PA during the loop initialization process (LIP). The switch then
decides whether to accept this AL_PA (if this AL_PA does not conflict with any previously
assigned AL_PA on the loop). If not, a new AL_PA is assigned to the NL_port, which then
causes the start of another LIP.

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Figure 5-27 shows nodes that are performing FLOGI.

Figure 5-27 FLOGI of nodes

5.5.2 Port login (PLOGI)

Port login (PLOGI) is used to establish a session between two N_ports. PLOGI is necessary
before any upper-level commands or operations can be performed. During port login, two
N_ports (devices) swap service parameters and make themselves known to each other by
performing a port login to the well-known address of 0xFFFFFC. The device might register
values for all or part of its objects, but the most useful values include the following objects:

Twenty-four-bit port address

Sixty-four-bit port name
Sixty-four-bit node name
Buffer-to-buffer credit capability
Maximum frame size
Class-of-service parameters
FC-4 protocols that are supported
Port type

When the communication parameters and identities of other devices are discovered, they are
able to establish logical sessions between devices (initiator and targets).

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Figure 5-28 shows the PLOGI of a host.

Figure 5-28 Node PLOGI to probe other nodes in the fabric

5.5.3 Process login (PRLI)

The process login (PRLI) is used to set up the environment between related processes on an
originating N_port and a responding N_port. A group of related processes is collectively
known as an image pair. The processes that are involved can be system processes and
system images, such as mainframe logical partitions, control unit images, and FC-4
processes. Use of process login is optional from the perspective of the Fibre Channel FC-2
layer. However, PRLI might be required by a specific upper-level protocol, such as SCSI-FCP
mapping.

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Figure 5-29 shows the PRLI from server to storage.

Figure 5-29 PRLI request from the initiator to the target

5.6 Fabric services

Fabric services are a set of services that are available to all devices that participate in a Fibre
Channel fabric. Fabric services include the following functions:

Management services
Time services
Simple name server
Login services
Registered State Change Notification (RSCN)

These services are implemented by switches and directors that participate in the SAN.
Generally, the services are distributed across all of the devices, and a node can use the
switching device to which it is connected.
All of these services are addressed by FC-2 frames, and they are accessed by well-known

addresses.

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5.6.1 Management server

Management server is an in-band fabric service that allows data to be passed from the device
to management platforms. This data includes information, such as the topology of the SAN. A
critical feature of this service is that it allows management software access to the simple
name server (SNS), bypassing any potential block that is caused by zoning. Therefore, a
management suite can have a view of the entire SAN. The well-known port that is used for the
management server is 0xFFFFFA.

5.6.2 Time server

The time service or time server is provided to serve time information that is sufficient for
managing expiration time. This service is provided at the well-known address identifier,
0xFFFFFB.
The functional model of the time server consists of primarily two entities:
Time Service Application. This entity represents a user that is accessing the time service.
Time Server. This entity provides the time information through the time service.
More than one distributed time server instance can exist within the Fibre Channel network.
However, from the users perspective, the time service seems to come from the entity that is
accessible at the time service well-known address identifier. If the time service is distributed,
it is transparent to the application.

5.6.3 Simple name server

Fabric switches implement a concept that is known as the simple name server (SNS). All
switches in the fabric keep the SNS updated, and they are therefore aware of all devices in
the SNS. After a node successfully logs in to the fabric, it performs a PLOGI into the
well-known address of 0xFFFFFC. This action allows the node to register itself and pass on
critical information, such as class-of-service parameters, its WWN and address, and the
upper layer protocols that it can support.

5.6.4 Fabric login server

To perform a fabric login, a node communicates with the fabric login server at the well-known
address 0xFFFFFE.

5.6.5 Registered state change notification service

The service, registered state change notification (RSCN), is critical because it propagates
information about a change in the state of one node to all other nodes in the fabric. This
communication means that if, for example, a node is shut down, that the other nodes on the
SAN are informed and can take the necessary steps to stop communicating with the
shutdown node. This notification prevents the other nodes from trying to communicate with
the shutdown node that is timing out and trying again.
The nodes register to the fabric controller with a state change registration (SCR) frame. The
fabric controller, which maintains the fabric state with all of the registered device details, alerts
registered devices with an RSCN. This alert is sent whenever any device is added or
removed, a zone changes, a switch IP changes, or a name changes. The fabric controller has
a well-known address of 0xFFFFFD.

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5.7 Routing mechanisms

A complex fabric can be made of interconnected switches and directors, even spanning a
LAN or wide area network (WAN) connection. The challenge is to route the traffic with a
minimum of performance overhead and latency and to prevent an out-of-order delivery of
frames, while the system remains reliable. The following sections describe several of the
mechanisms.

5.7.1 Spanning tree

If a failure occurs, it is important to consider an available alternative path between the source
and destination so that data can still reach its destination. However, the availability of different
paths might lead to the delivery of frames that are out of order. This order might happen
because a frame takes a different path and arrives earlier than one of its predecessors.
A solution, which can be incorporated into the meshed fabric, is called a spanning tree. A
spanning tree is an IEEE 802.1 standard. This concept means that switches stay on certain
paths because the spanning tree protocol blocks certain paths to produce a simply connected
active topology. Then, the shortest path in terms of hops is used to deliver the frames, and
only one path is active at a time. Therefore, all associated frames go over the same path to
the destination. The paths that are blocked can be held in reserve and used only if, for
example, a primary path fails.
The most commonly used path selection protocol is fabric shortest path first (FSPF). This
type of path selection is typically performed at the time of booting, and no configuration is
needed. All paths are established at start time, and reconfiguration takes place only if no ISLs
are broken or added.

5.7.2 Fabric shortest path first

According to the FC-SW-2 standard, fabric shortest path first (FSPF) is a link state path
selection protocol. The concepts that are used in FSPF were first proposed by Brocade, and
they are incorporated into the FC-SW-2 standard. FSPF is used by most, if not all,
manufacturers.

Fabric shortest path first

FSPF tracks the links on all switches in the fabric and associates a cost with each link. The
cost is always calculated as directly proportional to the number of hops. The protocol
computes paths from a switch to all other switches in the fabric by adding the cost of all links
that are traversed by the path, and by choosing the path that minimizes the cost.

How fabric shortest path first works

The collection of link states (including cost) of all switches in a fabric constitutes the topology
database (or link state database). The topology database is kept in all switches in the fabric,
and they are maintained and synchronized to each other. An initial database synchronization
and an update mechanism exist. The initial database synchronization is used when a switch
is initialized, or when an ISL comes up. The update mechanism is used when a link state
changes. This mechanism ensures consistency among all switches in the fabric.

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How fabric shortest path first helps

Where there are multiple routes, FSPF ensures that the route with the lowest number of hops
is used. If all of the hops have the same latency, operate at the same speed, and have no
congestion, FSPF ensures that the frames get to their destinations by the fastest route.

5.8 Zoning
Zoning allows for finer segmentation of the switched fabric. Zoning can be used to instigate a
barrier between different environments. Only the members of the same zone can
communicate within that zone; all other attempts from outside are rejected.
For example, you might want to separate a Microsoft Windows environment from a UNIX
environment because of the manner in which Windows attempts to claim all available storage
for itself. Because not all storage devices can protect their resources from any host that seeks
available resources, a preferred practice is to protect the environment in another manner. We
show an example of zoning in Figure 5-30 where we separate AIX from Windows and create
Zone 1 and Zone 2. This diagram also shows how a device can be in more than one zone.

Figure 5-30 Zoning

Looking at zoning in this way, consider zoning as a security feature and not merely for
separating environments. Zoning can also be used for test and maintenance. For example,
not many enterprises mix their test and maintenance environments with their production
environment. Within a fabric, you can easily separate your test environment from your
production bandwidth allocation on the same fabric by using zoning.

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Figure 5-31 shows an example of zoning:

Server A and Storage A can communicate with each other.

Server B and Storage B can communicate with each other.
Server A cannot communicate with Storage B.
Server B cannot communicate with Storage A.
Both servers and both storage devices can communicate with the tape.

B
A&B

Figure 5-31 Zoning example

Zoning also introduces the flexibility to manage a switched fabric to meet the objectives of
separate user groups.
Zoning can be implemented in the following ways:
Hardware zoning
Software zoning
These forms of zoning are different, but they are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
Depending on the particular manufacturer of the SAN hardware, hardware zones and
software zones can overlap. Although this ability adds to the flexibility, it can complicate the
solution, increasing the need for good management software and SAN documentation.

5.8.1 Hardware zoning

Hardware zoning is based on the physical fabric port number. The members of a zone are
physical ports on the fabric switch. Hardware zoning can be implemented in the following
configurations:
One-to-one
One-to-many
Many-to-many

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123

Figure 5-32 shows an example of zoning that is based on the switch port numbers.

Server A

Server B

ESS A

Server C

Storage
Area
Network

Tape A

ESS B

Tape
TapeB

Figure 5-32 Zoning that is based on the switch port number

In Figure 5-32, zoning is based on the switch port number:

Server A is restricted to see only storage devices that are zoned to port 1: ports 4 and 5.
Server B is also zoned so that it can see only from port 2 to port 6.
Server C is zoned so that it can see both ports 6 and 7, even though port 6 is also a
member of another zone.
A single port can also belong to multiple zones.

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Figure 5-33 shows an example of hardware zoning. This example illustrates another way to
consider the hardware zoning as an array of connections.

Figure 5-33 Hardware zoning

In Figure 5-33, device A can access only storage device A through connection A. Device
B can access only storage device B through connection B.
In a hardware-enforced zone, switch hardware, usually at the application-specific integrated
circuit (ASIC) level, ensures that no data is transferred between unauthorized zone members.
However, devices can transfer data between ports within the same zone. Therefore, hard
zoning provides the highest level of security. The availability of hardware-enforced zoning and
the methods to create hardware-enforced zones depend on the switch hardware.
One disadvantage of hardware zoning is that devices must be connected to a specific port,
and the whole zoning configuration can become unusable when the device is connected to a
different port. In cases where the device connections are not permanent, the use of software
zoning is likely to simplify your configuration.
The advantage of hardware zoning is that it can be implemented into a routing engine by
filtering. As a result, this type of zoning has a low effect on the performance of the routing
process.
If possible, the designer can include several unused ports in a hardware zone. Therefore, if a
particular port fails, perhaps because of a gigabit interface converter (GBIC) or transceiver
problem, the cable can be moved to a different port in the same zone. Therefore, the zone
does not need to be reconfigured.

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5.8.2 Software zoning

Software zoning is implemented by the fabric operating systems within the fabric switches.
Software zoning is almost always implemented by a combination of the name server and the
Fibre Channel Protocol. When a port contacts the name server, the name server replies only
with information about the ports in the same zone as the requesting port. A soft zone, or
software zone, is not enforced by hardware. Therefore, if a frame is incorrectly delivered
(addressed) to a port that it was not intended for, the frame is delivered to that port. This type
of zoning is in contrast to hard zones.
When you use software zoning, the members of the zone can be defined by using their
WWNs:
Node WWN
Port WWN
Usually, with zoning software, you can create symbolic names for the zone members and for
the zones themselves. Working with the symbolic name or aliases for a device is often easier
than trying to use the WWN address.
The number of possible members in a zone is limited only by the amount of memory in the
fabric switch. A member can belong to multiple zones. You can define multiple sets of zones
for the fabric, but only one set can be active at any time. You can activate another zone set
any time that you want, without needing to power down the switch.
With software zoning, you do not need to worry about the physical connections to the switch.
If you use WWNs for the zone members, even when a device is connected to another physical
port, it remains in the same zoning definition because the WWN of the device remains the
same. The zone follows the WWN.
Important: Do not worry about your physical connections to the switch when you use
software zoning. However, this statement does not mean that if you unplug a device, such
as a disk subsystem, and you plug it into another switch port, that your host is still able to
communicate with your disks. That is, you cannot assume that your host is still able to
communicate until you either reboot or unload, and load your operating system device
definitions, even if the device remains a member of that particular zone. The connection
depends on the components that you use in your environment, such as the operating
system and multipath software.

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Figure 5-34 shows an example of WWN-based zoning. In this example, symbolic names are
defined for each WWN in the SAN to implement the same zoning requirements that were
shown in Figure 5-32 on page 124 for port zoning:
Zone_1 contains the aliases alex, ben, and sam, and it is restricted to only these devices.
Zone_2 contains the aliases robyn and ellen, and it is restricted to only these devices.
Zone_3 contains the aliases matthew, max, and ellen, and it is restricted to only these
devices.

Server A

alex

ESS A

Server B

Server C

robyn

matthew

Storage
Area
Network

ben

max ESS B

sam

ellen

Tape A

Tape
TapeB

Zone
Name
Zone_1
Zone_2
Zone_3

Aliases
alex, ben, sam
robyn, ellen
matthew, max, ellen

Alias

WWPN

robyn
alex
matthew
ben
sam
max
ellen

50:05:76:ab:cd:22:03:65
50:05:76:ab:cd:12:06:92
50:05:76:ab:cd:24:05:94
50:05:76:ab:cd:20:09:91
50:05:76:ab:cd:23:05:93
50:05:76:ab:cd:02:05:94
50:05:76:ab:cd:20:08:90

Figure 5-34 Zoning that is based on the WWNs of the devices

The following security leaks are possible with software zoning:

When a specific host logs in to the fabric and asks for available storage devices, the
simple name server (SNS) looks in the software zoning table to see the allowable devices.
The host sees only the storage devices that are defined in the software zoning table. But,
the host can connect directly to the storage device, by using device discovery, without
asking SNS for the information.
A device can define the WWN that it uses, rather than using the WWN that is designated
by the manufacturer of the HBA. This concept is known as WWN spoofing. An unknown
server can masquerade as a trusted server and therefore gain access to data on a
particular storage device. Certain fabric operating systems allow the fabric administrator to
prevent this risk by allowing the WWN to be tied to a particular port.
Any device that does any form of probing for WWNs is able to discover devices and talk to
them. A simple analogy is that of an unlisted telephone number. Although the telephone
number is not publicly available, nothing stops a person from dialing that number, whether
by design or accident. The same is true for the WWN. Certain devices randomly probe for
WWNs to see whether they can start a conversation with them.

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Many switch vendors offer hardware-enforced WWN zoning, which can prevent this security
exposure. Hardware-enforced zoning uses hardware mechanisms to restrict access rather
than relying on the servers to follow the Fibre Channel Protocols.
Software zoning: When a device logs in to a software-enforced zone, it queries the name
server for devices within the fabric. If zoning is in effect, only the devices in the same zone
or zones are returned. Other devices are hidden from the name server query reply. When
you use software-enforced zones, the switch does not control data transfer, and no
guarantee exists for data that is transferred from unauthorized zone members. Use
software zoning where flexibility and security are ensured by the cooperating hosts.

Frame filtering
Zoning is a fabric management service that can be used to create logical subsets of devices
within a SAN. This service can also enable the partitioning of resources for management and
access control. Frame filtering is another feature that enables devices to provide zoning
functions with finer granularity. Frame filtering can be used to set up port-level zoning, WWN
zoning, device-level zoning, protocol-level zoning, and logical unit number (LUN)-level
zoning. Frame filtering is commonly performed by an application-specific integrated circuit
(ASIC). Use this configuration, after the filter is set up, to achieve the complicated function of
zoning and filtering at wire speed.

5.8.3 Logical unit number masking

The term logical unit number (LUN) was originally used to represent the entity within a SCSI
target that runs I/Os. A single SCSI device typically has only a single LUN, but certain
devices, such as tape libraries, might have more than one LUN.
With storage arrays, the array makes virtual disks available to the servers. These virtual disks
are identified by LUNs.
More than one host can see the same storage device or LUN. This capability is potentially a
problem, both from a practical and a security perspective. Another approach to securing
storage devices from hosts that want to take over already assigned resources is
LUN masking. Every storage device offers its resources to the hosts with LUNs.
For example, each partition in the storage server has its own LUN. If the host server wants to
access the storage, it must request access to the LUN in the storage device. The purpose of
LUN masking is to control access to the LUNs. The storage device itself accepts or rejects
access requests from different hosts.
The user defines the hosts can access specific LUN with the storage device control program.
Whenever the host accesses a particular LUN, the storage device checks its access list for
that LUN. And, the storage device allows or prevents access to the LUN.

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Chapter 6.

Storage area network as a

service for cloud computing
Although information can be your greatest asset, it can also be your greatest challenge as
you struggle to keep up with explosive data growth. More data means more storage and more
pressure to install another rack in the data center.
Cloud computing offers a new way to achieve solutions with significant cost savings and high
reliability.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

129

6.1 The cloud

Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access
to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (for example: networks, servers,
storage, applications, and services). These resources can be rapidly provisioned and
released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. Figure 6-1 shows an
overview of cloud computing.

Servers

Application

Laptops

Monitoring
Content

Collaboration
Communication

Finance

Platform

Identity
Object Storage

Desktops

Runtime

Queue

Database

Infrastructure
Compute
Phones

Network
Block Storage

Tablets

Cloud Computing
Figure 6-1 Cloud computing overview

Cloud computing provides computation, software, data access, and storage services that do
not require user knowledge of the physical location and configuration of the system that
delivers the services. Parallels to this concept can be drawn with the electricity grid, wherein
users use power without needing to understand the component devices or the infrastructure
that is required to provide the service.
Cloud computing describes a new consumption and delivery model for IT services, and it
typically involves provisioning of dynamically scalable and virtualized resources. The cloud
introduces three key concepts: cost savings, service reliability, and infrastructure flexibility.
To cater to the increasing, on-demand needs of business, IT services and infrastructures are
moving rapidly toward a flexible utility and consumer model by adopting new technologies.
One of these technologies is virtualization. Cloud computing is an example of a virtual,
flexible delivery model. Inspired by consumer Internet services, cloud computing puts the
user in the drivers seat; that is, users can use Internet offerings and services by using this
self-service, on-demand model.

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Cloud computing can potentially affect your business dramatically by providing the following
benefits:

Reducing IT labor costs for configuration, operations, management, and monitoring

Improving capital utilization and significantly reducing license costs
Reducing provisioning cycle times from weeks to minutes
Improving quality and eliminating many software defects
Reducing user IT support costs

From a technical perspective, cloud computing enables these capabilities, among others:
Abstraction of resources
Dynamic right-sizing
Rapid provisioning

6.1.1 Private and public cloud

A cloud can be private or public. A public cloud sells services to anyone on the Internet. A
private cloud is a proprietary network or a data center that supplies hosted services to a
limited number of people. When a service provider uses public cloud resources to create their
private cloud, the result is called a virtual private cloud. Whether private or public, the goal of
cloud computing is to provide easy, scalable access to computing resources and IT services.
A cloud has four basic components (Figure 6-2).

Cloud Services
Cloud Infrastructure
Cloud Platform
SAN and Storage

Figure 6-2 Cloud computing components

6.1.2 Cloud computing components

We describe the cloud computing components, or layers, in our model.

Cloud Services
This layer is the service that is delivered to the client. It can be an application, a desktop, a
server, or disk storage space. The client does not need to know where or how their service is
running; they just use it.

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Cloud Infrastructure
This layer can be difficult to visualize depending on the final delivered service. If the final
service is a chat application, the cloud infrastructure is the servers on which the chat
application is running. In the other case, if the final service is a virtualized server, the cloud
infrastructure is all of the other servers that are required to provide a server as a service to
the client. Examples of these types of servers include a domain name server (DNS), security
services, and management.

Cloud Platform
This layer consists of the selected platform to build the cloud. Many vendors exist, such as
IBM Smart Business Storage Cloud, VMware vSphere, Microsoft Hyper V, and Citrix Xen
Server, which are well-known cloud solutions in the market.

SAN and storage

This layer is where information flows and lives. Without it, nothing can happen. Depending on
the cloud design, the storage can be any of the previously presented solutions, for example:

Direct-attached storage (DAS)

Network-attached storage (NAS)
Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI)
Storage area network (SAN)
Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE)

For this book, we describe Fibre Channel or FCoE for networking and compatible storage
devices.

6.1.3 Cloud computing models

Although cloud computing is still a relatively new technology, three cloud service models
exist, each with a unique focus. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) defined the following cloud service models:
Software as a service (SaaS)
This capability is provided to the consumer to use the applications that a provider runs on
a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through
a thin client interface, such as a web browser (for example, web-based email). The
consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure, including the
network, servers, operating systems (OS), storage, or even individual application
capabilities. One possible exception is for the consumer to continue to control limited
user-specific application configuration settings.
Platform as a service (PaaS)
This capability is provided to the consumer to deploy consumer-created or acquired
applications onto the cloud infrastructure. Examples of these types of applications include
those applications that are created by using programming languages and tools that are
supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud
infrastructure, including the network, servers, operating systems, or storage. But, the
consumer controls the deployed applications and possibly application-hosting
environment configurations.

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 Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)

This capability is provided to the consumer to provision processing, storage, networks,
and other fundamental computing resources where the consumer is able to deploy and
run arbitrary software. These resources can include operating systems and applications.
The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure, but the
consumer controls the operating systems, storage, and deployed applications. The
consumer might also have limited control of select networking components (for example,
hosts).
In addition, NIST also defined the following models for deploying cloud services:
Private cloud
The cloud infrastructure is owned or leased by a single organization and operated solely
for that organization.
Community cloud
The cloud infrastructure is shared by several organizations and supports a specific
community that shares, for example, mission, security requirements, policy, and
compliance considerations.
Public cloud
The cloud infrastructure is owned by an organization that sells cloud services to the
general public or to a large industry group.
Hybrid cloud
The cloud infrastructure is a composition of two or more clouds (internal, community, or
public) that remain unique entities. However, these entities are bound together by
standardized or proprietary technology that enables data and application portability, for
example, cloud bursting.
Figure 6-3 shows cloud computing deployment models.

Figure 6-3 Cloud computing deployment models

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From a storage perspective, IBM clients, based on their business requirements, can choose
to adopt either a public or private storage cloud. The following definitions describe these types
of storage clouds:
Public storage cloud
This type is designed for clients who do not want to own, manage, or maintain the storage
environment, therefore reducing their capital and operational expenditures for storage.
IBM dictates the choice of technology and cloud location, shared infrastructure with
variable monthly charges, dynamic physical capacity at the client level, and security
measures to isolate client data. The public storage cloud allows for variable billing options
and shared tenancy of the storage cloud, giving clients the flexibility to manage the use
and growth of their storage needs. This type is the industry-standard view of a storage
cloud offering and comparable to storage cloud offerings by other vendors.
Private storage cloud
With a private storage cloud, clients have the choice of technology and location on a
dedicated infrastructure with fixed monthly charges and a physical capacity that is
manageable by the client. Each application can use dynamic capacity by sharing the cloud
storage among multiple applications.
Private storage cloud solution technology and services from IBM address multiple areas of
functionality. For more information, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/cloud-computing/us/en/

6.2 Virtualization and the cloud

When people talk about virtualization, they are typically referring to server virtualization,
which means partitioning one physical server into several virtual servers, or machines. Each
virtual machine can interact independently with other devices, applications, data, and users
as though it were a separate physical resource.
Different virtual machines (VMs) can run different operating systems and multiple applications
while they share the resources of a single physical computer. And, because each virtual
machine is isolated from other virtualized machines, if one virtual machine crashes, it does
not affect the other virtual machines.

Hypervisor software is the secret that makes virtualization possible. This software sits
between the hardware and the operating system, and decouples the operating system and
applications from the hardware. The hypervisor assigns the amount of access that the
operating systems and applications have with the processor and other hardware resources,
such as memory and disk input/output (I/O).
In addition to using virtualization technology to partition one machine into several virtual
machines, you can also use virtualization solutions to combine multiple physical resources
into a single virtual resource. A good example of this solution is storage virtualization. This
type of virtualization is where multiple network storage resources are pooled into what is
displayed as a single storage device for easier and more efficient management of these
resources.

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Other types of virtualization you might hear about include the following examples:
Network virtualization splits available bandwidth in a network into independent channels
that can be assigned to specific servers or devices.
Application virtualization separates applications from the hardware and the operating
system, putting them in a container that can be relocated without disrupting other systems.
Desktop virtualization enables a centralized server to deliver and manage individualized
desktops remotely. This type of virtualization gives users a full client experience. IT staff
can provision, manage, upgrade, and patch desktops virtually, instead of physically.
Virtualization was first introduced in the 1960s by IBM. It was designed to boost the utilization
of large, expensive mainframe systems by partitioning them into logical, separate virtual
machines to run multiple applications and processes at the same time. In the 1980s and
1990s, this centrally shared mainframe model gave way to a distributed, client/server
computing model, in which many low-cost x86 servers and desktops independently run
specific applications.

6.2.1 Cloud infrastructure virtualization

This type consists of virtualizing three key parts: servers, desktops, or applications. The
virtualization concept that is used for servers and desktops is almost the same, but for
applications, the concept is different.
Virtualizing servers and desktops basically takes physical computers and makes them virtual.
To make virtualization possible, a cloud platform is required. We show the traditional physical
environment in Figure 6-4. This model shows where one application maps to one operating
system (OS), and one OS to one physical server, and one physical server to one storage
system.

Figure 6-4 Traditional physical environment model

6.2.2 Cloud platforms

A platform places multiple virtual servers in a single physical computer. This platform is called
the hypervisor. This platform is a layer in the computer stack between the virtual and physical
components.

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Four core concepts exist in virtualization:

Encapsulation
The entire machine becomes a set of files, and these files contain the operating system
and application files, plus the virtual machine configuration. The virtual machine files can
be managed the same way that you manage other files.
Isolation
Virtual machines that run on a hardware platform cannot see or affect each other, so
multiple applications can run securely on a single server.
Partitioning
VMware, for example, divides and actively manages the physical resources in the server
to maintain optimum allocation.
Hardware independence
The hypervisor provides a layer between the operating systems and hardware. This layer
allows hardware from multiple vendors to run on the same physical resource, if the server
is on the vendors hardware compatibility list (or a similar list). For more information, see
the specific vendors website.
Figure 6-5 shows the virtualized environment.

Figure 6-5 Virtualized environment model

Server virtualization
Three popular approaches to server virtualization are available:
Virtual machine model
Paravirtual machine model
Virtualization at the operating system layer

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Virtual machines (VMs) are based on the host/guest design. Each guest runs on a virtual
implementation of the hardware layer. This approach allows the guest operating system to run
without modifications. This way, the administrator can create guests that use different
operating systems. The guest has no knowledge of the host operating system because the
guest is unaware that it is not running on real hardware. This model, however, requires real
computing resources from the host so this model uses a hypervisor to coordinate instructions
to the CPU.
The paravirtual machine (PVM) model is also based on the host/guest design, and it uses a
virtual machine monitor (VMM). In the paravirtual machine model, however, the VMM actually
modifies the code of the guest operating system. This modification is called porting. Porting
supports the VMM so that the VMM can use privileged system calls sparingly. Paravirtual
machines also can run multiple operating systems. Xen and Unified Modeling Language
(UML) both use the paravirtual machine model.
Virtualization at the OS level works slightly differently. It is not based on the host/guest
design. In the OS level model, the host runs a single OS kernel as its core and exports the
operating system functionality to each of the guests. Guests must use the same operating
system as the host, although different distributions of the same system are allowed. This
distributed architecture eliminates system calls between layers, reducing CPU usage
overhead. This model also requires each partition to remain strictly isolated from its neighbors
so that a failure or security breach in one partition is unable to affect any of the other
partitions. In this model, common binary files and libraries on the same physical machine can
be shared, allowing an OS-level virtual server to host thousands of guests at the same time.
IBM AIX virtual I/O (VIO) and Solaris Zones both use OS-level virtualization.

Desktop Virtualization
Desktop virtualization is sometimes referred to as client virtualization. Desktop virtualization
is defined as a virtualization technology that is used to separate a computer desktop
environment from the physical computer. Desktop virtualization is considered a type of
client/server computing model because the virtualized desktop is stored on a centralized, or
remote, server and not on the physical machine that is virtualized.
Desktop virtualization virtualizes desktop computers. These virtual desktop environments are
served to users in the network. Users interact with a virtual desktop in the same way that
they access and use a physical desktop. Another benefit of desktop virtualization is that you
can log in remotely to access your desktop from any location.
One of the most popular uses of desktop virtualization is in the data center, where
personalized desktop images for each user are hosted on a data center server.
Also, options are available for using hosted virtual desktops, where the desktop virtualization
services are provided to a business through a third party. The service provider provides the
managed desktop configuration, security, and SAN.

Application Virtualization
Application virtualization is similar to desktop virtualization, where individual desktop
sessions (OS and applications) are virtualized and run from a centralized server. However,
application virtualization virtualizes the applications so that an application can either be run
from a centralized server or streamed from a central server and run in an isolated
environment on the desktop.

