ASPE Pool PDF

Continuing Education from the
American Society of Plumbing Engineers
CEU 202
Public
Swimming
Pools
August 2013
ASPE.ORG/ReadLearnEarn
READ, LEARN, EARN
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education
article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
This chapter discusses public indoor and outdoor swimming pool design and the selection of pool plumbing, piping
components, and the equipment required for operation in
conformance with the codes of the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). The goal of any quality pool design should
be to maximize the safety of the patrons while providing an
enjoyable water-based environment. The design approach
should be to develop a system that provides maximum water
quality, from both a clarity and bacterial safety standpoint.
Potential hazards such as suction or limb entrapment, hair
entanglement, or tripping concerns must be examined. Local health department codes are designed to ensure that this
criterion is met, but these codes merely provide minimum
standards. A quality design should go well beyond minimum
requirements.
The chapter is organized to assist a designer, possibly
unfamiliar with swimming pool design, in undertaking
such a project. The first three sections can be used for the
preparation of an initial scope outline of the projects size,
type, and location. The Pool Operating Systems section
discusses the key elements that are required for a complete
circulation, filtration, water-heating, chemical-control system. It can be used to make initial decisions on the basic
type of system to consider. The section titled Component
Evaluation and Selection provides guidelines for making
specific equipment selections. It will assist the designer in
collecting pertinent data on the various products to assist in
the writing of specifications.
CODES AND STANDARDS

In addition to the plumbing codes, swimming pool construction and operation are usually governed by state health
department regulations and the requirements of local authorities. Publications of the Association of Pool and Spa
Professionals (APSP) and the National Swimming Pool
Foundation (NSPF) are often-referenced standards. The
codes usually govern recirculation rates, filtration rates for
various types of filters, and the spacing of main drains, as well
as maximum velocities (feet per second {meters per second])
through main drain grate-free areas. Also of importance
are the locations and types of inlets, spacing and capacity of
gutter drains, and requirements for the use of surge tanks
or skimmers. Heating requirements and feed capacities of
disinfection systems are other areas requiring review. In addition to the standards noted above, if the pool is to be used for
competitions, the rules and regulations of the International
Amateur Swimming Federation (FINA) must be reviewed to
ensure that the pool meets international standards. In the
remainder of this chapter, any entity governing the various
aspects of public swimming pools will referred to as the authority having jurisdiction.
Virginia Graeme Baker Pool

and Spa Safety Act
In December 2007, a new federal law was enacted called the
Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa Safety Act (VGB). This
federal act set more stringent requirements on main drain
sizes, velocities, and piping configurations and requires testing protocols to be regulated according to ASME A112.19.8
(2007): Suction Fittings for Use in Swimming Pools, Wading
Pools, Spas, and Hot Tubs. At a minimum, all existing main
drain cover/grates must be replaced with a compliant cover/
grate bearing the VGB stamp provided by the manufacturer
or be field-certified by a licensed professional engineer attesting to its compliance with ASME A112.19.8. In cases where a
single main drain is direct-connected to pump suction, some
form of automatic vacuum release or some form of piping
that provides an air break to prevent suction entrapment is
required. (Refer to ASME A112.19.8 for specific details on
sumps, piping, and cover/grate requirements.)
The intent of the VGB is twofold: prevent suction entrapment and prevent entrapment due to hair entanglement. The
second issue (hair entanglement) is the reason why velocity
through main drain grates is an issue. Hair entanglement, consistently the No. 1 cause of entrapment in pools, is caused by
high velocities through main drain grates. When a swimmers
hair is drawn through the grate, high velocity can cause it to
swirl and become tied in a knot on the other side of the grate.
Suction entrapment has nothing to do with velocity
through the grate. Suction entrapment is addressed in VGB
by requiring all pools to have multiple main drains spaced at
least 3 feet (0.91 m) apart, which makes them unblockable
in the verbiage of VGB. In instances where there is only one
main drain, it must flow by gravity back to a surge tank (i.e.,
not be direct-connected to pump suction), be of an unblockable size (i.e., larger than 18 x 23 inches [0.46 x 0.58 m]
or with a diagonal dimension greater than 29 inches [0.74
m]), or have another means of preventing suction entrapment. The most common means of accomplishing this is the
addition of some type of automatic vacuum safety release.
Several products are on the market, but all manufacturers
insist that installation of their device be done by an installer
certified on the proper installation of their product. However,
all manufacturers of these products add the disclaimer will
not prevent disembowelment to their product literature.
ASME A112.19.8 also details tests for finger entrapment,
measuring the force needed to pull the cover/grate out of the
frame, and resistance to UV degradation, which could make
Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 3. 2011, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
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AUGUST 2013
the cover/grate brittle and cause attachment failure. These

are an important part of the ASME testing because many
of the entrapment accidents that occur are due to detached
cover/grates. However, the primary issue that the designer
needs to be concerned with is the maximum flow rating in
gallons per minute (gpm) (L/sec).
VGB also requires main drain cover/grates to be sized for
the maximum flow of the system. The combined maximum
possible flow that the system pumps can produce (which is
usually greater than the design flow) must not exceed the
maximum flow rating for the cover/grate intended for installation. In fact, VGB goes one step further. In the instance
where one cover/grate is blocked or partially blocked, the remaining main drain cover/grates on the system must be sized
to handle the full flow of the system. In other words, where
there are two main drains, each cover/grate must be sized
for the full flow of the system. With three main drains, each
cover/grate must be sized for 50 percent of the system flow.
It is important to note the use of the term system. That
is because many pools have water feature pumps that pull
from the same surge tank as the circulation pumps. The
total possible flows of all of those pumps must be added to
determine the full flow of the swimming pool system. The fact
that the cover/grates flow by gravity back to the surge tank
might eliminate the first concern of VGBentrapmentbut
it has no bearing on the second concern, hair entanglement.
The velocity through the cover/grates is the same when water
flows to the surge tank by gravity as the velocity when the
main drains are direct-connected to pump suction.
The final important requirement of VGB is the ASME

A112.19.8 protocol regarding main drain sump dimensions.
Many field-fabricated sumps, as well as most previously installed fiberglass sumps, do not meet ASME requirements
(see Figure 6-1) and are considered noncompliant. The
reason for these required sump dimensions is somewhat
complicated, but basically it is to ensure even flow across the
cover/grate, which is the only way to ensure that velocities
calculated for flow through the free area of the grate are
uniformly less than 1.5 feet per second (fps) (0.46 m/s) at all
points on the face of the cover/grate. Attachment of a new,
compliant cover/grate to a noncompliant pre-fabricated sump
may not create a secure attachment that will meet ASME
pull test requirements. The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has expressed concern that VGB doesnt
address this attachment issue thoroughly enough since
most entrapment occurrences have been due to a missing
or displaced cover/grate.
A misconception that raises additional concern is the belief
of some owners that their system is fully compliant once the
state approves changes to the cover/grates. That is not the
case. Most state codes do not address sump dimensions, and
they also dont all require multiple cover/grates to be able to
handle full system flow or some percentage of full flow based
on the number of main drain sumps. Thus, in addition to
the state public health code, the design must adhere to the
requirements of VGB.
Field Built Sump
1.5 D min.
D Min.
D Min.
1.5 D min.
D min.
D min.
D min.
D min.
D min.
1.5 D min.
1.5 D min.
D
D
GENERAL NOTES:
(a)
D = inside diameter of pipe.
(b)
All dimensions shown are minimums.
(c)
A broken line (
) indicates suggested sump configuration.
Figure 6-1 Field-fabricated Sump Dimensions

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Read, Learn, Earn3
READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools

