4.

Technology
Virgin Copper is extracted from ores. There are basically Oxide Ores and Sulphide
ores. Most of Copper is produced from Sulphide ores. Oxide ores are mostly treated
near the mines by leaching/ electrolysis and are of small capacity. They are traded in
very small quantities and frequency of inter country sales is also low. They account
for around 15 % of virgin Copper output.
Sulphide ores supply more than 80 % of Virgin copper. The output of mines called
concentrates are freely traded commodities and form the basis of this study.
The process Flow diagram of extracting Copper from Sulphide ores is as under:

The Ore (around 1 % Copper) after mining are brought to the surface is first
crushed and then milled to very fine size. This causes release of Copper bearing
particles (Copper Iron Sulphide called Chalcopyrite) from waste (called Gangue
minerals). After adding frothing agent and surface conditioning agent, air is blown in
the pulp in cells. The Copper Sulphide mineral is not wetted by water and sticks to the
froth. After a series of similar operations, the final product called concentrates
(containing typically 25% to 35 % Copper) is then treated in a Smelter. This is a
freely traded commodity and is the starting raw material for this project.
The Concentrated is treated in a Concentrate Smelter to smelt. In smelter the
concentrate is oxidized to give a product called Matte containing typically 40 % to 60

% Copper. The other two products are slag and Flue Gases containing Sulphur
Dioxide. The Matte is then fed to Converter Vessel where it is oxidized further to give
crude copper called Blister Copper. The Converter also gives slag and Flue Gases
containing Sulphur dioxide. The Slag from both furnaces is normally treated
separately to recover copper present. The discard slag is less than 1 % Cu. The
Matte Oxidation releases a huge amount of Heat which can be used to smelt
intermediaries (like Skulls, jams etc.) and Copper Scrap.
Blister Copper typically contains more than 98 % Copper. This contains two ties of
impurities one group more reactive than copper and other group less reactive than
Copper. Saturating Copper with Oxygen can remove the first group of impurities;
transferring the Blister Copper Melt to Anode Furnaces does this.
In Anode furnace, Copper melt is saturated with oxygen to oxidize impurities more
reactive than copper. They are removed as slag. The slag from anode furnace is
recycled to converters. Using hydrocarbons then reduces the oxygen in the melt.
They remove oxygen. Any amount of anode furnace refining will not be able to
reduce impurities more reactive than copper and hence they have to be removed by
electrolysis. This is done in Electrolytic Refinery.
To make the Copper amenable for electro refining, the Melt is cast into plates
(typically 1m X 1 m) with ears (called lugs to hang them in cells)

The anodes are placed in cells parallel to Stainless Steel sheets (called Cathodes).
The cell is filled with Copper Sulphate Sulphuric Acid Mixture (called Electrolyte).
Direct Current is passed with Anode Connected to + ve and Cathodes Connected to
ve sides of a Direct Current Circuit (fed by a Rectifier).
At anode Copper and impurities more reactive than copper dissolves. Copper is sole
metal (other than Silver), which deposits at the cathodes end. The impurities like
Gold, Silver etc. do not get dissolved and gets collected the bottom of the tank as
Anode Mud (or Slimes). The final product is called Cathode Copper which is typically
99.99 % Pure.
The mechanism is shown as under:

The impurities like Arsenic, Iron, and Nickel Cobalt etc get accumulated in electrolyte
solution after some time and has to be purified, this is done in Purification plant. The
Precious metals as explained above fall down at the bottom of the cell. This is
collected and sent for Precious Metals Recovery.
4.1 Smelting Processes
There are several Smelting Processes developed for Concentrate smelting and
converting. These processes have been developed by the manufacturing units
themselves and have been adopted in industry.
The processes are:
i. Reverberatory Furnace
ii. Flash Smelting
Outokumpu
Oxygen Flash Smelting INCO
iii. Bath Smelting
ISAmelt
Ausmelt
iv. Mitsubishi Continuous Smelting & Converting
v. Submerged tuyre smelting
Noranda

Teniente
Vanyukov
vi. Electric Furnace
i. Reverberatory Furnace
Revebaratory Furnace is the oldest technology available. In this furnace, the
concentrate is charged and melted using burners. This is a simple melting operation
and reactions are minimal.