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In the first type of application virtualization, the application image is loaded on to a central
server. When a user requests the application, the application is streamed to an isolated
environment on the users computer for execution. The application starts running shortly after
it gets sufficient data to start running, and because the application is isolated from other
applications, conflicts are less likely. The applications that can be downloaded can be
restricted based on the user ID, which is established by logging in to corporate directories,
such as Active Directory (AD) or Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP).
In the second type of application virtualization, the applications are loaded as an image in
remote servers and the applications are run (executed) in the servers. Only the on-screen
information that is required to be seen by the user is sent over the LAN. This type of
application virtualization is closer to desktop virtualization, but only the application is
virtualized instead of both the application and the operating system. The greatest advantage
of this type of application virtualization is that it does not matter what the underlying OS is in
the users computer because the applications are processed in the server. Another advantage
is the effectiveness of mobile devices, such as mobile phones and tablet computers, with less
processing power when the user runs applications that require significant processing
capabilities. These applications are processed in the powerful processors of the servers.

6.2.3 Storage virtualization

Storage virtualization refers to the abstraction of storage systems from applications or
computers. Storage virtualization is a foundation for the implementation of other technologies,
such as thin provisioning, tiering, and data protection, which are transparent to the server.
Storage virtualization offers several advantages:
Improved physical resource usage: By consolidating and virtualizing storage systems,
previously wasted white space can be used.
Improved responsiveness and flexibility: By decoupling physical storage from virtual
storage, you can reallocate resources dynamically, as required by the applications or
storage subsystems.
Lower total cost of ownership (TCO): Virtualized storage offers more capability with the
same or less storage.
Several types of storage virtualization are available.

Block-level storage virtualization

Block-level storage virtualization refers to provisioning storage to your operating systems or
applications in the form of virtual disks. Fibre Channel (FC) and Internet Small Computer
System Interface (iSCSI) are examples of protocols that are used by this type of storage
virtualization.
Two types of block-level virtualization are available:
Disk-level virtualization
Disk-level virtualization is an abstraction process from a physical disk to a logical unit
number (LUN) that is presented as a physical device.
Storage-level virtualization
Unlike disk-level virtualization, storage-level virtualization hides the physical layer of
Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) controllers and disks, and hides and
virtualizes the entire storage system.

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File-level storage virtualization

File-level storage virtualization refers to provisioning storage volumes to operating systems
or applications in the form of files and directories. Access to storage is by network protocols,
such as Common Internet File Systems (CIFS) and Network File Systems (NFS). File-level
storage virtualization is a file presentation in a single global namespace, regardless of the
physical file location.

Tape virtualization
Tape virtualization refers to the virtualization of tapes and tape drives that use specialized
hardware and software. This type of virtualization can enhance backup and restore flexibility
and performance because disk devices are used in the virtualization process, rather than
tape media.

6.3 SAN virtualization

For SAN virtualization, we describe the available virtualization features in the IBM Storage
portfolio. These features enable the SAN infrastructure to support the requirements of
scalability and consolidation, combining them with a lower TCO and a higher return on
investment (ROI):
IBM b-type Virtual Fabrics
CISCO Virtual SAN (VSAN)
N_Port ID Virtualization (NPIV) support for virtual nodes

6.3.1 IBM b-type Virtual Fabrics

The Virtual Fabric of the IBM b-type switches is a licensed feature that enables the logical
partitioning of SAN switches. When Virtual Fabric is enabled, a default logical switch that uses
all of the ports is formed. This default logical switch can be then divided into multiple logical
switches by grouping them together at a port level.
Figure 6-6 shows the flow of Virtual Fabric creation.

Figure 6-6 Virtual Fabric creation

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Logical fabric
When the fabric is formed with at least one logical switch, the fabric is called a logical fabric.
Two methods of fabric connectivity are available for logical fabrics:
A logical fabric is connected with a dedicated inter-switch link (ISL) to another switch or a
logical switch. Figure 6-7 shows a logical fabric that is formed between logical switches
through a dedicated ISL for logical switches.

Figure 6-7 Logical fabrics with dedicated ISL

Logical fabrics are connected by using a shared ISL, which is called an extended ISL
(XISL), from a base logical switch. In this case, the separate logical switch is configured as
a base switch. This separate logical switch is used only for XISL connectivity and not for
device connectivity. Figure 6-8 shows a logical fabric that is formed through the XISL in the
base switch.

Figure 6-8 Logical ISL formed through the XISL in the base switch

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6.3.2 Cisco virtual storage area network

Cisco virtual storage area network (VSAN) is a feature that enables the logical partition of
SAN switches. A VSAN provides the flexibility to partition, for example, a dedicated VSAN for
disk and tape. Or, a VSAN can provide the flexibility to maintain production and test devices in
separate VSANs on the same chassis. Also, the VSAN can scale across the chassis, which
allows it to overcome the fixed port numbers on the chassis.

Virtual storage area network in a single storage area network switch

With VSAN, you can consolidate small fabrics into the same chassis. This consolidation can
also enable more security by the logical separation of the chassis into two individual VSANs.
Figure 6-9 shows a single chassis that is divided into two logical VSANs.

Figure 6-9 Two VSANs in a single chassis

Virtual storage area network across multiple chassis

In multiple chassis, the virtual storage area network (VSAN) can be formed with devices in
one chassis to devices in another switch chassis through the extended inter-switch link
(XISL).

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Figure 6-10 shows the VSAN across chassis with an enhanced inter-switch link (EISL) for
VSAN communication.

Figure 6-10 VSAN across multiple chassis

6.3.3 N_Port ID Virtualization

Server virtualization with blade servers provides enhanced scalability of servers. This
scalability is supported equally in the SAN with N_Port ID Virtualization (NPIV). NPIV allows
SAN switches to have one port that is shared by many virtual nodes, therefore, supporting a
single HBA with many virtual nodes.

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Figure 6-11 shows sharing a single HBA by multiple virtual nodes. In this case, the same HBA
is defined with multiple virtual worldwide node names (WWNNs) and worldwide port names
(WWPNs).

Figure 6-11 Single HBA with multiple virtual nodes

NPIV mode of blade server switch modules

On blade servers, when they are enabled with the NPIV mode, the FC switch modules that
connect to an external SAN switch for access to storage act as an HBA N_port (instead of a
switch E_port). The back-end ports are F_ports that connect to server blade modules.

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Figure 6-12 shows the switch module in the NPIV mode.

Figure 6-12 Blade server with FC switch module in the NPIV mode

With the NPIV mode, we can overcome the interoperability issues of merging external
switches that might come from separate vendors to the blade server switch module. Also,
management is easier because the blade switch module becomes a node in the fabric. And,
we can overcome the scalability limitations of many switch domains for a switch module in
blade servers.

6.4 Building a smarter cloud

Storage-as-a-Service (SaaS) is a business model in which a large company rents space in
their storage infrastructure to a smaller company or individual. It is a good alternative when a
small business lacks the capital budget or technical personnel to implement and maintain
their own storage infrastructure. In certain circumstances, SaaS is promoted as a way for all
businesses to mitigate risks in disaster recovery, provide long-term retention for records, and
enhance both business continuity and availability.

6.4.1 Automated tiering

In modern and complex application environments, the increasing and often unpredictable
demands for storage capacity and performance lead to relevant issues in terms of the
planning and optimization of storage resources.
Most of these issues can be managed by ensuring that spare resources are available and by
moving data, by using data mobility tools, or by using operating system features (such as
host-level mirroring). However, all of these corrective actions are expensive in terms of
hardware resources, labor, and service availability. Relocating data among the physical
storage resources dynamically, that is, transparently to hosts, is becoming increasingly
important.
IBM Storage Solutions offer two types of automated tiering.

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Automated tiering to optimize performance

The IBM Easy Tier feature, which is available with the IBM DS8000, SAN Volume Controller,
and Storwize V7000, provides performance optimization. Easy Tier is a built-in, dynamic data
relocation feature that provides optimal performance at the lowest cost. Easy Tier is designed
to determine the appropriate tier of storage to use, based on data access patterns. Then,
Easy Tier automatically and nondisruptively moves data, at the sub-LUN or subvolume level,
to the appropriate disk tier.

Automated tiering to optimize space management

The ability to optimize space management is an information lifecycle management (ILM)
function that is available, for instance, with Scale Out Network Attached Storage and with
hierarchical storage management (HSM). Examples include functions that are provided by
IBM Tivoli Storage Manager and IBM Data Facility Storage Management System (DFSMS)
Hierarchical Storage Management (DFSMShsm).
Policy-based automation is used to migrate less active data to lower-cost storage.

6.4.2 Thin provisioning

Traditional storage provisioning pre-allocates and dedicates physical storage space for use by
the application or host. However, often not all space that is allocated to applications is
needed, resulting in wasted white space.

Thin provisioning allows a server to see logical volume sizes that are larger than the physical
capacity that is dedicated to the volumes on the storage system. From the servers or
applications perspective, thinly provisioned volumes are displayed and function the same as
fully provisioned volumes. However, physical disk drive capacity is allocated only as needed
(on demand) for write activity to the volumes. Deallocated physical capacity is available for
use as needed by all volumes in a storage pool or even across an entire storage system.
Thin provisioning offers these advantages:
It allows higher storage systems utilization, which in turn leads to a reduction in the
amount of storage that you need, lowering your direct capital expenditure (CAPEX).
It lowers your operational expenditure (OPEX) because your storage occupies less data
center space and requires less electricity and cooling.
It postpones the need to buy more storage. And, as storage prices continue to drop over
time, when you require more capacity, the storage will likely cost less.
Capacity planning is simplified because you can manage a single pool of free storage.
Multiple applications or users can allocate storage from the same free pool, avoiding the
situation where certain volumes are capacity-constrained and other volumes have spare
capacity.
Your storage environment becomes more agile, and it is easier to react to change.

Thin provisioning increases utilization ratios

Thin provisioning increases storage efficiency by increasing storage utilization ratios. Real
physical capacity is provided only as it is needed for writing data. Large potential savings can
result in both storage acquisition and operational costs, including infrastructure costs, such as
power, space, and cooling.

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Storage utilization is measured by comparing the amount of physical capacity that is used for
data with the total amount of physical capacity that is allocated to a server. Historically,
utilization ratios were under 50%, indicating a large amount of allocated but unused physical
storage capacity. Often, the users and storage administrators are uncertain how much
capacity is needed. However, they must ensure that they do not run out of space, and they
also must allow for growth. As a result, users might request more capacity than they need and
storage administrators might allocate more capacity than is requested, resulting in a
significant over-allocation of storage capacity.
Thin provisioning increases storage utilization ratios by reducing the need to over-allocate
physical storage capacity to prevent out-of-space conditions. Large logical or virtual volume
sizes might be created and presented to applications without dedicating an equivalent
amount of physical capacity. Physical capacity can be allocated on demand as needed for
writing data. Deallocated physical capacity is available for multiple volumes in a storage pool
or across the entire storage system.
Thin provisioning also increases storage efficiency by reducing the need to resize volumes or
add volumes and restripe data as capacity requirements grow. Without thin provisioning, if an
application requires capacity beyond the capacity that is provided by its current set of
volumes, two options are available:
Existing volumes might be increased in size.
Additional volumes might be provisioned.
In many environments, these options are challenging because of the required steps and
potential disruption to make the volumes larger or additional volumes visible and optimized for
the application.
With thin provisioning, large virtual or logical volumes might be created and presented to
applications while the associated physical capacity grows only as needed, transparent to the
application.
Without thin provisioning, physical capacity was dedicated at the time of volume creation, and
storage systems typically did not display or report how much of the dedicated physical
capacity was used for data. As storage systems implemented thin provisioning, physical
allocation and usage became visible. Thin provisioning increases storage efficiency by
making it easy to see the amount of physical capacity that is needed and used because
physical space is not allocated until it is needed for data.

6.4.3 Data deduplication

Data deduplication emerged as a key technology to dramatically reduce the amount of space
and the cost that are associated with storing large amounts of data. Data deduplication is the
art of intelligently reducing storage needs in order of magnitude. This method is better than
common data compression techniques. Data deduplication works through the elimination of
redundant data so that only one instance of a data set is stored.
IBM has the broadest portfolio of data deduplication solutions in the industry, which gives IBM
the freedom to solve client issues with the most effective technology. Whether it is source or
target, inline or post, hardware or software, disk or tape, IBM has a solution with the
technology that best solves the problem:
IBM ProtecTIER Gateway and Appliance
IBM System Storage N series Deduplication
IBM Tivoli Storage Manager

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Data deduplication is a technology that reduces the amount of space that is required to store
data on disk. It achieves this space reduction by storing a single copy of data that is backed
up repetitively.
Data deduplication products read data while they look for duplicate data. Data deduplication
products break up data into elements and create a signature or identifier for each data
element. Then, they compare the data element signature to identify duplicate data. After they
identify duplicate data, they retain one copy of each element. They create pointers for the
duplicate items, and discard the duplicate items.
The effectiveness of data deduplication depends on many variables, including the rate of data
change, the number of backups, and the data retention period. For example, if you back up
the same incompressible data one time a week for six months, you save the first copy and you
do not save the next 24. This method provides a 25:1 data deduplication ratio. If you back up
an incompressible file on week one, back up the exact same file again on week two, and
never back it up again, this method provides a 2:1 data deduplication ratio. A more likely
scenario is that a portion of your data changes from backup to backup so that your data
deduplication ratio changes over time. With data deduplication, you can minimize your
storage requirements.
Data deduplication can provide greater data reduction and storage space savings than other
existing technologies.
Figure 6-13 shows the concept of data deduplication.

Figure 6-13 The concept of data deduplication

Data deduplication can reduce your storage requirements but the benefit you derive is
determined by your data and your backup policies. Workloads with a high database content
have the highest data deduplication ratios. However, product functions, such as IBM Tivoli
Storage Manager Progressive Incremental or Oracle Recovery Manager (RMAN), can reduce
the data deduplication ratio. Compressed, encrypted, or otherwise scrambled workloads
typically do not benefit from data deduplication. Good candidates for data deduplication are
text files, log files, uncompressed and non-encrypted database files, email files (PST, DBX,
and IBM Domino), and Snapshots (Filer Snaps, BCVs, and VMware images).

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Types of data deduplication and IBM HyperFactor

Many vendors offer data deduplication products. Various methods are available to
deduplicate data. The following three methods are used frequently for data deduplication:
Hash-based data deduplication uses a hashing algorithm to identify chunks of data.
Secure Hash Algorithm 1 (SHA-1) or Message-Digest Algorithm 5 (MDA-5) is commonly
used. The details of each technique are beyond the intended scope of this publication.
Content-aware data deduplication methods are aware of the structure of common patterns
of data that is used by applications. The content-aware data deduplication method
assumes that the best candidate to deduplicate against is an object with the same
properties, such as a file name. When a file match is identified, a bit-by-bit comparison is
performed to determine whether data changed and the changed data is saved.
IBM HyperFactor is a patented technology that is used in the IBM System Storage
ProtecTIER Enterprise Edition and higher software. HyperFactor takes an approach that
reduces the phenomenon of missed factoring opportunities, providing a more efficient
process. With this approach, HyperFactor can surpass the reduction ratios that are
attainable by any other data reduction method. HyperFactor can reduce any duplicate
data, regardless of its location or how recently it was stored. HyperFactor data
deduplication uses a 4 GB Memory Resident Index to track similarities for up to 1 petabyte
(PB) of physical disk in a single repository.
HyperFactor technology uses a pattern algorithm that can reduce the amount of space that is
required for storage by up to a factor of 25, based on evidence from existing implementations.
The capacity expansion that results from data deduplication is often expressed as a ratio,
essentially the ratio of nominal data to the physical storage that is used.
Figure 6-14 shows the HyperFactor technology.

Figure 6-14 IBM HyperFactor technology

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Data deduplication processing

Data deduplication can either occur while the data is backed up to the storage media
(real-time or inline) or after the data is written to the storage media (post-processing). Each
method contains positive and negative aspects. These considerations must be evaluated by
the engineer or technical specialist that is responsible for the concrete solution architecture
and deployment. IBM decided to use inline data deduplication processing because it offers
larger target storage space without any need of a temporary disk cache pool for
post-processed deduplication data.
Bit comparison techniques, such as the technique that is used by ProtecTIER, were designed
to provide 100% data integrity by avoiding the risk of hash collisions.

6.4.4 New generation management tools

It is paramount that this new virtualized infrastructure is managed by new generation
management tools because older tools generally lack the required features.
When these tools are used correctly, these tools can make the adoption of virtualization
technology easier and more cost-effective. The tools offer the following additional benefits:
Enable line-of-business insight into storage utilization and allocation, enabling easier
departmental charge-back
Offer information for more intelligent business decisions about storage efficiency so that
you can respond faster to changing business demands, yet reduce costs
Provide better understanding of application storage performance and utilization patterns
that enable better information lifecycle management (ILM) of application data
Allow an organization to manage the infrastructure proactively through the correct capacity
management, rather than reactively
Improve operational efficiency that leads to cost savings for the organization

6.4.5 Business continuity and disaster recovery

The importance of business continuity and disaster recovery remains at the forefront of
thought for many executives and IT technical professionals. The most important factor to
consider is how the choice of the technology affects the recovery time objective (RTO). For
SANs, many possible solutions are available. The cloud design drives the selections that can
meet your requirements. You must select a smart cloud that can guarantee business
continuity and address any disaster recovery plans.
Disaster recovery: For more information lessons learned from disaster recovery and
disaster recovery solutions, see IBM Storage Infrastructure for Business Continuity,
REDP-4605:
http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/abstracts/redp4605.html?Open

6.4.6 Storage on demand

Scalable, pay-per-use cloud storage can help you to manage massive data growth and your
storage budget. Massive data growth can lead to a costly procurement cycle with setup costs
and implementation delays every time that more storage is needed. Cloud storage offers you
the ability to expand your storage capacity immediately, and later, to shrink storage
consumption, if necessary.
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Cloud storage provides a ready-made data storage solution that helps in the following areas:

150

Reduce up-front capital expenses

Meet demands without expensive over-provisioning
Supplement other storage systems more cost-effectively
Align data storage costs with business activity
Scale dynamically

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Chapter 7.

Fibre Channel products and

technology
In this chapter, we describe several of the most common Fibre Channel storage area network
(SAN) products and technologies. For a description of the IBM products that are in the IBM
System Storage portfolio, see Chapter 12, IBM Fibre Channel storage area network product
portfolio on page 247.

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151

7.1 The environment

The Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) defines the meaning of SAN,
Fibre Channel, and storage:
Storage area network (SAN)
A network whose primary purpose is the transfer of data between computer systems and
storage elements and among storage elements.
A SAN consists of a communication infrastructure that provides physical connections and
a management layer. This layer organizes the connections, storage elements, and
computer systems so that data transfer is secure and robust. The term SAN is usually (but
not necessarily) identified with block I/O services rather than file access services.
Fibre Channel
A serial I/O interconnect that can support multiple protocols, including access to open
system storage (Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP)), access to mainframe storage (Fibre
Channel connection (FICON)), and networking (TCP/IP). Fibre Channel supports
point-to-point, arbitrated loop, and switched topologies with various copper and optical
links that are running at speeds from 1 gigabit per second (Gbps) to 10 Gbps. The
committee that is standardizing Fibre Channel is the INCITS Fibre Channel (T11)
Technical Committee.
Storage system
A storage system that consists of storage elements, storage devices, computer systems,
and appliances, plus all control software, which communicates over a network.
Storage subsystems, storage devices, and server systems can be attached to a Fibre
Channel SAN. Depending on the implementation, several different components can be used
to build a SAN. These components form a network. Any combination of devices that can
interoperate is likely to be used.
A Fibre Channel network might consist of many types of interconnect entities, including
directors, switches, hubs, routers, gateways, and bridges.
The deployment of these interconnect entities allows Fibre Channel networks of varying scale
to be built. In smaller SAN environments, you can employ hubs for Fibre Channel Arbitrated
loop (FC-AL) topologies, or switches and directors for Fibre Channel switched fabric
topologies. As SANs increase in size and complexity, Fibre Channel directors can be
introduced to facilitate a more flexible and fault-tolerant configuration. Each component that
creates a Fibre Channel SAN provides an individual management capability and participates
in an often complex end-to-end management environment.

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Figure 7-1 shows a generic SAN connection.

Figure 7-1 Generic SAN

7.2 Storage area network devices

A Fibre Channel SAN employs a fabric to connect devices, or end points. A fabric can be as
simple as a single cable that connects two devices, similar to server-attached storage.
However, the term is most often used to describe a more complex network to connect servers
and storage by using switches, directors, and gateways.
Independent from the size of the fabric, a good SAN environment starts with good planning,
and always includes an up-to-date map of the SAN.
Consider the following questions:

How many ports do I need now?

How fast will I grow in two years?
Are my servers and storage in the same building?
Do I need long-distance solutions?
Do I need redundancy for every server or storage device?
How high are my availability needs and expectations?
Will I connect multiple platforms to the same fabric?
What technology do I want to use, FC, Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) or Internet
Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI)?

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7.2.1 Fibre Channel bridges

Fibre Channel bridges allow the integration of traditional SCSI devices in a Fibre Channel
network. Fibre Channel bridges provide the capability for Fibre Channel and SCSI interfaces
to support both SCSI and Fibre Channel devices seamlessly. Therefore, they are often
referred to as FC-SCSI routers.
Data center bridging: Do not confuse Fibre Channel bridges with data center bridging
(DCB), although fundamentally they serve the same purpose, which is to interconnect
different protocols.
A bridge is a device that converts signals and data from one form to another form. You can
imagine these devices in a similar way as the bridges that we use to cross rivers. They act as
a translator (a bridge) between two different protocols. These protocols can include the
following types:

Fibre Channel
Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI)
Serial Storage Architecture (SSA)
Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP)

We do not see many of these devices today, and they are considered historical devices.

7.2.2 Arbitrated loop hubs and switched hubs

Fibre Channel Arbitrated loop (FC-AL) is a Fibre Channel topology in which devices connect
in a one-way loop fashion in a ring topology. This topology is also described in Chapter 5,
Topologies and other fabric services on page 89.

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Figure 7-2 shows an FC-AL topology.

Figure 7-2 Arbitrated loop

In FC-AL, all devices on the loop share the bandwidth. The total number of devices that might
participate in the loop is 126, without using any hubs or fabric. For practical reasons, however,
the number tends to be limited to no more than 10 - 15.
Hubs are typically used in a SAN to attach devices or servers that do not support switched
fabric-only FC-AL. They might be unmanaged hubs, managed hubs, or switched hubs.

Unmanaged hubs serve as cable concentrators and as a means to configure the arbitrated
loop that is based on the connections that it detects. When one of the interfaces, typically a

gigabit interface converter (GBIC), on the hub senses that no cable is connected, that
interface shuts down. The hub port is then bypassed as part of the arbitrated loop
configuration.

Managed hubs offer all of the benefits of unmanaged hubs, but in addition, they offer the
ability to manage them remotely by using Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
By using FC-AL, you can connect many servers and storage devices without using costly
Fibre Channel switches. FC-AL is not used much today because switched fabrics now lead in
the Fibre Channel market.

Switched hubs
Switched hubs allow devices to be connected in their own arbitrated loop. These loops are
then internally connected by a switched fabric.

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A switched hub is useful to connect several FC-AL devices together, but to allow them to
communicate at full Fibre Channel bandwidth rather than all share the bandwidth.
Switched hubs are typically managed hubs.
FC-AL: Originally, FC-AL was described as SCSI on steroids. Although FC-AL has the
bandwidth advantage over SCSI, it does not come anywhere close to the speeds that can
be achieved and sustained on an individual port basis in a switched fabric. For this reason,
FC-AL implementations are, by certain observers, considered historical SANs.

7.2.3 Switches and directors

Switches and directors allow Fibre Channel devices to be connected (cascaded) together,
implementing a switched fabric topology between them. The switch intelligently routes frames
from the initiator to the responder and operates at full Fibre Channel bandwidth.
Switches can be connected in cascades and meshes by using inter-switch links (ISLs) or

expansion ports (E_ports).

Note: Devices from different manufacturers might not interoperate fully.

The switch also provides various fabric services and features. The following list provides
examples:

Name service
Fabric control
Time service
Automatic discovery and registration of host and storage devices
Rerouting of frames, if possible, in a port problem
Storage services (virtualization, replication, and extended distances)

It is common to refer to switches as either core switches or edge switches, depending on

where they are in the SAN. If the switch forms, or is part of the SAN backbone, it is the core
switch. If the switch is mainly used to connect to hosts or storage, it is called an edge switch.
Directors are also sometimes referred to as switches because they are essentially switches.
Directors are large switches with higher redundancy than most normal switches.

7.2.4 Multiprotocol routing

Certain devices are multiprotocol routers and devices. Multiprotocol routers and devices
provide improved scalability, security, and manageability by enabling devices in separate SAN
fabrics to communicate without merging fabrics into a single, large meta-SAN fabric.
Depending on the manufacturer, multiprotocol routers and devices support many protocols
and offer their own features, such as zoning. The following list shows the supported protocols:

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Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP)

Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP)
Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP)
Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI)
Internet Protocol (IP)

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7.2.5 Service modules

Increasingly, with the demand for the intermix of protocols and the introduction to the
marketplace of new technologies, SAN vendors are adopting a modular system approach to
their components. Therefore, the service modules can be plugged into a slot on the switch or
director to provide functions and features, such as virtualization, the combining of protocols,
and storage services.

7.2.6 Multiplexers
Multiplexing is the process of simultaneously transmitting multiple signals over the same
physical connection. Common types of multiplexing are used for fiber optic connections that
are based on either time or wavelength:
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)
When you use multiplexers in a SAN environment, more parameters in the SAN switch
configuration might be needed to ensure correct load balancing. Therefore, check with your
SAN switch vendor for preferred practices.
Multiplexers: Usually multiplexers are transparent to the SAN fabric. If you are
troubleshooting an ISL that covers a long distance, remember that the multiplexer, if
installed, plays an important role in that path.

7.3 Components
Many components must interoperate to create a SAN. We identify several common
components.

7.3.1 Application-specific integrated circuit

The fabric electronics use a personalized application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and
its predefined set of elements. Examples of these types of elements include logic functions,
I/O circuits, memory arrays, and backplanes to create specialized fabric interface
components.
An ASIC provides services to Fibre Channel ports. The circuit might be used to connect to the
following devices or ports:
External node ports (N_ports), such as a fabric port (F_port) or a fabric loop port (FL_port)
External loop devices, such as an FL_port
Other switches, such as an expansion port (E_port)
The ASIC contains the Fibre Channel interface logic, and message and buffer queuing logic.
The ASIC receives buffer memory for the on-chip ports and other support logic.

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Frame filtering
Frame filtering is a feature that enables devices to provide zoning functions with finer
granularity. Frame filtering can be used to set up port-level zoning, worldwide name (WWN)
zoning, device-level zoning, protocol-level zoning, and logical unit number (LUN)-level zoning.
Frame filtering is commonly carried out by an ASIC. After you set up the filter, the complicated
function of zoning and filtering can be achieved at wire speed.

7.3.2 Fibre Channel transmission rates

Fibre Channel transmission rates are sometimes referred to as feeds and speeds. The number
of vendor offerings for switches, HBAs, and storage devices grows constantly. Currently, the
16 Gb FC port has the fastest line rate that is supported for an IBM SAN. The 16 Gb FC port
uses a 14.025 Gbps transfer rate and 64b/66b encoding, which provides approximately 1600
MBps in throughput. The 8 Gb FC port has a line rate of 8.5 Gbps that uses 8b/10b encoding,
which results in approximately 800 MBps. When you compare feeds and speeds, the FC
ports are sometimes referred to as full duplex. The transceiver and receiver parts of the FC
port are then added, therefore doubling the MBps.
Encoding: By introducing the 64b/66b encoding to Fibre Channel, the encoding overhead
is reduced from approximately 20% by using 8b/10b encoding to approximately 3% with
the 64b/66b encoding.
The new 16 Gb FC port is approved by the Fibre Channel Industry Association (FCIA). This
approval ensures that each port speed can communicate with at least two previously
approved port speeds. For example, 16 Gb can communicate with 8 Gb and 4 Gb.
The FCIA also created a roadmap for future feeds and speeds. For more information, see this
website:
http://www.fibrechannel.org/

7.3.3 SerDes
The communication over a fiber, whether optical or copper, is serial. Computer busses,
however, use parallel busses. Therefore, Fibre Channel devices must be able to convert
between the two types. For this conversion, the devices use a serializer/deserializer, which is
commonly referred as a SerDes.

7.3.4 Backplane and blades

Rather than having a single printed circuit assembly that contains all of the components in a
device, sometimes the design that is used is that of a backplane and blades. For example,
directors and large core switches typically implement this technology.
The backplane is a circuit board with multiple connectors into which other cards can be
plugged. These other cards are typically referred as blades or modules, but other terms can
be used.
If the backplane is in the center of the unit with blades that are plugged in at the back and
front, the backplane is referred to as a midplane.