State Swimming Pool Health Code
Requirements
State health code requirements become an issue when
changes are made to main drains. Any changes in a pools
circulation piping or main drains are considered alterations,
and in most states alterations to a pool design require submission by a Professional Engineer licensed by that state. Many
owners are unwilling to adhere to this requirement because it
adds costs to their attempts to become compliant with VGB.
One of the primary areas of conflict between VGB and state
health codes is a result of the approach taken by manufacturers to design compliant grates. Most of the designs for grates
that will prevent suction entrapment result in cover/grates
that are raised anywhere from inch to 2 inches, which
results in protrusions from the floor of the pool when these
new compliant cover/grates are installed. This is not allowed
by most state codes because it can present a tripping hazard.
However, many states have made, or are making, changes to
their codes to allow main drain protrusions no greater than 2
inches above the pool surface.
Important Considerations
When investigating what steps to take to comply with the
regulations in the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa
Safety Act, the designer must keep in mind that anything
done to meet the requirements of the federal act must not
be in conflict with the state code. This does not mean that
the state code takes precedence; it is merely meant to draw
attention to the fact that there are two AHJs and that satisfying one set of requirements does not automatically mean
full compliance. Pool compliance inspections will be done by
both the local code authority for adherence to the local code
and by the CPSC for adherence to the requirements of VGB.
pRELIMINARY DESIGN PARAMETERS

Before the plumbing for a swimming pool project can be
designed, the following information should be obtained: occupant capacity, size of the facility (including pool volume),
facility location and configuration, style of pool, times of use,
availability to infants and children (which may necessitate a
separate pool), tournament and racing requirements, toilet
requirements, concession and vending requirements, and
bathhouse requirements.
Occupant Capacity and Size of the Facility

Assuming that the swimming pool is part of a complex that
includes other outdoor facilities (such as ball fields, tennis
courts, and basketball courts), following are the generally
accepted criteria for estimating the number of swimmers:
The total membership of the facility can be estimated to
be 10 percent of the total population of the community
it serves.
The maximum attendance on the peak day can be estimated to be 68 percent of the total membership.
Maximum attendance at the public swimming pool facility
can be estimated to be 40 percent of the projected maximum attendance on the peak day.
The maximum number of swimmers is approximately
33 percent of maximum attendance.
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AUGUST 2013
This method of determining the maximum number of

swimmers cannot be applied to all swimming pools. The social and economic conditions of a particular local community
must be taken into account when designing a public swimming pool facility. Swimming pool occupancy, or capacity,
restrictions are subject to local regulations and vary from
one jurisdiction to another. Supervision capability also may
limit pool capacity.
The desirability of accommodating competitive swimming
should be considered when designing a swimming pool. The
requirements for such events are 25- and 50-yard lengths
for U.S. competitive meets and 25- and 50-meter lengths for
international events. Normal competition pools are divided
into a minimum of six swimming lanes, with each lane having
a minimum width of 7 feet (2 m). An additional 3 feet (0.9
m) should be divided equally between the two outside lanes
to aid in wave quelling. The shallow-end depth should be a
minimum of 4.5 feet (1.35 m) for competitive pools and 3.5
feet (1.1 m) for recreational pools, depending on local codes.
The deep-end minimum depth of pools with springboards
is between 9 and 12 feet (2.7 and 3.7 m) for a 3-foot (1-m)
board and 11.5 and 13 feet (3.5 and 4 m) for a 10-foot (3-m)
board, depending on local codes. Platform diving is performed
in specially designed pools, which are outside the scope of
this chapter.
Location of the Facility

There are no generally accepted rules for choosing the
location of a public swimming pool facility. Only careful
investigation of the available sites and the use of common
sense will result in a suitable location.
First, consideration must be given to the accessibility of
the location. A public swimming pool will be used in direct
proportion to the local populations convenience in reaching
the facility. Distance is a barrier, and so are stop lights and
railroad tracks. The engineer also must consider the traffic
flow in the area and the relative safety for pedestrians and
bicycle riders of the routes normally taken to and from the
public swimming pool facility.
Equally important at this stage are the physical properties
of the proposed swimming pool site, including its soil quality,
groundwater locations, and subsurface obstructions such
as rocks. Attention also must be given to the availability of
water, gas, sewers, and electricity. If all utilities are not available or extensive clearing, grading, or difficult excavation is
required at or near the proposed site, significant additional
expenses may be incurred.
The availability of an adequate water supply is essential.
The water supply system provides the means to fill the pool
initially with water and to make up water lost through
wastewater discharge and evaporation. The preferred supply
source for filling the pool and maintaining adequate volume is
potable water. In areas with a limited water supply or where
the system capabilities are in doubt, consideration should
be given to filtration equipment, which requires minimum
backwash water, or an off-peak filling and servicing schedule.
Well water is often of good quality and may be used directly;
however, the mineral content may be sufficiently high to
require treatment. All water should be given a detailed
chemical analysis in the early planning stages to determine
whether treatment (e.g., softening or pH control) should be

considered. In general, using softened water for filling and
makeup water is not recommended for swimming pools.
Protection of the potable water supply system through
air gaps or backflow prevention equipment is mandatory.
The type required must be determined by checking with
the local AHJ. Some codes may not allow direct connection, even with reduced pressure zone backflow preventers
installed on the freshwater supply.
The rate of water evaporation from the pool should be
estimated to determine the average makeup water required.
Direct discharge of swimming pool water into the local storm
sewer system or a watercourse without proper treatment
may not be allowed, since chlorinated water is harmful to the
environment. The chemistry of the proposed effluent should
be approved by the AHJ.
General Physical Character