In this furnace, the product gets segregated into two phases as it happens in any
smelting furnace Matte and Slag. Matte consists of Copper Sulphide and Iron
Sulphide with most of Precious metals dissolved, and slag consists of oxides of Iron,
Silica and other impurities. Some amount of Copper reports to slag as entrapped
Copper Sulphide and Oxidized Copper. Slag is discarded after granulation or
solidification.
The process has not been adopted for any new plant due to the fact that it consumes
lot of fuel. In subsequent processes, the heat value of concentrates (Copper and Iron
Sulphides) are taken advantage of. The Output grade is also lower with the result
that the nest stage takes a longer time. Besides the Sulphur dioxide content of gas sis
also low with consequent H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid ) recovery costs. The environmental
compliance with SO2 is also difficult.
Consequently this old technology continues to be used in places where they do not
want to change due to variety of reasons the physical effort and shop floor working
conditions are also not good.

ii. Flash Smelting:

The Flash Smelting partly or fully utilizes the heat of oxidation of Sulphides to smelt
the material. If the heat value of concentrates is adequate, the process can be made
autogenous (i.e., self supporting with regards to heat balance without any external
source of heat). The heat fed to the furnace may be supplemented by preheating of
combustion air by using exhaust gases of the furnace or by Oxygen enrichment.
The advantage of this technology is:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Low fuel consumption

High Sulphur dioxide concentration in gases
Continuous process highly amenable to automation
Higher Matte (output process material) grade requiring lesser load in
converting.
5. Constant composition of output even if raw materials fluctuates within
limits by proper process control.
There are two types of Flesh Smelters:
a. OutokumpuFlash Smelter and
b. INCO Flash Smelter.

a. Outokumpu Flash Smelter:

This is the most popular Copper Smelter technology. The Outokumpu Flash smelter
consists of two shafts with a hearth called settler. The feed is introduced at One of the
shaft (called as a reaction shaft) The other is called as an uptake (off take) shaft
where hot gases are collected and passed through boiler and heat recovery systems
like preheating of combustion air.
The furnace is a steel vessel lined with Magnesia- Chrome bricks. Cooling elements
backs the bricks. Reaction shaft is cooled by water jacket or by Cooler blocks.
Cooling elements cools uptake shaft.
The furnace rests on thick steel plats on RCC Pillars, which are cooled by natural
convection.

The dry concentrates which are free flowing solids, mixed with fluxes (which are
required to form slag) are first dried in a dryer. They are introduced in the reaction
shaft with preheated air/ oxygen enriched air. The concentrates get oxidized partly in
the reaction shaft and due to the heat get molten. This molten material is collected in
settler.
In the settler, the molten material gets into two phases Matte and Slag. Matte
contains basically Iron & Copper as Sulphides. Matte also is an absorber of Precious
metals like Gold, Silver, and Platinum etc. The slag is a mixture of Oxides and is
basically Iron silica slag. Copper is present (typically 3 %) is present in slag due to
entrapment and hence the slag is processed further in an Oil fired Furnace, Electric
Arc Furnace or through slag floatation to recover this copper.
The matte around 40 % to 60 % Copper is taken for processing further for conversion
to Metallic Copper.
Outokumpu Flash Furnace is the most preferred option globally for Copper Smelting.
Even operators who use other technologies have changed over to Flash Furnace.

b. INCO Flash Smelter

Inco uses pure Oxygen for smelting as compared to Outokumpu Oxygen enrichment
and air preheating of Blast air for oxidation. The process is fully autogenous and heat
balance is not at all a problem. The matte contains 55 to 60 %Copper and molten
slag contains around 2 % Copper. Exhaust gas volumes are quite small and the off
gas is quenched. The feed material can also contain substantial amount of recycle
materials. The gases contain substantial amount of Sulphur Dioxide content (60 to 75
%) consequently, the process has an economic option to convert the Sulphur dioxide
to liquid state also. Since the gases produced are very small in volume, the gas
handling equipment is very small.
The INCO Flash Smelter consists of one shaft in the middle. The Steel vessel lined
with high quality Magnesia and Magnesite Chrome Brick. The furnace is fitted with
water-cooled fingers; plates and shelves to prolong the refractory life and reduce shut
downs for refractory change
The magnetite slag sticks to the furnace refractories and reduces brick damage,
The concentrate is introduced into the furnace with industrial
Pure oxygen through Stain less steel pipes which is water-cooled with an internal
ceramic sleeve. The entry velocity of oxygen is maintained high so that the
concentrate oxidation flame reaches to the center of the furnace where the uptake is
located.

