Agriculture

Textbook Notes
Section 1: Where Did Agriculture Originate?
agriculture- deliberate modification of the Earths surface for economic gain or sustenance
began when human began to domesticate plants/animals (crops- plants cultivated by people)
select agricultural practices based on economic or cultural values
I.

History
1.

Hunters and Gatherers

a. almost daily mvmt. for sustenance
b. small groups
c. frequent migration
i.
Today, quarter-million exist (isolated groups in periphery; ex.
Bushmen, Spinifex, Sentinelese)
2. Agricultural Revolution
a. 8000 BC; began domesticationpop increase
b. Causes
i.
environmental: around ice ageredistribution of
organisms/life
ii.
cultural: human desire for fixed settlement and accidental
dropping of foodfarming
c. Crops hearths
i.
SW Asia- barley, wheat, lentil, olive diffuse to the west
& east
ii.
E. Asia- rice, millet along rivers
iii.
S.Saharan Africa- sorghum, millet, rice, yamscentral to
south
iv.
Latin Am.- maize; Mexico (cotton/beans), Peru
(potatoes)n/s america (squash= sw USA)
d. Animals hearths
i.
SW Asia- most important; cattle, goats, pigs, sheep
(dog=SW/E Asia, Europe); began integration of crops/livestock [fundamental in modern agriculture]
ii.
C. Asia- horse (w/ Indo-Euro language)
Diversity in regionsglobalized and spread through communication
improvements.
Subsistence
developing countries
for consumption of farmers family/ excess
govt

Commercial
developed countries
for sale off the farmmanufacturing co.s [HIGHLY productive]

44% of pop

4% (only 2 million/2% in N.Am. but ample outcome)

[drastic decline in 20th century bc of push/pull migration into urban areas]

manual labor: human/animal power

physical walking to get to markets

depend on machinery (woodiron plowtractor)= BIG output

+ better transportationproducts fresher @
destinations
+ science (fertilizers, GMO, herbicides, intelligent decisions)
+ electronics: GPS to track cattle, distribution, monitor
progress

Chinas avg. farm= 1 hectare

US avg. farm= 161 hectares

Section 2: Why Do People Consume Different Foods?

I.
Diet varies bc...

large farms= large scale mechanization (v. expensive)expansion

(except declining in US bc urbanization into prime agricultural land)
largest farms produce more
mainly family owned in the US/ tied to business ventures

beef)

level of development: more developed countries eat more/varied food bc access

physical conditions: climate isnt an obstacle; developed countries can ship exotic food long distances
cultural preferences: some taboos/preferences expressed despite the environment (ex. Indiacultivate

A. Total consumption of food

dietary energy consumption- amount of food one consumes (measured in kilocalories (calories) per ounce)
mainly through cereal grains (grains found in the cereal grass); 3 main ones account for
90% of grain production
a. wheat- principal in developed Europe/N.Am and developing
C/SAsiadry conditions
b. rice- principal in E/S/SW Asiatropical climates
c. maize- (corn in N.Am) leading in the world mostly for animal feed, but
also some in S.Saharan Afr.
a. Others- esp. S.Saharan Afr.: cassava, sorghum,
millet, plantains, yams, sweet potatoes.
Sugar in Venezuela.
B. Source of nutrients
Protein= v important for growth.
developed countries: 1/3 from meat
developing countries: 1/10 from meat; rest from grains
III.
Nutrition and Hunger
food security- physical, social, economic access to meet dietary needs for a healthy life (1/8 of worlds pop doesnt have)
A. Dietary Energy Needs
moderate phys. activity is atleast 1,800 kcal per day (UN Food and Agricultural
Organization)
actual world avg. is 2,800 (50% more)
Austria and USA get 3,600 (200%
more) [highest]obesity > hunger in developed places
Developing= avg. 2,600;
S.SahAfr=2,400not enough; deficient diets bc food is more $$ of their income
than ours
B. Undernourishment- consistently getting below minimum requirement
a. about 870 million ppl99% in developing countries
i.
India= most; 225 million
1. China (130 mill), of S.SahAfr, of S.Asia,
of developing countries follow
b. As pop has increased over the decade, undernourished have decreased
i.
China/E.Asia= most decrease
1. S.Asia, S.SahAfr largest increases
2. Myanmar and Vietnam also decrease
Section 3: Where is Agriculture Distributed?
I.
Whittleseys Agricultural Regions
form from environmental (climate) and cultural (taboos, preferences) reasons
A. Developing Countries (Subsistence Agriculture): food produced for familys consumption; rare
surplus
a. pastoral nomadism