Deciding on the general physical character of a proposed
public swimming pool facility involves determining such
things as the type of swimming pool, its style, the intended
use of the pool, its shape and dimensions, indoor versus
outdoor design, bathhouse planning, and the location and
type of equipment. A swimming pool complex with separate
recreation pool, diving well, and wading areas accommodates
all possible uses, including recreation, training, diving, water
sports, exercise, therapy, and competitive swimming. There
is a definite aesthetic trend toward luxury in contemporary
swimming pool design. The use of color, walks, deck areas,
and plantings creates a pleasant and interesting personality,
but also substantially increases costs.
Before commencing the design, it is important to determine the style of pools the facility requires and the impact
this will have on the space available for mechanical systems.
Many facilities are now being designed with multiple pools
or a multiuse pool. Pool styles can range from leisure pools
to swimming pools with a wave pool component to 25- and
50-meter competition pools with diving facilities.
Many leisure pools that allow younger children to play
with interactive water toys and water slides are being designed in conjunction with other pool facilities. These pools
usually have water depths that range from 1 to 4 feet (0.3
to 1.22 m) and may have an uneven bottom, depending on
the location of the interactive play toys. The number of toys
and the size of the pool will impact the space requirements
for pumps and filters.
Wave pools and zero-depth pools have become common
components of public swimming facilities in the last few
years. These designs allow swimmers to experience the
sensation of swimming in ocean-like conditions. Many wave
pools are designed so that the wave generator can be set to
come on at certain times of the day and/or night or when
requested by patrons. Both zero-depth and wave pools usually have a beach component at one end of the pool, which
requires special consideration to be given to the gutter systems and water pickup at the beachhead, or zero-depth end.
The wave-generation equipment requires additional space
within the mechanical room, and this needs to be taken into
consideration when planning a facility with this component.
Competition pools have very specific regulations that govern the water quality, clarity, turnover rates, temperature,
size, depth, and markings that are permitted within the pool.
These requirements may be more stringent than the local
health department requirements and may require more or
larger components to be located within the mechanical room.
Many alternatives of shape and/or dimension are available
to the designer. However, public pool configurations most
commonly use straight lines and right angles. Pools of this
nature are much more adaptable to the use of automatic
pool-cleaning equipment. Often, there are good reasons for
unconventional designs and shapes in private swimming
pools and, perhaps, in hotel swimming pools where architectural interest (or uniqueness) may be of prime consideration.
The question of indoor versus outdoor swimming pool design
is considered during the preliminary planning of the facility. It
is well established that, although about 10 percent of the public
likes to swim outdoors in the summer, less than 1 percent is
interested in swimming in the winter, even if indoor facilities
are provided.
Therefore, the need for outdoor swimming is addressed
first. Then, if the budget permits, indoor facilities can be
added. An indoor swimming pool facility costs approximately
three to four times more than a comparable outdoor swimming pool facility. If the total cost is of little consideration,
the same swimming pool facility can be used for both indoor
and outdoor swimming.
A possible solution to the problem of providing indoor
swimming is the cooperative funding, planning, and construction of a swimming pool facility adjacent (or connected) to
a school. This requires the cooperative effort of the school
board, park district, recreation department, and any other
taxing body. The engineer should plan such a swimming pool
facility to have the following:
An indoor swimming pool of sufficient size to meet the
needs of the school and the local community
An outdoor swimming pool complex planned and constructed to meet the needs of the local community
A central shower and toilet area
Mechanical equipment for water treatment designed to
serve both the indoor and the outdoor swimming pools
During winter, the indoor swimming pool can be used
for the schools and communitys training and recreational
needs. During summer, both indoor and outdoor swimming
pools can be scheduled and used. This arrangement allows
one pool to be out of service for maintenance while the
other remains operational. A facility of this type saves a
considerable amount of money and provides a swimming
pool facility for year-round comprehensive scheduling, with
revenue sufficient to cover the operational and maintenance
costs.
Many technical problems are involved in the design of
an indoor swimming pool facility. First, there is the obvious
problem of maintaining the proper relationship between air
and water temperatures to control condensation and fogging.
To be properly balanced, the water temperature should be
in the range of 75 to 80F (23.8 to 26.7C), and the air temperature in the building should be maintained 3 to 5F (1.6
to 2.6C) above the water temperature. If this relationship
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is inverted, the swimmers will become uncomfortable when
they exit the pool, and both fogging and condensation are
likely to occur.
Secondly, there are the additional considerations of acoustics, ventilation, and air movement. Maintaining maximum
air quality in an indoor pool facility is essential. Evaporation
of the pool water and the gassing off of disinfection byproducts such as trihalomethanes and chloramines require
careful consideration of relative humidity, the introduction of
large quantities of fresh, outside air, and proper air movement
in the space. Refrigeration-loop dehumidification systems,
as well as physical heat-transfer systems to allow some preheating of incoming outside air, are frequently employed.
The rules for the bathhouse design generally are specified
in great detail by the local governing public health authority.
The preliminary planning of the bathhouse facility must be
carried out within the limits of established regulations. Apart
from these rules, however, the designer may exercise imagination with considerable latitude in several areas: achieving
a pleasing and aesthetic architectural balance, providing an
adequate floor area for traffic, and providing adequate storage and management facilities.
Equipment locations should be established during the
preliminary design phase. It must be decided, for example,
whether equipment is to be located in the bathhouse or
in a separate enclosure (keeping in mind that it is usually
desirable to combine all of these facilities under a single enclosure). The filter assembly should be housed in an area with
heat for the off-season and with ample storage space. The
filter equipment also should be located in the filter room for
easy and efficient operation and maintenance. Consideration
needs to be given to the location of the pumps in relation to
the water levels in the pools. Wherever possible, the pool
pumps should be located below the water level determined
by the gutter system or surge tank so the pumps will have
positive suction. Self-priming pumps are used for a number of
pool applications, but the use of this style of pump is subject
to greater startup problems and maintenance issues.
The construction of a major swimming pool facility with
the filter equipment located outdoors or under drop lids to
save costs is false economy and is not allowed by some codes.
This type of installation will cause rapid deterioration of
the pumps, hoses, motors, and other specialized equipment
during the off-season, as well as make operation during the
season difficult and costly.
Finally, the designer must select the type of filtration and
purification equipment to be used. The most obvious considerations are pool size; available space; the type, location, and
availability of sewer facilities; soil, rock, and groundwater
conditions; and the location, availability, chemistry, and cost
of the fill water. If the water is plentiful and inexpensive and
space is not a problem, sand filtration may be considered.
Scarce or costly water and limited equipment room floor
space, plus a desire for maximum water clarity during heavy
use, might dictate the use of diatomite filtration. The size of
the swimming pool facility, as well as the chemistry of the fill
water, will usually determine the type of disinfection equipment to be used.
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In areas where freezing temperatures are possible and

if the pool is not used year-round, provision must be made
for draining the water lines, exposed drains, and plumbing
fixtures to prevent damage by freezing. Alternatively, all
areas must be provided with minimum heating equipment.
Bathhouses, Toilets, and Showers

Adequate dressing and toilet facilities must be provided. Each
swimming pool complex must have separate facilities for male
and female bathers, with no interconnections between them.
The rooms must be well lighted, drained, and ventilated.
They must be constructed of impervious materials, finished
in light colors, and developed and planned so that good sanitation can be maintained throughout the building at all times.
The partitions used in dressing rooms, showers, and toilets must be made of durable materials and not subject to
water damage. They should be designed with spaces under
the partitions to permit a thorough cleaning of the walls and
floors. If these partitions are subject to vandalism, block walls
and vandal-proof devices should be considered.
The showers and dressing booths for females should have
curtains or some other means of providing privacy. This rule
may not apply for schools and other institutional facilities
where a swimming pool may only be open to one sex at a time
or where supervision is necessary.
Facilities for the physically challenged that meet all
federal, state, and local regulations for private and public
facilities also must be provided.
The floors of a bathhouse must be free of joints or openings, be continuous throughout the area, have a slight texture
to minimize slipping (but also be relatively smooth to ensure
positive drainage of all parts of the building), and have an adequate slope toward the drains. An adequate number of floor
drains shall be provided. Floor drains should be positioned
based on the requirements of the plumbing and building
codes, but in no case should the floor slopes be designed for
less than 0.25 inch per foot (6.35 mm/m) to ensure proper
drainage of all floor areas.
An adequate number of 0.75-inch (20-mm) hose bibbs
must be provided for the washing of the dressing rooms and
the bathhouse interior. At least one drinking fountain should
be provided for bathers of each sex in the bathhouse, with
additional drinking fountains provided at the pool.
The minimum sanitary plumbing facilities, as mandated
by the local plumbing code, should be provided. (A sample of
a representative code is offered in Table 6-1 as a reference.)
These minimum criteria for bathhouse plumbing facilities
must be based on the anticipated maximum attendance.
If the local code does not address swimming pool facilities,
the following minimum facilities should be provided:
Three showerheads for the first 150 male users and one
showerhead for each additional 50 male bathers
Two showerheads for the first 100 female users and one
showerhead for each 50 additional female bathers
Tempered water at a temperature of approximately 90
100F (32.237.8C) should be provided to all showerheads.
Water heaters and thermostatic mixing valves should be
inaccessible to the bathers.
Soap dispensers, providing either liquid or powdered soap,
must be furnished at each lavatory and between each pair of
Minimum Number of Sanitary Fixtures Required at

Public
PoolsFixtures
and Water
Attractions
Table 6-1 Minimum Number
of Sanitary
Required
at Public Pools and Water Attractions
Number of
Facility
Cumulative Area
of Surface Water
(in square feet)
(example of location and

type)
1. Swimming pools, wading
pools and whirlpools in

conjunction with sleeping or
dwelling units having
plumbing, except for items 2 5, No open swim lessons
permitted. (i.e. apartments,
hotels, motels, condos and
mobile home parks)
2. Swimming pools, wading
pools and whirlpools without

living units, except for items 3.
to 5. Swimming pools,wading
pools, and whirlpools with
sleeping or dwelling units
where open swim or lessons
are permitted and water
attractions where lessons are
conducted (i.e. municipal
pools and campgrounds)
Public
Toilets
< 2000
2000 - 7500
M
One unisex
One unisex
2000 - 3999
4000 - 5999
6000 - 7499
7500 -8999
84
9000 - 9999
10
12
14
<7500
See note below for requirements