The oil burners are typically angled towards the slag to keep it hot.
The furnace is equipped with tap holes for matte on the side and for slag below the
feed side, there is a provision to feed Converter slag recycle at the far end of the
furnace. A small amount of Oxygen is injected at the off take to oxidize elemental
sulphur.
The three auxiliary equipment for the furnace are:

Oxygen Plant
Concentrate drying and blending system
Burner feed system
Off gas handling system (cooling and dust recovery / recycle)
Secondary gas collection and treatment
Sulphuric Acid Plant.

INCO vs. Outokumpu comparison:

Outokumpu process has advantages over INCO process due to following reasons.
They are:

Higher Concentrate throughput rates

Single conc burner as opposed to INCOs four burners
Recovery of heat from exhaust gases
Dry dust recycle (INCO has water quench hence the dust is wet).

The benefit of INCO is that

Low exhaust gases hence smaller equipment easier to maintain (Waste heat
Boiler in Outotec is a head ache for maintenance.)
Option to convert Sulphur Dioxide to liquid for sale.
Very few heat balance problems even if inert materials are mixed.

Overall, Industry has accepted Outotec technology as compared to INCOs Process.

Outotec accounts for 50 % of Worlds smelter production are recommended as an
option for Saudi Plant.

iii. Bath Smelting

There are two processes marketed in this area. They are:

ISA Smelt
Ausmelt

These production processes are more or less clones and are based upon lance
developed by Dr Floyd of CSIRO, Australia. They are called Top Submerged Lance
Technologies. The design and operations are similar and hence are considered
together.
The heart of the Furnace is the lance. The steel lance when kept above a layer of slag
and due to swirling action of the air being injected into the bath gets coated with solid
slag, which prevents it from damage. This lance is being used in both these
technologies.
The lance basically consists of a Stainless Steel outer pipe around 500 mm in
diameter for oxygen-enriched air and carbon steel pipe for oil or natural gas. The
outr pipe is immersed in 300 mm of furnace slag. The inner pipe ends about 1000
mm above the slag surface. The lance tip is cooled by swirling (caused by helical
swirl vanes) the enriched air blast in the annulus between pipes. The swirled gas
extracts the heat from the outside pipe and causes a protective slag layer to freeze on
the pipe surface. This mechanism slows down the damage to the lance but slow
erosion takes place. Consequently there is a sensor, which lowers the lance to
compensate this. Once the lance is consumed to around 1000 mm it is replaced.
This time is quite significant for initial start up since it may take maximum a week
(although much lower times are reported). The used lance may be made good for
reuse.
The feed of this technology can be moist concentrates. Even secondary materials can
also be fed. Pelletisation of dusts helps in reducing dust carry over to the gas
handling system. Oxygen enrichment is a standard practice. However. The smelting
is not strictly autogenous due to moist feed. Hydrocarbons like fuel oil is a necessity

to complement heat requirements. Coal or Petroleum coke can be used in place of

furnace oil.
The basic structure of the furnace is as given in the figure:
The furnace has a vertical steel shell lines with Chrome Magnesite refractory. Cooling
elements with water circulation protects the refractory.