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7.4 Gigabit transport technology

In Fibre Channel technology, frames are moved from the source to the destination by using
gigabit transport, which is required to achieve fast transfer rates. To communicate with gigabit
transport, both sides must support this type of communication. You can obtain this support by
installing this feature in the device or by using specially designed interfaces that can convert
other communication transport into gigabit transport. The bit error rate (BER) allows for only
a single bit error to occur one time in every 1,000,000,000,000 bits in the Fibre Channel
standard. Gigabit transport can be used in a copper or fiber optic infrastructure.

Layer 1 of the open systems interconnection (OSI) model is the layer at which the physical
transmission of data occurs. The unit of transmission at Layer 1 is a bit. This section explains
the common concepts of the Layer 1 level.

7.4.1 Fibre Channel cabling

Fibre Channel cabling is available in two forms: fiber optic cabling or copper cabling. Fiber
optic cabling is the typical cabling type. But, Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) copper
cabling is also available.
Fiber optic cabling is more expensive than copper cabling. The optical components for
devices and switches and the cost of any client cabling is typically more expensive to install.
However, the higher costs are often easily justified by the benefits of fiber optic cabling.
Fiber optic cabling provides for longer distance. Fiber optic cabling is resistant to signaling
distortion by electromagnetic interference.

Fiber optic cabling

In copper cabling, electric signals are used to transmit data through the network. The copper
cabling is the medium for that electrical transmission. In fiber optic cabling, light is used to
transmit the data. Fiber optic cabling is the medium for channeling the light signals between
devices in the network.
Two modes of fiber optic signaling are explained in this chapter: single-mode and multimode.
The difference between the modes is the wavelength of the light that is used for the
transmission (Figure 7-3).

Figure 7-3 Multimode versus single-mode optic signaling

Single-mode fiber
Single-mode fiber (SMF) uses long wavelength light to transmit data and requires a cable with
a small core for transmission (Figure 7-3 on page 159). The core diameter for single-mode

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cabling is
nine microns in diameter (Figure 7-4).

Figure 7-4 Single-mode fiber cable

Multimode fiber
Multimode fiber (MMF) uses short wavelength light to transmit data and requires a cable with
a larger core for transmission (see Figure 7-3 on page 159). The core diameter for multimode
cabling can be 50 or 62.5 microns in diameter (Figure 7-5).

Outer Coating
250 micron diameter
Cladding
125 micron diameter
Core
50-micron or 62.5-micron diameter

Figure 7-5 Multimode fiber cable

The color of the outer coating is sometimes used to identify whether a cable is a multimode or
single-mode fiber cable, but the color is not a reliable method. The Telecommunications
Industry Association-598C (TIA-598C) standard suggests a yellow outer coating for single
mode fiber and an orange outer coating for multimode fiber for civilian applications. This
guideline is not always implemented, as illustrated in Figure 7-6, which shows a blue cable.
The reliable method is to look at the specifications of the cable that are printed on the outer
coating of the cabling. See also Figure 7-7 on page 161 and Figure 7-8 on page 161.

Figure 7-6 Blue 62.5-micron MMF cable

Figure 7-7 shows the yellow SMF cable.

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Figure 7-7 Yellow SMF cable

Figure 7-8 shows the orange 50-micron MMF cable.

Figure 7-8 Orange 50-micron MMF cable

Copper cabling
When we refer to copper cabling, we mean that the material that is used to transfer the
signals is made of copper. The most common copper wire is the twisted-pair cable that is
used for normal Ethernet. This type of cabling is explained in more depth in the following
section.

Twisted-pair cabling
Twisted-pair copper cabling is a common media for Ethernet networking installations.
Twisted-pair cabling is available as unshielded twisted pair (UTP) or shielded twisted pair
(STP). This shielding helps prevent electromagnetic interference.
Several categories of twisted-pair cabling are available (Table 7-1). These categories indicate
the signaling capabilities of the cabling.
Table 7-1 TIA/Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) cabling categories
TIA/EIA cabling category

Maximum network speeds that are supported

Cat 1

Telephone or ISDN

Cat 2

4 Mb Token Ring

Cat 3

10 Mb Ethernet

Cat 4

16 Mb Token Ring

Cat 5

100 Mb Ethernet

Cat 5e

1 Gb Ethernet

Cat 6

10 Gb Ethernet
Short Distance - 55 m (180 ft)

Cat 6a

10 Gb Ethernet

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The connector that is used for Ethernet twisted-pair cabling is likely the connector that most
people recognize and associate with networking, which is the RJ45 connector. Figure 7-9
shows this connector.

Figure 7-9 RJ45 copper connector

Twisted-pair cabling contains four pairs of wire inside the cable (Figure 7-10).

Figure 7-10 Straight-through Ethernet cable

An Ethernet that is operating in 10/100 Mb mode uses only two pairs: pairs 1-2 and 3-6. An
Ethernet that is operating in 1 Gb mode uses all four pairs: pairs 1-2, 3-6, 4-5, and 7-8.
Distances up to 100 meters (328.08 feet) are supported.
Damaged twisted pair: If a twisted-pair cable is damaged so that pair 4-5 or pair 7-8 is
unable to communicate, the link is unable to communicate in 1 Gbps mode. If the devices
are set to auto-negotiate speed, the devices successfully operate in 100 Mbps mode.
Supported maximum distances of cabling segment: The actual maximum distances of
a cabling segment that are supported vary due to multiple factors, such as vendor support,
cabling type, electromagnetic interference, and the number of physical connections in the
segment.

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Twinax cabling
Twinax cables were used by IBM for many years, but they were recently reintroduced to the
market as a transport media for 10 Gb Ethernet. One of the greatest benefits of a twinax
cable is its low power consumption. Also, this cable costs less than standard fiber cables. The
downside is the limited capability to connect over long distance.

Connector types
The most common connector type for fiber optic media that is used in networking today is the
LC connector (Figure 7-11).

Figure 7-11 LC fiber connector

Other types of connectors are the SC connector (Figure 7-12) and the ST connector (not
shown).

Figure 7-12 SC fiber connector

7.4.2 Transceivers
A transceiver or transmitter/receiver is the fiber optic port of a device where the fiber optic
cables connect. Occasionally, a device might include an integrated transceiver, which limits
the flexibility in the type of cabling that you can use. Most devices provide a slot to insert a
modular transceiver, providing flexibility so that you can select either single or multimode
implementations.

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Certain equipment might use a larger transceiver that is known as a Gigabit Interface
Converter (GBIC) (Figure 7-13). As technology advances, smaller transceivers are
introduced. These smaller transceivers provide much higher port density, such as small
form-factor pluggables (SFPs), 10 Gigabit SFP+, 10 Gigabit SFP-XFP, and Quad SFP
(QSFP).

Figure 7-13 Gigabit Interface Converter (GBIC)

Figure 7-14 shows the various transceivers.

Figure 7-14 From left to right: SFP-MMF, SFP-SMF, SFP+-MMF, XFP-MMF, and XFP-SMF

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Figure 7-15 shows a QSFP and cable.

Figure 7-15 QSFP and cable

7.4.3 Host bus adapters

The device that acts as an interface between the fabric of a SAN and either a host or a
storage device is a host bus adapter (HBA).

Fibre Channel host bus adapter

The HBA connects to the bus of the host or storage system. Certain devices offer more than
one Fibre Channel connection and include a built-in SFP that can be replaced. The function
of the HBA is to convert the parallel electrical signals from the bus into a serial signal to pass
to the SAN.

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Figure 7-16 shows an HBA.

Figure 7-16 Host bus adapter (HBA)

Several manufacturers offer HBAs. The choice of the HBA is an important consideration when
you plan a SAN. HBAs might include more than one port. They can be supported by certain
equipment and not other equipment. HBAs might include parameters to tune the system.
Many other features are available. HBAs also have a certain number of buffer-to-buffer
credits.
Important: If you are considering the use of an HBA with multiple virtual machines behind
it, the choice of an HBA is a critical decision.

Converged Network Adapter host bus adapter

Converged Network Adapters (CNAs) can run both Converged Enhanced Ethernet (CEE) and
Fibre Channel traffic at the same time. These CNAs combine the functions of an HBA and a
Network Interface Card (NIC) on one card. CNAs fully support FCoE protocols and allow
Fibre Channel traffic to converge onto 10 Gbps CEE networks. These adapters play a critical
role in the FCoE implementation.
When you implement CNAs, the CNAs can significantly reduce data center costs by
converging data and storage networking. Standard TCP/IP and Fibre Channel traffic can both
run on the same high-speed 10 Gbps Ethernet wire. You can save costs through reduced
requirements for adapters, switches, cabling, power, cooling, and management. CNAs gained
rapid market acceptance because they deliver excellent performance, help reduce data
center total cost of ownership (TCO), and protect the current data center investment.
The cutting-edge 10 Gbps bandwidth can eliminate performance bottlenecks in the I/O path
with a 10X data rate improvement versus existing 1 Gbps Ethernet solutions. Additionally, the
full hardware offload for FCoE protocol processing reduces system processor utilization for
I/O operations. This reduction leads to faster application performance and higher levels of
consolidation in virtualized systems.
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Figure 7-17 shows a dual-port CNA.

Figure 7-17 Dual-port Converged Network Adapter (CNA)

7.5 Inter-switch links

A link that joins a port on one switch to a port on another switch is called an inter-switch link
(ISL). These ports are referred to as E_ports.
ISLs carry frames that originate from the node ports and frames that are generated within the
fabric. The frames that are generated within the fabric serve as control, management, and
support for the fabric.
Before an ISL can carry frames that originate from the node ports, the joining switches
undergo a synchronization process in which the operating parameters are interchanged. If the
operating parameters are incompatible, the switches cannot join, and the ISL becomes
segmented. Segmented ISLs cannot carry traffic that originates on node ports, but they can
still carry management and control frames.
You can connect an E_port to a Fibre Channel router or a switch with embedded routing
capabilities. Then, the port becomes an EX_port on the router side. Brocade calls these ports
an inter-fabric link (IFL). However, Cisco uses trunked E_port (TE_port) or extended ISL
(EISL), which allows traffic (from multiple virtual SANs (VSANs)) to be routed through that
link.

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7.5.1 Cascading
Expanding the fabric is called switch cascading, or cascading. Cascading is interconnecting
Fibre Channel switches and directors by using ISLs. By cascading switches, the following
benefits are possible for a SAN environment:
The fabric can be seamlessly extended. Additional switches can be added to the fabric
without powering down the existing fabric.
You can increase the distance between various SAN participants easily.
By adding switches to the fabric, you increase connectivity by providing more available
ports.
Cascading provides high resilience in the fabric.
With ISLs, you can increase the bandwidth. The frames between the switches are
delivered over all available data paths. Create more ISLs to increase the speed of the
frame delivery. However, be careful to ensure that you do not introduce a bottleneck.
When the fabric grows, the name server is fully distributed across all of the switches in the
fabric.
With cascading, you also provide greater fault tolerance within the fabric.

7.5.2 Hops
When Fibre Channel traffic traverses an ISL, this process is known as a hop. Or, to state it
another way, traffic that goes from one E_port over an ISL to another E_port is one hop. ISLs
are created by connecting an E_port to an E_port. Figure 7-18 on page 169 shows an
illustration of the hop count from server to storage.
The hop count is limited. This limit is set by the fabric operating system. The limit is used to
derive a frame hold time value for each switch. This value is the maximum amount of time that
a frame can be held in a switch before the frame is dropped, or the fabric indicates that it is
too busy. The hop count limits must be investigated and considered in any SAN design work
because the hop count limit significantly affects the proposal.

7.5.3 Fabric shortest path first

Although this next topic is not a physical component, it is important to understand the concept
of fabric shortest path first (FSPF) at this stage. According to the FC-SW-2 standard, FSPF is
a link state path selection protocol. FSPF tracks the links on all switches in the fabric (in
routing tables) and associates a cost with each link. The protocol computes the paths from a
switch to all of the other switches in the fabric. This process is performed by adding the cost of
all of the links that are traversed by the path and by choosing the path that minimizes the cost,
that is, the shortest link.

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For example, as shown in Figure 7-18, if a server needs to connect to its storage through
multiple switches, FSPF routes all traffic from this server to its storage through switch A
directly to switch C. This path is taken because it has a lower cost than traveling through more
hops through switch B.
Figure 7-18 shows hops in a fabric.

Figure 7-18 Hops example

FSPF is based on the hop count cost.

The collection of link states, including the cost, of all of the switches in a fabric constitutes the
topology database, or link state database. The topology database is kept in all of the switches
in the fabric. The switches are maintained and synchronized to each other. An initial
database synchronization occurs, and an update mechanism is used. The initial database
synchronization is used when a switch is initialized, or when an ISL comes up. The update
mechanism is used when a link state changes, for example, when an ISL goes down or
comes up, and on a periodic basis. This mechanism ensures consistency among all switches
in the fabric.

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7.5.4 Non-blocking architecture

To support high performance fabrics, the fabric components, switches, or directors must be
able to move around data. These components must move the data without affecting other
ports, targets, or initiators that are on the same fabric. If the internal structure of a switch or
director cannot move data without an effect, the situation is called blocking.

Blocking
Blocking means that the data does not get to the destination. Blocking is not the same as
congestion because with congestion, data is still delivered, but delayed. Currently, almost all
Fibre Channel switches are created by using non-blocking architecture.

Non-blocking
A non-blocking architecture is used by most switch vendors. Non-blocking switches enable
multiple connections that travel through the switch at the same time. Figure 7-19 shows this
concept.

Switch B

Switch A
A

Non-blocking

Blocking

Figure 7-19 Non-blocking and blocking switching

In Figure 7-19, port A in the non-blocking Switch A communicates to port F, Port B

communicates to port E, and port C communicates to port D, without any form of suspension
of communication or a delay. That is, the communication is not blocked. In the blocking switch,
Switch B, while port A communicates to port F, the switch is stopped or blocked from all other
communication and does not continue until port A finishes communicating with port F.

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7.5.5 Latency
Typically, in the SAN world, latency is the time that it takes for a Fibre Channel frame to
traverse the fabric. When we describe the SAN, the latency in a SAN is rarely considered
because it is in the low microsecond range. This concept is sometimes confused with disk
latency, which is the measure of how quickly or slowly a storage target completes a read or
write request that is sent from the server. However, when we describe long distances, all
latency, both storage and SAN, plays a significant role.
Latency increases as the number of ISLs increases because the Fibre Channel frame must
traverse the fabric by using ISLs. By fabric, we mean the Fibre Channel components and any
latency discussion that relates to the SAN. Usually, the time that is taken is expressed in
microseconds, which indicates the performance characteristics of the SAN fabric. Latency is
often provided at a switch level, and sometimes at a fabric level.

7.5.6 Oversubscription
Another aspect of data flow is the fan-in ratio, which is also called the oversubscription ratio
and frequently the fan-out ratio from the storage devices perspective, both in terms of host
ports to target ports, and the device to the ISL. This ratio is the number of device ports that
need to share a single port.
For example, two servers, each of which is equipped with a 4 Gb port (4+4=8 Gb) are both
communicating with a storage device through a single 4 Gb port, which provides a 2:1 ratio.
Therefore, the total theoretical input is higher than the input that the port can provide.
Figure 7-20 on page 172 shows a typical oversubscription through an ISL.
Oversubscription can occur on storage device ports and ISLs. When you design a SAN, it is
important to consider the possible traffic patterns to determine the possibility of
oversubscription. An oversubscription might result in degraded performance. You can
overcome the oversubscription of an ISL by adding an ISL between the switches to increase
the bandwidth. Oversubscription to a storage device might be overcome by adding more ports
from the storage device to the fabric.
Oversubscription: Vendors differ in how they practice utilization on their stated overall
bandwidth for each chassis. Vendors use both storage port and ISL oversubscription.
Verify the oversubscription preferred practices with your switch vendor.

7.5.7 Congestion
Oversubscription leads to a condition that is called congestion. When a node is unable to use
as much bandwidth as it wants, because of contention with another node, congestion occurs.
A port, link, or fabric can be congested. This condition normally affects the application directly
and results in poor performance.
Congestion can be difficult to detect because it can also relate directly to buffer-to-buffer
credit starvation in the switch port. Therefore, when you look at the data throughput from the
switch, you see normal or less traffic flowing through the ports. However, the server I/O is
unable to perform because the data cannot be transported because of a lack of
buffer-to-buffer credits.

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7.5.8 Trunking or port-channeling

One means of delivering high availability at the network level is the aggregation of multiple
physical ISLs into a single logical interface. You can use this aggregation to provide link
redundancy, greater aggregated bandwidth, and load balancing. Cisco calls this technology
port channeling. Other vendors call this technology trunking.
Figure 7-20 shows the concepts of trunking.
1 .7 G b p s

0 .1 G b p s

0 .1 G b p s

B
1

1 .7 5 G b p s 1 .2 5 G b p s

E
2

F
2

A
0 .1 G b p s

4x2=8 G bps

Figure 7-20 Trunking

In Figure 7-20, six computers access three storage devices. Computers A, B, C, and D
communicate with storage G. Server E communicates with storage H. Server F uses disks in
storage device I.
The speeds of the links are shown in Gbps, and the target throughput for each computer is
shown. If we allow FSPF alone to decide the routing, servers D and E might both use the
same ISL. This situation leads to oversubscription and therefore congestion because
1.7+1.75 is greater than 2.
If all of the ISLs are gathered into a trunk, effectively they are a single, large ISL. They appear
as an 8 Gbps ISL. This bandwidth is greater than the total requirement of all of the servers. In
fact, the nodes require an aggregate bandwidth of 5 Gbps. Therefore, one of the ISLs might
fail and you still have sufficient bandwidth to satisfy the needs.
When the nodes come up, FSPF simply sees one route, and the nodes are all assigned a
route over the same trunk. The fabric operating systems in the switches share the load over
the actual ISLs, which combine to make up the trunk. This process is performed by
distributing frames over the physical links and then reassembling them at the destination
switch so that an in-order delivery can be assured, if necessary. And, to FSPF, a trunk is
displayed as a single, low-cost ISL.

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Chapter 8.

Management
Management is a key issue behind the concept of infrastructure simplification. The ability to
manage heterogeneous systems at different levels as though they were a fully integrated
infrastructure is a goal that many vendors and developers strive to achieve. Another goal is to
offer the system administrator a unified view of the whole storage area network (SAN).
In this chapter, we look at several initiatives in the field of SAN management. These solutions
incrementally smooth the way toward infrastructure simplification.

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8.1 Management principles

SAN management systems typically are made up of a set of multiple-level software
components that provide tools for monitoring, configuring, controlling (performing actions),
diagnosing, and troubleshooting a SAN. We briefly describe the types and levels of
management in a typical SAN implementation. We also describe the current efforts toward
the establishment of open and general-purpose standards for building interoperable,
manageable components.
Despite these efforts, the reality of a one pill cures all solution is a long way off. Typically,
each vendor and each device has its own form of software and hardware management
techniques. These techniques are usually independent of each other. To pretend that one
SAN management solution provides a single point of control, which can perform every
possible action, is premature.
We do not intend to describe each vendors standards fully. We present an overview of the
myriad of possibilities in the IT environment. The high-level features of any SAN management
solution are likely to include most of the following functions:

Capacity management
Device management
Fabric management
Proactive monitoring
Fault isolation and troubleshooting
Centralized management
Remote management
Performance management
Security and standard compliance

8.1.1 Management types

Two philosophies are used to build management mechanisms:
In-band management: The management data, such as status information, action requests,
and events, flows through the same path as the storage data.
Out-of-band management: The management data flows through a dedicated path,
therefore not sharing the same physical path that is used by the storage data.

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Figure 8-1 shows in-band and out-of-band models. These models are not mutually exclusive.
In many environments, you might want a combination of the models.

Server

Server

Server

Server

Server

Server

Data

Storage

Storage

In-band

Out-of-band
Data + Control

Figure 8-1 In-band and out-of-band models

The in-band approach is simple to implement. This approach requires no dedicated channels
(other than LAN connections). It offers inherent advantages, such as the ability for a switch to
initiate a SAN topology map with queries to other fabric components. However, if the Fibre
Channel transport fails, the management information cannot be transmitted. Therefore, the
access to devices and the ability to detect, isolate, and recover from network problems are
lost. This problem can be minimized by a provision of redundant paths between devices in the
fabric.
In-band management allows attribute inquiries on storage devices and configuration changes
for all elements of the SAN. Because in-band management is performed over the SAN,
administrators are not required to manage any additional connections.
Conversely, out-of-band management does not rely on the storage network; its major
advantage is that management commands and messages can be sent even if a loop or fabric
link fails. Integrated SAN management facilities are more easily implemented. However,
unlike in-band management, it cannot automatically provide SAN topology mapping.
In summary, in-band management offers these major advantages:

Device installation, configuration, and monitoring

Inventory of resources on the SAN
Automated component and fabric topology discovery
Management of the fabric configuration, including zoning configurations
Health and performance monitoring

Out-of-band management offers these major advantages:

Management is possible, even if a device is down.
Management is accessible from anywhere in the routed network.
Management traffic is kept out of the Fibre Channel, so that the management traffic does
not affect the business-critical data flow on the storage network.

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8.1.2 Connecting to storage area network management tools

A typical method to connect to a SAN device (Fibre Channel switches and storage devices
that connect to a SAN) is by connecting through the Ethernet to a storage management
device on a network segment that is intended for storage devices (Figure 8-2).

ISL
Switch

Switch

UNIX

Red Fabric
Storage
Windows

Storage
Management
Console
ISL

VMware
Tape

Switch

Switch

Green Fabric

Figure 8-2 Storage management network

The SAN storage level consists of the storage devices that integrate the SAN, such as disks,
disk arrays, tapes, and tape libraries. Because the configuration of a storage resource must
be integrated with the configuration of the servers logical view of the storage resources, the
SAN storage level management can also span both storage resources and servers.

8.1.3 Storage area network fault isolation and troubleshooting

In addition to providing tools for monitoring and configuring a SAN, one key benefit that a
well-designed management mechanism offers is the ability to detect, diagnose, and solve
problems efficiently in a SAN.
Many tools are available to collect the necessary data to perform problem determination and
problem source identification (PD/PSI) in a SAN. Tools can offer the following capabilities:

176

Monitor the SAN health

Report failures
Monitor and identify storage devices
Monitor the fabric for failures or imminent bottlenecks
Interpret message and error logs
Send Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) traps or syslog messages

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Although a well-designed management system can provide invaluable facilities, an

easy-to-troubleshoot SAN still relies heavily on a good design, and on good documentation.
In terms of PD/PSI, the configuration design information is understandable, available at any
support level, and always updated to the latest configuration. Also, a database must exist
where all of the following information is safely stored:

Connections
Naming conventions
Device serial numbers
Worldwide names (WWNs)
Zoning
System applications

A responsible person must be in charge of maintaining this infrastructure and monitoring the
SANs health status.

8.2 Management interfaces and protocols

We present the major protocols and interfaces that were developed to support management
mechanisms.

8.2.1 Storage Networking Industry Association initiative

The Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) uses its Storage Management Initiative
(SMI) to create and promote the adoption of a highly functional interoperable management
interface for multivendor storage networking products. The SNIA strategic imperative is to
manage all storage by the SMI interface. The adoption of this interface allows the focus to
switch to the development of added value functionality. IBM is one of the industry vendors that
is promoting the drive toward this vendor-neutral approach to SAN management.
In 1999, the SNIA and Distributed Management Task Force (DMTF) introduced open
standards for managing storage devices. These standards use a common protocol that is
called the Common Information Model (CIM) to enable interoperability. The web-based
version of CIM (Web Based Enterprise Management (WBEM)) uses XML to define CIM
objects and process transactions within sessions. This standard proposes a CIM object
manager (CIMOM) to manage CIM objects and interactions. CIM is used to define objects
and their interactions. Management applications then use the CIMOM and XML over HTTP to
provide for the management of storage devices, enabling central management by using open
standards.
The SNIA uses the xmlCIM protocol to describe storage management objects and their
behavior. CIM allows management applications to communicate with devices by using object
messaging that is encoded in xmlCIM.
The Storage Management Interface Specification (SMI-S) for SAN-based storage
management provides basic device management, support for copy services, and
virtualization. As defined by the standard, the CIM services are registered in a directory to
make them available to device management applications and subsystems.
For more information about SMI-S, see this website:
http://www.snia.org

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Open storage management with the Common Information Model

SAN management involves configuration, provisioning, logical volume assignment, zoning,
and logical unit number (LUN) masking. Management also involves monitoring and optimizing
performance, capacity, and availability. In addition, support for continuous availability and
disaster recovery requires that device copy services are available as a viable failover and
disaster recovery environment. Traditionally, each device provides a command-line interface
(CLI) and a graphical user interface (GUI) to support these kinds of administrative tasks.
Many devices also provide proprietary application programming interfaces (APIs) that allow
other programs to access their internal capabilities.
For complex SAN environments, management applications are now available that make it
easier to perform these kinds of administrative tasks over various devices.
The CIM interface and the SMI-S object model, which is adopted by the SNIA, provide a
standard model for accessing devices. This ability allows management applications and
devices from various vendors to work with each others products. This flexibility means that
clients have more choice as to which devices work with their chosen management
application, and which management applications they can use with their devices.
IBM embraces the concept of building open standards-based storage management solutions.
IBM management applications are designed to work across multiple vendors devices.
Devices are being CIM-enabled to allow them to be controlled by other vendors management
applications.

Common Information Model object manager

The SMI-S standard designates that either a proxy or an embedded agent can be used to
implement CIM. In each case, the CIM objects are supported by a CIM object manager
(CIMOM). External applications communicate with CIM through HTTP to exchange XML
messages, which are used to configure and manage the device.
In a proxy configuration, the CIMOM runs outside of the device and can manage multiple
devices. In this case, a provider component is installed into the CIMOM to enable the CIMOM
to manage specific devices.
The providers adapt the CIMOM to work with different devices and subsystems. In this way, a
single CIMOM installation can be used to access more than one device type, and more than
one device of each type on a subsystem.
The CIMOM acts as a catcher for requests that are sent from storage management
applications. The interactions between catcher and sender use the language and models that
are defined by the SMI-S standard. This standard allows storage management applications,
regardless of vendor, to query status and perform command and control by using XML-based
CIM interactions.

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IBM developed its storage management solutions based on the CIMOM architecture
(Figure 8-3).

Figure 8-3 CIMOM component structure

8.2.2 Simple Network Management Protocol

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), which is an IP-based protocol, has a set of
commands for obtaining the status and setting the operational parameters of target devices.
The SNMP management platform is called the SNMP manager, and the SNMP agent is
loaded on the managed devices. Management data is organized in a hierarchical data
structure that is called the Management Information Base (MIB). The MIBs are defined and
sanctioned by various industry associations.
The objective is for all vendors to create products in compliance with the MIBs so that
inter-vendor interoperability at all levels can be achieved. If a vendor wants to include more
device information that is not specified in a standard MIB, that additional information is
specified through MIB extensions.

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This protocol is widely supported by LAN/wide area network (WAN) routers, gateways, hubs,
and switches. SNMP is the predominant protocol that is used for multivendor networks.
Device status information (vendor, machine serial number, port type and status, traffic, errors,
and so on) can be provided to an enterprise SNMP manager. A device can generate an alert
by SNMP in an error condition. The device symbol, or icon, which is displayed on the SNMP
manager console, can be changed to red or yellow, or any warning color, and messages can
be sent to the network operator.

Out-of-band developments
SNMP MIBs are implemented for SAN fabric elements that allow out-of-band monitoring. The
ANSI Fibre Channel Fabric Element MIB provides significant operational and configuration
information about individual devices. The emerging Fibre Channel Management MIB provides
more link table and switch zoning information that can be used to derive information about the
physical and logical connections between individual devices.

8.2.3 Service Location Protocol

Service Location Protocol (SLP) provides a flexible and scalable framework for providing
hosts with access to information about the existence, location, and configuration of networked
services. Traditionally, users located devices by knowing the name of a network host that is an
alias for a network address. SLP eliminates the need for a user to know the name of the
network host that supports a service. Rather, the user supplies the wanted type of service
and a set of attributes that describe the service. Based on that description, the SLP resolves
the network address of the service for the user.
SLP provides a dynamic configuration mechanism for applications in LANs. Applications are
modeled as clients that need to locate servers that are attached to any of the available
networks within an enterprise. For cases where many clients and services are available, the
protocol is adapted to use the nearby Directory Agents that offer a centralized repository for
advertised services.

8.2.4 Vendor-specific mechanisms

Many vendor-specific mechanisms are deployed by major SAN device providers.

Application programming interface

Many SAN devices are available from many vendors, and everyone has their own
management and configuration software. In addition, most SAN devices can also be
managed through a CLI over a standard Telnet connection, where an IP address is
associated with the SAN device. Or, they can be managed by an RS-232 serial connection.
With multiple vendors and many management and configuration software tools, many
products are available to evaluate, implement, and learn. In an ideal world, one product can
manage and configure all of the functions and features on the SAN platform.