dryland belt of SW.Asia/N.Africa, C/E. Asia: ex. Masai,

Bedouins
forced to domesticate animals bc infertile climate

15 million sparsely occupy 20% ecumene

migration occurs bc strong
territoriality/knowledgechoose optimal routes based on weather
(a) transhumance- seasonal
migration of livestock between high/lowlands

obtain resources from livestock (not rlly

slaughtering)larger the herd more power and security
get grain by bartering, letting women/kids
sedentate/farm, or migrate/stay based on sown crops and climate

animals chosen on cultural and physical adaptability

characteristics
camel: N.Afr/SW.Asiasuited to arid,
tough, fast but not immune & long gestation period

horse: C.Asia
goats: eat everything, tough, agile, but needs

sheep: slow, need more water, picky eater,

more water
affected by climate
(a) typical fam needs 25-60
goats/sheep or 10-25 camels

not a precursor to sedentary farming but an offshoot (were

familiar; climate just didnt work)
role as transporters and messengers through
drylands
(a) declining bc
technology/communication comin up
(b) govt. is trying to shift
nomads towards sedentary farming or use of land for industry but is difficult
b. shifting cultivation

tropical/hot S.SahAfr, Latin Am., SE.Asia

250 million on 36 million sq. km [1/4 of total land

area= most ppl:land ratio--LESS dense pop]

small villages: surrounding land used with clearly marked

boundaries
clear land [swidden/milpat/patch] by slashand-burn technique (rainwashes ashs nutrients into soil)
grow crops here, leave it fallow for a few
years until nutrients restored (fruit trees maybe)
(a) if no space, move out to
another village
land prepared by hand or smtimes w/
hoepotassium= ash fertilizer, weeding done
lasts a few years; 2nd year most bountiful
produces regional varieties and different
strategic intermingling combinations [chaos?]

before: commissioned land, now: privately owned

declining bc rapid deforestation; more efficient/green methods

like timber/cattle ranching prevalent
some argue is simply a preliminary step in
econ. development [clear land for settlement]
some argue it is environmentally sound [no
fertilizers needed]
(a) but causes global warming
and lack of biodiversity
(i)
Bolivia
attempts forest reserve, while Brazil keeps clearing.
c.

intensive subsistence (wet rice dominant)

large pop clusters of S/E Asiamust intensively work

(everyday) to feed them.

very small land (high agricultural density), fragmented land,

and manual labor
waste no land-- small paths and no grazing
here

wet rice based: planted dry and moved to flooded field

v. important: 50% of rice production from
China and India; 90% E/S/SE Asia
(a) field preparation: using
oxen to plow (unlike shifting cult.)
(b) flooding: with collected
water and dikes to ensure the right amount (sawah in Java; N.Americans
incorrectly call it a paddy)
(c) transplanting: 1/10 used
after dry nursery at first then rest of; grow wet for life.
(d) harvesting: separate chaff
from seeds by threshing and winnowing; hull removed if subsistence for farmer
but if commercial polished (loss of nutrients)

flat land usually (river valleys and deltas) but

overpopulationterrace farming

resort to double cropping (in warm winters S.China/Taiwan);

alternate between rice in summer and wheat/barley in winter

d.

intensive subsistence (non- rice dominant)

large pop clusters of S/E Asia, where rice is difficult

(precip. too lowinterior India + NE China)

millet, oats, corn, sorghum, cash crops (tobacco, cotton, flax)

intensive manual labor; may practice crop rotation (swap field

of crop each year) but no plant in winter

effects of communist communes (efficiency?no) still

theresmall farms dont have v much left
(ex. china)
e. plantation

plantation farming is commercial agriculture in developing

countries
specializes in one/two crops: usually in
tropics/subtropics of Latin Am, Afr., Asia
still owned by Euros
for shipping (processed) goods to developed
countries
(a) latin amcoffee,
sugarcane, bananas
(b) asiarubber, palm oil
(i)
tobacco,
sugarcane, cotton not as much bc only annual harvest
sparsley pop areas; import and quarter
workers
(a) slave plantations in US
southcotton; after abolition plantations divided up.