The products, matte and slag are tapped together through tap holes (could be more
than one). To separate the matte and slag the molten mass is sent to oil fired holding
furnace where pig iron is added to reduce slag losses.
The start up is by charging solid slag and melting it by using lance as an oxyfuel
burner. Once the slag is molten, the lance is lowered to get a coating of slag and
operation is commenced.
Process is controlled by controlling charge content, oxygen content and fuel content.
The benefits of these technologies is that
o
o
o
o
o
o

Simple operation,
High flexibility to raw materials
Low dust generation
High Sulphur dioxide concentration
High smelting rate
Reduced fuel consumption

This is the second technology recommended for Saudi Smelter. The number of
plants has gone up since its development. There are two parties who can sully this
technology Outotec and MIM (owned by Glencore).
Although Mitsubishi Continuous Copper process is also Bath smelting, since it is
operated in conjunction with Converting furnace, this has been dealt with separately.

IV.

Submerged Tuyre smelting.

In this group of technologies, air is blown in a pool of matte. The reaction is
exothermic and concentrate is charged along with flux. The concentrate is mixed with
flux and dried. It is then charged through tuyre or thrown moist with flux recycle
materials and scrap into the molten slag layer where smelting takes place.
Both Noranda and Teniente processes use large 4 to 5 Meter diameters, 14 to 26
Meter long cylindrical vessel furnaces. The furnaces are filled with molten matte of
high grade of around 70 to 74 % Copper. Oxygen enriched air is blown through the
submerged tuyre into the molten matte layer.

The violet agitation caused by the reaction causes the raw material to smelt. The
operational efficiency is very high. Matte Grades of more than 70 % Copper.
The matte and slag are mixed at the reaction zone; they are separated at the
unturbulent side of the furnace. Slag is tapped at the end of the furnace contains
around 6 % Copper. Mostly as entrained matte. This is separated and fed to another
furnace for Copper recovery.
The tuyre are blocked by solidified matte/ slag, which is cleaned by pushing a steel
bar called tuyre punch operated by an automatic punching machine.
The operating practices for both the furnaces are very similar. Teniente furnace
needed earlier seed matte to start but now this has also become possible to melt the
matte in the furnace at the time of start up.
Some details like Matte whole position ad Slag hole position are different.

Both the furnaces have however differences in operating practice specific to the
location.
These processes produce around 15 % of total copper and are practiced mostly in
Latin America.
One practice which has been followed in Noranda is to smelt residues, electronic
scrap etc in the furnace.
Vanyukov Submerged tuyre smelting furnace is similar to the rotary furnaces but differ
from them in that the furnace is stationery.

Converting Technologies
The second step in extraction of copper from Sulphide concentrate is converting.
Converting processes hot molten matte from smelting furnaces to a crude copper
called Blister Copper (called due to the fact when a sample is taken blisters are found
on the surface). Matte from smelters is filled in ladles and then poured in the
converters for processing (except in MI process where it is transferred through a
heated channel called launder). The processing is done in Pierce Smith Converters
(except in MI Process), which is a cylindrical vessel with air blown from the side
through buyers,
Matte is a molten solution of Copper Sulphide and Iron Sulphide with other elements
dissolved in it.

The processes for conversion to Blister are as under:

1.

Pierce Smith Converters

PS converters are workhorses of copper industry for conversion and have been in
operation for more than a Century. Around 250 Systems are in operations round the
world and almost 90 % of Worlds Blister Copper production is thorugh this process.
Many modifications have been carried out and several developments have taken
place to make this process more productive and enviro friendly.
The total reactions during slag blow are as under:
Cu-Fe-S + O2 + SiO2 >>>>>>> CuO + 2 Feo.SiO2 (with dissolved)Fe3O4 + SO2
(Matte) (Air) (In Flux)
(Metal)
(Molten slag)
(Gas)
The reactions take place in two stages:
a. First the Iron Sulphide gets oxidized to Iron Oxide. This is converted into
slag, which is rich in copper. The resultant matte consisting of Copper
Sulphide is called White Metal. This stage is called slag blow.
FeS + 1.5 O2

>>>>>>> FeO + SO2

3FeS + 5 O2 >>>>>>> Fe3O4 + 3 SO2

The FeO reacts with Silica (SiO2) in flux to form molten slag.
The Copper Sulphide continues to remain in hot converted matte and is
called White Metal.
b. The white metal is then processed to give Blister Copper. This stage is called
Blister Blow.
Cu2S + 1.5 O2

>>>>>>> Cu2O + SO2

CU2S + Cu2O

>>>>>>> Cu (molten) + SO2

In both the blows considerable amount of heat is generated which are utilized for
smelting of secondaries like Ladle Jams, solidified matte during handling, scrap etc.