Application programming interfaces (APIs) are one way to help this simplification become a
reality. Many vendors make the API of their product available for other vendors to make it
possible for common management in the SAN. This openness allows the development of
upper-level management applications that interact with multiple vendor devices and offer the
system administrator a single view of the SAN infrastructure.

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Common Agent Services

Common Agent Services is a component to provide a way to deploy agent code across
multiple user machines or application servers throughout an enterprise. The agents collect
data from and perform operations on managed resources for Fabric Manager.
The Common Agent Services agent manager provides authentication and authorization and
maintains a registry of configuration information about the agents and resource managers in
the SAN environment. The resource managers are the server components of products that
manage agents that are deployed on the common agent. Management applications use the
services of the agent manager to communicate securely with and to obtain information about
the computer systems that are running the common agent software, which is referred to in
this document as the agent.
Common Agent Services also provide common agents to act as containers to host product
agents and common services. The common agent provides remote deployment capability,
shared machine resources, and secure connectivity.
Common Agent Services consists of the following subcomponents:
Agent manager
The agent manager is the server component of the Common Agent Services that provides
functions that allow clients to get information about agents and resource managers. It
enables secure connections between managed endpoints, maintains the database
information about the endpoints and the software that is running on those endpoints, and
processes queries against that database from resource managers. It also includes a
registration service, which handles security certificates, registration, tracking of common
agents and resource managers, and status collection and forwarding.
Common agent
The common agent is a common container for all of the subagents to run within. It enables
multiple management applications to share resources when managing a system.
Resource manager
Each product that uses Common Agent Services has its own resource manager and
subagents. For example, IBM Tivoli Provisioning Manager has a resource manager and
subagents for software distribution and software inventory scanning.

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Figure 8-4 shows the Common Agent topology.

Figure 8-4 Common Agent Services

8.3 Management features

SAN management requirements are typified by having a common purpose, but they are
implemented in different ways by the vendors. Certain vendors prefer to use web browser
interfaces, other vendors prefer to use embedded agents, and still other vendors prefer to use
the CLI. Many vendors use a combination of all of these interfaces. Typically, the selection of
SAN components is based on a combination of the hardware and software functions, not on
the ease of use of the management solution. The high-level features of any SAN
management solution are likely to include most of the following benefits:

182

Cost-effectiveness
An open approach
Device management
Fabric management
Proactive monitoring
Fault isolation and troubleshooting
Centralized management

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Remote management
Adherence to standards
Resource management
Secure access
Standards compliance

8.3.1 Operations
When we describe management, it automatically includes the operational aspects of the
environment. The SAN administrators are responsible for all configuration of the SAN
switches.
Typically, the initial design and creation of a SAN environment includes only a handful of
servers and few storage systems. However, the environment grows and new technology
needs to be added. At this stage, it tends to get more complicated. Therefore, it is necessary
to ensure that comprehensive documentation exists that describes all aspects of the
environment. And, the documentation needs to be reviewed regularly to ensure that it is
current.
The following standards and guidelines need to be documented:
Zoning standards:
How to create zones by using preferred practices
Naming standards that are used in the SAN configuration
Aliases used
Volume/LUN allocation standards:
Volume characteristics and their uses
Allocation rules
Incident and problem guidelines: How to react in case of an incident.
Roles and responsibilities: Roles and responsibilities within the team.
SAN and storage installation preferred practices: Agreed-to process to install and
configure the equipment.
SAN and storage software and firmware upgrade roadmaps:
High-level overview of how to ensure that the environment is kept current
Change schedules
Monitoring and performance guidelines, such as defining the components, software, and
processes that are monitored and explaining how to handle exceptions.

8.4 Vendor management applications

Each vendor in the IBM SAN portfolio provides their own bespoke applications to manage
and monitor the SAN. In the following topics, we provide a high-level overview of each
application.

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8.4.1 b-type
The b-type family switch management framework is designed to support the widest range of
solutions, from the small workgroup SANs up to large enterprise SANs. The software that
Brocade (the IBM original equipment manufacturer (OEM) partner) provides is called Data
Center Fabric Manager (DCFM) and Brocade Network Advisor (BNA). This software was
added to the IBM portfolio as IBM Data Center Fabric Manager and IBM Network Advisor.
The portfolio also includes Fabric Vision.
You can use the following tools with b-type SANs to centralize control and enable the
automation of repetitive administrative tasks:
Web Tools
A built-in web-based application that provides administration and management functions
on an individual switch basis.
Data Center Fabric Manager (DCFM)
A client/server-based external application that centralizes the management of
IBM/Brocade multiprotocol fabrics within and across data centers, including support for
Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) and Converged Enhanced Ethernet (CEE).
Fabric Watch
A Fabric OS built-in tool that allows the monitoring of key switch elements: power supplies,
fans, temperature, error counters, and so on.
SNMP
A feature that enables storage administrators to manage storage network performance,
locate and solve storage network problems, and plan for storage network growth.
You can use the following management interfaces to monitor fabric topology, port status,
physical status, and other information to help with system debugging and performance
analysis:

CLI through a Telnet connection

Advanced Web Tools
SCSI Enclosure Services (SES)
SNMP applications
Management server

You can use all of these management methods either in-band (Fibre Channel) or out-of-band
(Ethernet), except for SES, which can be used for in-band only.
Additionally, Fabric Vision technology is an advanced hardware and software solution that
combines capabilities from our b-type Gen 5 Fibre Channel solutions, Fabric OS (FOS), and
IBM Network Advisor to help administrators avoid problems, maximize application
performance, and reduce operational costs through innovative diagnostic, monitoring, and
management technology.
Fabric Vision technology includes ClearLink Diagnostics, Monitoring and Alerting Policy Suite
(MAPS), Flow Vision, Bottleneck Detection, At-a-glance dashboard, and Forward Error
Correction (FEC).
For more information about IBM Network Advisor, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/san/b-type/na/
For more information about Fabric Vision, see this website:
https://ibm.biz/BdH2nB
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8.4.2 Cisco
Cisco Data Center Network Manager (DCNM) is a management system for the Cisco Unified
Fabric. With Cisco DCNM, you can provision, monitor, and troubleshoot the data center
network infrastructure. Cisco DCNM provides visibility and control of the unified data center
so that you can optimize for the quality of service (QoS) that is required to meet service level
agreements (SLAs).
Cisco DCNM increases overall data center infrastructure uptime and reliability, improving
business continuity. It provides a robust framework and comprehensive feature set that meets
the routing, switching, and storage administration needs of data centers. Cisco DCNM
streamlines the provisioning for the unified fabric and monitors the SAN and LAN
components. Cisco DCNM provides a high level of visibility and control through a single
web-based management console for Cisco Nexus, Cisco MDS, and Cisco Unified Computing
System products.
Cisco DCNM also supports the installation of the Cisco DCNM for SAN and Cisco DCNM for
LAN components with a single installer.
Cisco DCNM offers these capabilities:
Configures and manages the fabric on multiple efficient levels
Groups multiple SAN objects and SAN management functions intelligently to provide ease
and time efficiency in administering tasks
Identifies, isolates, and manages SAN events across multiple switches and fabrics
Provides drill-down capability to individual SAN components through tightly coupled
Web Tools and Fabric Watch integration
Discovers all SAN components and views so that you can see the real-time state of all
fabrics
Provides the multi-fabric administration of secure Fabric OS SANs through a single
encrypted console
Monitors ISLs
Manages switch licenses
Performs fabric stamping
For more information about Cisco DCNM, see this website:
https://ibm.biz/BdH2G5

8.5 SAN multipathing software

In a well-designed SAN, your device is accessed by the host application over more than one
path to potentially obtain better performance. This solution can also facilitate recovery if a
controller, an adapter, a small form-factor pluggable (SFP), a cable, or a switch fails.
Multipathing software provides the SAN with an improved level of fault-tolerance and
performance because it provides more than one physical path between the server and
storage.

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Traditionally, multipathing software was supplied by each vendor to support that vendors
storage arrays. The multipathing software often is embedded in the operating system. This
approach offers a server-centric approach to multipathing that is independent of the storage
array. This approach is often easier to implement from a testing and migration viewpoint.
Difference between storage and a SAN: It is important to understand the key difference
between a SAN and storage, although sometimes they are referred to as one.

Storage is where you keep your data.

SAN is the network that the data travels through between your server and storage.
Figure 8-5 shows an example of a dual-fabric environment where the hosts use multipathing
software and can access the storage if a path fails, or if a fabric fails.

ISL
Switch

Switch

UNIX

Red Fabric

Windows
Storage

ISL

Switch

VMware
Switch

Green Fabric

Figure 8-5 SAN overview

The IBM multipathing software is IBM Subsystem Device Driver (SDD), which offers the
following benefits:

186

Enhanced data availability

Dynamic I/O load-balancing across multiple paths
Automatic path failover protection
Concurrent download of licensed machine code

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

When you determine the number of paths to configure to each volume, never exceed the level
that is supported by the storage device. When you implement zoning to a storage device, you
must decide the number of paths.
For detailed information about multipath drivers for IBM storage, see the following website:
http://www.ibm.com/support/docview.wss?rs=540&context=ST52G7&q=ssg1*&uid=ssg1S7000
303&loc=en_US&cs
We provide a multipathing example in separate scenarios. In Figure 8-5 on page 186, the
servers are connected to the SAN with two HBAs. The HBAs access the volumes through two
storage ports on the storage device. This access is controlled by zoning, which provides four
working paths for each server to their volumes: two from the Red Fabric and two from the
Green Fabric.
Figure 8-6 shows a single path failure, which is indicated by the STOP sign.

ISL
UNIX
Switch

Switch
Red Fabric
Windows

Storage

ISL
VMware
Switch

Switch

Green Fabric

Figure 8-6 HBA failure in a single server

In Figure 8-6, the Windows server lost connectivity to the SAN and cannot access the Red
Fabric. However, the Windows server has working paths through the Green Fabric. All other
servers are running without any issues.

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Figure 8-7 shows that a switch in the Red Fabric failed.

ISL
UNIX
Switch

Switch
Red Fabric
Windows

Storage

ISL
VMware
Switch

Switch

Green Fabric

Figure 8-7 A non-functional switch affects all attached devices

In Figure 8-7, our servers cannot access a switch. Working paths still exist from the servers
through the Green Fabric.

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Figure 8-8 shows that a link from the storage device to a switch failed in the Red Fabric.

ISL
UNIX
Switch

Switch
Red Fabric

Windows

Storage

ISL
VMware
Switch

Switch

Green Fabric

Figure 8-8 Storage device with a single failed connection to a switch

In Figure 8-8, the storage device lost one of four connections. One connection to the Red
Fabric does not function. Therefore, all servers that use the same storage port now see three
working paths out of four possible paths. All servers that are zoned to the failed storage port
are affected.

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Figure 8-9 shows the storage device lose access to the Red Fabric.

ISL
UNIX
Switch

Switch
Red Fabric
Windows

Storage

VMware

ISL

Switch

Switch

Green Fabric

Figure 8-9 Storage device that lost two out of the four connections to the SAN

In Figure 8-9, our storage device lost access to the Red Fabric. All devices in the Red Fabric
are running normally. Only two specific storage ports failed. Our servers have only two
working paths through the Green Fabric. This configuration affects all servers that are zoned
to these storage ports.

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Figure 8-10 shows the storage device offline.

ISL
UNIX
Switch

Switch
Red Fabric
Windows

Storage
ISL
VMware
Switch

Switch

Green Fabric

Figure 8-10 The storage device is offline and no connections work

In Figure 8-10, we lost our storage device. No paths to any volumes on this device are
available. No data is accessible. All servers that are zoned to this storage device are severely
affected and cannot access this storage device.
If we install a supported version of a multipath driver correctly on all of the servers, we survive
all scenarios except the last scenario, in which only a minimum impact occurs.

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192

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

Chapter 9.

Security
In this chapter, we provide an overview of the need for security. We describe the available
techniques and several key points.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

193

9.1 Security in the storage area network

Security is always a major concern for networked systems administrators and users. Even for
specialized networked infrastructures, such as a storage area network (SAN), special care
must be taken so that information does not get corrupted, either accidentally or deliberately,
or fall into the wrong hands. And, we also must ensure that the correct security is in place at a
fabric level, for example, to ensure that a user does not inadvertently change the configuration
incorrectly.
Now that SANs no longer fit the traditional direct-attached storage concept where storage is
cabled directly to the server, the inherent security of that design is lost. The SAN and its
resources might be shared by many users and many departments. The SAN might be shared
by different operating systems with differing ideas as to who owns what storage. To protect
the privacy and safeguard the storage, SAN vendors came up with a segmentation feature to
overcome this consideration, which is called zoning.
The fabric enforces the separation of data so that only the intended users can access their
data.
Zoning, however, does not provide security in that sense; it implements the means of
segregation (isolation) only. The real security issue is the vulnerability when the data must
travel outside of the data center and over long distances. This type of travel often involves
transmission over networks that are owned by different carriers.
We must look at security from two angles: for data-in-flight, as explained in 9.4.2,
Data-in-flight on page 200, and for data-at-rest, as explained in 9.4.3, Data-at-rest on
page 201.
More often than not, data is not encrypted when it is sent from the source to a target.
Therefore, any information is readable with the correct tools, even though it is slightly more
complicated than simply eavesdropping on a telephone line. Because all of the data is sent at
a block level with the Fibre Channel Protocol (which means that all data that is sent is
squeezed into the Fibre Channel frame before the data is sent), sniffing a frame or two might
give you 2112 bytes of data. For an example of the difficulty, this amount is similar to
1/333.000 of a normal CD or 13 milliseconds of a CD that spans 74 minutes. Obviously, this
comparison does not give you much information without putting it in the correct context.
Security is more of a concern if the whole Fibre Channel port or disk volumes and arrays are
mirrored, or tapes that contain information end up in the wrong hands. However, tampering
with information from a SAN is trivial. It takes a concerted effort.
The storage architect and administrators must understand that in a SAN environment, often
with a combination of diverse operating systems and vendor storage devices, a combination
of technologies is required. This mixture ensures that the SAN is secure from access from
unauthorized systems and users, whether accidental or deliberate.
We briefly explore the technologies and their associated methodologies that can be used to
ensure data integrity, and to protect and manage the fabric. Each technology offers
advantages and disadvantages. You must consider each technology based on a carefully
thought-out SAN security strategy that is developed during the SAN design phase.

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9.2 Security principles

It is a well-known fact that a chain is only as strong as its weakest link. The same concept
applies to computer security. There is no point in locking all of the doors and then leaving a
window open. A secure, networked infrastructure must protect information at many levels or
layers, and have no single point of failure (SPOF).
The levels of defense must be complementary, and work with each other. If you have a SAN,
or any other network, that crumbles after a single penetration, this level of defense is
insufficient.
Many unique entities must be considered in any environment. We describe several of the
most important entities.

9.2.1 Access control

Access control can be performed with authentication and authorization techniques:
Authentication

The secure system must challenge the user (typically with a password)
so that this user is identified.

Authorization

After the system identifies a user, the system knows what this user is
allowed to access and what they are not allowed to access.

As in any IT environment, including SAN, access to information and to the configuration or

management tools must be restricted. Access must be granted to only those individuals that
need access and that are authorized to make changes. Any configuration or management
software is typically protected with several levels of security. Levels usually start with a user
ID and password that must be assigned to personnel based on their skill level and
responsibility.

9.2.2 Auditing and accounting

An audit trail must be maintained for auditing and troubleshooting, especially when you create
a root cause analysis (RCA) after an incident occurs. Inspect and archive logs regularly.

9.2.3 Data security

Whether we describe data-at-rest or data-in-flight, data security consists of data
confidentiality and integrity:
Data confidentiality The system must guarantee that the information cannot be accessed
by unauthorized people, that it remains confidential, and that it is only
available for authorized personnel. Confidentiality is typically
accomplished by using data encryption.
Data integrity

The system must guarantee that the data is stored or processed within
its boundaries and that it is not altered or tampered with in any way.

The data security and integrity requirement aims to guarantee that data from one application
or system does not become overlaid, corrupted, or otherwise destroyed. This requirement
applies whether data is intentionally destroyed or destroyed by accident, either by other
applications or systems. This requirement might involve a form of authorization, and the
ability to fence off the data in one system from another system.

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This data security necessity must be balanced with the requirement for the expansion of
SANs to enterprise-wide environments, with an emphasis on multiple platform connectivity.
True cross-platform data sharing solutions, as opposed to data partitioning solutions, are also
a requirement. Security and access control also must be improved to guarantee data integrity.
We overview several common data security approaches for the SAN environment. This list is
not meant to be an in-depth description. It is merely an attempt to acquaint you with the
technology and terminology that you are likely to encounter in a discussion about SAN
security.

9.2.4 Securing a fabric

Several of the current methods for securing a SAN fabric are presented.

Fibre Channel Authentication Protocol

The Switch Link Authentication Protocol (SLAP/FC-SW-3) establishes a region of trust
between switches. For an end-to-end solution to be effective, this region of trust must extend
throughout the SAN, which requires the participation of fabric-connected devices, such as
host bus adapters (HBAs). The joint initiative between Brocade and Emulex establishes Fibre
Channel Authentication Protocol (FCAP) as the next-generation implementation of SLAP.
Clients gain the assurance that a region of trust extends over the entire domain.
FCAP was incorporated into its fabric switch architecture and proposed the specification as a
standard to ANSI T11 (as part of FC-SP). FCAP is a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)-based
cryptographic authentication mechanism for establishing a common region of trust among the
various entities (such as switches and HBAs) in a SAN. A central, trusted third party serves
as a guarantor to establish this trust. With FCAP, certificate exchange takes place among the
switches and edge devices in the fabric to create a region of trust that consists of switches
and HBAs.
The fabric authorization database is a list of the worldwide names (WWNs) and associated
information, such as domain IDs, of the switches that are authorized to join the fabric.
The fabric authentication database is a list of the set of parameters that allow the
authentication of a switch within a fabric. An entry of the authentication database holds at
least the switch WWN, authentication mechanism identifier, and a list of appropriate
authentication parameters.

Zoning
Initially, SANs did not have any zoning. It was an any-to-any communication. No real access
control mechanism protected storage that was used by one host from being accessed by
another host. When SANs grew, this drawback became a security risk as SANs became more
complex and ran more vital parts of the business. To mitigate the risk of unwanted cross
communication, zoning was invented to isolate communication to devices within the same
zone.

Persistent binding
Server-level access control is called persistent binding. Persistent binding uses configuration
information that is stored on the server. Persistent binding is implemented through the HBA
driver of the server. This process binds a server device name to a specific Fibre Channel
storage volume or logical unit number (LUN), through a specific HBA and storage port WWN.
Or, put in more technical terms, it is a host-centric way to direct an operating system to assign
certain Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) target IDs and LUNs.

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Logical unit number masking

One approach to securing storage devices from hosts that want to take over already assigned
resources is logical unit number (LUN) masking. Every storage device offers its resources to
the hosts with LUNs. For example, each partition in the storage server has its own LUN. If the
host (server) wants to access the storage, it must request access to the LUN in the storage
device.
The purpose of LUN masking is to control access to the LUNs. The storage device itself
accepts or rejects access requests from different hosts. The user defines the hosts that can
access a specific LUN with the storage device control program. Whenever the host accesses
a particular LUN, the storage device checks its access list for that LUN. The device allows or
disallows the host to gain access to the LUN.

Port binding
To provide a higher level of security, you can also use port binding to bind a particular device
(as represented by a WWN) to a specific port that does not allow any other device to plug into
the port.

Role-based access control

A role-based access control (RBAC) feature is available in most SAN devices. By using
RBAC, you can control user access and user authority simply. With RBAC, you can provide
users with access or permission to run tasks that are within their skill set or job role only.
Typically, RBAC has three definitions:
Role assignment
Role authorization
Permission authorization
Each role can contain multiple users, and each user can be part of multiple roles. For
example, if role1 users are allowed access to configuration commands only, and role2 users
are allowed access to debug commands only, if John belongs to both role1 and role2, he can
access configuration and debug commands.
These predefined roles in a SAN environment are important to ensure that the correct login
and access is defined for each user.

9.2.5 Zoning, masking, and binding

Although zoning, masking, or binding are not classified as security products or mechanisms,
combining all of their functionality can increase the security of the SAN.

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9.3 Data security

These data security standards are intended to secure Fibre Channel (FC) traffic between all
FC ports and the domain controller.
The following methods are used for data security standards:
Fibre Channel Password Authentication Protocol (FCPAP) refers to Secure Remote
Password Protocol (SRP), Request for Comments (RFC) 2945.
Diffie Hellman - Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (DH-CHAP) refers to
Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP), RFC 1994.
Fibre Channel Security (FCSec) refers to Internet Protocol (IP) Security (IPSec), RFC
2406.
The focus of the FCSec is to provide authentication of the following entities:
Node-to-node
Node-to-switch
Switch-to-switch
An additional function that might be possible to implement is frame level encryption.
The ability to perform switch-to-switch authentication in FC-SP enables a new concept in
Fibre Channel: the secure fabric. Only switches that are authorized and authenticated
correctly are allowed to join the fabric.
Authentication in the secure fabric is twofold. The fabric wants to verify the identity of each
new switch before it joins the fabric, and the switch that wants to join the fabric wants to verify
that it is connected to the correct fabric. Each switch needs a list of the WWNs of the switches
that are authorized to join the fabric. The switch also needs a set of parameters that are used
to verify the identities of the other switches that belong to the fabric.
Manual configuration of this information within all of the switches of the fabric is possible, but
not advisable in larger fabrics. And, you need a mechanism to manage and distribute
information about authorization and authentication across the fabric.

9.4 Storage area network encryption

What is data encryption, and symmetric and asymmetric encryption? What is in-flight data or
data-at-rest? This terminology is explained to help you to understand the fundamentals in
encryption and key management.

9.4.1 Basic encryption definition

You must first determine whether you need encryption. We describe basic encryption,
cryptographic terms, and ideas about how you can protect your data.
Encryption is one of the simple ways to secure your data. If the data is stolen, lost, or
acquired in any way, it cannot be read without the correct encryption key.
Encryption was used to exchange information in a secure and confidential way for many
centuries. Encryption transforms data that is unprotected (plain or clear text) into encrypted
data, or ciphertext, by using a key. It is difficult to break ciphertext to change it back to clear
text without the associated encryption key.

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Two major types of encryption are available:

Symmetric

The same secret password, or key, is used to encrypt a message and

decrypt the corresponding cipher text.

Asymmetric

One key is used to encrypt a message, and another key is used to

decrypt the corresponding cipher text. Asymmetric encryption is also
called public-key encryption.

A symmetric cryptosystem follows a fairly straightforward philosophy: Two parties can securely
communicate if both parties use the same cryptographic algorithm and possess the same
secret key to encrypt and decrypt messages. This algorithm is the simplest and most efficient
way of implementing secure communication, if the participating parties are able to securely
exchange secret keys (or passwords).
Figure 9-1 shows symmetric encryption.

Figure 9-1 Symmetric cryptography

An asymmetric (or public-key) cryptosystem is a cryptographic system that uses a pair of

unique keys that are typically referred to as public keys and private keys. Each individual is
assigned a pair of these keys to encrypt and decrypt information. A message that is
encrypted by one of these keys can be decrypted only by the other key and vice versa:
One of these keys is called a public key because it is made available to others for use
when they encrypt information that is sent to an individual. For example, people can use a
persons public key to encrypt information that they want to send to that person. Similarly,
people can use the users public key to decrypt information that is sent by that person.
The other key is called a private key because it is accessible only to its owner. The
individual can use the private key to decrypt any messages that are encrypted with the
public key. Similarly, the individual can use the private key to encrypt messages so that the
messages can be decrypted only with the corresponding public key.
Therefore, exchanging keys is not a security concern. An analogy to public-key encryption is
that of a locked mailbox with a mail slot. The mail slot is exposed and accessible to the public;
its location (the street address) is in essence the public key. Anyone who knows the street
address can go to the mailbox and drop a written message through the slot; however, only the
person who possesses the key can open the mailbox and read the message.

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Figure 9-2 shows the asymmetric cryptography process.

Figure 9-2 Asymmetric cryptography

The main disadvantage of public-key encryption when compared to symmetric encryption is

that it demands much higher computing power to be performed as efficiently. For this reason,
most of the current security systems use public-key mechanisms as a way to securely
exchange symmetric encryption keys between parties that then use symmetric encryption for
their communication. In this case, the exchanged symmetric secret key (or password) is
called a session key.
However, an issue still exists about public-key cryptosystems. When you receive a public key
from someone for the first time, how do you know that this individual is really who they claim
to be? If spoofing the identity of someone is so easy, how do you knowingly exchange public
keys? The answer is to use a digital certificate. A digital certificate is a digital document that
is issued by a trusted institution that vouches for the identity and key ownership of an
individual. The certificate guarantees authenticity and integrity.
In the next sections, we present several common encryption algorithms and tools and explain
the terminology.

9.4.2 Data-in-flight
Also known as data-in-motion, this term generically refers to protecting information any time
that the data leaves its primary location, for example, when data is transmitted from the
source across any type of network to a target. To secure this transmission, we use
technologies, such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), Virtual Private Network (VPN), and
IP Security (IPSec) to assure data confidentiality. Then, we use other technologies, such as
digital certificates, message authentication codes, and keyed hashes, to ensure data integrity.
Data-in-flight is also information (data) that leaves the data center through, for example, an
open network or leased dark fiber.
All of these areas can be addressed with encryption-based technologies.

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9.4.3 Data-at-rest
Protecting data as it resides on the storage media, disk, or tape is typically referred to as
protecting data-at-rest.
If encryption is used as part of the strategy for the protection of data-at-rest, this protection
also indirectly addresses the issue of displayed tape media. This issue is addressed because,
even if tapes fall into the wrong hands, the data that is stored on them is unreadable without
the correct key. These security measures assume that you enacted the appropriate key
management techniques.
To gain the needed security level, you build layers of security on your SAN. You first increase
the level of difficulty for an unauthorized user to even gain access to the data. You then
compound that with the fact that private data is not stored in human-readable form.

9.4.4 Digital certificates

If you are using one of these encryption methods, you must also be certain that the person or
machine you are sending to is the correct one. When you receive a public key from someone
for the first time, how do you know that this individual is the correct person? If spoofing
someones identity is so easy, how do you knowingly exchange public keys? The answer is to
use a digital certificate. A digital certificate is a digital document that is issued by a trusted
institution that vouches for the identity and key ownership of an individual. A digital certificate
guarantees authenticity and integrity.
Trusted institutions all over the world generate trusted certificates. We use this type of
mechanism also for the first time by using a certificate that is generated by our switch. For
more information, see 9.4.6, Key management considerations and security standards on
page 202.

9.4.5 Encryption algorithm

After you decide that encryption is required, you must also be aware that several encryption
schemes are available to choose from. The most popular encryption schemes in use today
include the following algorithms:

Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES)

Data Encryption Standard (DES)
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm (RSA)
Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
Diffie-Hellman
Digital signature algorithm (DSA)
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)

For more information about IBM System Storage Data Encryption, see IBM System Storage
Data Encryption, SG24-7797. For an example of how IBM implements encryption on the
IBM System Storage SAN Volume Controller, see Implementing the Storwize V7000 and the
IBM System Storage SAN32B-E4 Encryption Switch, SG24-7977.
If we look at the security aspect on its own, were focused on establishing a perimeter of
defense around system assets. Although securing access to our environments continues to
be an important part of security, the typical business cannot afford to lock down its entire
enterprise.

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Open networks are now commonly used to connect clients, partners, employees, suppliers,
and their data. Although open networks offer significant advantages, they raise concerns
about how a business protects its information assets and complies with industry and
legislative requirements for data privacy and accountability. By using data encryption as a
part of the solution, many of these concerns can be mitigated.

9.4.6 Key management considerations and security standards

An encryption algorithm requires a key to transform the data. All cryptographic algorithms, at
least the reputable ones, are in the public domain. Therefore, it is the key that controls access
to the data. We cannot emphasize enough that you must safeguard the key to protect the
data. A good tool for that purpose is IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager.

IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager

Because of the nature, security, and accessibility of encryption, encrypted data depends on
the security of, and accessibility to, the decryption key. The disclosure of a decryption key to
an unauthorized agent (individual person or system component) creates a security exposure
so that the unauthorized agent also can access to the ciphertext that is generated with the
associated encryption key.
Furthermore, if all copies of the decryption key are lost (whether intentionally or accidentally),
no feasible way exists to decrypt the associated ciphertext, and the data that is contained in
the ciphertext is said to be cryptographically erased. If the only copies of certain data are
cryptographically erased, access to that data is permanently lost for all practical purposes.
This problem is why the security and accessibility characteristics of encrypted data can create
considerations for you that do not exist with storage devices that do not contain encrypted
data.
The primary reason for using encryption is that data is kept secure from disclosure and data
is kept from others that do not have sufficient authority. At the same time, data must be
accessible to any agent that has both the authority and the requirement to gain access.
Two security considerations are important in this context:
Key security
To preserve the security of encryption keys, the implementation must ensure that no one
individual (system or person) has access to all of the information that is required to
determine the encryption key.
Key availability
To preserve the access to encryption keys, redundancy can be provided by having multiple
independent key servers that have redundant communication paths to encrypting devices.
This redundancy ensures that the backup of each key servers data is maintained. Failure
of any one key server or any one network does not prevent devices from obtaining access
to the data keys that are needed to provide access to the data.
The sensitivity of possessing and maintaining encryption keys and the complexity of
managing the number of encryption keys in a typical environment result in a client
requirement for a key server. A key server is integrated with encrypting products to resolve
most of the security and usability issues that are associated with key management for
encrypted devices. However, you must still be sufficiently aware of how these products
interact to provide the correct management of the computer environment.

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Master key: Even with a key server, generally at least one encryption key, which is
normally called the master key (MK), must be maintained manually. For example, this
master key manages access to all other encryption keys. This master key encrypts the
data that is used by the key server to exchange keys.
Fundamentally, IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager works by allowing administrators to
connect to storage devices and then create and manage keystores. These stores are secure
repositories of keys and certificate information that are used to encrypt and decrypt data, or to
use existing keystores already in place.
Over the course of the key lifecycle, all management functions, including creation,
importation, distribution, backup, and archiving, are easily accomplished. These functions can
be performed by using the lifecycle managers graphic interface, which can be accessed by
using any standard browser in the network.
IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager therefore serves as a central point of control, unifying
key management even when different classes of storage devices are involved. For more
information about IBM Security Key Lifecycle Manager, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/software/products/en/key-lifecycle-manager
Two security standards are important to ensuring the integrity of encryption products: FIPS
140 and Common Criteria. The official title for the standard Federal Information Processing
Standard 140 (FIPS-140) is Security Requirements for Cryptographic Modules. FIPS 140-2
stands for the second revision of the standard and was released in 2001. Common Criteria
has seven Evaluation Assurance Levels (EALs), which were defined in 1999. Together, these
standards support a small industry for certifying security products and ensuring the integrity
of encryption systems.

9.4.7 b-type encryption methods

In-flight encryption of expansion port (E_port) links was introduced with FOS 7.0 and Gen5
FC 16 Gbps technology.

In-flight encryption
The in-flight encryption and compression feature of Fabric OS allows frames to be encrypted
or compressed at the egress point of an inter-switch link (ISL) between two b-type switches,
and then to be decrypted or extracted at the ingress point of the ISL. This feature uses
port-based encryption and compression. It is supported on 16 Gbps E_ports only.
Note: The ports can run at 2 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, 10 Gbps, or 16 Gbps.
The purpose of encryption is to provide security for frames while they are in flight between
two switches. The purpose of compression is for better bandwidth use on the ISLs, especially
over long distances. An average compression ratio of 2:1 is provided. Frames are never left in
an encrypted or compressed state when they are delivered to an end device, and both ends
of the ISL must terminate at 16 Gbps ports.
For more information, see the Metro Cloud Connectivity: Integrated Metro SAN Connectivity
in Gen 5 Fibre Channel Switches white paper:
http://www.brocade.com/content/dam/common/documents/content-types/whitepaper/broca
de-metro-cloud-connect-wp.pdf

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Figure 9-3 shows the b-type in-flight encryption architecture.

Figure 9-3 In-flight architecture

Encryption at rest
The b-type fabric-based encryption solutions work transparently with heterogeneous servers,
tape libraries, and storage subsystems. Although host-based encryption works only for a
specified operating system and storage-based encryption works only for a specific vendor,
b-type products are deployed in the core of the fabric to encrypt Fibre Channel-based traffic.
Users deploy b-type encryption solutions through either the FS8-18 Encryption Blade or the
2U, rack-mounted IBM SAN32B-E4 Encryption Switch.
The Device Encryption Key (DEK) is important. Because the DEK is needed to encrypt and
decrypt the data, it must be random and 256 bits. B-type encryption devices use a True
Random Number Generator (TRNG) to generate each DEK. For encrypting data that is
destined for a disk drive, one DEK is associated with one logical unit number (LUN).
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers 1619 (IEEE 1619) standard on encryption
algorithms for disk drives is known as AES256-XTS. The encrypted data from the
AES256-XTS algorithm is the same length as the unencrypted data. Therefore, the b-type
encryption device can encrypt the data, block by block, without expanding the size of the data.
The key management is performed by using external software, such as IBM Security Key
Lifecycle Manager.

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Figure 9-4 shows a simple b-type encryption setup.

Figure 9-4 b-type encryption and key management

9.4.8 Cisco encryption methods

Cisco has two methods of encrypting SAN information: in-flight encryption and storage media
encryption. For more information about both of these methods, see the following websites:
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/prod/collateral/ps4159/ps6409/ps5990/white_paper_c11-5
45124.html
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/prod/collateral/ps4159/ps6409/ps6028/ps8502/product_da
ta_sheet0900aecd8068ed59.html

In-flight encryption
Cisco TrustSec Fibre Channel Link Encryption is an extension of the FC-SP standard. It uses
the existing FC-SP architecture. Fibre Channel data that travels between E_ports on 8 Gbps
modules is encrypted. Cisco uses the 128-bit Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
encryption algorithm and enables either AES-Galois/Counter Mode (AES-GCM) or
AES-Galois Message Authentication Code (AES-GMAC). AES-GCM encrypts and
authenticates frames, and AES-GMAC authenticates only the frames that are passed
between the two peers.
Encryption is performed at line rate by encapsulating frames at egress with encryption by
using the GCM authentication mode with 128-bit AES encryption. At ingress, frames are
decrypted and authenticated with integrity checks.
Two primary use cases for Cisco TrustSec Fibre Channel Link Encryption exist. In the first use
case, clients are communicating outside the data center over native Fibre Channel (for
example, dark fiber, Coarse Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (CWDM) or Dense
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (DWDM). In the second use case, encryption is performed
within the data center for security-focused clients, such as defense and intelligence services.

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Figure 9-5 shows Cisco TrustSec Fibre Channel Link Encryption.

Figure 9-5 Cisco TrustSec encryption

Encryption at rest
Cisco uses Storage Media Encryption (SME), which protects data at rest on heterogeneous
tape drives, virtual tape libraries (VTLs), and disk arrays, in a SAN environment by using
highly secure IEEE Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithms.
Encryption is performed as a transparent Fibre Channel fabric service, which greatly
simplifies the deployment and management of sensitive data on SAN-attached storage
devices. Storage in any virtual SAN (VSAN) can make full use of Cisco SME.
Secure lifecycle key management is included with essential features, such as key archival,
shredding, automatic key replication across data centers, high-availability deployments, and
export and import for single-site and multiple-site environments. Provisioning and key
management for Cisco SME are both integrated into Cisco Fabric Manager and Data Center
Network Manager (DCNM). No additional software is required for key management.
Figure 9-6 shows the SME architecture.

Figure 9-6 SME architecture

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9.5 Encryption standards and algorithms

The following encryption algorithms are in use today:
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
AES is a symmetric 128-bit block data encryption technique that was developed by
Belgian cryptographers: Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen. The US government adopted
the algorithm as its encryption technique in October 2000, replacing the DES encryption
that it used. AES works at multiple network layers simultaneously. The National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) of the US Department of Commerce selected the
algorithm, called Rijndael (pronounced Rhine Dahl or Rain Doll), out of a group of five
algorithms under consideration. AES is the first publicly accessible and open cipher that is
approved by the National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information.
Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm (RSA)
The RSA algorithm involves three steps: key generation, encryption, and decryption. This
algorithm was created in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman at MIT. The
letters RSA are the initials of their surnames. It was the first algorithm that is known to be
suitable for digital signing and data encryption, and one of the first great advances in
public key cryptography. RSA is still widely used in electronic commerce protocols, and it
is believed to be secure with sufficiently long keys and the use of up-to-date
implementations.
Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
ECC is an approach to public-key cryptography that is based on the mathematics of elliptic
curves over finite fields. The use of elliptic curves in cryptography was suggested
independently by Neal Koblitz and Victor S. Miller in 1985. Elliptic curves are also used in
several integer factorization algorithms that have applications in cryptography. An example
of this algorithm is Lenstra elliptic curve factorization, but this use of elliptic curves is not
usually referred to as elliptic curve cryptography.
Diffie-Hellman (D-H)
The D-H key exchange is a cryptographic protocol that allows two parties that have no
prior knowledge of each other to jointly establish a shared secret key over an insecure
communications channel. This key can then be used to encrypt subsequent
communications by using a symmetric key cipher.
Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)
DSA is a United States Federal Government standard for digital signatures. It was
proposed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in August 1991 for
use in their Digital Signature Standard (DSS), specified in FIPS 186, and adopted in 1993.
A minor revision was issued in 1996 as FIPS 186-1, and the standard was expanded
further in 2000 as FIPS 186-2, and again in 2009 as FIPS 186-3. DSA is covered by US
Patent 5,231,668, which was filed 26 July 1991, and attributed to David W. Kravitz, a
former NSA employee.
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)
The SHA family is a set of related cryptographic hash functions. The most commonly used
function in the family, SHA-1, is employed in a large variety of popular security applications
and protocols, including Transport Layer Security (TLS), SSL, Pretty Good Privacy (PGP),
Secure Shell (SSH), secure/MIME (S/MIME), and IPSec. The algorithm was also used on
the Nintendo Wii gaming console for signature verification when booting occurs.

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9.6 Security common practices

At a high level, consider implementing the following security preferred practices at a
minimum:
Change default configurations and passwords often.
Check and double-check configuration changes to ensure that only the data that is
supposed to be accessed can be accessed.
Ensure that the management of devices usually takes a Telnet form, with the use of
encrypted management protocols.
Ensure that the network is secure because remote access often relies on unsecured
networks. Ensure that a form of protection is in place to guarantee that only those people
with the correct authority are allowed to connect.
Ensure that the operating systems that are connected are as secure as they can be. If the
operating systems are connected to an internal and external LAN, ensure that this
connection cannot be used. Access might be gained by using loose configurations.
Assign the correct roles to administrators.
Ensure that the devices are in physically secure locations.
Ensure that the passwords are changed if the administrator leaves. Also, ensure that
passwords are changed regularly.
Finally, the SAN security strategy in its entirety must be periodically addressed as the SAN
infrastructure develops, and as new technologies emerge and are introduced into the
environment.
These safeguards do not guarantee that your information is 100% secure, but they can go far
in ensuring that all but the most ardent thieves are kept out.

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10

Chapter 10.

Solutions
The added value of a storage area network (SAN) lies in the use of its technology to provide
tangible and desirable benefits to the business. These benefits are provided by the use of
fast, secure, reliable, and highly available networking solutions. Benefits range from increased
availability and flexibility to more functionality that can reduce application downtime.
In this chapter, we provide a description of general SAN applications, and the types of
components that are required to implement them. Far more complexity exists than is
presented here. For instance, this text does not cover how to choose one switch over another,
or how many inter-switch links (ISLs) are necessary for a specific SAN design. These
strategic decisions must be always considered by experienced IT architects, and these
decisions are beyond the intended scope of this book. We introduce the basic principles and
key considerations to choose an optimal solution for SAN deployments.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

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10.1 Introduction
With the continued development of communication and computing technologies and
products, SANs are becoming much more complex. We are not referring to merely a simple
fiber-optic connection between SAN devices. Examples of these devices include SAN
switches, routers, tape drives, disk device subsystems, and target host systems that use
standard Fibre Channel host bus adapters (HBAs). Technology moved beyond those
solutions and continues to do so.
Today, businesses are looking for solutions that enable them to increase the data transfer rate
within the most complex data centers. Businesses also want solutions that provide high
availability of managed applications and systems, implement data security, and provide
storage efficiency. At the same time, businesses want to reduce the associated costs and
power consumption.
Organizations must find a smooth, effective, and cost-efficient way to upgrade their current or
traditional SAN infrastructure. The upgraded infrastructure provides a less complex and more
powerful and flexible data center of the next generation.
SAN solutions can be classified into many categories. We chose to classify our SAN solutions
as infrastructure simplification, business continuity, and information lifecycle management
(ILM). In the following topics, we describe the use of basic SAN design patterns to build
solutions for different requirements. These requirements range from simple data movement
techniques that are frequently employed as a way to improve business continuity, up to
sophisticated storage-pooling techniques that are used to simplify complex infrastructures.
Before SAN solutions and requirements are described, we present basic principles to
consider when you plan a SAN implementation or upgrade.

10.2 Basic solution principles

Many important decisions must be made by the system architect, either when a new SAN is
designed, or when an existing SAN is expanded. These decisions typically refer to the choice
of the connectivity technology, the preferred practices for adding capacity to a SAN, or the
most suitable technology for achieving data integration.

10.2.1 Connectivity
Connecting servers to storage devices through a SAN fabric is often the first step in a phased
SAN implementation. Fibre Channel attachments offer the following benefits:
Extended connection distances (sometimes called remote storage)
Enhanced addressability
Improved performance by running Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) over
Fibre Channel
Many implementations of Fibre Channel technology are simple configurations that remove
many of the restrictions of the existing storage environments. With these implementations of
Fibre Channel technology, you can build one common physical infrastructure. The SAN uses
common cabling to the storage and other peripheral devices.

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The handling of separate sets of cables, such as Original Equipment Manufacturers

Information (OEMI), Enterprise Systems Connection (ESCON), SCSI single-ended, SCSI
differential, and SCSI Low Voltage Differential (LVD), caused IT organization management
much difficulty as it attempted to treat each of these types differently. One of the biggest
issues is the special handling that is needed to circumvent the various distance limitations.
Installations without SANs commonly use SCSI cables to attach to their storage. SCSI has
many restrictions, such as limited speed, only a few devices that can be attached, and severe
distance limitations. Running SCSI over Fibre Channel helps to alleviate these restrictions.
SCSI over Fibre Channel helps improve performance and enables more flexible
addressability and much greater attachment distances when compared to a normal SCSI
attachment.
A key requirement of this type of increased connectivity is providing consistent management
interfaces for configuration, monitoring, and management of these SAN components. This
type of connectivity allows companies to reap the benefits of Fibre Channel technology, while
also protecting their current storage investments.
The flexibility and simplification of the SAN infrastructure can be dramatically improved by
using Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE), which evolved over the last few years. FCoE can
easily replace dedicated switching solutions for LAN and SAN with a single device that can
transfer both types of data: Internet Protocol (IP) packets and storage data. We call these
deployments converged networks. In the following topics, we briefly present the basic
migration steps to convergency.

10.2.2 Adding capacity

The addition of storage capacity to one or more servers might be facilitated while the device is
connected to a SAN. Depending on the SAN configuration and the server operating system, it
might be possible to add or remove devices without stopping and restarting the server.
If new storage devices are attached to a section of a SAN with loop topology (mainly tape
drives), the loop initialization primitive (LIP) might affect the operation of other devices on
the loop. This setback might be overcome by slowing down the operating system activity to all
of the devices on that particular loop before you attach the new device. This setback is far less
of a problem with the latest generation of loop-capable switches. If the storage devices attach
to a SAN by a switch, the use of the switch and management software makes it is possible to
make the devices available to any system that connects to the SAN.

10.2.3 Data movement and copy

Data movement solutions require that data is moved between similar or dissimilar storage
devices. Today, data movement or replication is performed by the server or multiple servers.
The server reads data from the source device, perhaps transmitting the data across a LAN or
WAN to another server. Then, the data is written to the destination device. This task ties up
server processor cycles and causes the data to travel twice over the SAN. The data travels
one time from the source device to a server, and then a second time from a server to a
destination device.
The objective of SAN data movement solutions is to avoid copying data through the server,
and across a LAN or WAN. This practice frees up server processor cycles and LAN or WAN
bandwidth. Today, this data replication can be accomplished in a SAN by using intelligent
tools and utilities and between data centers that use, for example, FCoE protocol on a WAN.
The following sections list several of the available copy services functions.
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Data migration
One of the critical tasks for a SAN administrator is to move data between two independent
SAN infrastructures. The administrator might move data from an old storage system that is
being discontinued to the new enterprise and high-performance disk system. Two basic
scenarios exist. SANs are independent and cannot be interconnected even if they reside in
the same data center, and the disk systems can be cross-connected through SAN switches.

Data replication over storage area networks

In this scenario, we can interconnect both storage devices (both SANs) together and migrate
data directly from an old device to the new storage box. This step is completed without
interruption of the service or performance degradation of the application or host server. This
type of migration is referred to as a block-level data copy. In this type of migration, storage
systems do not analyze the data on disks, they merely split the data into blocks and copy the
data that changed or was modified. Many storage vendors, including IBM, offer replication
services for their disk storage systems as an optional feature of service delivery, typically as
part of a backup and recovery solution. Copy services can be even further extended to long
distances through a WAN to fulfill disaster recovery requirements or to increase the
availability of application services across geographies.
Figure 10-1 shows how this data (logical unit number (LUN)) migration works, in principle.

Figure 10-1 SAN-based replication of LUNs

In Figure 10-1, the storage administrator is challenged to migrate data to the newly deployed,
high performance disk storage system without interrupting the clients critical SAP
applications. Luckily, we can manage both source and target storage systems. These
systems are configured to communicate through SAN switches. Disk copy services can
replicate specific LUNs from the old storage device to the new storage device without
affecting the performance of the SAP application.

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In addition, you can use this procedure to prepare a standby application server that connects
to the replicated disk LUNs. Or, you can use this procedure to replace the old server
hardware where the SAP application is running, with the minimum outage that is necessary to
switch the application over to the prepared server.

Host-based data migration

Host-based migration of storage data is the option that is used when the storage
administrator is unable to establish a connection between the source and target disk storage
system. This type of migration typically happens in data centers with two independent SANs.
In most cases, each of these SANs is managed by a different team of administrators or even
by different vendors.
Figure 10-2 shows the principle of host-based data migration.

Figure 10-2 Host-based migration of data

The application server is connected to both SANs by using independent HBAs. Application
owners and SAN2 administrators analyze the current disk structure that is assigned from the
source storage system. The SAN2 administrator assigns the same disk capacity to the
application server. The application or system owner then migrates the data from the source
disk to the target disk. This migration is performed manually by using the operating system
functions. (The application is offline.) Or, disk mirroring must be enabled.
When the data is synchronized between the source and target disks, the mirror can be
broken, source disks can be unassigned, and the source storage system can be
disconnected from the application server. The disadvantage of this solution is a significant I/O
operation on the source and target LUNs that can potentially affect the performance of critical
applications.

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Remote data copy and migration

Remote copy or data migration is a business requirement that is used to protect data from
disasters, or to migrate data from one location to avoid application downtime for planned
outages, such as hardware or software maintenance. Another challenge of remote copy
services is to provide a highly available or fault-tolerant infrastructure for business critical
systems and applications across data centers, typically over long distances, sometimes even
continents.
Remote copy solutions are either synchronous or asynchronous, and they require different
levels of automation to guarantee data consistency across disks and disk subsystems.
Remote copy solutions are implemented only for disks at a physical or logical volume data
block level. Complete solutions are available from various vendors to support data migration
projects to optimally schedule and use client network resources and to eliminate the effect on
critical production environments.
Products, such as the vendor solutions, help clients efficiently and effectively migrate all of the
SAN data volumes from small remote data centers to a central data center across a WAN
without interruption to the service.
With advanced storage management techniques, such as outboard hierarchical storage
management (HSM) and file pooling, remote copy solutions need to be implemented at the
file level. These techniques imply that more data needs to be copied, and they require more
advanced technologies to guarantee data consistency across files, disks, and tape in multiple
server heterogeneous environments. The data center networking infrastructure is required to
support various data transfer protocols to support these requirements. Examples of these
interfaces include FCoE, Converged Enhanced Ethernet (CEE), or simple Internet SCSI
(iSCSI).

Real-time snapshot copy

Another outboard copy service that is enabled by Fibre Channel technology is the real-time
snapshot, which is also known as time=zero (T0) copy. This service is the process of taking
an online snapshot, or freezing the data (databases, files, or volumes) at a certain time. This
process allows the applications to update the original data while the frozen copy is duplicated.
With the flexibility and extensibility of Fibre Channel, these snapshot copies can be made to
either local or remote storage devices.
The requirement for this type of function is driven by the need for the 24x7 availability of key
database systems. This solution is optimal in homogeneous infrastructures that consist of
devices from a single vendor.

10.2.4 Upgrading to faster speeds

One of the other considerations of any SAN environment is how to introduce newer, faster
technology. Both 8 gigabit per second (Gbps) Fibre Channel and 10 gigabit over Ethernet
(GbE) products are prevalent in the market and participate in data center networking. Now,
vendors are moving forward with even faster technologies and products, such as 16 Gbps
Fibre Channel ports and HBAs.
For most applications, this faster technology does not mean that the application can
immediately benefit. Applications with random or bursty I/O might not necessarily gain any
advantage. Only those applications and systems that stream large amounts of data are likely
to see the most immediate benefits.

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One logical place to use 16 Gbps is in the inter-switch link (ISL) scenario. This scenario has
two advantages. The increased speed between switches is an obvious advantage. And, the
increased bandwidth might mean that you need fewer ISLs. If fewer ISLs are required, it might
be possible to reassign ISLs to attach hosts or storage.
Another consideration is cost. IT architects and investors must evaluate their current SAN
solutions in their data centers and make strategic decisions to determine whether it is
beneficial to continue with the upgrade to a dedicated Fibre Channel solution that is running
16 Gbps devices. Or, the architects and investors must determine whether now is the right
time to consider an upgrade to converged networks to use, for example, FCoE. Many
products are available on the market that support these transformations and transitions and
protect client investments for the future.

10.3 Infrastructure simplification

An important critical business requirement is the need for IT infrastructures to better support
business integration and transformation efforts. Often, the simplification and streamlining of
core storage provisioning services and storage networking are at the center of these efforts.
Viewed in the broadest sense, infrastructure simplification represents an optimized view and
evolutionary approach (or the next logical step beyond basic server consolidation and
virtualization) for companies on the verge of becoming true on-demand businesses. These
businesses are highly competitive in the market.
Is your IT infrastructure a complex set of disparate, server-specific, and siloed applications
that operate across an endless area of servers, for example:

Transaction processing servers

Database servers
Tiered application servers
Data gateways
Human resource servers
Accounting servers
Manufacturing servers
Engineering servers
Email servers
Web servers

If so, you must be able to answer these questions:

Where can we deploy the next application?

Where can we physically put the next server?
How can we extend our storage resources?
How can we connect more virtual or physical servers?
Or, does a simpler way exist to manage all of these servers?

We try to answer all of these questions in the following topics.

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10.3.1 The origin of the complexity

A SAN, in theory, is a simple thing. A SAN is a path from a server to a common storage
resource. Therefore, where did all of the complexity come from?
Limited budgets and short-sighted strategic thinking push IT organizations into looking for
short-term solutions to pain points. When a new application or project becomes available, the
easy, inexpensive option is to add another low-cost server. Because this server sprawl or
proliferation of UNIX and Windows Intel servers is an attractive short-term solution, the
infrastructure costs to support these inexpensive servers often exceeds the purchase price of
the server.
Now, storage systems are also added to the sprawl. Every server has two or four HBAs and a
share of the consolidated storage. As more servers are added, we run out of SAN ports, so
we add another switch, and then another, and finally another. Now, we have SAN sprawl
with a complex interlinked fabric that is difficult to maintain or change.
To make things more difficult, the servers are probably purchased from multiple vendors, with
decisions made on cost, suitability to a specific application, or merely someones personal
preference. The servers of different vendors are tested on specific SAN configurations. Every
server vendor has its own interoperability matrix or a list of SAN configurations that the
vendor tested and that the particular vendor supports. It might be difficult for a SAN
administrator to identify the correct devices and configurations that work together smoothly.

10.3.2 Storage pooling

Before SANs, the concept of the physical pooling of devices in a common area of the
computing center was often not possible. When it was possible, expensive and unique
extension technology was required. By introducing a network between the servers and the
storage resources, this problem is minimized. Hardware interconnections become common
across all servers and devices. For example, common trunk cables can be used for all
servers, storage, and switches.
This section briefly describes the two major types of storage device pooling: disk pooling and
tape pooling.

Disk pooling
Disk pooling allows multiple servers to use a common pool of SAN-attached disk storage
devices. Disk storage resources are pooled within a disk subsystem or across multiple IBM
and non-IBM disk subsystems. And, capacity is assigned to independent file systems that are
supported by the operating systems on the servers. The servers are potentially a
heterogeneous mix of UNIX, Microsoft Windows, and even IBM z Systems servers.
Storage can be dynamically added to the disk pool and assigned to any SAN-attached server
when and where necessary. This function provides efficient access to shared disk resources
without a level of indirection that is associated with a separate file server. This scenario is
possible because storage is effectively directly attached to all of the servers, and efficiencies
of scalability result from the consolidation of storage capacity.
When storage is added, you can use zoning to restrict access to the added capacity. Because
many devices (or LUNs) can be attached to a single port, access can be further restricted by
using LUN-masking. You can use LUN masking to specify who can access a specific device
or LUN.

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You can attach and detach storage devices under the control of a common administrative
interface. Storage capacity can be added without stopping the server, and the storage
capacity can be available to the applications immediately.
Figure 10-3 shows an example of disk storage pooling across two servers.
AIX

Windows

SAN
Fabric

Storage A

Storage B

Figure 10-3 Disk pooling concept

In Figure 10-3, one server is assigned a pool of disks that are formatted to the requirements
of the file system, and the second server is assigned another pool of disks, possibly in
another format. The third pool might be the space that is not yet allocated, or the third pool
can be a preformatted disk for future use. Again, all of the changes in the disk structure can
be performed dynamically without interruption to the service.

Tape pooling
Tape pooling addresses a problem in an open systems environment where multiple servers
are unable to share tape resources across multiple hosts. Older methods of sharing a device
between hosts consist of either manually switching the tape device from one host to the other,
or writing applications that communicate with connected servers through distributed
programming.
Tape pooling allows applications on one or more servers to share tape drives, libraries, and
cartridges in a SAN environment in an automated, secure manner. With a SAN infrastructure,
each host can directly address the tape device as though the tape device is connected to all
of the hosts.
Tape drives, libraries, and cartridges are owned by either a central manager (tape library
manager) or a peer-to-peer management implementation. These devices are dynamically
allocated and reallocated to systems (tape library clients) as required, based on demand.
Tape pooling allows for resource sharing, automation, improved tape management, and
added security for tape media.

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Software is required to manage the assignment and locking of the tape devices to serialize
tape access. Tape pooling is an efficient and cost-effective way of sharing expensive tape
resources, such as automated tape libraries. At any particular instant in time, a tape drive can
be owned by one system only.
This concept of tape resource sharing and pooling is proven in medium-to-enterprise backup
and archive solutions that use, for example, IBM Tivoli Storage Manager with SAN-attached
IBM tape libraries.

Logical volume partitioning

At first sight, an individual might ask, How will logical volume partitioning make my
infrastructure simpler? It looks as though we are creating more and more pieces to manage in
my storage. Conceptually, this thought is correct, but the benefit of logical volume
partitioning is to address the need for maximum volume capacity and to effectively use it
within target systems. Logical volume partitioning is essentially a way of dividing the capacity
of a single storage server into multiple pieces. The storage subsystems are connected to
multiple servers, and storage capacity is partitioned among the various subsystems.

Logical disk volumes are defined within the storage subsystem and assigned to servers. The
logical disk is addressable from the server. A logical disk might be a subset or superset of
disks that are only addressable by the subsystem itself. A logical disk volume can also be
defined as subsets of several physical disks (striping). The capacity of a disk volume is set
when the logical disk is defined.
For example, two logical disks, with different capacities (for example, 50 GB and 150 GB)
might be created from a single 300 GB hardware-addressable disk. Each of the two disks is
assigned to a different server, which leaves 100 GB of unassigned capacity. A single 2,000
GB logical disk might also be created from multiple real disks that exist in different storage
subsystems. The underlying storage controller must have the necessary logic to manage the
volume grouping and guarantee access securely to the data.
The function of a storage controller can be further used by certain storage virtualization
engines, such as the IBM SAN Volume Controller. This engine, when compared to
environments that do not use this controller, offers better and more scalability and
virtualization of storage resources. The SAN Volume Controller provides these benefits with
less management effort and clearer visibility to the target host systems.