B.

Developed Countries (Commercial Agriculture)

depends on climate

developing countries shifting to this

food sold to processors/mills (General Mills, Kraft)

agribusiness : integration of farm with many
commercial companies (use tech and comm.) is 20% of the labor in US
a. mixed crop & livestock

midwest US and C. Euro

feed most of crop to animals who fertilizeprimary

output is animal products
even workload; seasonally varying
pay crops harvest in winter only, animals year round
US corn most used (40% of worlds
supply v China 20%) bc high yield in an area
(a) Corn Belt:
OhioDakotas most important agricutl. region in US
(b) Soybeans are #2 (tofu,
feed, in many products as oil)

crop rotation: 4 field system clover (rest crop), root,

cereal, another cereal. efficient > shifting cult.
b.

dairying (Marylands fertile land is threatened by urban development).

pop clusters of NE US, SE Canada, NW.Euro, on the rise in

S/E Asia

once a luxury good in developed but spread;

India is leader rn

perishable: must be in milkshed (closest kind of farms)

transport improvements made from 30 mile radius to 300 mile radiushighly
accessible from urban areas
farther away ppl make cheese or dairy
products (less perishable) (ex. NZ vs UK)

on the decline bc lower revenue

must be milked every day/intensive/spoilage
+ fed in idle winter
c. grain

N/C USA, S/C Canada, E.Euro

human consumptionsent to manufacturers into food

products
wheat= most; profit from bread flour

(over rye, barley, oats) and doesnt spoilcan be transported easily

developing countries on the rise: make of world

productionleaders China, India, US.

highly mechanized: with reaper first and then the combine (3

tasks in one)
not uniform work: one winter tend and one
summer tend= cheap bc same machines used
(a) winter wheat in Kansas
Colorado Oklahoma
(b) spring wheat in Dakotas
Montana S.Saskatchewan
(c) 80% of US lentils in
Palouse region of Washington State
worlds leading export crop* (international
trade!) US and Canada= 50% of production
(a) breadbasket
(N.American prairie)econ. and polit. strength to be able to supply
others
d. ranching

drylands of W.NAmerica, SE LatinAm, C.Asia, S.SahAfr,

S.Pacificcant support crops

pop culture has spread it.

expanded once bc demand for beef in
e.coastprocessed up there
(a) trails (ex. Chisholm
Trail)railroads in Kansas
(b) decline with rise of land
used for farmingrange wars
(i)
farming
is more profitable
Also rare in Euro (only Spain/Portugal),
Pampas, Brazilaccessible oceans= overseas trade (cattle and sheep in
Australia)
Growth in developing countries: China, US,
Brazil; Developed only produce
(a) Trends
(i)
starts
pastoral nomadism
(ii)
sedentar
y, fixed ranches
(iii)
pushed
into drier lands bc of rise of planting
e. mediterranean

Mediterranean Sea areas, W. USA, S. tip of Africa, Chile

Coastal areas (w. coast) with hilly landscape pretty

dry but has prevailing/sea breezes

Human consumption: horticulture fruits, veggies, flowers

Medit.cash crops grapes and olives;
wheats for pastas
Spain/France2/3 of worlds wine
California: IMMENSE horticulture with
fruits, nuts, veggiescompetition in future bc only arid areas remain from
urban development and no water. Least cereal grain.
f.

commercial gardening

SE US, SE Australia

a.k.a truck farming: bartering plants many fruits + veggies

in SE US with high bio/tech. Efficient and use migrant workers (from Mexico)sold fresh
or frozen
Specialty farming in England: luxury crop for
$$ bc dairy on the decline
Section 4: Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?
I.

Challenges in developing countries

A. Subsistence farming vs. rapid population growth

a.