PS Converter is a cylindrical vessel with typically 4.5 Meters in diameter and 12

Meters long. It consists of a steel shell, lined with around 500 mm of Magnesite
Chrome refractory.
There are buyers built on the side of the converters through which oxygen enriched
air is blown.
There is a bustle pipe, which conveys and distributes air to the
converters. Industrial Oxygen is added to the air before it enters the pipes.

The Tuyre get

compressed
cleaned. This
punching
ramming steel

jammed due to cold

air and has to be
is done by tuyre
machines. A
bar does punching.

The gases are collected by a steel hood (water cooled). Which fits to the converter mouth.
As explained earlier the conversion is a highly exothermic reaction. Adding coolants
containing copper like secondaries controls temperature. Blister Blow is an opportunity for
Smelters to melt scrap.
Increasing the oxygen content of the blast accelerates the kinetics of Converter. However, this
causes excessive erosion of the tuyre refractories. A practical limit is around 29 %.
The life of the converter refractories is much lower than the life of the other processes
vessels. Consequently, one Converter is always kept as a standby to take care of that period
when the lining has to be replaced.
The operation being of batch nature the SO2 content is intermittent. The converters produce
a gas with very high concentrations of SO2. However, the gases are diluted at the mouth.
Besides, there is a leakage of SO2 Gases affecting the workmen on the shop floor. To counter
this problem a modification was done on the converter at Belgium. The concept was
operationalized and is being widely practiced.

In this modification, gases are taken out of the Converter by modifying the flue duct with a
siphon tyoe set up as shown in the figure. The drophlets of molten maetal is dropped in the
siphon area and is cleaned. There is very little dilution and fugitive emission.
It is strongly recommended that this be incorporated in the new plant

2.

Outotec- Kennecott Oxygen Flash Converter.

In this process, the matte produced is granulated and then fed to another Flash
Smelter to produce Blister. The granulated matte should be less than 2 mm in size.
The granulated matte is pneumatically conveyed to the flash furnace and oxidized/
smelter to produce a low sulphur Blister. The issues with this process are that
a. There is one more step for processing
b. The enthalpy (heat) of molten matte is lost
c. There is a storage with consequent increase in WIP
The advantage is that the Smelting of concentrates is decoupled from converting.
This is atechnolgy we would be considering for shortlisting

3. Other Converting processes

The other converting processes include ISA Furnace and Ausmelt Furnace. In fact
these furnaces in the past have been used for smelting and converting on a batch
mode.
These processes have not been able to dent the popularity of PS Converters. In fact
one of the Converting furnaces had not succeded in a plant which has not been used
for several years.
Although these processes are feasible, they will take some time to get stabilized.
Another converting equipment has been Top Blown Rotary Converter which was tried
by Boliden as a converter furnace in 80s This process did not work and had to be
discontinued.

Mitsubishi Continuous Smelting

Mitsubishi Continuous Smelting process involves feeding of concentrates at one end and
getting Blister Copper at the other end. The recoveriy of copper is also reportedly high and
the process is capable of handling a variety of Concentrates.
It is basically a bath smelting process where smelting is done in one furnace and converting
done in another furnace. There are basically three furnaces :

Smelting Furnace
Slag Settling Furnace
Converting furnace.

These furnaces are interconnected through heated launders so that Matte, slag and Blister
cab flow through.

Smelting Furnace

In the smelting furnace the Concentrate, Silica Flux and recycled materials are fed to the
furnace liquids via vertical lances. This oxidises the Iron and Sulphur contained in the
concentrate to produce typically 68 % Copper Grade Matte and Ferro Silicate Slag.

Slag Settling Furnace

He slag and matte are transferred via heated launders to the slag settling furnace where slag
is separated and tapped out. The copper content in slag is very low at around 0.7%. The
matte is then transferred via heated launders to the Converting Furnace. The slag is
granulated and sold.