1
10000 - 14999
15000 -22499
12
22500 - 29999
12
16
41
7500 - 9999
30000 - 37500
4
a
>37500
attraction complexes without

sleeping or dwelling units. No
lessons permitted. Use 300
sq. ft. for slides without basins
(i.e. activity pools, waterslide
plunge pools, leisure river or
tubing pools and wave pools)
>15000
4. Water attraction and water
<2000
13000 - 15000
attraction complexes with

sleeping or dwelling units. No
open swim or lessons
permitted. Use 300 sq. ft. for
slides without basins (i.e.
activity pools, waterslide
plunge pools, leisure river or
tubing pools and wave pools)
Public
Drinking
Fountains
Public
Showers
>7500
10000 - 12999
3. Water attractions and water
Public
Lavatories
Public
Urinals
<7500
7500 - 9999
10000 - 14999
15000 - 22499
12
16
20
22500 - 29999
30000 - 37500
>37500
5. Slash pad (independent of any

other pool or attraction)
One unisex
One unisex
One rinse-off
Shower
Patron Load
Up to 10
One uisex
11 to 20
21 to 30
>30
a
Per departmental approval
For water attractions in excess of 37,500 sq. ft., use the following additions:
For each 7,500 sq. ft. or fraction thereof add one sanitary unit - 0.7 male water closets, 1.0 male urinal, 0.85 male lavatories, 1.0 male showers, 0.6 drinking
fountains, 4.0 female water closets, 1.0 female lavatory, and 1.0 female shower
For pools in excess of 7,500 sq. ft. and Type 1. above, and for pools in excess of 15,000 sq. ft. and Type 2. above, use the following additions:
* For each 4,000 sq. ft. or fraction thereof, add one sanitary unit - 1.0 male water closet, 1.0 male urinal, 1.0 male lavatory, 4.0 male showers, 1.0 drinking fountain,
4.0 female water closets, 1.0 female lavatory and 4.0 female showers
For the requirements listed for additional sanitary facilities, each fraction represents an additional fixture
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showerheads. The dispensers should be constructed of metal
or plastic; no glass is permitted. Mirrors must be provided over
each lavatory. Toilet paper holders must be furnished at each
water closet combination. As previously stated, vandal-proof
devices should be considered, if applicable.
POOL OPERATING SYSTEMS

Most provincial and state regulations now require pool system components to be certified by an independent testing
agency, such as NSF International. This certification ensures that all piping and other components meet a national
standard for quality of materials and that public health and
safety issues are addressed. This standard also ensures that
the equipment meets consistent quality controls and builds
a level of confidence in the product.
When considering the broad spectrum of approaches used
for pool design, the designer should attempt to evaluate the
major cost and performance differences between lower-quality residential or hotel, motel, and health club-type equipment
and higher-end products used on major commercial pool
installations. If the owners have not already made some of
these assessments on their own, the designer should be prepared to appraise them on the pros and cons of the available
choices so they can make an informed decision on the value
they wish to place on the quality of the end product.
If designing a commercial installation for a high school,
university, park district, or YMCA, the designer must follow
certain basic board of health requirements beyond the scope
of the plumbing codes that must be met.
Design Parameters
Turnover Rate
The turnover rate (turnovers per day) refers to the time it
takes to move a quantity of water, equal to the total gallons
(liters) in the pool and surge vessel, through the filtration
system.
Minimum turnover rates for various types of pools are
determined by code. Typically, they fall within the following
ranges:
Swimming pool: Six hours (four turnovers per day)
Wading pool: Two hours (12 turnovers per day)
Therapy pool: Four hours (six turnovers per day)
Hot tub and whirlpool: 30 minutes (48 turnovers per day)
Keep in mind that these are minimums. In heavily used
pools, quicker turnovers will help maintain water clarity by
means of increased filtration and better chemical distribution. Also, pool designs that combine shallow areas, such
as zero-depth pools, with deeper swimming areas require
a turnover rate that combines the characteristics of both
types of pool.
A calculation of the flow rate required to move a quantity
of water equal to the gallons (liters) in the shallow area
(usually up to 18 inches [0.46 m] in water depth) within two
hours is combined with the flow rate required to achieve
the minimum turnover requirements for the deep area of
the pool (six hours). This combined flow requirement will
result in a greater number of turnovers per day, usually in
the range of six per day (or one turnover every four hours).
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AUGUST 2013
One additional point to consider in deciding on a turnover

rate for pools projected to experience heavy usage is the fact
that one turnover refers to a volume of water equal to the
total gallons (liters) in the pool system. It has been calculated
that it takes more than three turnovers for 95 percent of the
actual molecules of water in the system to pass through the
filter. This is due to the physical characteristics of the pool.
The only way to remove the dirt load being introduced into
the pool by the users and the environment is through filtration or oxidation. No matter how efficient the filter, it cant
remove what isnt put through it.
Filter Media Rate
The filter media rate is the rate, measured in gallons per
minute (gpm) per square foot (L/min per m2) of filter surface
area that water is allowed to pass through various types of
filters. These maximum rates are established by NSF/ANSI
50: Equipment for Swimming Pools, Spas, Hot Tubs, and
Other Recreational Water Facilities, as well as local health
department codes. This rate becomes the determining factor
in the sizing of the filter area needed for a given minimum
turnover rate and the resultant minimum flow rate.
Flow Rate
The flow rate is the rate at which water moves through the
filtration system. It is calculated based on the minimum
turnovers per day. The flow rate has a major bearing on pipe
sizing in the distribution system.
Many codes limit velocities in suction piping and return
piping. In swimming pool parlance, return piping is the piping
carrying filtered water returning to the pool. Some common
maximums are 58 feet per second (fps) (1.522.44 m/s) in
suction piping and 810 fps (2.443.05 m/s) in return piping.
Required Surge Capacity
The term surge describes all water that comes off the top
of the pool, either displaced by the bodies of the swimmers
or splashed into the gutters through wind or heavy activity.
It must flow to a surge vessel attached to the swimming pool
circulation system. Continuous skimming is required even
during times of no activity. The skimming that takes place
during these quiescent periods is intended to draw material near the water surface into the gutters and back to the
filtration equipment.
The skimming action is essentially accomplished by maintaining the level of the water in the pool no more than inch
(6.35 mm) above the rim of the gutter As the water just barely
breaks over the lip of the gutter, the velocity of the skimmed
water increases and creates a pull on the water surface. If
the water level is too high, little skimming action occurs.
Many years ago, this skimmed water went to waste. Water
conservation, as well as the cost of reheating replacement
water, has resulted in code requirements for the capture of
this water. It now must be filtered, chemically treated, and
returned to the pool. Most codes mandate a minimum volume
requirement for the vessels that receive and hold this water
until it can pass through the filter. The volumes are based
on the estimated water displaced by swimmers plus wave
action caused by their activities. A common requirement
is for 0.61 gallon (2.273.79 L) of surge capacity for each
square foot (m2) of pool surface area. The various means of
achieving this are covered under the Surge Vessel or Surge

Trench Selection section of this chapter.
Some smaller pools are allowed to use skimmers to return water from the top of the pool. There are restrictions
to their use, usually based on the size of the pool. Skimmers
are covered in more detail in the Component Evaluation
and Selection section of this chapter.
Main Drain and Grate