II.

Boserup: food supply needs to be increased by intensification of production

a) new farming methods + additional labor from pop
more yield but still same output per person
b) land left fallow for shorter times
(1) forest fallow- cleared (2) and left for forests
to grow back (20)
(2) bush fallow- cleared (8) and left for small
bush to grow back (10)
(3) short fallow-cleared (2) and left for wild grass
(2)
(4) annual cropping- alternate yearly bw
legumes/roots
(5) multicropping- never left fallow
B. Subsistence farming vs. international trade
a. Desire to expand and afford tech through selling exotic raw materials to
developed countries-- ironic bc foreign is exceeding domestic and generated funds go to subsistence
a) gender division in Kenya: women subsist, men get wages
b) African struggle: pop and food prod. have both increased; govt.
keeps prices low so little incentive in increasing production
b. Drug crops in Latin America are dangerous but necessary
(1) cocaine: Colombia, Peru, Bolivia main
consumer USA
(2) heroin: from opium poppy (mainly
Afghanistan and then Laos)Balkans/W.Euro/Russia
(3) marijuana: most popular; MexicoUSA
b) Drug agriculture: Informal Economy
(1) Millions and billions of dollars not monitored
by govt.
(2) Important source of $$$ for periphery
c. Food prices are the greatest challenge to food supply; UN says bc bad climate in
crop belts, higher demand in China/India, small growth in productivity (no miracle breakthroughs), and use of
crops in biofuels (esp LatinAm)
a) Leads to doubling land prices
Challenges in developed countries
A. Overproduction and Dropping Prices
a. Surplus from high yields constant demand because low population
growth (ex. dairy cows)
b. US govts policies for dealing with excess spends yearly $20 billion on
farm subsidies
(1) Europe gets more bc of EUs commitment to
becoming a farming society
b) avoid planting crops that are in excess supplyprevent
soil erosion with fallow crops
c) govt. pays farmers for deficit after meeting a target price of a
commodity
d) govt. sells surplus to foreign countries and food stamps to
encourage purchase of foods
B. Access to Markets
a. distance/transport to market influences choice of crops and profitability
b. consideration of cost of land and cost of transporting crops to market
-

von Thunen: Isolated State theory (**First geographical model!)

City is located in the center.
Self-sufficient, no outside influence. State surrounded
by wilderness.
Consistent soil quality and
climate
Farmers transport their own
goods to market
state is
completely flat, no landmarks to act as
transportation barriers
Farmers
act to maximize profits.

Milkshed (truck farming): the ring of milk and fresh fruit/vegetable productions
surrounding a major city (these spoil faster!)
Intensive labor : dairying and gardening.
Require a lot of daily work
Use small plots of expensive land that is
close to the city (spoil fast, so need to be transported to market fast)
Forest: Wood is v important (provided fuel, building material) but v heavy so it
was better to be closer to market
Extensive labor: grain and livestock farming.
Not as much daily work
Use large plots of cheap land that is further from the city (dont
spoil as fast)
Transport dictated use of land in this model (i.e. how much it costs to transport to
market plays a key role!)
railroads open up
Today, labor is the reason for choosing land. (i.e. outsourcing,
urban clusters, etc.)
CRITIQUES
variations of farming methods and technology exist
roles of govt. and social norms may change this plan
lasting impact of history (European colonialism)
different climates/soil/environments exist.
III.