Converting Furnace

The converting furnace operates in Basic Slag mode. Here, oxygen enriched air, Calcium Flux
and Granulated converter slag (which acts as a coolant) is charged via a vertical lances. The
sulphur in the matte gets oxidized. The converter slag is granulated and recycled partly to
Converting Furnace and partly to the Smelting Furnace. Blister copper flows out of the
furnace to a holding from where it is sent to Anode Furnace for fire refining.

The slag cleaning furnace is elliptical in shape with three or six graphite electrodes in one r
two rows along the long axis,
A special feature of Mitsubishi process is its CaO based converter slag. This was developed
to avoid formation of magnetitite generated during oxygen blowing on the melt. CaO reacts
with magnetite forming liquid CaO-Cu2O-FeOn Slag.
The SO2 rich Gases are processed in Sulphuric Acid Plant.
The process control is fairly complex and more technical knowledge is required to run
theplant. There were problems of excess refractory wear in Converting furnace, but they have
been largely overcome.

Slag processing & Copper Recovery

The slags produced in Copper smelters contain at least 3 % Copper. To recover this copper
and reduce the Copper content of discard slag to < 1 % this slag is processed.
The Copper in slag is of two types :
o
o

As entrapped Matte
As oxidized copper.

The relative quantities and contents depend upon slag chemistry, matte grade, quality of
operational control and source of the Slag. For example, Converter slag will have much hgher
amount of Copper as compared to smelting furnace slags.
The Matte particles get settled down once enugh time is given. The Oxide Copper, however
needs to be reduced to for settling down and this is done by charging a reductant - Carbon
( as Coke or coal), Pyrites (Iron Sulphide) or Pig iron.
There are typically three furnaces to achieve this :

Oil Fired Holding Furnace

The slag is taken in the oil fired holding furnace whichis a cylindrical shell lined with
refractories. The slag is charged inside and held for some time depending upon the
Copper Content and viscosity of slag. Normally reductant is charged to reduce oxide
copper.

Electric Arc Furnace

Electric Arc furnace is the best method to recover the Copper content in slags. This is
because of two reasons :
o
o

The heat is generated in slag itself with the result kinetics are faster due to
lower viscosity and high temperature.
Arc furnace electrodes have a very substantial reducing action on slag

Slag Cooling, Grinding and floatation

Slag is cooled and solidified slowly. The Copper Sulphide coalesces to bigger
particles before solidification and hence are floatable being Sulphides. The slag has
to be crushed, milled and subjected to froth floatation. The Copper present as Oxide
is not easily recovered.

The best option is that of Arc Furnace since electrical energy is easily avaialbel and
economically available.

Fire refining of Blister and anode casting :

The Blister copper produced by converter contains basically two types of impurities :
o
o

Impurities more reactive than copper, like Sulphur, Iron, Zinc etc and
Impurities less reactive than copper like Gold, Silver

These impurities content depends upon the Concentrate as well as Smelting & Converting
process employed. The Pyro refining or fire refining involves reduction of impurities which
are more reactive than copper. Fire Refining cannot remove impurities like Gold and Silver.
They have to be removed by electrorefining
The refining is carried out in Rotary Cylindrical Furnaces. These furnaces also have capacity
to melt some metallic like high-grade scrap and blister. The operation is carried out at around
1200o C. Hearth Furnaces are used only when substantial quantities of scrap has to be
melted.
As mentioned above, the process in anode furnace is to remove impurities more reactive then
copper. This is done by blowing air to the molten metal and oxidizing the metal. The oxygen
content of the melt is increased to 0.3 % to 1 %. The sulphur levels (w hich is around .01 % to
0.5 % ) come down to 0.002 %. The impurities get oxidized and form slag which is removed.
The slag containing vey high copper is recycled back to Smelting furnace or Converting
furnace. Oxygen from the molten metal in the anode furnace is removed by injecting
preducing gas or oil below the metal bath through tuyers. The metal is then cast into anodes
on an anode casting wheel to make it amenable for electrolysis.
The purpose of the casting wheel is to convert the molten metal into a solid plate form to
make the same emendable for electro refining. The molten metal is poured through a tap hole
in the anode furnace though a launder to a double pouring spoon system. The quality of
metal is automatically weighed and poured in the mould. The wheel moves and the next
mould comes to the pouring point. The mould is cooled from bottom and sides and gets
automatically tilted through cams. The anode is then lifted by an embedded pin in the mould
and is lifted by means of a hoist and quenched in a bosh tank. The mould is then coated with
a coating to prevent sticking of anode with the mould.
The quality of anodes, physical and chemical has a big bearing on productivity and product
quality in Refinery. The anodes should be uniform in weight, smooth on surface and do not
have any taper. Cast anodes may have some of these defects. This is eliminated by
Continuous anode casting system.

