Basic Equations

Definitions, conventions and basic relations

Before we can start throwing around equations, we have to define some variables and state some conventions. That is what we will be doing in this part.

1.1

Definitions

Lets suppose we have an object, thats subject to forces. There can be two kinds of forces it is subject
to. First there are surface forces acting on the outside of the object. An example of a surface force
is pressure. We can resolve surface forces into three components, along the axes. These components are
denoted as X, Y and Z. There are also body forces, acting on every particle of the object. An example
is the gravitational force. When we resolve body forces into three components, we write it as X, Y and
Z.
The forces acting on the object cause internal stresses. (Stress is force per unit area.) Lets suppose we
make a cut through the object and examine a point O on the cut. There is a component of the stress
normal to the cut, called the direct (tensile) stress. This is denoted by the sign . There are also
two components of the stress parallel to the cut. These components are called shear stresses and are
denoted by .

1.2

Notation and sign conventions

Now lets discuss some notation and sign conventions. Often direct stresses are examined along the three
basic axes. (The x, y and z-axes.) We then say that x is the direct stress along the x-axis, y is the
stress along the y-axis and z is the stress along the z axis. If a certain stress is directed away from its
related surface, then we define it as a positive stress. Otherwise it is negative.
We can have a similar notation for shear stresses. However, shear stresses dont only have a direction.
They also have a plane in which they act. They therefore have two subscript, like xy . The x (the
first part of the subscript) denotes the plane in which the shear stress acts. In this case it is the plane
orthogonal to the x-axis. The y (the second part of the subscript) then denotes the direction of the shear
stress.
The sign convention of shear stress is also a bit difficult. We have to examine two arrows for that. First
there is the direction of the shear stress itself. Then there is also the normal vector to the plane on which
the shear stress is acting. (This normal vector always points outward.) If they both point in a positive
direction, or both in a negative direction, then we say that the shear stress is positive. If one points in a
positive direction, and the other in a negative direction, then it is negative.

1.3

Basic equations

We can examining the stresses acting on a small part inside an object. By doing so, we can derive a few
relations. First, by taking moments, we can derive relations for the shear stresses. These relations are
xy = yx ,

xz = zx

and

yz = zy .

(1.1)

By examining forces in certain directions, we can derive three equilibrium equations, being
x
xy
xz
+
+
+X
x
y
z
y
yz
yx
+
+
+Y
y
z
x
z
zx
zy
+
+
+Z
z
x
y

0,

(1.2)

0,

(1.3)

0.

(1.4)

Instead of examining a particle on the inside of an object, we can also examine a particle on the edge.
Now surface forces come into play. We can once more derive three equilibrium equations, being
X

= x l + yx m + zx n,

(1.5)

Y
Z

= y m + zy n + xy l,
= z n + xz l + yz m.

(1.6)
(1.7)

The three parameters l, m and n are direction cosines. They are added to the equation to compensate
for the direction of the surface. To find their values, examine the normal vector of the surface (still
pointing outward). l, m and n are the cosines of the angles which this normal vector makes with respect
to the x, y and z axis, respectively.

Stresses in different coordinate systems

We dont always evaluate stresses along the x, y and z-axes. We can also examine them in different
coordinate systems. What happens when we start shifting coordinate systems?

2.1

Mohrs circle

Lets suppose we know all the stresses in the normal (x, y, z)-coordinate system. When we shift the
coordinate system, the normal stresses and the shear stresses change. The way in which this occurs is
described by Mohrs circle. Mohr stated that if you plot the direct stresses and the shear stresses, you
would get a circle. Such a circle is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Mohrs Circle

line between them. The point where this line crosses the x-axis denotes the average stress av . It can
be found using
x + y
av =
.
(2.1)
2
The radius of the circle is
s
2
x y
2 .
R=
+ xy
(2.2)
2
Now if we rotate our coordinate system by an angle , then the line in our circle rotates by an angle 2.
From this, the new stresses can be found.

2.2

Directions of maximum stress

It would be nice to know when maximum stress occurs. Maximum normal (direct) stress occurs when
we rotate our coordinate system over an angle m . m can be found using
tan 2m =

2xy
.
x y

(2.3)

The corresponding stresses are called principal stresses. The planes on which they act are the principal
planes. The maximum stress (also called the major principal stress) I and the minimum stress
(also called the minor principal stress) II can now be found using
I = av + R

and

II = av R.