Strategies to increase global food supply

A. Increasing exports from countries with surpluses
a. W goods E.Hemisphere (most exports: Latin America-- Brazil and
Argentina)
b. Before: only colonial powers largest importers, now Japan is largest, with UK,
China, Russia
c. US (leading exporter of grain) passes PL-480 to aid export for global
demand of wheat relative decline in export power
B. Expanding land areas used for agriculture
a. before: W.US, Russia, Pampas only 11% of land is cultivated but our
pop is growing TOO fast
b. 2 billion hectares of semiarid land, through overuse mainly of overgrazing,
deforestation, and agricult. use, have become subject to desertification and aren't usable.
c. Waterlogging also occurs if irrigation systems aren't placed in areas with
inadequate drainage + also salinity ex. Asia/S.America, Mesopotamia.
d. Urbanization of prime agricultural land loses agricultural land potential.
C. Expanding fishing
a. Aquaculture/aquafarming and fishing has greatly increased bc of pop ,
but only 1% of calories.
a) of ocean fishing is for direct human consumption; rest for
feed--aquaculture has boomed
b) 18 major fishing regions--most yield from NW Pacific, China (
of global supply), Indonesia, Chile
c) Overfishing 90% loss of predatory fish like tuna;
constant pop vs. our huge growth :(
D. Increasing productivity of the land
a. 2nd half of 20th century: population grows the fastest ever. No famine bc crops
outgrow pop growth.
a) Green Revolution : introduction of higher yield seeds and
expanded use of fertilizers
(1) Dr. Borlaugs miracle wheat
sponsored by Nobel Prize, Ford, and Rockefeller rice too?
(a) HUGE increases and
diffusion!
(i)
Use of
more machinery and fertilizers with nitrogen, potassium,
phosphorus European urea
(ii)
Hard to
sustain bc needs expensive tech + subsidies
(2) Genetically modified foods

IV.

(a) Literally everywhere: of

processed food has it; 10% of farmland is GM based
(b) from N.Am, from
Latin Am. (shunned in Europe--must be labeled)
(c) High yield, increased
nutrition, pest-resistant
Africans oppose because.
Health
problems: reduce antibiotics effectiveness
Export
problems: scared of Europe's disinterest in their raw materials if GM
Increase
d dependence of US: terminator gene from MNCs to strangle and steal
all of our money [we dont want a habit or dependence]
Sustainable agriculture: practices that enhance/preserve the environment is....
A. Less profit but less cost (ex. organic agriculture: .6% of farmland-- Australia 32%, Argentina 12%,
USA, China, Brazil)
a. Sensitive land management
a) ridge tillage- raised soil plots of 4 to 8 inches = no need for
tractors and enhances soil quality w/ nutrients/worms
b. Limited use of chemicals
a) Instead of 90% soybean and 70% corn/cotton using Roundup
Ready, limited use on just the ridges--herbicide banding. Less resistance and higher yields with
mechanical work.
c. Better integration of crops and livestock
a) free range; complementary activities not just bouncing for
profit. Sensitive factors:
(1) # of livestock- evenly distributed and on
steeper lands (loss of vegetative cover)
(2) Animal confinement- morals. Also unclean-expensive sewage needed. Smelly af. but manure!
(3) Management of extreme weather conditions# may need to be changed during drought, but livestock can buffer from crop failures by
feeding and prevent fire hazards (California).
(4) Flexible feeding and marketing: cushions in
times of price fluctuations and efficient use of farm labor; feed costs are most expensive
cost but can be low if monitored/ forage used.

Unit Material
The Agricultural Revolutions.
I.

II.

III.

Preceding Times
A. Hunters and gatherers gradually shift into sedentary life with agriculture
a. form small clans to establish reliable food sources without usurping the
environment
b. perfected tools (1st: club) and innovations (fire: focal point of settlements)
c. today: government doesnt like constant circulation of the present few;
encourages sedentary farming
1st Agricultural Revolution sedentary life associated with Sauer
A. First domestication of plants [Fertile Crescent]possible independent innovations present
a. allows sedentary farm settlements and pop. moderately explodes
b. migration of farmersdiffusion of techniques and language (IndoEuropean sedentary farmer hypothesis)
c. absorption of foraging peoples
B. Animal domestication [Fertile Crescent as well]
a. dogs/cats first, then goats/pigs/sheep (Jared Diamond: only cow, pig, horse,
sheep, goat important!)
people settle permanently as animals linger around them
Domestication of animals still occurs:
E.Africans @ eland
2nd Agricultural Revolution (1600/1700s) technology

A.

Efficient/productive farming because of technology NECESSARY for the Industrial

Revolution
a.

fertilizer, large outputfeeds a large pop,(larger better farms and less

farmers).
b.
Black/White Holstein)
c.