e Casti

Hazlett Caster
In a Hazlett Caster, Copper is poured on a controlled rate into a gap between movong two
water cooled mild Steel belts. The molten copper is cooled through the strips by water and
get progressively solidified. The strip is taken out and cut into a shape making it amenable for
electrolysis.
Recent Hazlett casting machins have a provision for built in lugs.
However, the Hazlett Casters are maintenance intensive and needs lot of attention. The
casting wheel manufacturers have added several features to produce uniform, excelelent
quality anodes.
The anodes are inspected and sent to Refinery for electrolysis.

Electrorefining
Copper required by industry is mostly used for electrical purposes. The applications demand
a very high level of conductivity, and softness. Fire refining removes impurities from molten
copper, but to a limited extent and cannot produce a product that is demanded by electrical
industry. Some impurities cannot be removed at all by this technique and hence electro
refining is required for producing 99.99+ % Copper which meets these requirements.
In electro refining, imure metal is cast as anodes. Stainless steel plates are kept as Cathodes.
The electrolyte cell is filled with a solution of hot mixture of Copper Sulphate and Sulphuric
Acid.
The anodes are connected to the positive side of a Rectifier. Cathode is connected to the
negative side of the same rectifier. Copper dissolves at Anode and deposits as cathode.
The deposition is done on the stainless steel cathodes. After about 7 days, the cathode
sheets are removed and the deposit stripped off after washing. They are stacked and bundled
for sale. The anodes after three cathode cycle are totally depleted and are removed, washed
and stacked for recycling by melting. The scrap typically is around 13 % to 20 %.
The related systems in electro refinery are as under :
o

Electrode Handling
The equipment which handle anodes, cathodes and spent anode come under this
category. They consists of essentially of :

Anode Press, preparation and Spacuing machine

Cathode Stripping and Stacking Machine
Anode scrap washing machine
Crane for charging electrode to cells

Electrolyte Heating and handling :

The electrolyte cells have to be fed with hot electrolyte solution constantly. This is
done by the electrolyte circuit where the electrolyte is heated and circulated.
Electrolyte is also parallally filtered to keep it clean. In order to improve quality of
copper deposited some colloids like glue have to be added.

Direct Current System

The cells have to be fed with Direct Current to facilitate copper dissolution and copper
deposition. Rectifier supplies the DC Current. Cathodes and Anodes are kept
parallel in one cell. Cells are organized in series. For operational convenience, the
cells in series are kept in blocks of 20 to 40 cells, typically. In order to isolate these
cells, short circuit switches are provided. Normally Copper Bus bars are used to pass
Direct current, but in one or two refineries Aluminium has been used.

Slime Handling system

As mentioned above, the noble metals fall at the bottom of the cell as Anode Slime.
This is colleted through an opening closed by a Lead Plug at the bottom of the cell.
The anode slime is collected once in 21 days when anodes are changed. The slime
contains some copper. To remove this copper, slime is treated with Sulphuric Acid to
convert it as Copper Sulphate. The rracted slime is filtered, dried and sent to Gold
Refinery.