VGB states that where one cover/grate is blocked or partially
blocked, the remaining main drain cover/grates must be sized
to handle the full flow of the system. In other words, with
two main drains, each cover/grate must be sized for the full
flow of the system. With three main drains, each cover/grate
must be sized for 50 percent of the full flow of the system.
ASME A112.19.8 also details tests for finger entrapment,
measuring the force needed to pull the cover/grate out of the
frame, and resistance to UV degradation, which could make
the cover/grates brittle and cause attachment failure. These
are an important part of the ASME testing because many
of the entrapment accidents that occur are due to detached
cover/grates. However, the primary issue that the designer
must be concerned with is the maximum flow rating. VGB
also requires main drain cover/grates to be sized for the maximum flow of the system. The combined maximum possible
flow (which is usually greater than the design flow) that the
system pumps can produce must not exceed the maximum
flow rating for the cover/grate intended to be installed.
To address hair entanglement, VBG requires all existing
main drain grates to be replaced with new cover/grates that
have been tested to ASME 112.19.8. They must bear a stamp
indicating the maximum flow allowed through the cover/grate
as determined by that ASME testing.
Most of the designs for grates that will prevent suction entrapment result in cover/grates that are raised, which results
in protrusions from the floor of the pool. This is not allowed
by most state codes because it can present a tripping hazard.
However, many states have made, or are making changes to
their codes to allow main drain protrusions no greater than
2 inches (50.8 mm) above the pool surface.
In instances where the grates are installed in a wall, the
installation of the anti-suction entrapment cover/grates results
in a protrusion from the wall, which is a separate hazard addressed by most state codes.
No manufacturer is allowed to manufacture or distribute
a cover/grate that has not met VGB requirements. All cover/
grates or cover/grate and sump systems must bear the VGBrequired stamp on the face of the cover/grate. The CPSC is
tasked with inspecting all commercial facilities, and they
have the authority to shut down and fine facilities that are
found noncompliant.
Main Drain Piping and Location
The typical pool has main drain connections at the deepest
point of the pool structure. These main drain pipes are connected to a formed concrete sump, stainless steel sump, or
prefabricated fiberglass sump covered by a grating.
These connections provide a means of drawing water off
the bottom of the pool for filtration purposes. They also usually provide a means of pumping the pool water to waste or
draining the pool via gravity to a remote sump for pumping

to waste.
In some cases, a reverse flow design is allowed. In this type
of design, all filtered water is returned to the pool through
inlets in the bottom of the pool. All dirty water is skimmed
off the top of the pool. In such a design, a main drain is simply used to drain the pool. Not all codes allow such a design.
Due to entrapment concerns, multiple main drain sumps,
piped hydraulically equal, are usually required. Velocities
through the gratings covering these sumps are usually
mandated to not exceed 11.5 fps (0.30.46 m/s) to reduce
the chance of hair entanglement.
The free area of the covering grate typically must be at
least four times the area of the connected main drain pipe.
Codes also require minimum distances between main drain
sumps, as well as distance requirements from the pool wall.
Hydrostatic Relief Valve
In areas where hydrostatic forces are a concern, such as in
areas with high water tables, protection of the pool structure must be provided. This typically necessitates sufficient
underdrain piping below and around the pool structure. A
pumped drainage scheme also may be employed.
However, even with proper groundwater removal systems
in place, a hydrostatic relief valve should be installed in the
main drain sump. This device serves as a spring-loaded water
stop and relief valve. If the main drain sump is poured concrete, a 2-inch (50.8-mm) pipe, along with a no-leak flange,
is situated in the bottom of the pour. The HRV is threaded
into the pipe on the pool side of the sump, and a pebble stop
is threaded onto the backfill side of the concrete. If the pool
is drained, the HRV may be the only way to prevent the pool
from being lifted out of the ground (floated like a boat) by releasing hydrostatic forces into the pool. There have been cases
where large (up to 200,000-gallon [757,082-L]) outdoor pools
have popped as much as 24 inches (0.61 m) out of the ground.
If the pool is internal to a large building with a large basement area and a substantial drainage system in place, the
use of an HRV may not be a concern. For a diagrammatic
representation of this, see Figure 6-2.
Filtered Water Return Piping
In swimming pool system terminology, return piping refers
to piping returning filtered, chemically treated water back to
the swimming pool inlets. The quantity, location, and spacing
of these inlets is covered by the plumbing code. If the volume
of these inlets cannot be adjusted, care must be taken in the
pipe layout and sizing to ensure equal distribution of chemical treatment throughout the pool volume.
Basic Piping Schemes
Numerous acceptable piping schemes are available. The
major factors determining which approach to take are decisions on the following:
Where the mechanical equipment room will be located
(above or below the pool level)
The type of surge-holding vessel to be used
Whether to use skimmers instead of a surge vessel (if
the pool is small enough)
Some typical piping layouts are given in Figures 6-3 and
6-4. For simplicitys sake, chemical feed systems and heating
AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn9

systems are not shown on these drawings. Those items will
be added to these diagrams in the specific section covering
those components.
Filtration, Circulation, and Water Chemistry

Control Components
Surge Vessels
Surge vessels are basically large holding tanks. They accept
water flowing by gravity from the top of the pool and hold
it until the circulation pump can move it through the filter.
To reduce the potential for suction entrapment, the main
drain piping should, ideally, flow by gravity to the surge tank.
Gutters
The water from the top of the pool is usually collected by
a gutter. In the past, these were simply formed out of concrete with drain connections spaced evenly around the pool.
Though this is still done on occasion, the following types of
gutters are much more the norm.
Stainless Steel Gutter This is a dual-function system.
It not only collects the skimmed water from the top of the
pool, but it also provides the distribution inlets for returning
filtered water. The skimmed water flows into one chamber
of the gutter. Through another chamber, separated from the
gutter water by a stainless steel wall or plate welded in place
internally in the unit, the filtered water is pumped back to
the pool. This pressurized chamber has holes, spaced around
the entire perimeter of the pool, that serve as filtered return
water inlets.
One disadvantage of this system is the fact that the inlets
are placed very close to the surface of the pool, and distribution throughout the entire pool volume can be affected.
Short-circuiting of filtered water back into the gutter is also
possible. Of additional concern is the potential for internal
breaches between the two flows (gutter water and filtered
water). These may develop over time due to corrosion and/
or expansion and contraction. These breaches are difficult to
detect, and they will result in less-than-minimum turnovers
due to short-circuiting of filtered water right back to the
filtration system through the gutter system. To address this
concern, some stainless steel gutter manufacturers weld a
rectangular stainless steel tube to the face of the rear gutter
portion of the assembly, which provides a completely independent chamber for the flow of filtered water back to the pool.
Surge Gutter Trench This is a formed concrete trench of sufficient width and depth to hold the required surge volume. It
extends around the entire perimeter of the pool and is usually
covered by a grating, which can be as simple as fiberglass bars
sitting on a formed lip or as substantial as polymer concrete
coping stones. The concrete coping stone is even considered
part of the deck, which can be useful when minimum deck
widths might otherwise be hard to accomplish. See Figure 6-5
for details of this approach.
Skimmers
On smaller pools, codes allow the use of skimmers. These
are devices made of various types of plastics that have a
floating weir (flapper door) that creates a skimming action
at the water surface. They are set in the concrete when it is
poured at one or more locations spaced around the perimeter
of the pool or hot tub. Since they are directly connected to
10 Read, Learn, Earn
AUGUST 2013
circulation pump suction, they should be piped to an equalizer fitting that is located well below the pools operating
level (see Figure 6-6). VGB considers this equalizer fitting a
suction outlet and requires it to be covered by a compliant
cover/grate or to be removed or disabled.
Skimmers are not as effective as a continuous gutter at
skimming debris off the entire surface. That is why they are
limited to use on pools with a small surface area. They also
are used when budget concerns dictate.
Filters
The filter component of a pool system mechanically removes
debris from the pool water. Measurable removal efficiency differences exist between the various types. In selecting a filter
type, consideration should be given to the following items:
Equipment room floor space and ceiling height
Availability of backwash replacement water
Filtration efficacy (turbidity of water leaving the filter)
Water and sewer costs for replacement water
Ability to handle a possibly large volume of backwash
water
Cost of heating replacement water
Ease of operation
Equipment longevity
Budget requirements
Two basic media types are used in filters: sand and
diatomaceous earth. Cartridge filters are sometimes used
on smaller pools and spas, but they merely use replaceable
cartridges, not loose media.
Sand is a granular media (usually #20 or #30 grade
filter sand), and a uniformity coefficient is associated with
each grade. The filter manufacturer will indicate the recommended grade of sand, as filtration efficiency is affected by
the grade used, with #30 sand having particulate removal
efficiencies that are more efficient than #20 sand. However,
more restrictive sand beds result in higher friction losses
through the filter.
Diatomaceous earth, known as DE, is considered a disposable media. It is a fine white powder material made up of
skeleton-like fossilized diatoms. This powder is mixed with
the water in the filter vessel and deposited in a layer on the
filter element or septum. DE also comes in various grades.
Typically, for swimming pool use, the product used should
have permeability in the 35 Darcy range. Particulate removal capabilities basically track the permeability range, so
the 3-Darcy media would be expected to achieve 99 percent
reduction of 3-micron particles.
The filter area required depends on the media selected
and the minimum flow rate requirement for the facility being designed. The various filter configurations for each of
the two primary media types are covered in the Component
Evaluation and Selection section of this chapter.
Circulation Pump
Circulation pump selection must be based on the ability of
the pump to move the required amount of water through the
circulation and filtration system under worst-case conditions.
As the filter becomes dirty (loaded), it restricts the flow. As
piping ages and becomes calcified, it also can substantially
restrict flow.
For these reasons, many codes mandate that a pump be