IV.

advances in breeding livestocknew breeds for beef and milk (ex.

farmers pushed out of jobs and move to cities and tenant farms
impacts Indust. Rev bc supplies w/ labor force and sustained
w/ more food, techniques, innovations
In turn, Ind.Rev sustains revolution with
transport tech (RR, internal combustion engine)
3rd Agricultural Revolution [Green Revolution] biotechnology associated with Boserup/prove Malthus wrong
A. New crop breeds
a. IR36: miracle rice most widely grown crop bc high yield
b. High yielding strains of wheat and corn
Malthus you wrong af.
starvation/famine is bc of political not
production failures
c. increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation in core countries
increased soil/water contamination and
superbugs (immune)
small scale farmers cannot afford
(a) Multinational companies
hold rights to expensive things (ex. miracle rice) and therefore have tremendous
power in agricultural production process.
Africa: rice, wheat, corn is N/Amore famine bc left out
of development
d. environmental impacts of unsustainable agriculture
desertification and deforestation
B. Genetically Modified Organisms
a. a lot in the US= considered relatively safe.
Soybeans
GMpossible to grow anywhere
Roundup-Ready (herbicide resistant) crops
by Monsanto (MNCo.)
C. Organic Agriculture: production without synthetic fertilizers, etc.
a. On the risemainly sold in core areas; cash crops produced JUST for
export domination by core in s/perip
Allows control of a in-style nichelarge external
corporate interests
Environmental benefits: reduced chemical levels in soil/water

Industry and Politics

primary (nat. resources)
secondary (manufacturing)
tertiary (service-based)
quaternary (info/$/data exchange)
quinary (research)

primogeniture: practice of giving ALL land to oldest son

jagged lines= split between more than one
person
fight bc larger fields= more produce.
effect: land is kept large and fields arent broken
(counterexample: Mediterranean farming)

Cadastral systems: method of land survey--property lines/ownership defined.

rectangular (township-and-range): mainly in US--geometric squares
metes and bounds: goes with natural land features
long-lot: remnant of French; all lots get access to transport (RR, river,
etc.)narrow strips of land
Types of settlements
Nucleated:
Settling areas where arable land is hard to come by; ppl live
very close to preserve land
Sometimes in places that have little technology and
infrastructure
People must live close so that they can work the land together

Dispersed:
-

In areas where there is a lot of arable land

Infrastructure and mechanization supports people living far

away from each other

Villages share two characteristics
social stratification: easy to see what social class someone is in by looking at
their house
functional differentiation: buildings are constructed differently and look different
from one another because they have different functions (usually in Western countries!)
-

Cash crops/plantation agriculture

began with colonial eracolonies grew cash crops for export to benefit mother country on
plantations
Today: large scale plantation agriculture by MNCs (ex. United Fruit Company in
Guatemala); use polit. power to overthrow govt. and influence decisions in developing areas
cartels: joint pacts from diff. companies to the same
product/priceBad bc core has too much power; TFA:
countries begin to find resources somewhere else
countries want the liberty to grow whatever they want
ex. sugarcane from cuba for
ussugarbeets
Political influences on agriculture
growth of cash crops in colonies w/ loans from mother country
countries soon MUST grow cash crops to pay loans
landholdings dominated by $$ of rich people in MNCsneocolonialism
impacts of colonialism
Columbian Exchange brings soon to be-colonial American food
crops (corn, potato, squash) to Europe and horses oer there
Colonies exist to provide raw materials for colonizers and must
export goods
forced cropping (colonizer forces colony to raise crops to their iterations)
may need to produce luxury crops for simply profit, not
sustenance
monoculture (single commodity produced in colonized world)
ex. cotton, corn: govt. uses subsidies and favorable taxes to
encourage growth
Mediterranean areas are NOT; more
diversified.
Socio-cultural influences
luxury crop: not needed to sustain life (usu. not food)
ex. coffee
domesticated in Ethiopia
grown a lot in S. America/ tropics (and Mexico, Brazil, India,
Indonesia)
2nd to petroleum as most valuable legally traded commodity
food desert: place where nutritious food isnt widely grown; instead many packaged/processed
items (bc transport).
chicken farming takes place in SE USA