Copper Anode

Stainless steel cathode

Anodes and Cathodes are kept in parallal in

a electrolytic cell. The cell is filled with hot
mixture of Copper Sulphate and Sulphuric
acid (called Electrolyte) which is kept under
circulation. Copper and impurities more
reactive than copper dissolve at Anode.
Only copper deposits on cathode. Impurities
which are noble like Gold & Silver as well as
some other compounds of Copper (Like
Selenide) get collected at the bottom of the
cell.
Several cells are kept in series and hence it
is called as multiple system.
o

Electrolyte Purification :
Some impurities which are more rective than copper (like Nickel, Arsenic, iron etc.)
dissolve but does not deposit on cathode. This causes a build up in the electrolye
which has to be removed. Besides, there is a build up of copper in the system. Here
are special cells for removing copper which have lead anodes. Here Copper is
ddeposited from electrolyte due to whih the buid up is controlled. The electrolyte
depending upon the impurity level is sent for purification. The purification syetem has
to be designed based upon anode composition

Permanent Stainless Steel cathode

Cathode deposit on Stainless Steel Sheet

The World Copper Factbook 2015

IntensityofRefinedCopperUsage*
Sources:ICSGandInternationalMonetaryFund
G D P p e r c a p ita ( U S $ )
61220
47722
11604
50398
14477
7589
3304
44538
47590
1627
3534
5183
35823
36332
28101
10803
10715
14379
12926
24454
30278
58494
22598
5445
10482
43179
54597
2053
1474

In t e n s i t y ( t o n n e s / U S $ b l n )
1 5 .5 3 1
4 6 2 .5 6 8
1 6 4 .6 8 5
8 7 .2 1 2
3 6 7 .4 8 7
1 ,0 5 8 .3 6 5
4 8 8 .0 6 9
6 6 .7 4 1
3 0 1 .8 6 0
2 1 4 .6 8 6
2 6 4 .4 6 7
3 4 1 .4 9 5
2 6 7 .7 2 4
2 3 2 .3 7 5
5 2 8 .6 0 1
6 7 0 .0 2 4
2 7 2 .8 5 7
5 0 7 .4 2 9
3 2 8 .9 3 2
2 5 1 .1 7 2
2 4 7 .3 6 0
2 0 6 .9 7 3
8 7 7 .9 6 4
6 7 6 .8 5 5
5 3 5 .2 8 8
8 7 1 .4 1 2
1 0 0 .6 6 1
6 5 5 .7 4 1
1 ,0 8 3 .8 1 0

In te n sity o f C o p p e r U sa ge 2 0 1 4
1200

C o p p e r u s a g e p e r G D P ( t o n n e s / U S $ b ln )

2 0 1 4 d a ta
A u s tr a li a
B e lg iu m
B r a z il
C anada
C h i le
C h in a
E g yp t
F ran c e
G e rm a n y
In d ia
I n d o n e s ia
Ir a n
I ta l y
J apan
K o re a n R e p .
M a la y s ia
M e x ic o
P o la n d
R u s s ia n F e d .
S a u d i A r a b ia
S p a in
Sweden
T a iw a n
T h a il a n d
T u rk e y
U n it e d A r a b E m ir a te s
U n it e d S t a te s
V ie tn a m
Z a m b ia

Za m b ia

1000

C h in a
U n i t e d A r a b E m b i r a t e s

Ta iw a n
800
T h a ila n d
V i e tn a m

M a la y sia

600
T u r ke y

E g yp t
400
Ir a n
In d o n e s i a
In d i a

200

P o la n d

K o r e a n R e p .
B e lg iu m

C h i le
R u s si a
M e x ic o

Sp a in
S a u d i A r a b i a

B r a zi l

It a ly
Ja pan

G erm any

Fr a nce

C ana da

Sw e d e n
U n i t e d S t a t e s
A u st r a l i a

0
0

1 0 ,0 0 0

2 0 ,0 0 0

3 0 ,0 0 0

4 0 ,0 0 0

5 0 ,0 0 0

6 0 ,0 0 0

7 0 ,0 0 0

G D P p e r c a p ita ( U S $ )

*Refinedcopperistypicallyconsumedbysemisfabricatorsorthefirstusersofrefinedcopper,includingingotmakers,masteralloyplants,wirerod
plants,brassmills,alloywiremills,foundriesandfoilmills.Asaresult,percapitaconsumptionofrefinedcopperreferstotheamountofcopper
consumedbyindustrydividedbythetotalpopulationanddoesnotrepresentconsumptionofcopperinfinishedproductsperperson.
International Copper Study Group

42