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Figure 10-4 shows multiple servers that are accessing logical volumes that were created by
using the different alternatives that we mentioned. (The logical volume, which is called the
unallocated volume, is not assigned to any server.)
Linux

Windows

AIX

z/OS

Logical Volume 3

Unallocated volume
LV 1
LV 2

LV 4

LV 5

Logical Volume 6

Figure 10-4 Conceptual model of logical volume partitioning

10.3.3 Consolidation
We can improve scalability, security, and manageability by enabling devices in separate SAN
fabrics to communicate without merging fabrics into a single, large SAN fabric. This capability
enables clients to initially deploy separate SAN solutions at the departmental and data center
levels and then to consolidate them into large enterprise SAN solutions. This consolidation
occurs as clients experience and requirements grow and change. This type of solution is also
known as data center bridging.
Clients deploy multiple SAN islands for different applications with different fabric switch
solutions. The growing availability of iSCSI server capabilities creates the opportunity for
low-cost iSCSI server integration and storage consolidation. Additionally, depending on the
choice of router, iSCSI servers can provide Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP) or Internet Fibre
Channel Protocol (iFCP) capability.
The available multiprotocol SAN routers provide an iSCSI Gateway Service to integrate
low-cost Ethernet-connected servers to existing SAN infrastructures. The iSCSI Gateway
Service also provides a Fibre Channel-to-Fibre Channel (FC-FC) Routing Service to
interconnect multiple SAN islands without requiring the fabrics to merge into a single large
SAN.

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Figure 10-5 shows an example of using a multiprotocol router and converged core switch to
extend SAN capabilities across long distances or merely over metropolitan areas.

NAS

iSCSI
iSCSI
FC
FC

DCB/CEE

FCIP

FC
Multiprotocol router
FC
FCoE

Figure 10-5 The concept of SAN consolidation

A multiprotocol-capable router solution offers many benefits to the marketplace. In our

example, discrete SAN islands and several protocols are involved. Many disruptive and
potentially expensive actions are involved to merge these SAN fabrics:

Downtime
Purchase of more switches and ports
Purchase of HBAs
Migration costs
Configuration costs
Purchase of more licenses
Ongoing maintenance

However, many advantages are available by installing a multiprotocol router or core

FCoE-enabled switch or director:

220

Least disruptive method

No need to purchase extra HBAs
Minimum number of ports to connect to the router
No expensive downtime
No expensive migration costs
No ongoing maintenance costs other than the router
Support of other protocols
Increased return on investment (ROI) by consolidating resources
Capability to use router to isolate the SAN environment for greater security

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The router and core switch can provide more benefits. In this example, which is an FC-FC
routing service that negates the need for a costly SAN fabric merger, the advantages are
apparent and real. A router can also provide the following benefits:

Device connectivity across multiple SANs for infrastructure simplification

Tape-backup consolidation for information lifecycle management (ILM)
Long-distance SAN extension for business continuity
Low-cost server connectivity to SAN resources

10.3.4 Migration to a converged network

Medium-sized and enterprise data centers typically run multiple separate networks. These
networks include an Ethernet network for client-to-server and server-to-server
communications, and a Fibre Channel SAN for the same type of connections. To support
various types of networks, data centers use separate redundant interface modules for each
network: Ethernet network interface cards (NICs) and Fibre Channel interfaces (HBAs) in
their servers, and redundant pairs of switches at each layer in the network architecture. The
use of parallel infrastructures increases capital costs, makes data center management more
difficult, and diminishes business flexibility.
The principle of consolidation of both independent networks to share a single, integrated
networking infrastructure relies on the use of FCoE and helps address these challenges
efficiently and effectively. In the following topics, we briefly describe how to upgrade your
current infrastructure to a converged network in three principal steps. The prerequisite of the
converged network is lossless 10 Gbps over Ethernet (10 GbE or higher), inline with the data
center bridging (DCB) standards.
Figure 10-6 presents the concept of the migration to convergency.

Figure 10-6 Conceptual model of migration to a converged network

The following list provides a summary of the key benefits of upgrading to a converged
network:

Reduced capital expenditures by 15% - 30%, depending on current infrastructure

Reduced operational and management costs by 30% - 50%
Improved network and storage efficiencies
Increased asset and storage utilization
Improved flexibility and business agility
Reduced power consumption by 15% - 20%

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The following steps describe the process of migrating to a converged network:

1. Access layer convergence.
Assume that we have separate adapters for a 1 Gbps or 10 Gbps Ethernet communication
(2 - 8 adapters for each server) and FC HBAs for storage networking (2 - 6 adapters,
typically dual-port). In this step, we replace these combinations by using Converged
Network Adapters (CNAs). See Figure 10-7.
Fabric deployment: For illustration, only a single fabric data center solution is
presented in all of the figures. In real data centers, dual-fabric deployment is essential.
Additionally, we must install a switch that supports both protocols, IP and FCoE, typically
as a top-of-rack (TOR) device. Therefore, the TOR device that supports DCB standards
and multiple protocols can continue to work with the existing environment. The device can
also separate the network traffic from the data storage traffic and direct each of them to
the correct part of the data center networking infrastructure. All of the traffic is segmented
at the access layer, which is the first step of the overall process.
Figure 10-7 shows the first step in the migration process, which is access layer
convergence.

Figure 10-7 Access layer convergence

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2. Fabric convergence.
The second step is to implement more core types of switches that support data center
bridging and converged network protocols. Therefore, rather than implementing a
converged network on TOR switches or blades, we move this function to the core
directors. A second stage of the development of DCB standards introduces multi-hop
bridging because different solutions are available from each of the vendors of the SAN
networking products (Figure 10-8).

Figure 10-8 Fabric convergence

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3. Storage convergence.
For the final step of the migration, we implement native FCoE-enabled storage devices.
Now, various vendors with midrange to enterprise disk storage systems already offer
FCoE. This step enables clients to migrate the current FC-attached storage data to the
FCoE-enabled storage system and disconnect the original FC core and edge switches.
This step dramatically reduces the requirements for operation and management of the
infrastructure, reduces the power consumption, and simplifies the complexity of the
network (rack space and cabling). Figure 10-9 shows the final status of the converged
network infrastructure.

Figure 10-9 Storage convergence

FCoE in the converged network offers several benefits and advantages over existing
approaches to I/O consolidation:
Compatibility with existing Fibre Channel SANs by preserving well-known Fibre
Channel concepts. Examples of these concepts include virtual SANs (VSANs),
worldwide names (WWNs), FC IDs (FCIDs), multipathing, and zoning to servers and
storage arrays.
A high level of performance, which is comparable to the performance of current
Ethernet and Fibre Channel networks. These networks are achieved by using a
hardware-based Ethernet network infrastructure that is not limited by the overhead of
higher-layer TCP/IP protocols.
The exceptional scalability of Ethernet at the highest available speeds (1 GbE, 10 GbE,
and 40 GbE, and eventually 100 GbE).
Simplified operations and management (no change to the management infrastructure
that is deployed in the SANs).

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10.4 Business continuity and disaster recovery

On-demand businesses rely on their IT systems to conduct business. Everything must work
all of the time. Failure truly is not an option. A sound and comprehensive business continuity
strategy that encompasses high availability, near-continuous operations, fault-tolerant
systems, and disaster recovery is essential.
Data protection of multiple network or SAN-attached servers is performed according to one of
two backup and recovery approaches: local backup and recovery, or network backup and
recovery.
The local backup and recovery solution offers the advantage of speed because the data does
not travel over the network. However, with a local backup and recovery approach, costs occur
for overhead because local devices must be acquired for each server and are therefore
difficult to use efficiently. Also, costs occur for management overhead because of the need to
support multiple tape drives, libraries, and mount operations.
The network backup and recovery approach that uses shared tape libraries and tape drives a
SAN is cost-effective. This approach is efficient because it centralizes storage devices that
use one or more network-attached devices. This centralization shortens the ROI because the
installed devices are used efficiently. One tape library can be shared across many servers.
Management of a network backup and recovery environment is often simpler than the local
backup and recovery environment because a network backup and recovery environment
eliminates the potential need to perform manual tape mount operations on multiple servers.
SANs combine the best of both approaches because of the central management of backup
and recovery. You can assign one or more tape devices to each server and use FCP to
transfer data directly from the disk device to the tape device, or vice versa, over the SAN.
Another important topic in this category is instant business continuity if a device fails. Critical
applications cannot afford to wait until their data is restored to a fixed or standby server or
devices from backups. Server or application clusters allow clients to continue their business
with minimal outage or even without any disruption. We refer to these environments as highly
available or fault-tolerant systems.

10.4.1 Clustering and high availability

SAN architecture naturally allows multiple systems (target hosts) to access the same disk
resources in medium-sized or enterprise disk storage systems, even concurrently. This
feature enables specific applications, such as AIX IBM HACMP, IBM PowerHA, and
Microsoft Windows Cluster Services, that run on the hosts to introduce highly available or
fault-tolerant application systems.
These systems ensure that in a single host failure, the application is automatically (without
any manual administrator intervention) moved over to the backup cluster host. The high
availability means a short outage. Or, the failed host is isolated from application processing,
and the workload is balanced among other working cluster nodes. This method is called
fault-tolerant, which means no disruption to service.

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Figure 10-10 shows the concept of a highly available cluster solution.

Figure 10-10 Highly available cluster system

In Figure 10-10, an application runs on system AIX2. The system manages mirrored disks
from both of the storage systems (green and orange). SAN zoning allows both cluster nodes
(AIX2 and AIX3) to operate the same set of disks. The cluster has one primary cluster node
that is active (an active-passive cluster). When AIX2 fails, cluster services that run on AIX3
recognize the failure and automatically move all of the application resources to AIX3. The disk
sets are activated on AIX3, and the application is started in the correct sequence.

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Figure 10-11 shows the configuration of a fault-tolerant clustered environment.

Figure 10-11 Fault-tolerant cluster system

SAN zoned disks are available to all four AIX host systems. The clusters are active, and the
master application works concurrently on them with workload balancing. If the AIX2 system
fails, the cluster application automatically deactivates the assigned disks and redistributes the
workload among the remaining active cluster nodes. No interruption occurs to the business.
This configuration is costly and typically only employed for business critical applications, such
as banking systems and air traffic control systems.

10.4.2 LAN-free data movement

The network backup and recovery approach implies that data flows from the backup and
recovery client (typically a file or database server) to the centralized backup and recovery
server. Or, the data flows between the backup and recovery servers over the Ethernet
network. The same approach applies for the archive or storage management applications.
Often, the network connection is the bottleneck for data throughput, especially in large
database systems, because of the network connection bandwidth limitations. The SAN offers
an advantage to offload the backup data out of the LAN.

Tape drive and tape library sharing

A basic requirement for LAN-free backup and recovery is the ability to share tape drives and
tape libraries between the central backup tape repository and backup and recovery clients
with large database files. Systems with a high number of small files still use the network for
data transportation because they cannot benefit from a LAN-free environment.

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In the tape drive and tape library sharing approach, the backup and recovery server or client
that requests that a backup copy is copied to or from tape reads or writes the data directly to
the tape device by using SCSI commands. This approach bypasses the network transports
latency and network protocol path length. Therefore, it can offer improved backup and
recovery speeds in cases where the network is the constraining factor.
The data is read from the source device and written directly to the destination device. The
central backup and recovery server controls only the tape mount operations and stores the
references (metadata) in its embedded database system.
Figure 10-12 shows an example of tape library sharing and LAN-free backups.

Figure 10-12 LAN-free and LAN-based backups

IBM Lotus Domino and IBM DB2 database systems benefit from the improved performance
of backups directly to tapes over Fibre Channel. However, small servers with a high number
of files still continue to back up to a LAN or WAN.
IBM offers enterprises a centralized backup and recovery solution that supports various
platforms and database systems. IBM Tivoli Storage Manager and its component IBM Tivoli
Storage Manager for SANs enable clients to perform online backups and archives of large
application systems directly to tape over a SAN without a significant effect on performance.

10.4.3 Disaster backup and recovery

A SAN can facilitate disaster backup solutions because of the greater flexibility that is allowed
in connecting storage devices to servers. Backup solutions are also simplified because of the
greater distances that are supported by a SAN when compared to SCSI restrictions.

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You can now perform extended-distance backups for disaster recovery within a campus or
city (Figure 10-13).
Standby Server

Primary Server

SAN
primary site

Primary
Storage

SAN Bridge
(FC, FCIP, FCoE)

Primary
Tape Library

SAN
disaster site

Tape Library
Copypool

Storage
Replication

Figure 10-13 Disaster backup at a remote site by using SAN bridging

When longer distances are required, SANs must be connected by using gateways and WANs.
One of the solutions is FCoE.
Depending on your business requirements, disaster protection deployments might use copy
services that are implemented in disk subsystems and tape libraries (that might be achieved
by using SAN services), SAN copy services, or most likely a combination of both.

10.5 Information lifecycle management

Information lifecycle management (ILM) is a process for managing information through its
lifecycle, from conception until disposal, in a manner that optimizes storage and access at the
lowest cost.
ILM is not merely hardware or software; it includes processes and policies to manage the
information. ILM is designed on the recognition that different types of information can have
different values at different points in their lifecycles. Predicting storage needs and controlling
costs can be especially challenging as your business grows.
The overall objectives of managing information with ILM are to help reduce the total cost of
ownership (TCO) and help implement data retention and compliance policies. To effectively
implement ILM, owners of the data need to determine how information is created, how it ages,
how it is modified, and when it can safely be deleted. ILM segments the data according to
value, which can help create an economical balance and sustainable strategy to align storage
costs with businesses objectives and information value.

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10.5.1 Information lifecycle management

To manage the data lifecycle and to prepare your business for on-demand services, four main
elements can address your business in an ILM-structured environment:

Tiered storage management

Long-term data retention and archiving
Data lifecycle management
Policy-based archive management

10.5.2 Tiered storage management

Most organizations seek a storage solution that can help them manage data more efficiently.
They want to reduce the costs of storing large and growing amounts of data and files and to
maintain business continuity. Tiered storage can help reduce overall disk-storage costs by
providing the following benefits:
Reducing overall disk-storage costs by allocating the most recent and most critical
business data to higher-performance disk storage. Costs can also be reduced by moving
older and less critical business data to lower-cost disk storage.
Accelerating business processes by providing high-performance access to the most
recent and most frequently accessed data.
Reducing administrative tasks and human errors. Older data can be moved to lower-cost
disk storage automatically and transparently.

Typical storage environment

Storage environments typically have multiple tiers of data value, such as application data that
is needed daily, and archive data that is accessed infrequently. However, typical storage
configurations offer only a single tier of storage (Figure 10-14), which limits the ability to
optimize cost and performance.

Figure 10-14 Traditional single-tiered storage environment

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Multi-tiered storage environment

A tiered storage environment that uses the SAN infrastructure offers you the flexibility to align
the storage cost with the changing value of information. The tiers relate to data value. The
most critical data is allocated to higher-performance disk storage. The less critical business
data is allocated to lower-cost disk storage.
Each storage tier provides different performance metrics and disaster recovery capabilities.
The creation of the classes and storage device groups is an important step to configure a
tiered storage ILM environment.
Figure 10-15 shows a multi-tiered storage environment.

Figure 10-15 ILM tiered storage environment

An IBM ILM solution in a tiered storage environment is designed with the following factors:
Reduces the TCO of managing information. It can help optimize data costs and
management by freeing expensive disk storage for the most valuable information.
Segments data according to value. Segmenting data can help to create an economical
balance and sustainable strategy to align storage costs with business objectives and
information value.
Helps you decide about moving, retaining, and deleting data because ILM solutions are
closely tied to applications.
Manages information and determines how the information is managed based on content,
rather than migrating data that is based on technical specifications. This approach can
help result in more responsive management. This solution offers you the ability to retain or
delete information according to your business rules.
Provides the framework for a comprehensive enterprise content management strategy.

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10.5.3 Long-term data retention

A rapidly growing class of data is best described by how it is managed rather than the
arrangement of its bits. The most important attribute of this data is its retention period;
therefore, this data is called retention-managed data. This data is typically kept in an archive
or a repository. In the past, this data was known as archive data, fixed content data, reference
data, unstructured data, and other terms that imply its read-only nature. This data is often
measured in terabytes and kept for long periods of time, sometimes forever.
In addition to the sheer growth of data, certain laws and regulations that govern the storage
and secure the retention of business and client information are increasingly part of the
business landscape. These regulations make data retention a major challenge to any
institution. An example of this challenge is the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which was enacted in the
US in 2002.
Businesses must comply with these laws and regulations. Regulated information includes the
following types of data:

Email
Instant messages
Business transactions
Accounting records
Contracts
Insurance claims processing

All of these types of information can have different retention periods. These periods can be
two years, seven years, or forever (permanent retention). Data is an asset when it must be
kept; however, data that is kept past its mandated retention period might also become a
liability. Furthermore, the retention period can change because of factors, such as litigation.
All of these factors mandate tight coordination and the need for ILM.
In addition to the numerous state and governmental regulations that must be met for data
storage, industry-specific and company-specific regulations also must be met. And these
regulations are constantly updated and amended. Organizations must develop a strategy to
ensure that the correct information is kept for the correct period of time, and that the
information is readily accessible when it must be retrieved at the request of regulators or
auditors.
It is easy to envision the exponential growth in data storage that results from these
regulations and the accompanying requirement for a means of managing this data. Overall,
the management and control of retention-managed data is a significant challenge for the IT
industry when you consider factors, such as cost, latency, bandwidth, integration, security,
and privacy.

10.5.4 Data lifecycle management

At its core, the process of ILM moves data up and down a path of tiered storage resources.
These resources include high-performance, high-capacity disk arrays; lower-cost disk arrays,
such as Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA); tape libraries; and permanent
archival media, where appropriate. Yet ILM involves more than just data movement; it also
encompasses scheduled deletion and regulatory compliance. Because decisions about
moving, retaining, and deleting data are closely tied to the application use of data, ILM
solutions are typically closely tied to applications.

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ILM can potentially provide the framework for a comprehensive information management
strategy and help ensure that information is stored on the most cost-effective media. This
framework helps enable administrators to use tiered and virtual storage, and to process
automation. By migrating unused data off more costly, high-performance disks, ILM can help
by performing the following functions:

Reduce the cost to manage and retain data

Improve application performance
Reduce backup windows and ease system upgrades
Streamline data management
Allow the enterprise to respond to demands in real time
Support a sustainable storage management strategy
Scale as the business grows

ILM recognizes that different types of information have different values at different points in
their lifecycles.
Data can be allocated to a specific storage level that is aligned to its cost, with policies that
define when and where data is moved (Figure 10-16).

Automated movement for lower

risk and compliance objectives.
Initial file placement
policy.
Data value aligned
to storage cost.

Data expired or
moved automatically
to lower-cost storage.
Data becomes inactive.
Automated movement
by policy enforcement.

Figure 10-16 ILM policies

10.5.5 Policy-based archive management

Businesses have mountains of data that was captured, stored, and distributed across the
enterprise. This wealth of information provides a unique opportunity. By incorporating these
assets into solutions and, at the same time, by delivering newly generated information to their
employees and customers, a business can reduce costs and information redundancy.
Organizations can also take advantage of the potential profit-making aspects of their
information assets.

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The growth of information in corporate databases, such as enterprise resource planning

(ERP) and email systems, makes organizations consider moving unused data off high-cost
disks. To effectively manage information in corporate databases, businesses must take the
following steps:
Identify database data that is no longer regularly accessed and move it to an archive,
where it remains available.
Define and manage what to archive, when to archive, and how to archive from the mail or
database system to the back-end archive management system.
Database archive solutions can help improve performance for online databases, reduce
backup times, and improve application upgrade times.
Email archiving solutions are designed to reduce the size of corporate email systems by
moving email attachments and messages to an archive from which they can easily be
recovered, if needed. This action helps reduce the need for user management of email,
improves the performance of email systems, and supports the retention and deletion of email.
The way to archive is to migrate and store all information assets in an enterprise content
management system. ERP databases and email solutions generate large volumes of
information and data objects that can be stored in content management archives. By using an
archive solution, you can free up system resources, while you maintain access to the stored
objects for later reference.
Allowing the archive to manage and migrate data objects gives a solution the ability to have
ready access to newly created information that carries a higher value. And at the same time,
you are still able to retrieve data that is archived on less expensive media.
For more information, see the ILM Library: Information Lifecycle Management Best Practices
Guide, SG24-7251.

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11

Chapter 11.

Storage area networks and

green data centers
System storage networking products and their deployment in large enterprise data centers
significantly participate in the rapid growth of floorspace, power, and cooling resources.
In this chapter, we briefly introduce the concepts of a green data center strategy and how a
storage area network (SAN) and IBM Storage align with the green goal. In addition, we also
describe the IBM smarter data center that facilitates the evolution of energy-efficient
operations.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

235

11.1 Data center constraints

Many data centers are running out of power and space. They cannot add more servers
because they reached either their power or space limits, or perhaps they reached the limit of
their cooling capacity.
In addition, environmental concerns are becoming priorities because they can also impede
the ability of a company to grow. Clients all over the world prefer to purchase products and
services from companies that have a sustainable approach to the environment. Clients also
want products and services that are able to meet any targets that might be imposed on them,
whether from inside their company or from outside in the form of government legislation.
Because environmental sustainability is a business imperative, many data center clients are
looking at ways to save energy and cut costs so that their company can continue to grow.
However, it is also a time to consider transformation in spending, not just cutting costs. Only
smarter investments in technology and perhaps a different way of thinking are needed to
achieve green efficiency in data centers.
Data centers must provide flexibility to respond quickly to future unknowns in business
requirements, technology, and computing models. They need to adapt to be more
cost-effective for both capital expenditures (CAPEX) and operational expenditures (OPEX).
Additionally, they require active monitoring and management capabilities to provide the
operational insights to meet the required availability, resiliency, capacity planning, and energy
efficiency.
IT architects need to consider four key factors that drive the efficiency of data center
operations:
Energy cost
The cost of a kilowatt of electricity rose only slightly in recent years, but the cost of
operating servers increased significantly. The context around this paradox is that the
energy consumption of the servers is increasing exponentially faster than the utility cost.
Rising demand accelerated the adoption of virtualization technologies and increased
virtual image densities. Therefore, this increased demand drives total server energy
consumption higher, while the amortized cost of operation for each workload is
decreasing.
Power capacity
Certain companies cannot deploy more servers because more electrical power is not
available. Many suppliers, especially those utilities in crowded urban areas, are telling
clients that power feeds are at capacity limits and that they have no more power to sell.
New server, storage, and networking products give better performance at lower prices, but
they can also be power hungry. The effort to overcome a power supply threshold is a huge
investment.
Cooling capacity
Many data centers are now 10 - 20 years old, and the cooling facilities are not adapted to
their present needs. Traditional cooling methods allowed for 2 - 3 kW of cooling for each
rack. Todays requirements are 20 - 30 kW for each rack. Heat density is many times past
the design point of the data center.
Space limitation
Each time a new project or application comes online, new images, servers, or storage
subsystems are added. Therefore, the space utilization is growing exponentially because
of business requirements. When images, servers, and storage cannot be added, except by
building another data center, growth becomes expensive.
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11.1.1 Energy flow in the data center

To understand how to reduce energy consumption, you need to understand where and how
the energy is used. You can study energy use in a data center by taking three different views:
How energy is distributed among IT equipment (servers, storage, and network devices)
and supporting facilities (power, cooling, and lighting).
How energy is distributed between the different components of the IT equipment
(processor, memory, disk, and so on).
How the energy that is allocated to IT resources is used to produce business results. (Are
idle resources that are powered on spending energy without any effect?)
Figure 11-1 shows how energy is used by several components of a typical non-optimized data
center. Each component is divided into two parts: IT equipment (servers, storage, and
network) and the infrastructure around it that supports the IT equipment (chillers, humidifiers,
air conditioners, power distribution units, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), lights, and so
on).

Data center

IT Resources

IT Load

Processor

55%

45%

Power and Cooling

70%

30%

Power supply,
memory, fans, planar,
drives . . .

Utilization
Resource
usage rate

80%

20%

Idle

Figure 11-1 Energy usage in a typical data center1

In typical data centers, the IT equipment does not use 55% of the overall energy that is
brought into the data center. Therefore, this portion of the energy is not producing
calculations, data storage, and so on. The concept of a green data center is to eliminate this
waste and reduce such inefficiency.
Energy conversion: Basic laws of thermodynamics state that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it changes only in form. The efficiency of this conversion is less than 100% (in a
real world, much less than 100%).
Solution designers and IT architects must also consider the energy consumption of the
components at the IT equipment level. For example, in a typical server, the processor uses
only 30% of the energy and the remainder of the system uses 70%. Therefore, efficient
hardware design is crucial. Features, such as the virtualization of physical servers, can help
to change this ratio to a more reasonable value.

Data source: Creating Energy-Efficient Data Centers, US Department of Energy

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Companies need to consider the use of IT resources in the data center. A typical server
utilization rate is around 20%. Underutilized systems can be a significant issue because
significant energy is expended on non-business activities, therefore wasting a major
investment. Again, server virtualization, consolidation, and the addressed provisioning of IT
resources help to use the entire capacity of your IT equipment.
Data centers must become immensely more efficient to meet their needs while they keep
costs in check as the demand for and price of resources continue to rise. But the realization of
this efficiency requires a deep and pervasive transformation in how data centers are
designed, managed, operated, populated, and billed. These aspects mandate a unified and
coordinated effort across organizational and functional boundaries toward a common set of
goals.
We introduce the concept of green data centers and how IBM supports the migration to
next-generation data centers that are effective, cost-efficient, and environment friendly.

11.2 Data center optimization

To enable your data center to become more effective, consume less power, and become more
cost-efficient in terms of infrastructure management and operation, IT architects must
consider two components of the migration strategy:
Optimization of the site and facilities
This component includes data center cooling, heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC),
UPS, and power distribution to the site and within the data center. A standby power supply
or alternative power sources must also be considered.
Optimization of the IT equipment
This component relates to IT equipment in the data center that generates business value
to the clients, such as servers (physical and virtual), disk and tape storage devices, and
networking products.
Applying innovative technologies within the data center can yield more computing power per
kilowatt. The IT equipment continues to become more energy efficient. Technology evolution
and innovation outpace the life expectancy of data center equipment. Therefore, many
companies are discovering that replacing older IT equipment with newer models can
significantly reduce overall power and cooling requirements and free up valuable floor space.
For example, IBM studies demonstrate that blade servers reduce power and cooling
requirements 25% - 40% over 1U technologies. Replacing equipment before it is fully
depreciated might seem unwise. However, the advantages that new models can offer (lower
energy consumption and two to three times more computing power than older models),
combined with potential space, power, and cooling recoveries, are typically enough to offset
any lost asset value.

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11.2.1 Strategic considerations

The strategy of moving toward a green data center and the overall cost-effective IT
infrastructure consist of four major suggested areas:
Centralization:

Consolidate many small remote centers into fewer centers

Reduce infrastructure complexity
Improve facility management
Reduce staffing requirements
Improve management costs

Physical consolidation:
Consolidate many servers into fewer servers on physical resource boundaries
Reduce system management complexity
Reduce the physical footprint of servers in the data center
Virtualization:

Remove physical resource boundaries

Increase hardware utilization
Allocate a less than physical boundary
Reduce software license costs

Application integration:

Migrate many applications to fewer, more powerful server images

Simplify the IT environment
Reduce operational resources
Improve application-specific tuning and monitoring

11.3 Green storage

Computer systems are not the only candidates for energy savings. As the amount of
managed data grows exponentially, storage systems within data centers are top candidates
for energy savings. Each component of the storage system has power and cooling
requirements.
Published studies show that the proportion of energy that is used by storage disk systems
and storage networking products varies 15% - 25% of the overall energy consumption of the
typical data center. This number significantly increases because the requirements for storage
space grow continuously.
However, no matter what efficiency improvements are made, active (spinning) disk drives still
use energy if they are powered on. Therefore, the most energy-intensive strategy for data
storage is to keep all of the organizations data on active disks. Although this process
provides the best access performance, it is not the most environmentally-friendly approach
and it is not normally an absolute requirement.
Green storage technologies occupy less raw storage capacity to store the same amount of
native valuable client data. Therefore, the energy consumption for each gigabyte of raw
capacity falls.

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The storage strategy for green data centers includes the following elements:

Information lifecycle management (ILM)

Consolidation and virtualization
On-demand storage provisioning
Hierarchical storage and storage tiering
Compression and data deduplication

11.3.1 Information lifecycle management

Information lifecycle management (ILM) is a process for managing information through its
lifecycle, from conception until disposal, in a manner that optimizes storage and access at the
lowest cost.
ILM is not just hardware or software; it includes processes and policies to manage the
information. It is designed on the recognition that different types of information can have
different values at different points in their lifecycles. Predicting storage needs and controlling
costs can be especially challenging as the business grows. Although the total value of stored
information increases overall, historically, not all data is created equal, and the value of that
data to business operations fluctuates over time.
Figure 11-2 shows this trend, which is commonly referred to as the data lifecycle. The
existence of the data lifecycle means that all data cannot be treated the same.
Fast/High
Accessibility Speed/Frequency

Information stored Just In Case

(usually aged between 2 18 months)

Slow/Low
100+ Years

50 Years

20 Years

5 Years

3 Years

2 Months
1 Day
1 Hour

Time Record Life Cycle

Figure 11-2 Data lifecycle

However, infrequently accessed or inactive data can become suddenly valuable again as
events occur, or as new business initiatives or projects are taken on. Historically, the
requirement to retain information results in a buy more storage mentality. However, this
approach increases overall operational costs, complexity, and the demand for hard-to-find
qualified personnel.