selected with a design performance point of the minimum
flow required, with an available total dynamic head (TDH)
capability of 7080 feet. In the absence of such a code requirement, the designer must assume the expected pressure drop
through a dirty filter, usually 1520 pounds per square inch
(psi) (103.4137.9 kPa).
In addition to the dirty (loaded) filter, all pipe and fitting
losses on both the suction and discharge sides of the pump,
friction losses through a dirty hair strainer, and losses
through a pool heater or heat exchanger must be calculated.
The resultant estimated system head requirement dictates
the proper pump selection.
Hair and Lint Strainer
These are devices with removable strainer baskets. They are
installed upstream of the pump and are required by code.
Their primary purpose is pump protection. Most codes require two strainer baskets, which decreases shutdown times
when cleaning and changing a basket.
Flow Sensor and Display
All systems must include a device to indicate that the
minimum flow rate and resultant turnover rate are being
achieved. Numerous types are available, and their costs
versus accuracy and life expectancies vary considerably.
Many codes require gauges to be located properly on the
suction and discharge sides of the circulation pump. These
gauges, together with a pump curve for that particular pump,
provide the ability to accurately check the performance of the
pump and to verify the accuracy of the flow-measuring device.
Flow Control Devices
Consideration must be given to the means that will be used
to control the rate and direction of flow to and from the pool.
The circulation pump is selected for a worst-case scenario, so
if it is allowed to run wide open when the filter, hair strainer,
and piping are free and unobstructed, then over-pumping of
the filter and heater will result.
Manual butterfly valves also are needed as isolation valves
to enable the servicing of system components
without draining the system. Valves must be
provided to isolate the hair strainer to allow
the replacement of a dirty hair strainer basket.
Codes also require control of flow from the
pool. Usually, 80 percent of the circulated water
is taken off the top of the pool, and the remaining 20 percent is drawn from the bottom of
the pool through the main drain. Some type of
float-operated butterfly valve or manual valve
usually is used to control this.
For more accurate control, diaphragm-type
air-operated butterfly valves or piston-operated
butterfly valves with pilot positioners are used.
The various types are covered in the section
titled Component Evaluation and Selection.
Even if variable-frequency drives (VFDs) are
used to control the rate of flow to the pool, some
type of manual valve should be in place in case
the VFD fails. Manual operation must be able
to be controlled while the VFD is out of service.
Figure 6-2
Pool Water Heating Systems

The basic types of heating systems are gas-fired water heaters, steam/hot water heat exchangers, and, infrequently,
electric heaters. One possible disadvantage of using heat
exchangers is that they require year-round operation of a
boiler (if the pool is a 12-month operation). The rest of the
facility may not require the use of the boiler, which may
make the case for the use of a supplemental electric heater.
Venting capabilities, corrosive ambient air, and equipment
space requirements are the primary issues to be given consideration. Many facilities are designed with dehumidification
systems that use the heat of condensation to heat the pool
water or pool space. The various choices are listed in the
Pool Water Heating Systems section under Component
Evaluation and Selection.
Chemical Control and Feed Systems
Commercial pools must have systems in place that are capable of maintaining the pH and oxidizer/sanitizer levels in
the pool water within a code-mandated range. These systems
can be as simple as adjustable-rate feed pumps for acid and
chlorine solutions. Some codes require the use of an automatic water chemistry controller to constantly measure pH
and sanitizer levels in the pool. These controllers will turn
on the associated chemical feed pump or system as needed.
Level Control Systems (Surge Tank)
Level control systems can vary from a simple float-operated
main drain valve installed on the main drain pipe after it enters the surge tank to a complex bubbler system (differential
pressure controller) controlling an air-operated modulating
valve. The decision typically is based on cost versus accuracy.
Diagrams and specific operational characteristics of these
systems are covered in detail later in this chapter.
Fresh Water Makeup
Fresh water makeup can be accomplished by an operator
regularly checking the pool water level and turning on the
manual freshwater fill valve until the pool is filled properly.
Most codes require a skimming action to take place conFormed Concrete Main Drain Sump
with Hydrostatic Relief Valve
Formed Concrete Main Drain Sump with Hydrostatic Relief Valve

AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn11

stantly, and a good way to ensure this is to provide some
form of automatic fresh water makeup system.
From an operational standpoint, since most contaminants
in the pool water are introduced at the top portion of the
pool, the top layer of water should pass through the filter the
quickest. Such a water makeup scheme is closely associated
with the water level control scheme employed. (Informational
diagrams are provided later in this chapter.)
Specialty Systems
The complexity of pool designs has increased dramatically from
the days of the simple rectangular lap pool with basic filtration
and chemical feed systems. An seemingly endless variety of
water play features are now available, as well as supplemental
sanitation systems designed to offset the increased demand
created by heavy bather loads.
This places an increased responsibility on the shoulders
of the pool designer. The designer must investigate and
understand the capabilities and special considerations required of the design when using these products. Some basic
information can be found in the Component Evaluation and
Selection section that follows.
COMPONENT EVALUATION AND

SELECTION
Surge Vessels (Surge Tanks)
One method used to create a surge-holding capacity is a
buried concrete tank. This type of surge tank is buried somewhere between the pool and the equipment room, usually
under the deck, which extends around the perimeter of the
pool. It is also frequently located under the equipment room
floor slab. Water from the perimeter gutter, and ideally the
main drain, is piped to this holding tank.
Although the buried tank saves floor space, it complicates
accessibility to key components. Access must be provided for
cleaning or adjustments. Pump strainers and/or level control
devices are often difficult to access. Frequently, draining of
the surge tank is necessary.
This type of buried concrete structure is considered a
confined space, so the operator will be required to follow
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
guidelines before working in this area, which should be taken
into consideration before deciding on this approach. Figures
6-3 and 6-4 show how a buried surge tank would be piped
into the circulation system.
A freestanding vessel is another type of surge tank that
is located in the equipment room. It can be an open or a
closed vessel. Open-tank vessels are still very common in
installations where the equipment room is in a basement or
where the location prevents venting of a closed tank. The
obvious concern is how to provide protection from flooding
if the system shuts down unexpectedly. Properly functioning
check valves on the piping downstream of the filter, as well
as between the main drain piping and the surge tank (if the
main drain isnt connected to the surge tank), are an absolute
necessity. The open-tank design provides a convenient way
to add fresh water with the required air gap.
The closed and vented tank is a much better option for a
basement equipment room. A closed vessel, with flanged con12 Read, Learn, Earn
AUGUST 2013
nections for the gutter piping, pump suction, and possibly the
main drain piping, is vented through piping extending above
the water level of the pool. Venting is essential, as it allows
incoming water from the gutter and/or main drain to displace
air in the tank. It also prevents a possibly damaging vacuum
situation from occurring if isolation valves are inadvertently
closed while the circulation pump is in operation or are left
closed when starting the pump. The vent, if of sufficient size,
also provides a means of adding fresh water with the required
air gap. Figure 6-4 shows such a piping scheme.
Surge Gutter Trench