(2.4)

Similarly, maximum shear stress occurs when we rotate our coordinate system by an angle m , where
m now satisfies
x y
tan 2m =
.
(2.5)
2xy
This angle will always be 45 bigger or smaller than the angle at which maximum direct stresses occur.
(This can also be seen from Mohrs circle.) The corresponding maximum shear stress now is
max = R =

I II
.
2

(2.6)

Strains

When an object is subject to forces, there will be displacements. These displacements relate to strains.
Lets take a look at what kind of strains there are, and how we can find them.

3.1

Strain relations

We generally distinguish two types of strains. The longitudinal or direct strains (denoted by ) relate
to changes in length. Shear strains (denoted by ) relate to changes in angles.
Lets examine a point O of an object. Due to the deformation of this object, this point O moves. It
moves a distance u along the x-axis, a distance v along the y-axis and a distance w along the z-axis. It
can now be shown that the direct strains in x, y and z-direction satisfy
x =

u
,
x

y =

v
y

and

z =

w
.
z

(3.1)

The orientations of lines passing through point O have also changed. For example, lets consider two lines
in the xy-plane that were perpendicular. (There was an angle of /2 between them.) Now they arent
3

perpendicular anymore. Their relative angle now is /2 xy . This works the same for the xz-plane and
the yz-plane. So we have three shear strains xy , xz and yz . If the displacements are small, then it can
be shown that
v
u
w u
w v
xy =
+
,
xz =
+
and
yz =
+
.
(3.2)
x y
x
z
y
z
Now we have six kinds of displacements. It seems like a lot of unknowns. Luckily there are relations
between them. There are 6 compatibility equations. These equations are


2 y
2 x
2 x

yz
xz
xy
2 xy
+
,
2
=
=

+
+
,
(3.3)
xy
y 2
x2
yz
x
x
y
z


2 yz
2 z
2 y
2 y

zx
yx
yz
+
,
2
=
=

+
+
,
(3.4)
yz
z 2
y 2
zx
y
y
z
x


2 x
2 z
2 zx
2 z

xy
zy
zx
+
,
2
=
=

+
+
.
(3.5)
zx
x2
z 2
xy
z
z
x
y

3.2

Relations between stress and strain

Currently, weve got quite a couple of equations. But we got even more unknowns. So we need more
equations. Where do we get those equations from?
We can try to describe the relationship between stress and strain. For that, we first have to make a
few assumptions. First, we assume that the object were looking at is homogeneous. This means that
the material properties are the same at every point in the object. We also assume that the object is
isotropic, meaning that the properties are the same in every direction. It also means that the stress and
the strain are proportional.
From these assumptions we can derive that
x =

x (y + z )
,
E

y =

y (z + x )
E

and

z =

z (x + y )
.
E

(3.6)

Here is the Poisson ratio. There are also a relations between the shear stresses and shear strains.
These relations are
xy
yz
zx
xy =
,
yz =
and
zx =
.
(3.7)
G
G
G
The variable G is called the modulus of rigidity. It is related to E and according to
G=

3.3

E
.
2 (1 + )

(3.8)

Changes of volume

When an object deforms, its volume changes. It would be interesting to know at what rate this happens.
If V is the volume of a particle, then the volumetric strain e of that particle is
e=

V
1 2
= x + y + z =
(x + y + z ) .
V
E

(3.9)

If an object is compressed at a constant pressure p, then x = y = z = p. We then have

p
3 (1 2)
p= ,
E
K

with K =

E
.
3 (1 2)

The constant K is known as the bulk modulus or the modulus of volume expansion.

(3.10)

3.4

Thermal effects

When an object is heated, it expands. It does this according to

(3.11)

where is the coefficient of thermal expansion. If also stresses are involved, then we get new
equations for the strains. We simply add T up to the old equations. We then get
x

x (y + z )
+ T,
E
y (z + x )
+ T,
E
z (x + y )
+ T.
E

(3.12)
(3.13)
(3.14)