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Typically, only around 20% of the information is active and frequently accessed by users. The
remaining 80% is either inactive or even obsolete (Figure 11-3).

Figure 11-3 Usage of data

The automated identification of the storage resources in an infrastructure and an analysis of

how effectively those resources are used are the crucial functions of ILM. File system
evaluation and file level evaluation uncover categories of files that, if deleted or archived, can
potentially represent significant reductions in the amount of data that must be stored, backed
up, and managed. The key point in the ILM process is the automated control through policies
that are customizable with actions that can include centralized alerting, distributed
responsibility, and fully automated response. This process also includes data deletion.
For more information, see the ILM Library: Information Lifecycle Management Best Practices
Guide, SG24-7251.

11.3.2 Storage consolidation and virtualization

As the need for data storage continues to grow rapidly, traditional physical approaches to
storage management become increasingly problematic. Physically expanding the storage
environment can be costly, time-consuming, and disruptive. These drawbacks are
compounded when expansion must be done again and again in response to ever-growing
storage demands. Yet, manually improving storage utilization to control growth can be
challenging. Physical infrastructures can also be inflexible at a time when businesses must be
able to make even more rapid changes to stay competitive.
The alternative is a centralized, consolidated storage pool of disk devices that are easy to
manage and are transparent to be provisioned to the target host systems. Going further, the
consolidated or centralized storage can be virtualized, where storage virtualization software
presents a view of storage resources to servers that is different from the actual physical
hardware in use.

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Figure 11-4 shows storage consolidation.

Figure 11-4 Storage consolidation

This logical view can hide undesirable characteristics of storage while it presents storage in a
more convenient manner for applications. For example, storage virtualization might present
storage capacity as a consolidated whole, hiding the actual physical boxes that contain the
storage.
In this way, storage becomes a logical pool of resources that exist virtually, regardless of
where the actual physical storage resources are in the larger information infrastructure.
These software-defined virtual resources are easier and less disruptive to change and
manage than hardware-based physical storage devices because they do not involve moving
equipment or making physical connections. As a result, they can respond more flexibly and
dynamically to changing business needs. Similarly, the flexibility that is afforded by virtual
resources makes it easier to match storage to business requirements.

Virtualization offers significant business and IT advantages over traditional approaches to

storage. Storage virtualization can help organizations in the following ways:
Reduce data center complexity and improve IT productivity by managing multiple physical
resources as fewer virtual resources.
Meet rapidly changing demands flexibly by dynamically adjusting storage resources
across the information infrastructure.
Reduce capital and facility costs by creating virtual resources instead of adding more
physical devices.
Improve the utilization of storage resources by sharing available capacity and deploying
storage on demand only as it is needed.
Deploy tiers of different storage types to help optimize storage capability and
simultaneously control costs and power and cooling requirements.

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The value of a virtualized infrastructure is in the increased flexibility that is created by having
pools of system resources on which to draw and in the improved access to information that is
afforded by a shared infrastructure. Value is also a result of the lower total cost of ownership
(TCO) that comes with decreased management costs, increased asset utilization, and the
ability to link infrastructure performance to specific business goals.
For more information about how IBM Storage Virtualization solutions can help your
organization meet its storage challenges, see the IBM Information Infrastructure Solutions
Handbook, SG24-7814, or see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/virtualization/

11.3.3 On-demand storage provisioning

The provisioning of SAN-attached storage capacity to a server can be a time-consuming and
cumbersome process. The task requires skilled storage administrators. And the complexity of
the task can restrict the ability of an IT department to respond quickly to requests to provision
new capacity. However, a solution to this issue is available through automation. An
on-demand storage provisioning solution monitors the current disk usage of specified target
host systems and applications and allocates more disk capacity for the period of the business
need.

End-to-end storage provisioning is the term that is applied to the whole set of steps that are
required to provision usable storage capacity to a server. Provisioning covers the
configuration of all of the elements in the chain. This process includes the steps from carving
out a new volume on a storage subsystem, through creating a file system at the host and
making it available to the users or applications.
Typically, this process involves a storage administrator that uses several different tools, each
focused on a specific task, or the tasks are spread across several people. This spreading of
tasks and tools creates many inefficiencies in the provisioning process, which affect the ability
of IT departments to respond quickly to changing business demands. The resulting
complexity and high degree of coordination can also lead to errors and can possibly affect the
systems and application availability.
Automation of the end-to-end storage provisioning process by using workflow automation can
significantly simplify this task of provisioning storage capacity. Each step is automated and
the rules for preferred practices around zoning, device configuration, and path selection can
be applied automatically. The benefits are increased responsiveness to business
requirements, lower administrative costs, and higher application availability.

11.3.4 Hierarchical storage and tiering

Companies continue to deploy storage systems that deliver many different classes of storage
that range from high performance and high cost to high capacity and low cost. Through the
deployment of SANs, many of these storage assets are now physically connected to servers
that run many types of applications and create many kinds of information.
Finally, with the arrival of network-resident storage services for the distributed management of
volumes, files, and data replication, IT managers have more control. The IT managers can
intelligently provision, reallocate, and protect storage assets to meet the needs of many
different applications across the network, instead of device by device.

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In a tiered storage environment, data is classified and assigned dynamically to different tiers.
For example, we can use expensive, fast-performance storage components to store
often-accessed and mission-critical files, in contrast with using less expensive storage for less
frequently used non-critical data. Tiered storage improves efficiency and saves costs. We can
identify the following typical storage tiers, which are categorized based on performance and
cost for each gigabyte:
High-performance SAN-attached disk systems (solid-state drive (SSD) or serial-attached
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) (SAS))
Medium-performance SAN-attached disks (SAS or Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment (SATA))
Network-attached storage (NAS) systems
Tape storage and other media with sequential access
Each level of storage tier can be assigned manually by a storage administrator, or data can be
moved automatically between tiers, which is based on migration policies. Figure 11-5 shows
the conceptual model of storage tiering.

Figure 11-5 Tiered storage concept

IBM offers various tools and utilities for storage tiering and hierarchical management for
different scenarios. Tools range from IBM Easy Tier, which is used in enterprise disk storage
systems, up through IBM Tivoli Storage Manager for Hierarchical Storage Management for
Windows and IBM Tivoli Storage Manager for Space Management for the AIX and Linux
platform. For tiered management, IBM offers IBM Global Parallel File System (GPFS) for
data migration between different levels of storage.

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11.3.5 Data compression and data deduplication

Business data growth rates will continue to increase rapidly. Likewise, retention and retrieval
requirements for new and existing data will expand, driving still more data to disk storage. As
the amount of disk-based data continues to grow, the focus on improving data storage
efficiencies across the information infrastructure increases.
A data reduction strategy can decrease the required disk storage and network bandwidth,
lower the TCO for storage infrastructures, optimize the use of existing storage assets, and
improve data recovery infrastructure efficiency. Compression, data deduplication, and other
forms of data reduction are features that are offered in multiple components of the information
infrastructure.

Compression immediately reduces the amount of required physical storage across all storage
tiers. This solution, which supports the online compression of existing data, allows storage
administrators to gain back free disk space in the existing storage system. You can compress
data without changing administrative processes or forcing users to clean up or archive data.
The benefits to the business are immediate because the capital expense of upgrading the
storage system is delayed. Because data is stored in compressed format in the primary
storage system, all other storage tiers and the transports in between realize the same
benefits. Replicas, backup images, and replication links all require fewer expenditures after
the implementation of compression at the source.
After compression is applied to the stored data, the required power and cooling for each unit
of storage are reduced. This reduction is possible because more logical data is stored on the
same amount of physical storage. In addition, within a particular storage system, more data
can be stored; therefore, fewer overall rack units are required. Figure 11-6 on page 246
shows the typical compression rates that can be achieved with specific IBM products.
The exact compression ratio depends on the nature of the data. IBM documented
compression ratios as high as 90% in certain Oracle database configurations and about 50%
with PDF files. As always, compression ratios vary by data type and how the data is used.
In contrast to compression, the data deduplication mechanism identifies identical chunks of
data within a storage container. This process keeps only one copy of each chunk. All of the
other logically identical chunks point to this chunk. Various implementations of this method
exist. One option is inline data deduplication and the other option is post-processing data
deduplication. Each chunk of data must be identified in a way that is easily comparable.
Chunks are processed by using a parity calculation or cryptographic hash function.
This processing gives the chunks shorter identifiers that are known as hash values, digital
signatures, or fingerprints. These fingerprints can be stored in an index or catalog where they
can be compared quickly with other fingerprints to find matching chunks.

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Figure 11-6 shows the typical compression rates that can be achieved with specific IBM
products.

Figure 11-6 The average compression rates

Data deduplication processing can occur on the client, an infrastructure server, or the storage
system. Each option has factors to consider:
Client-based data deduplication
This process reduces the amount of data that is transferred over the network to the
storage system. But, this option can require extra CPU and disk I/O processing on the
client side.
Server-based data deduplication
This process deduplicates the data of multiple clients at a scheduled time. But, this
process requires extra CPU and disk I/O processing on the infrastructure server, for
example, the IBM Tivoli Storage Manager server.
Storage-based data deduplication
This process occurs at the disk storage device level, where the data is stored. This type of
data deduplication is generally transparent to the clients and servers. This process uses
CPU and disk I/O on the storage system.
For more information about data compression, data deduplication, and concrete solutions
from IBM, see Introduction to IBM Real-time Compression Appliances, SG24-7953, and
Implementing IBM Storage Data Deduplication Solutions, SG24-7888.

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12

Chapter 12.

IBM Fibre Channel storage area

network product portfolio
This chapter guides you through the IBM storage area network (SAN) components that are
offered through IBM marketing channels. The SAN products are either IBM original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) products or IBM is an authorized reseller of the products.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

247

12.1 Classification of IBM SAN products

To stay competitive in the global marketplace, the right people must have the right access to
the right information at the right time to be effective, creative, and highly innovative. IBM offers
a comprehensive portfolio of SAN switches, storage, software, services, and solutions to
reliably bring information to people in a cost-effective way. IBM provides flexible, scalable, and
open standards-based business-class and global enterprise-class storage networking
solutions for the on-demand world.
IBM helps you to align your storage investment with the value of the information by using a
wide range of tiered storage options, policy-based automation, and intelligent information
management solutions. The IBM SAN portfolio offers the broadest range of storage solutions
in the industry (including disk, tape, SAN, software, financial, and services offerings). You can
use this portfolio to create long-term solutions that can be tailored to your business needs.
IBM SAN tiered disk, tape, and switch solutions provide various choices to align and move
data to cost-optimized storage. This process is based on policies that match the storage
solution with the service level requirements (SLAs) and the value of the data in growing
environments.
You can confidently protect strategic information assets and efficiently comply with regulatory
and security requirements with the unrivaled breadth of storage solutions from IBM. IBM SAN
directors and routers provide metropolitan and global connectivity between sites.
IBM solutions are optimized for the unique needs of midsize organizations, large enterprises,
cloud computing providers, and other businesses. You can get what you need, which saves
time and money. A key benefit of selecting IBM for your next information infrastructure project
is access to a broad portfolio of outstanding products and services. IBM offers highly rated,
patented technology that delivers unique value.
In this chapter, we do not provide an in-depth analysis of all of the technical details of each
product. The intention of this chapter is to introduce the principles and basic components of
the SAN environments to a reasonable extent in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
The products are characterized in the following groups:

Entry SAN switches

Mid-range SAN switches
Enterprise SAN directors
Specialty switches

For more information about other IBM storage products, see the IBM System Storage
Solutions Handbook, SG24-5250.
For more information about each product and its market position, see this IBM storage
website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/

12.2 SAN Fibre Channel networking

This section describes the IBM products for Fibre Channel-based (optical) data center
networking solutions, starting from entry-level SAN switches to midrange switches up to
enterprise SAN directors and multiprotocol routers.

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For more information about the latest IBM SAN products, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/networking/switches/san/index.html

12.3 Entry SAN switches

Entry-level SAN switches represent easy-to-use preconfigured data center networking
solutions for small and medium business environments. IBM offers the following products in
this category:
IBM System Storage SAN24B-5
IBM System Storage SAN24B-4 Express

12.3.1 IBM System Storage SAN24B-5

The IBM System Networking SAN24B-5 switch features Gen 5 Fibre Channel and Fabric
Vision technologies, which provide outstanding price-to-performance value in an entry-level
switch. The SAN24B-5 gives organizations the flexibility, simplicity, and enterprise-class
functions they need to unleash the full potential of high-density server virtualization, cloud
architectures, and next-generation storage.
The switch is configurable in 12 ports or 24 ports, and it supports 2 gigabits per second
(Gbps), 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, or 16 Gbps speeds in an efficiently designed 1U form factor. The
switch includes a single power supply and integrated fans. A second optional power supply
provides more redundancy for increased resiliency.
The SAN24B-5 (Figure 12-1) provides a critical building block for todays highly virtualized,
private cloud storage environments. The SAN24B-5 can simplify server virtualization and
virtual desktop infrastructure management while it meets the high-throughput demands of
solid-state disks (SSDs). The SAN24B-5 supports multi-tenancy in cloud environments
through quality of service (QoS) and fabric-based zoning features. It can also help minimize
downtime in mission-critical environments by delivering high reliability, availability, and
serviceability.

Figure 12-1 SAN24B-5

The SAN24B-5 includes the following features:

Gen 5 Fibre Channel technology SAN switch
Energy-efficient Fibre Channel SAN switch with 16 Gbps performance and up to 24 ports
in a 1U form factor
Ports on Demand (PoD) capability for scaling 12 ports - 24 ports in 12-port increments
Autosensing of 2 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, or 16 Gbps port speeds; 10 Gbps and optionally
programmable to fixed port speed

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 Sixteen Gbps optimized inter-switch links (ISLs)

ClearLink diagnostic technology (D_ports) to identify optical and cable issues
Pay-as-you-grow flexibility by using the 12-port Software Upgrade feature
Two Gbps, 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, 10 Gbps, or 16 Gbps speed on all ports
Dual functionality as a full-fabric SAN switch or an N_Port ID Virtualization (NPIV)-enabled
access gateway
Ease of deployment and support of high-performance fabrics
Innovative diagnostic, monitoring, and management capabilities through Fabric Vision
technology

12.3.2 IBM System Storage SAN24B-4 Express

This system provides high-performance, scalable, and simple-to-use fabric switching by using
8 ports, 16 ports, or 24 ports that operate at 8 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 2 Gbps, or 1 Gbps (depending
on which optical transceiver is used). This system is for servers that run Microsoft Windows,
IBM AIX, UNIX, and Linux operating systems, server clustering, infrastructure simplification,
and business continuity solutions. The SAN24B-4 Express includes an EZSwitchSetup
wizard, which is an embedded setup tool that guides novice users through switch setup, often
in less than 5 minutes. Figure 12-2 shows the front view of the SAN24B-4 switch.

Figure 12-2 Front view of the IBM System Storage SAN24B-4 Express switch

A single SAN24B-4 Express switch can serve as the cornerstone of a SAN for individuals that
want to obtain the benefits of storage consolidation and implement Fibre Channel storage
systems. This entry-level configuration can consist of one or two Fibre Channel links to a disk
storage array or to a Linear Tape Open (LTO) tape drive. An entry-level, 8-port storage
consolidation solution can support up to seven servers with a single path to disk or tape.
The Ports on Demand (PoD) feature enables a base switch to grow to 16 ports and 24 ports
to support more servers and more storage devices without taking the switch offline. A high
availability (HA) solution can be created with redundant switches. This capability is ideal for
server clustering environments.
This configuration can support 6 - 22 servers, each with dual Fibre Channel adapters that are
cross-connected to redundant SAN24B-4 Express switches. These switches are
cross-connected to a dual-controller storage system. The focus of the SAN24B-4 Express is
as the foundation of small to medium-sized SANs.
However, the SAN24B-4 Express can be configured to participate as a full member in an
extended fabric configuration with other members of the IBM System Storage and former
TotalStorage SAN b-type and m-type families. This capability helps provide investment
protection as SAN requirements evolve and grow.

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The SAN24B-4 includes the following features:

Efficient 1U design with 8 ports, 16 ports, or 24 ports configuration on demand
Auto-sensing 8 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 2 Gbps, or 1 Gbps ports that enable high performance and
improved utilization while they provide easy installation and management
Hot-swappable, small form-factor pluggables (SFPs)
Inter-switch link (ISL) trunking for up to eight ports provides a total bandwidth of 128 Gbps
Provides Fibre Channel interfaces expansion port (E_port), fabric port (F_port), fabric loop
port (FL_port), and mirror port (M_port)
Advanced, hardware-enforced zoning to protect against non-secure, unauthorized, and
unauthenticated network and management access and worldwide name (WWN) spoofing
Hot firmware activation for fast firmware upgrades that eliminate disruption to the fabric
Compatibility with an earlier version with IBM b-type and m-type
Optional as-needed licensed features:

Adaptive Networking
Advance Performance Monitor
Extended Fabric
Fabric Watch
Trunking Activation
Server Application Optimization (SAO)

For more information about entry SAN switches, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/san/entry/index.html

12.4 Midrange SAN switches

The IBM Midrange SAN switches provide scalable and affordable small and medium business
and enterprise solutions for storage networking.
The category of midrange SAN switches includes the following products:

Cisco MDS 9396S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch

IBM System Networking SAN96B-5
IBM System Storage SAN48B-5
Cisco MDS 9148S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch for IBM System Storage

12.4.1 Cisco MDS 9396S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch

The Cisco MDS 9396S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch for IBM System Storage is the latest
generation of the highly powerful, dense, and reliable Cisco MDS Series switches. This switch
combines high performance with outstanding flexibility and cost-effectiveness. This robust,
compact two rack-unit (2RU) switch scales from 48 to 96 line-rate 16 Gbps Fibre Channel
ports.
The Cisco MDS 9396S is excellent for the following functions:
A stand-alone SAN in large departmental storage environment
A middle-of-the-row or top-of-the-rack (ToR) switch in medium-sized redundant fabrics
An edge switch in enterprise data center core-edge topologies

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Powered by Cisco NX-OS Software and Cisco Data Center Network Manager (DCNM)
software, the Cisco MDS 9396S delivers advanced storage networking features and functions
that combine with ease of management and compatibility with the entire Cisco MDS 9000
Family portfolio for reliable end-to-end connectivity. Figure 12-3 shows the Cisco MDS 9396S.

Figure 12-3 Cisco MDS 9396S

The Cisco MDS 9396S includes the following features:

Pay-as-you-grow scalability in a high-density switch that supports up to ninety-six
16 Gbps Fibre Channel ports in a compact, two rack-unit (2RU) form factor.
Autosensing Fibre Channel ports are provided that deliver up to 16 Gbps of high-speed,
dedicated bandwidth for each port.
Availability boost with In-Service Software Upgrades (ISSU), which enable the switch to be
upgraded without affecting network traffic.
Built-in storage network management and SAN plug-and-play capabilities.
Virtual SAN (VSAN) technology that is used for hardware-enforced, isolated environments
within a physical fabric.
Extensive set of innovative and powerful security features that are provided in the optional
Cisco MDS 9300 Family Enterprise Package.
Up to 96 autosensing Fibre Channel ports can handle speeds of 2 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps,
and 16 Gbps, with 16 Gbps of dedicated bandwidth for each port.
Base switch includes 48 ports that are enabled.
Dual-redundant hot-swappable power supplies and fan trays, PortChannels, and F_port
channeling.

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12.4.2 IBM System Networking SAN96B-5

The IBM System Networking SAN96B-5 switch is a high-density, purpose-built, foundational
building block for large and growing SAN infrastructures. This switch provides highly resilient,
scalable, and simplified network infrastructure for storage. By delivering market-leading, Gen
5 Fibre Channel technology and capabilities with 16 Gbps performance, the SAN96B-5 meets
the demands of growing, dynamic workloads; evolving, virtualized data centers; and highly
virtualized private and hybrid cloud storage environments (Figure 12-4).

Figure 12-4 SAN96B-5

The SAN96B-5 includes the following features:

Supports virtualized private and hybrid cloud storage environments and data center
consolidation with high scalability in an ultra-dense, Gen 5 Fibre Channel 96-port switch
Enables pay-as-you-grow flexibility by using the Ports on Demand (PoD) feature with
speeds up to 16 Gbps
Simplifies management with Fabric Vision technology, which helps reduce operational
costs and optimize application performance
Provides data center-to-data center security and bandwidth savings with up to eight
in-flight encryption and compression ports
Helps maximize application uptime and performance while it helps reduce expenses with
ClearLink diagnostic technology (D_ports)
Optimizes link and bandwidth utilization with ISL Trunking and Dynamic Path Selection
Accelerates deployment and troubleshooting with Dynamic Fabric Provisioning,
monitoring, and advanced diagnostics
Reduces operational costs and complexity, simplifying and centralizing management with
IBM Network Advisor
Supports highly virtualized, private, and hybrid cloud storage and data center
consolidation with high scalability in an ultra-dense Gen 5 Fibre Channel 96-port switch
Offers 2 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, 10 Gbps, or 16 Gbps speed on all ports
Provides innovative diagnostic, monitoring, and management capabilities through Fabric
Vision technology
Offers data center-to-data center security and bandwidth savings
Supports the latest hot aisle/cold aisle configurations
Optimizes link and bandwidth utilization
Provides comprehensive management of data center fabrics, including configuration,
monitoring, and management of IBM b-type backbones, switches, and adapters

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 Offers 16 Gbps performance with up to 96 ports in a 2U, enterprise-class Fibre Channel

SAN switch
Provides Ports on Demand (PoD) feature capability and can scale 48 ports - 96 ports in
24-port increments
Autosenses 2 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, or 16 Gbps port speeds; 10 Gbps and optionally
programmable to a fixed port speed
Offers flexible, high-speed 16 Gbps and 8 Gbps optics
Supports up to eight in-flight encryption and compression ports
Provides two models with different airflow options (2498-F96 delivers non-port-side to
port-side airflow; 2498-N96 delivers port-side to non-port-side airflow)
Offers ISL Trunking and Dynamic Path Selection
Supports IBM Network Advisor

12.4.3 IBM System Storage SAN48B-5

The SAN48B-5 switch meets the demands of hyper-scale, private cloud storage
environments by delivering 16 Gbps Fibre Channel technology and capabilities that support
highly virtualized environments.
The SAN48B-5 (2498-F48) delivers SAN technology within a flexible, simple, and easy-to-use
solution. In addition to providing scalability, the SAN48B-5 can address demanding reliability,
availability, and serviceability (RAS) requirements to help minimize downtime to support
mission-critical cloud environments.
Figure 12-5 shows the front view of the IBM System Storage SAN48B-5 sixteen Gbps Fibre
Channel switch.

Figure 12-5 IBM System Storage SAN48B-5 fabric switch

The SAN48B-5 includes the following features:

Performance of 16 Gbps with up to 48 ports in an energy-efficient, 1U enclosure
Speed of 2 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 8 Gbps, 10 Gbps, or 16 Gbps on all ports that produce an
aggregate 768 Gbps full-duplex throughput
High-performance of 128 Gbps and resilient frame-based trunking
Ten Gbps Fibre Channel integration on the same port for dense wavelength division
multiplexing (DWDM) metropolitan connectivity on the same switch
In-flight data compression and encryption for efficient link utilization and security
Redundant, hot-swap components and nondisruptive software upgrades

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 Diagnostic port (D_port) feature for physical media diagnostic, troubleshooting, and
verification services
Multi-tenancy in cloud environments through Virtual Fabrics, Integrated Routing, QoS, and
fabric-based zoning features

12.4.4 Cisco MDS 9148S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch for IBM System Storage
The Cisco MDS 9148S 16G Multilayer Fabric Switch for IBM System Storage (Figure 12-6) is
the latest generation of the highly reliable, flexible, and low-cost Cisco MDS 9100 Series
switches. It combines high performance with exceptional flexibility and cost-effectiveness.
This powerful, compact one rack-unit (1RU) switch scales from 12 to 48 line-rate 16 Gbps
Fibre Channel ports.
The Cisco MDS 9148S is excellent for the following functions:
A stand-alone SAN in small departmental storage environments
A top-of-the-rack switch in medium-sized redundant fabrics
An edge switch in enterprise data center core-edge topologies

Figure 12-6 Cisco MDS 9148S for IBM System Storage

The Cisco MDS 9148S includes the following features:

High performance and flexibility
High-availability platform
Up to 48 autosensing Fibre Channel ports that are capable of speeds of 2 Gbps, 4 Gbps,
8 Gbps, and 16 Gbps, with 16 Gbps of dedicated bandwidth for each port
Pay-as-you-grow scalability with 12 - 48 high-performance Fibre Channel ports in a
single 1RU switch
Dual redundant hot-swappable power supplies and fan trays, PortChannels, and F_port
channeling
For more information about IBM mid-range SAN switches, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/san/midrange/index.html

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12.5 Enterprise SAN directors

The IBM Enterprise SAN directors provide the data center networking infrastructure with
enterprise solutions for the highest availability and scalability.
IBM offers the following enterprise SAN directors through its marketing channels:
Cisco MDS 9710 Multilayer Director
IBM System Storage SAN768B-2 and SAN384B-2
Cisco MDS 9706 Multilayer Director for IBM System Storage
Cisco MDS 9500 Series Multilayer Directors:
MDS 9513 for System Storage (2054-E11)
MDS 9506 for System Storage (2054-E04)

12.5.1 Cisco MDS 9710 Multilayer Director

A next-generation, director-class SAN switch for deployment in large-scale storage networks,
the Cisco MDS 9710 Multilayer Director for IBM System Networking enables enterprise
clouds and business transformation. By adding enterprise connectivity options that support
Fibre Channel connection (FICON), the Cisco MDS 9710 delivers a high performance and
reliable FICON infrastructure to support fast and scalable z Systems servers. The MDS 9700
platform also provides multiprotocol flexibility for SANs, delivering 16-Gbps Fibre Channel
and 10-Gbps Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) capabilities.
Layering a comprehensive set of intelligent features over a high-performance,
protocol-independent switch fabric, the MDS 9710 addresses the rigorous requirements of
large, virtualized data center storage environments with features, such as high availability,
extreme scalability, flexibility, security, and ease of management.

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This switch enables the transparent integration of new technologies into the data center to
provide highly flexible SAN solutions (see Figure 12-7).

Figure 12-7 MDS 9710

The MDS 9710 includes the following features:

Helps you create a data center for cloud and big data with next-generation capabilities
Meets scalability requirements and manages total cost of ownership (TCO); scales up to
384 Fibre Channel or FCoE ports for each chassis
Supports IBM z Systems IBM FICON and Fibre Channel Protocol environments
Combines large-scale storage networks and multiple storage protocols on a single
converged network to reduce complexity and enable hyper-agility
Attains high availability with fully redundant components
Benefits from intelligent network features, such as VSAN technology, access control lists
(ACLs), and intelligent frame processing
Achieves outstanding SAN performance with support for 16-Gbps Fibre Channel and
1.5 terabits per second (Tbps) throughput for each slot
Uses 48-port 16-Gbps Fibre Channel switching module to deliver full-duplex aggregate
performance of 768 Gbps
Extends the benefits of FCoE beyond the access layer into the data center core with the
full line-rate Cisco MDS 9700 48-Port 10-Gbps FCoE Module
Powers a new generation of scalable and intelligent multilayer switching solutions for
SANs
Delivers up to 24 Tbps of Fibre Channel backplane bandwidth
Provides 16 Gbps line-rate, non-blocking, and predictable performance across all traffic
conditions for every Fibre Channel and FCoE port in the chassis
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 Provides deterministic hardware performance and features so that virtual machines (VMs)
include the same SAN attributes as physical servers
Enables outstanding levels of availability and reliability
Ships mainframe-ready, with full support for IBM z Systems FICON and Fibre Channel
Protocol (FCP) environments
Includes modular, multilayer, highly available, and dual-supervisor modules with six fabric
slots and eight module slots (14RU)
Offers 384 two-Gbps, 4-Gbps, 8-Gbps, 16-Gbps, and 10-Gbps full line-rate autosensing
Fibre Channel ports in a single chassis for deployment in both open systems and FICON
environments
Includes 384 ten-Gbps full line-rate autosensing FCoE ports in a single chassis
Includes a 48-port 16-Gbps Fibre Channel switching module
Features a 48-port 10-Gbps FCoE module
Includes hot-swappable switching modules, supervisor modules, fans, power supplies,
and small form-factor pluggables (SFPs)
Provides front-to-back airflow

12.5.2 IBM System Storage SAN384B-2 and SAN768B-2

The IBM System Storage SAN768B-2 and IBM System Storage SAN384B-2 fabric
backbones are highly robust network switching platforms for evolving enterprise data centers.
Each system combines breakthrough performance, scalability, and energy efficiency with
long-term investment protection.
These systems support open systems and IBM z Systems environments and address data
growth and server virtualization challenges to achieve the following benefits:
Enable server, SAN, and data center consolidation
Minimize disruption and risk
Reduce infrastructure and administrative costs
Built for large enterprise networks, the SAN768B-2 has eight vertical blade slots to provide up
to 512 sixteen-Gbps FC device ports. The SAN384B-2 is ideal for midsize core or edge
deployments. The SAN384B-2 fabric backbone provides four horizontal blade slots and up to
256 sixteen-Gbps FC device ports. The flexible blade architecture also supports FCoE,
in-flight data compression and encryption, SAN extension advanced functionality for
high-performance servers, I/O consolidation, data protection, and disaster recovery solutions.
The benefits that are associated with higher throughput are compelling. The IBM System
Storage Gen 5 Fibre Channel b-type SAN products offer additional advantages to meet new
and evolving requirements:
Low latency and high I/O operations per second (IOPS) performance maximize the
number of virtual hosts for each physical server.
Data center-proven, purpose-built architectures minimize the risk and fault domains of
high-density server virtualization.
Nonstop networking and automated management minimize operational cost and
complexity.
Integrated advanced diagnostics, monitoring, and reliability, availability, and serviceability
(RAS) capabilities simplify management and increase resiliency.