The surge gutter trench is a continuous concrete trench
formed on the exterior of the pool walls around the entire
perimeter of the pool. The trench is sloped to an area closest to the pool equipment room. At that low point, a single
pipe connection is made to allow the water collected in the
trench to be combined with main drain water at the circulation pump suction.
The trench is sized to meet or exceed the minimum surgeholding capacity requirement of 1 gallon per square foot (3.79
L/m2) of pool surface area. The trench typically is covered by
a fiberglass or Cycolac (a type of ABS plastic commonly used
for pool components) grating. A slightly raised handhold must
be provided at the waters edge of the covering scheme used
for this trench to provide swimmers with a place to securely
grip, if needed.
Another design employs precast polymer concrete coping
stones. This type of pool operates with the pool water essentially at deck level, and the coping stone is considered an
extension of the deck. Return piping often is run in this trench
around the perimeter of the pool, which facilitates pipe repairs,
when needed, without breaking up the concrete deck. Figure
6-5 gives a diagrammatic representation of this approach.
Skimmers
Skimmers can be used only on small pools, usually pools less
than 20 feet (6.1 m) in width or less than a certain amount
of water.
They dont effectively skim a very large surface area, and
they are directly connected to pump suction. If the pools
operating level isnt properly maintained and the water
level drops below the opening of the skimmer, the circulation
pump may possibly suck air and be damaged by cavitation
conditions.
To prevent air from reaching pump suction when using
skimmers, it is important to require the installation of an
equalizer fitting, located in the wall of the pool a few feet
below the skimmer. An equalizer valve and float are then
installed inside the body of the skimmer. In this way, if the
pool level drops, water still will be drawn through the equalizer fitting. These items are offered as options with most
commercial skimmers. (See the diagram in Figure 6-6.) A
VGB-compliant fitting is required for this equalizer connection to the pool since it is considered a suction outlet. Some
codes may even require the removal or disabling of these
equalizer connections to comply with VGB requirements.
High-rate Sand Filters

The high-rate sand filter is currently the most common type
of filter employed on swimming pool systems. High-rate sand
filters have acceptable particulate removal capabilities, and they are simple to operate.
These filters are pressure type, meaning the
filter is installed downstream of the circulation
pump, and the pump creates pressure to force
the dirt-laden pool water through the filter. The
water enters the filter at the top of the media
bed and is forced through the sand to a set of
slotted laterals, which are connected to a collection manifold.
The most common media used in high-rate
sand filters is #20 or #30 filter sand, with a
specific uniformity coefficient. The #20 sand
has a particle size of 0.018 inches (0.35 mm)
to 0.022 inches (0.56 mm) or an effective size
of 0.45 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 1.5
maximum. The #30 grade of sand is not as common as #20. It is finer sand and is sometimes
used when higher filtration efficiency is desired.
Not all filters are designed to allow the use
of #30 sand, as the underdrain laterals must
be manufactured with very close tolerances
regarding opening size to disallow the passage
of the smaller sand particles back to the pool.
Check the filter manufacturers specifications
to ensure that #30 sand can be used.
In general, the flow rate of the water being
filtered through this type of filter is in the range
of 1520 gpm per square foot (56.875.7 L/min/
m2) of filter surface area. All pool filters must
be tested by NSF International, given an NSF/
ANSI 50 listing, and bear that label on their
exterior. This listing prescribes the maximum
allowable flow for each listed filter, and many
codes use this listing as their design requirement criteria.
The backwash rate for any sand filter is based
on research done by the Hydraulic Institute.
It has been determined through testing that a
minimum of 15 gpm per square foot (56.8 L/min) of filter area
is required to fluidize the sand bed. At less than 15 gpm
per square foot (56.8 L/min), the filter bed doesnt lift up and
allow debris that is deeply embedded in the sand bed to be
released. If this lower-than-required backwash rate continues,
mud balls eventually will develop and effectively decrease
the usable filter area.
Properly designed high-rate sand filters, using the most
common #20 grade media, can effectively capture particles as
small as 1520 microns when the filter is clean. As the filter
becomes dirty (loaded is a better description), the filtration
efficiency of a sand filter actually increases. The interstitial
spaces between the grains of sand media become smaller and
can possibly capture particles as small as 10 microns.
Horizontal High-rate Sand Filters
Horizontal high-rate sand filters may require more equipment room floor space than vertical sand filters, but they lend
themselves to more accurate design possibilities regarding
flow during filtration and backwash. Backwash functions are
also more easily automated and are at a lower backwash flow
Figure 6-3 Typical Above-grade Piping Scheme
Figure 6-4 Typical Below-grade Piping Scheme
for each individual tank. Multiple tank arrangements may be

used to alleviate concerns about the ability of waste piping
or transfer pumps to handle large backwash flow rates. A
three-tank horizontal system is shown in Figure 6-7.
Vertical High-rate Sand Filters
Depending on the required filter area and the shape of the
equipment room, vertical high-rate sand filters sometimes
can be a more space-conscious option. An 8-foot (2.44-m)
diameter vertical filter would have more filter area than two
3-foot-diameter by 6-foot-long (0.91-m-diameter by 1.83-mlong) horizontal filters with a 6.25-foot by 6-foot (1.91-m
by 1.83-m) footprint. Three horizontal filters, each with a
footprint of 9.5 feet by 6 feet (2.9 m by 1.83 m), would be
required to provide a filter area equivalent to that of the
8-foot (2.44-m) diameter vertical filter.
The equipment room floorplan will probably dictate which
type of filter is best suited for the application. However, the
designer also must consider the backwash water removal
capabilities. Since the vertical system is forced to backwash
the entire filter area at one time, the backwash flow rate for
the vertical filter will be three times that of each individual
AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn13

component of the horizontal system where each tank is
backwashed individually.
Multi-cell Vertical Sand Filters
Multi-call vertical sand filters offer even more floor space
savings. That same 8-foot (2.44-m) diameter footprint can
accommodate two or three filter cells stacked one above the
other. If even distribution across the sand bed is a concern,
the method of distribution through each cell should be
examined. Lower filtration efficiencies can result if flow distribution is not uniform. Non-uniform flow results in higher
velocities in certain areas of the sand bed, and these higher
velocities can drive contaminants through the sand bed.
Automated backwash of each cell, individually, is difficult if
not impossible.
Vacuum Sand Filters

A vacuum filter system is one in which the circulation pump
is located downstream of an open filter vessel. As the filter
media restricts pump suction, a vacuum is created that allows
atmospheric pressure to force the dirt-laden water through
the media. The contaminants are left embedded in the media.
The media used in these filters is usually one or two
grades of gravel covered by several inches of #20 filter sand.
Media requirements vary by manufacturer. The gravel layer
is intended to enhance backwash capabilities.
The NSF/ANSI 50 listing for these filters indicates the
maximum allowable flow rate for each listed filter size. These
are listed as high as 1520 gpm per square foot (56.875.7
L/min/m2) of filter surface area. Individual manufacturers
may recommend an even lower filter media rates than allowed by NSF International. The lower flow, frequently in
the 5-gpm per square foot (18.9-L/min) range, is intended to
allow smaller particles to be captured by the media. However,
this requires a larger footprint.
As for any sand filter, the backwash rate needs to be at
least 15 gpm per square foot (56.8 L/min/m2) of filter surface
area. This is the minimum flow needed to fluidize the sand
bed and release trapped particles. Due to the large surface
area of these filters, this rate can translate into excessive
amounts of wasted water.
Some manufacturers have introduced an air-scouring
system in which bubbles of air rise through the sand bed
during backwash. The air bubbles are intended to lift the
sand bed and allow lower backwash flow (e.g., 10 gpm per
square foot [37.9 L/min/m2]), while still achieving an acceptable removal of the dirt load. This is somewhat questionable
and may not be allowed by some codes, but manufacturers
of these systems claim better filtration efficiencies at lower
filter media rates than those achieved with high-rate sand
filters. This might seem a logical conclusion, but no definitive independent testing of the turbidity of the water leaving
these filters supports that claim. At higher rates, near 15
gpm per square foot (56.8 L/min) of filter surface area, they
are at least as good as high-rate sand filters.
Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filters