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 Integrated ISL data compression and encryption offer bandwidth optimization and data
protection.
Compatibility with existing infrastructure minimizes the need to rip out and replace
equipment.
Low overhead and low latency eliminate I/O bottlenecks and unleash the full performance
of Flash, SSD, and 16 Gbps-capable storage.
In addition, Brocade Gen 5 Fibre Channel platforms offer breakthrough technologies that
dramatically simplify SAN deployment and management and drive down operational costs:
UltraScale chassis connectivity enables higher density and simpler fabrics that reduce
network complexity and cost.
Fabric Vision technology maximizes uptime, optimizes application performance, and
simplifies SAN management through innovative diagnostic, monitoring, and management
technology.
The SAN768B-2 and SAN384B-2 are efficient at reducing power consumption, cooling, and
the carbon footprint in data centers. Although these switches provide exceptional
performance and scale, these networking backbones use less than 0.2 watts/Gbps.
As members of the IBM System Storage family of b-type SAN products, the SAN768B-2 and
the SAN384B-2 participate in fabrics that contain other b-type and m-type devices that are
manufactured by Brocade. This versatile hardware can serve as the backbone in a complex
fabric and provide connections to other b-type and m-type directors, switches, and routers.
Figure 12-8 shows the directors.

Figure 12-8 IBM System Storage SAN384B-2 (left) and SAN768B-2 (right)

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The following blades are available for both models:

Sixteen Gbps 32-port, 48-port, and 64-port FC blades (Feature Code (FC) 3632, FC 3648,
and FC 3664)
Eight Gbps 64-port FC blades (FC 3864)
FCoE blade that supports twenty-four 10 Gbps Converged Enhanced Ethernet
(CEE)/FCoE ports (FC 3880)
Enhanced Extension blade that supports twelve 8-Gbps FC ports and ten 1-Gbps Gigabit
Ethernet (GbE) ports, or two optional 10-Gbps GbE ports (FC 3891)
The SAN768B-2 and SAN384B-2 include the following features:
Redundant hot-swappable control processor modules, power supplies, and cooling.
Autosensing 16 Gbps, 8 Gbps, 4 Gbps, 2 Gbps E_port, F_port, FL_port, EX_port, and
10 Gbps E_port Fibre Channel interfaces and 10 Gbps converged Ethernet ports.
Sixteen Gbps, 8 Gbps, 4 Gbps, and 2 Gbps FICON interfaces, FICON with control unit
port (CUP) capability (FC 7893).
One GbE and 10 GbE Fibre Channel over Internet Protocol (FCIP) Ethernet interfaces for
Channel Extension.
Advanced Extension support for FCIP Trunking and Adaptive Rate Limiting (FC 7891).
FICON Acceleration for XRC (Extended Remote Copy) and Tape R/W pipelining over
FCIP (FC 7893).
Integrated Fibre Channel routing (FCR) (FC 7890).
In-Flight Encryption and Compression at line rate for both FC and FICON E_port links.
UltraScale Inter-Chassis Links (ICL) that provide up to 128 sixteen-Gbps
Chassis-to-Chassis Optical backplane ports. The SAN768B-2 has 32 x Quad small
form-factor pluggable (QSFP) (4 x 16 Gbps) ports and the SAN384B-2 has 16 QSFP
(4 x 16 Gbps) ICL ports. QSFPs are available for 100 m (328.08 ft) over OM4 and
2 km (1.24 miles) over SMF.
Throughput of up to 10.2 Tbps per chassis with 512 sixteen-Gb FC device ports, plus 128
sixteen-Gb ICL ports.
Cut-through FC routing for lowest latency.
Local switching on each FC blade is supported, providing switched latency of 700 ns.
Blade-to-blade latency 2.1 microseconds.
Other Base System features include the following features:

260

Advanced Diagnostic tools

Bottleneck Detection
Buffer Credit recovery
ClearLink Optical path diagnostics
Dynamic Fabric provisioning
ISL trunking
Server Application Optimization (SAO)
Virtual Fabrics
Ingress Rate Limiting
Traffic Isolation
QoS

Introduction to Storage Area Networks

 Fabric Vision incorporates MAPS to provide these functions:

Policy-based threshold monitoring and alerting
Fabric Performance Impact (FPI) monitoring to automatically detect and alert
administrators to severe levels of latency and to identify slow drain devices
Flow Vision to identify, monitor, and analyze specific application flows, including the
ability to automatically learn flows
Flow Generation to provide a built-in traffic generator for pre-testing and validating the
data center infrastructure at full line-rate before you deploy applications
Management protocols that include Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) v1/v3
(FE Management Information Base (MIB) and FC Management MIB), Storage
Management Interface Specification (SMI-S), and OpenStack FC zone management.
Support for security:
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)-GCM-256 encryption on ISLs
Diffie-Hellman (D-H) Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (DH-CHAP)
(between switches and end devices)
Fault, configuration, accounting, performance, security (FCAP) switch authentication
Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 140-2 L2-compliant
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
Internet Protocol Security (IPsec)
Internet Protocol (IP) filtering
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) with IPv6
OpenLDAP
Port Binding
Remote authentication dial-in user service (RADIUS)
User-defined role-based access control (RBAC)
Secure Copy Protocol (SCP)
Secure Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
Secure Shell (SSH) File Transfer Protocol (also Secure File Transfer Protocol) SFTP
SSHv2
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
Switch Binding
Terminal Access Controller Access Control System+ (TACACS+)
Trusted Switch
Management and operational software:

Auditing
Syslog
Command-line interface (CLI)
Browser-based Web Tools
IBM Network Advisor

Full compatibility with an earlier version with IBM System Storage and IBM TotalStorage
b-type and m-type SAN directors, switches, and routers; other directors, switches, and
routers that are manufactured by Brocade.

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12.5.3 Cisco MDS 9706 Multilayer Director for IBM System Storage
The Cisco MDS 9706 Multilayer Director for IBM System Storage is a director-class SAN
switch for deployment in small to mid-sized storage networks that can support enterprise
clouds and business transformation. The switch layers a comprehensive set of intelligent
features onto a high-performance, protocol-independent switch fabric.
The MDS 9706 (Figure 12-9) addresses the stringent requirements of large virtualized data
center storage environments. It delivers uncompromising availability, security, scalability, ease
of management, and transparent integration of new technologies for flexible data center SAN
solutions. It shares the operating system and management interface with other Cisco data
center switches. By using the Cisco MDS 9706, you can transparently deploy unified fabrics
with Fibre Channel, FICON, and FCoE connectivity for low TOC.

Figure 12-9 MDS 9706

The Cisco MDS 9706 includes the following features:

Delivers up to 12-Tbps front-panel Fibre Channel switching bandwidth
Provides 16 Gbps line-rate, non-blocking, and predictable performance across all traffic
conditions for every Fibre Channel and FCoE port in the chassis
Provides integrated mainframe support
Provides deterministic hardware performance and features that allow virtual machines to
have the same SAN attributes as physical servers
Enables outstanding levels of availability and reliability
Features modular, multilayer, highly available, dual-supervisor modules with six fabric slots
and four module slots (9RU)
Includes 192 two-Gbps, 4-Gbps, 8-Gbps, and 16-Gbps and 10-Gbps full line-rate
autosensing Fibre Channel ports in a single chassis for deployment in open systems
Offers 192 ten-Gbps full line-rate autosensing FCoE ports in a single chassis
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 Features 48-port 16 Gbps Fibre Channel switching module

Includes 48-port 10 Gbps FCoE module
Provides hot-swappable switching modules, supervisor modules, fans, power supplies,
and small form-factor pluggables
Includes front-to-back airflow

12.5.4 Cisco MDS 9500 Series Multilayer Directors

The Cisco MDS 9500 Series Multilayer Directors for IBM System Storage are director-class
SAN switches for deployment in scalable enterprise clouds and service provider clouds to
enable flexibility, resiliency, and reliability. Layering a comprehensive set of intelligent features
onto a high-performance, protocol-independent switch fabric, the MDS 9500 Series Multilayer
Directors address the critical requirements of large virtualized data center storage
environments, such as high availability, security, scalability, ease of management, and simple
integration of new technologies for flexible data center SAN solutions.
Sharing the operating system and management interface with other Cisco data center
switches, the MDS 9500 Directors can help enable the smooth deployment of unified fabrics
with high-performance Fibre Channel and FCoE connectivity for low TCO. Compatible with all
generations of Cisco MDS 9000 Family Fibre Channel Switching Modules, the MDS 9500
Series Multilayer Directors can help provide outstanding investment protection.

Cisco MDS 9506 for IBM System Storage

The Cisco MDS 9506 Multilayer Director for IBM System Storage supports 1-Gbps, 2-Gbps,
4-Gbps, 8-Gbps, and 10-Gbps Fibre Channel switch connectivity and intelligent network
services. These features help improve the security, performance, and manageability that is
required to consolidate geographically dispersed storage devices into a large enterprise SAN.
Administrators can use these directors to help address the needs for high performance and
reliability in SAN environments that range from small workgroups to large, integrated global
enterprise SANs.
The Cisco MDS 9506 (Figure 12-10) for IBM System Storage uses two Supervisor-2 Modules
for high availability and performance. The Supervisor-2 Module combines an intelligent
control module and a high-performance crossbar switch fabric in a single unit. It uses Fabric
Shortest Path First (FSPF) multipath routing, which provides intelligence to load balance
across a maximum of 16 equal-cost paths and to dynamically reroute traffic if a switch fails.

Figure 12-10 Cisco 9506 Multilayer Director

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263

Each Supervisor-2 Module provides the necessary crossbar bandwidth to deliver full system
performance in the MDS 9506 director with up to four Fibre Channel switching modules. It
provides that loss or removal of a single crossbar module that has no effect on system
performance. The Fibre Channel switching modules optimize performance, flexibility, and
density. The Cisco MDS 9506 Multilayer Director requires a minimum of one and allows a
maximum of four switching modules.
These modules are available in 12-port, 24-port, and 48-port 4 Gbps configurations, which
allow the Cisco MDS 9506 to support 12 - 192 Fibre Channel ports for each chassis.
Optionally, a 4-port 10 Gbps Fibre Channel module is available for high-performance ISL
connections over metropolitan optical networks.
Advanced traffic management capabilities are integrated into the switching modules to help
simplify deployment and to optimize performance across a large fabric. The PortChannel
capability allows users to aggregate up to 16 physical 2 Gbps inter-switch links into a single
logical bundle, which provides optimized bandwidth utilization across all links. The bundle
might span any port from any 16-port switching module within the chassis, which provides up
to 32 Gbps throughput.
The following switching modules are available:

Twelve-port, 24-port, or 48-port 4 Gbps Fibre Channel module

Twenty-four-port or 48-port 8 Gbps Fibre Channel module
Four-port 8 Gbps with 44-port 4 Gbps Fibre Channel module
Four-port 10 Gbps Fibre Channel module

The two storage devices include the following features:

Provides Fibre Channel throughput of up to 8 Gbps for each port and up to 64 Gbps with
each PortChannel ISL connection
Offers scalability for 12 - 192 (336) Fibre Channel ports
Offers 10 Gbps ISL ports for Inter-Data Center links over metropolitan optical networks
Offers Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) IP, GbE ports for iSCSI, or FCIP connectivity over global
networks
Includes VSAN capability for SAN consolidation into VSAN islands on a single physical
fabric
Includes high availability design with nondisruptive firmware upgrades
Supports Enterprise, SAN Extension over IP, Mainframe, Storage Services Enabler, and
Fabric Manager Server Packages to provide added intelligence and value

Cisco MDS 9513 for IBM System Storage

The Cisco MDS 9513 for IBM System Storage provides 12 - 528 Fibre Channel ports, with
4 Gbps and 8 Gbps support and a high availability design. It offers 4 - 44 ten-Gbps ports for
ISL connectivity across metropolitan optical networks. It also includes VSAN capability for
SAN consolidation into VSAN islands on a single physical fabric.
The Cisco MDS 9513 provides network security features for large enterprise SAN
deployment. The director also offers intelligent networking services to help simplify mainframe
FICON and Fibre Channel SAN management and reduce TCO.

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Figure 12-11 shows the front view of the Cisco MDS 9513 chassis.

Figure 12-11 Front view of the Cisco MDS 9513

The Cisco MDS 9513 Multilayer Director uses two Supervisor-2 Modules, which support high
availability. The Supervisor-2 Module provides industry-leading scalability, intelligent SAN
services, nondisruptive software upgrades, graceful process restart and failover, and
redundant operation. Dual crossbar-switching fabric modules provide a total internal switching
bandwidth of 2.4 Tbps for inter-connection of up to 11 Fibre Channel switching modules.
Fibre Channel switching modules improve performance, flexibility, and density. The Cisco
MDS 9513 for IBM System Storage requires a minimum of one Fibre Channel switching
module and allows a maximum of 11. These modules are available in 12-port, 24-port, or
48-port 4 Gbps and 8 Gbps configurations, which enable the Cisco MDS 9513 to support
12 - 528 Fibre Channel ports for each chassis. Optionally, a 4-port 10 Gbps Fibre Channel
module is available for high-performance ISL connections over metropolitan optical networks.
The Cisco MDS 9513 includes the following features:
Supports Fibre Channel throughput of up to 8 Gbps for each port and up to 64 Gbps with
each PortChannel ISL connection
Offers Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) IP ports for iSCSI or FCIP connectivity over global networks
Offers scalability for 12 - 528 one-Gbps, 2-Gbps, 4-Gbps, and 8-Gbps Fibre Channel ports
Includes a high availability design with support for nondisruptive firmware upgrades
Includes VSAN capability for SAN consolidation into virtual SAN islands on a single
physical fabric
Supports Enterprise, SAN Extension over IP, Mainframe, Storage Services Enabler, and
Fabric Manager Server Packages to provide added intelligence and value
For more information, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/san/enterprise/
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265

12.6 Specialty switches

The following IBM specialty switches are available:
IBM System Storage SAN42B-R
Cisco MDS 9250i Multiservice Fabric Switch
IBM System Storage SAN06B-R

12.6.1 IBM System Storage SAN42B-R

IT organizations continue to face the unrelenting growth of data that is transferred between
data centers and the changes that are driven by virtualized application workloads within Fibre
Channel storage environments. Also faced with rising service level agreement (SLA)
requirements and recovery expectations, enterprise data centers need their disaster recovery
infrastructure to help ensure fast, continuous, and simple access to mission-critical data from
anywhere in the world.
The IBM System Storage SAN42B-R extension switch (Figure 12-12) is a purpose-built
extension solution that securely moves more data over distances faster, while it minimizes the
effect of disruptions. With Gen 5 Fibre Channel, extension capability, and Fabric Vision
technology, the SAN42B-R delivers outstanding performance, strong security, continuous
availability, and simplified management to handle the growth of data traffic between data
centers in Fibre Channel and IBM FICON storage environments.
In addition, the SAN42B-R is designed to help storage administrators replicate and back up
large amounts of data over WAN quickly, securely, reliably, and simply while helping to
minimize operational and capital expenses.

Figure 12-12 SAN42B-R

The SAN42B-R includes the following features:

Leading throughput performance and port density that are required for maximum
application throughput over WAN links
Pay-as-you-grow scalability with capacity-on-demand (CoD) upgrades
Extension Trunking for improving load balancing and network resilience against WAN link
failure
Nondisruptive firmware upgrade
Advanced performance and network optimization features, including data compression,
disk protocol acceleration, QoS, and storage-optimized Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)
Outstanding insight and visibility across the storage extension network through Fabric
Vision technology
A total of twenty-four 16 Gbps Fibre Channel ports, sixteen 1/10 Gigabit Ethernet (GbE)
ports, and two 40-Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) ports
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 A total of sixteen 1/10 Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) ports

Two 40-Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) ports
Base configuration, including comprehensive set of advanced services and IBM Network
Advisor

12.6.2 Cisco MDS 9250i Multiservice Fabric Switch

The Cisco MDS 9250i Multiservice Fabric Switch for IBM System Storage is an optimized
platform for deploying high-performance SAN extension solutions, distributed intelligent fabric
services, and cost-effective multiprotocol connectivity for open systems and mainframe
environments. With a compact form factor and advanced capabilities that are normally
available on director-class switches only, the MDS 9250i is an ideal solution for departmental
and remote branch-office SANs and large-scale SANs with the Cisco MDS 9710 Multilayer
Director.
The MDS 9250i (Figure 12-13) offers up to forty 16 Gbps Fibre Channel ports, two 1/10
Gigabit Ethernet IP storage services ports, and eight 10-Gigabit Ethernet FCoE ports in a
fixed, two-rack-unit (2RU) form factor. The MDS 9250i connects to native Fibre Channel
networks, which protects your current investments in storage networks.

Figure 12-13 MDS 9250i

The MDS 9250i includes the following features:

Hardware-based virtual fabric isolation with VSANs and FC routing with Inter-VSAN
Routing (IVR).
Enterprise-class availability features for departmental SANs.
Intelligent network services and advanced traffic management capabilities.
Industry-leading SAN security to support compliance and regulatory requirements.
Fixed configuration with up to 40 ports of 16-Gbps Fibre Channel and 10 ports of
1/10-Gigabit Ethernet.
Four-Gbps, 8-Gbps, and 16-Gbps autosensing, optionally configurable port speed.
Up to 256 buffer-to-buffer credits can be assigned to a single Fibre Channel port to extend
storage networks over long distances.
Hot-swappable, 2+1 redundant power supplies and fans.

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267

12.6.3 IBM System Storage SAN06B-R

The IBM System Storage SAN06B-R extension switch uses advanced Fibre Channel and
Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP) technology to provide a fast, highly reliable, cost-effective
network infrastructure for remote data replication, backup, and migration. Whether it is
configured for simple point-to-point or comprehensive multi-site SAN extension, the
SAN06B-R extension switch addresses the most demanding business continuity, compliance,
and global data access requirements.
Up to sixteen 8-Gbps Fibre Channel ports and six 1-Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) ports provide the
Fibre Channel and FCIP bandwidth, port density, and throughput that are required to help
maximize application performance over WAN links (Figure 12-14).

Figure 12-14 SAN06B-R

The SAN06B-R includes the following features:

High performance design with up to 8 Gbps Fibre Channel ports and hardware-assisted
traffic processing for up to 1 Gbps line-rate performance across GbE.
Intranet, IP-based metropolitan area network (MAN), or WAN infrastructures for metro and
global SAN extensions can be used for business continuity solutions.
Integrated IBM System Storage SAN b-type switch management helps simplify installation
and administration and helps provide fabric investment protection.
One-unit (1U) 19-inch packaging that is designed for rack mount or tabletop.
Up to 8 Gbps Fibre Channel ports and up to 1 GbE port.
Support for 8-Gbps, 4-Gbps, and 2-Gbps Fibre Channel link speeds or 4-Gbps, 2-Gbps,
and 1-Gbps Fibre Channel link speeds.
Speed autosensing capabilities provide compatibility with an earlier version with 4-Gbps,
2-Gbps, and 1-Gbps Fibre Channel links.
Shortwave and longwave small form-factor pluggables can be intermixed in the same
router to meet your unique requirements.
Full Fabric operation and Universal Port Operation are available on all ports.
Optional inter-switch link (ISL) trunking is supported on all active ports.
Hardware-based compression.
Extensive buffering.
Integrated routing services.
SAN isolation from Internet, WAN, or MAN failures.
Scalable remote-site fan-in.
Hardware-based encryption.
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec).

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 Write acceleration for fast replication performance.

Optional FICON with control unit port (CUP) and FICON Accelerator enable support for
enterprise-class environments.
For more information about these products, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/san/specialty/index.html

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13

Chapter 13.

Certification
In this chapter, we provide an insight into several professional certifications that relate to the
topics in this book.

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

271

13.1 The importance of certification

Why make the effort to certify when you have more than enough work to do anyway? The
following benefits to an individual can be realized:

Validates your skills and knowledge

Gains peer recognition
Offers you the potential to become more valuable to your company and in the marketplace
Ratifies your skills as an industry professional

To an employer, the following benefits can be seen:

Offers a great way of benchmarking the skill level of the employee
Gives confidence about the employees ability to support storage networks
Demonstrates standards-based, non-proprietary, and vendor-neutral storage concepts

13.2 IBM Professional Certification Program

Todays marketplace is both crowded and complex. Individuals and businesses that do not
stay ahead of the curve risk being left behind. To develop a solid, competitive advantage and
to remain ahead of that curve, technology specialists are turning to professional certification
from IBM. The extensive IBM portfolio of integrated certifications includes servers, software,
application, and solution skills. The certification process is designed to prepare you and your
company to meet business initiatives with real solutions.
The IBM Professional Certification Program helps you lay the groundwork for your personal
journey to become a world-class resource to your clients, colleagues, and company. The
program provides you with the correct skills and accreditation that are needed to succeed.

13.2.1 About the program

The IBM Professional Certification Program is both a journey and a destination. It is a
business solution: a way for skilled IT professionals to demonstrate their expertise to the
world. The certification validates your skills and demonstrates your proficiency in the latest
IBM technology and solutions.
The certification requirements can be tough. It is a rigorous process that differentiates you
from everyone else.
The following list provides the mission of the IBM Professional Certification Program:
To provide a reliable, valid, and fair method of assessing skills and knowledge.
To provide IBM with a method of building and validating the skills of individuals and
organizations.
To develop a loyal community of highly skilled certified professionals who recommend,
sell, service, support, or use IBM products and solutions.
For more information about the IBM Professional Certification Program, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/certify/index.shtml

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13.2.2 Certifications by product

IBM has various certification courses that cover software, hardware, and products. For more
information about the courses that are available, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/certify/certs/index.shtml

13.2.3 Mastery tests

Mastery tests are used to verify the mastery of knowledge that is covered in a course or a
defined set of learning materials. They are not certification tests, which are designed to
validate skills that are needed in a specific job role. Rather, mastery tests help to assure that
an individual achieved a foundation of knowledge and understanding of a subject matter.
Mastery tests supplement certifications as a method that is used by IBM to evaluate the
knowledge of IBM sales and technical professionals. As with certifications, the successful
completion of a mastery test might be required for participation in certain IBM Business
Partner activities.
For more information about the courses that are available, see this website:
http://www.ibm.com/certify/mastery_tests/index_bd.shtml

13.3 Storage Networking Industry Association certifications

The Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) provides vendor-neutral certifications.
Different certification options are available within the SNIA. The certification program is called
the Storage Networking Certification Program (SNCP).
The SNCP provides a strong foundation of vendor-neutral, systems-level credentials that
integrate with and complement individual vendor certifications.
The structure of the SNCP is enhanced to reflect the advancement and growth of storage
networking technologies over the past few years. And the structure is refined to provide for
expanded offerings in the future. Through evolving and enhancing the SNCP, the SNIA is
establishing a uniform standard by which individual knowledge and skill sets can be judged.
Before the establishment of the SNIA SNCP, no single standard existed by which to measure
a professionals knowledge of storage networking technologies. Through its certification
program, the SNIA is working to establish open standards for storage networking certification
that IT organizations can trust.
For an up-to-date list of the possible certifications, see this website:
http://www.snia.org/education/certification

Chapter 13. Certification

273

13.4 Brocade certification

Brocade has a large track of certification exams. Brocade certification exams are designed to
validate your knowledge and expertise. The questions require knowledge and demonstrated
expertise in the various areas that are tested.
For more information about the available certifications, see this website:
http://www.brocade.com/en/education/certification.html

13.5 Cisco certification

Cisco has various certifications for different product categories. This section focuses on
storage area networking (SAN) and system networking. Cisco has five levels of general IT
certification: Entry, Associate, Professional, Expert, and Architect.
For more information about the available certifications, see this website:
http://www.cisco.com/web/learning/certifications/index.html#~Cert

13.6 Open Group certification

The Open Group provides certification programs for people, products, and services that meet
their standards. For enterprise architects and IT specialists, the certification programs provide
a worldwide professional credential for knowledge, skills, and experience. For IT products,
Open Group Certification Programs offer a worldwide guarantee of conformance.
For more information about the certifications, see this website:
http://www.opengroup.org/certifications

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Related publications
The publications that are listed in this section are considered particularly suitable for a more
detailed discussion of the topics that are covered in this book.

IBM Redbooks
The following IBM Redbooks publications provide additional information about the topic in this
document. Note that some publications referenced in this list might be available in softcopy
only:
IBM TotalStorage: SAN Product, Design, and Optimization Guide, SG24-6384
Implementing an Open IBM SAN, SG24-6116
Implementing the Cisco MDS 9000 in an Intermix FCP, FCIP, and FICON Environment,
SG24-6397
Introduction to SAN Distance Solutions, SG24-6408
Introducing Hosts to the SAN Fabric, SG24-6411
IP Storage Networking: IBM NAS and iSCSI Solutions, SG24-6240
The IBM TotalStorage NAS Integration Guide, SG24-6505
Implementing the IBM TotalStorage NAS 300G: High Speed Cross Platform Storage and
Tivoli SANergy!, SG24-6278
Using iSCSI Solutions Planning and Implementation, SG24-6291
IBM Storage Solutions for Server Consolidation, SG24-5355
Implementing the Enterprise Storage Server in Your Environment, SG24-5420
Implementing Linux with IBM Disk Storage, SG24-6261
IBM Tape Solutions for Storage Area Networks and FICON, SG24-5474
IBM Enterprise Storage Server, SG24-5465
IBM System Storage Solutions Handbook, SG24-5250
IBM Storage Infrastructure for Business Continuity, REDP-4605
IBM System Storage Data Encryption, SG24-7797
Implementing the Storwize V7000 and the IBM System Storage SAN32B-E4 Encryption
Switch, SG24-7977
ILM Library: Information Lifecycle Management Best Practices Guide, SG24-7251
IBM Information Infrastructure Solutions Handbook, SG24-7814
Introduction to IBM Real-time Compression Appliances, SG24-7953
Implementing IBM Storage Data Deduplication Solutions, SG24-7888
You can search for, view, download or order these documents and other Redbooks,
Redpapers, Web Docs, draft and additional materials, at the following website:
http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/

Copyright IBM Corp. 1999, 2016. All rights reserved.

275

Online resources
The following websites are also relevant as further information sources:
IBM Storage hardware, software, and solutions:
http://www.storage.ibm.com
IBM System Storage storage area networks:
http://www.ibm.com/systems/storage/san/
Brocade:
http://www.brocade.com
Cisco:
http://www.cisco.com
QLogic:
http://www.qlogic.com
Emulex:
http://www.emulex.com
Finisar:
http://www.finisar.com
IBM Tivoli software:
http://www.ibm.com/software/tivoli
IEEE:
http://www.ieee.org
Storage Networking Industry Association:
http://www.snia.org
Fibre Channel Industry Association:
http://www.fibrechannel.com
SCSI Trade Association:
http://www.scsita.org
Internet Engineering Task Force:
http://www.ietf.org
American National Standards Institute:
http://www.ansi.org
Technical Committee T10:
http://www.t10.org
Technical Committee T11:
http://www.t11.org

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Help from IBM

IBM Support Portal and downloads:
https://www.ibm.com/support/entry/portal/support
IBM Global Technology Services:
http://ibm.co/1lyI24R

Related publications

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