Fossilized skeletons, primarily of sea plankton, are called
diatoms. Large deposits of this fine powder are mined and
graded according to particle size. The mined white powder
is then heated and milled, resulting in diatomaceous earth
AUGUST 2013
(DE) products with varying properties. A coating of DE on

a filter element or septum is used to trap and remove debris
from the pool water passing through the filter. DE with a
permeability of 35 Darcy units is common for commercial
filtration.
In many locales, spent DE must be captured when draining or backwashing the filter to prevent the DE from settling
in the sewer system in areas of low flow velocity. Since DE
is a light, fine, white powder, proper breathing protection
should be worn if the DE could potentially become airborne.
Vacuum DE filters require the broadcasting of the DE powder
over the water surface of the filled filter vessel, so making
the DE airborne in that case is unavoidable.
Respirable (airborne) DE is considered a Class I carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC), but skin contact or ingestion is not considered
dangerous. In fact, due to the prevalent use of DE for food
preparation, such as soda and beer manufacturing processes,
DE is classified as an incidental food additive. For purposes
of comparison, beach sand, filter sand, sawdust, and drywall
dust also are listed as Class I carcinogens.
Vacuum Diatomaceous Earth Filters
Vacuum DE filters are one of the oldest and most efficient
(regarding particulate removal) forms of pool filtration. As
with any vacuum system, the pump is located downstream
of the filter.
The filter itself consists of an open-top vessel, filled with
multiple filter elements or septums. The number and shape
depend on the filter area needed and the design preference of
a specific manufacturer. The septums are covered by a cloth
bag or cover (usually polyethylene) that is coated with DE
during a pre-coating process. The DE media performs the
actual filtration, not the bag or the filter element.
A vacuum safety switch is required between the filter and
the suction connection to the circulation pump. This safety
switch is connected to the auto-control circuit of the circulation pump. Whenever a vacuum of 1013 inches (254330.2
mm) mercury (Hg) occurs, the pump is automatically shut
down. Otherwise, this high vacuum condition could possibly
collapse and destroy the filter elements.
The septums can remain coated with DE only through
continuous sufficient flow through the media, as the flow
of water through the media holds the DE in place. If pump
operation is inadvertently interrupted, the DE will drop off
the elements. If the pump is then restarted without going
through a pre-coat process, some of the DE initially will be
pumped out to the pool.
The pre-coat process is a manual operation in which the
filter vessel is filled with water and valves are adjusted to
direct water pulled through the filter straight back to the
stilling chamber of the filter tank. The pump is then started,
and the required amount of DE (approximately 1 pound per
10 square feet [0.5 kg per 0.93 m2] of filter area) is broadcast
over the surface of the water in the filter tank. Pre-coating
is continued until the cloudy water (DE slurry) in the vessel
clears sufficiently. Without stopping the pump, the pool return valve is slowly opened to allow filtered water to flow out
to the pool. The pre-coat recycle valve is then slowly closed,
Figure 6-5 Deck-level Surge Gutter Trench

and the filter is considered online, or in filtering mode. Figure 6-8 shows the piping configuration for the pre-coat loop.
Contingent on the quality of the media selected, these filters can achieve a 99 percent reduction of water impurities in
the 3-micron range. The configuration of these filters can also
play a major role in their particulate-retention capabilities.
The procedure for cleaning a vacuum DE filter is simply
draining the filter completely, hosing off the filter elements,
and flushing the old, or spent, DE completely out of the filter
tank. This can be a laborious, time-consuming task. If the
filter vessel is poorly designed, with a floor that doesnt have
sufficient slope to the drain, the old DE will be difficult to
wash over to the drain opening.
Once the filter and elements are sufficiently cleaned,
the filter is filled with water. DE is then added by either
broadcasting it over the surface of the water or mixing the
required amount of DE in buckets of water and dumping it
into the filter vessel. The pre-coating process is then initiated,
and after approximately three to five minutes, the filter can
be put back online. Typical piping for a vacuum DE filter is
shown in Figure 6-8.
Slurry Feed Systems

When DE is mixed with water it forms a DE/
water slurry. To extend the time between DE
changes in the filter, additional DE often is
added on a continuous basis. For filter media
rates above 1.5 gpm per square foot (5.68 L/
min/m2), continuous DE slurry feed (sometimes called body feed) may be required by
code. The rate of addition is prescribed by
the same code.
A dry slurry feeder uses a rotating auger
mounted below a DE holding funnel. As the
auger rotates, it carries DE from the funnel out to the end of a trough. The dry DE
then drops off the end of the trough into the
water-filled filter tank and adds an additional
thickness to the coating of DE on the filter
elements. These units have digital controls
and adjustments for setting the rate of feed
in pounds per day.
Wet slurry feeders employ a holding tank filled with water in which a predetermined amount of DE is mixed. An
agitator pump is required to keep the DE from settling out
on the bottom of the holding tank. A feed pump, usually a
diaphragm-type feed pump with a timed auto-flush solenoid
keeping the check valves clear, is used to draw the slurry
out of the holding tank and to inject it into the water stream
entering the filter from the pool. Peristaltic pumps also may
be used, and since they dont require check valves, they may
not require the auto-flush feature.
Pressure Diatomaceous Earth Filters
Pressure DE filters are the most economical regarding equipment room floor space. They are of a vertical configuration,
with internal elements that provide a large surface area for
filters having such small footprints. Like vacuum DE filters,
they provide a high level of filtration efficacy.
Again, in a pressure system, the pump is located upstream
of the filter and forces the water requiring cleaning through
the filter elements. The actual configuration of the elements
varies by manufacturer, but their purpose is to provide a surface for the DE to coat and to act as a filtering media.
Static Cake Diatomaceous Earth Filters
Static cake DE filters receive an initial charge of DE
and then are pre-coated in a manner similar to the
process described for vacuum DE filters. They filter
continuously until the DE becomes plugged to a point
where the flow through the filter is dramatically reduced below design operating parameters. Some form
of wet slurry feed usually is employed to extend filter
cycles. Due to the required frequency of cleaning,
these filters are not usually found on large commercial systems.
Regenerative Diatomaceous Earth Filters
Regenerative DE filters are similar to static cake
filters in their basic design, but they are far different
in their performance characteristics. They typically
have a higher initial cost than any other type of filter
Figure 6-6 Skimmer Detail

AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn15

system, so care must be taken to ensure that the initial cost
is commensurate with improved performance.
To eliminate the need for slurry feed and to greatly reduce the frequency of changing DE, regenerative DE filters
employ an automatic regenerative process in which the
original DE pre-coat is periodically forced (bumped) off the
filter elements. The circulation pump is automatically turned
off; the filter is automatically bumped; and then the circulation pump is automatically restarted, and a pre-coat cycle is
automatically reinstituted. This procedure essentially clears
free paths through the DE that is coating the elements and
reduces the pressure drop through the media. It allows for
complete use of all the surfaces of the initial DE charge. A
regenerative DE filter, of sufficient size to handle flows up to
2,300 gpm (8,706 L/min), is shown in Figure 6-9.
Both static cake and regenerative DE filters are subject
to NSF/ANSI 50 testing requirements. They are NSF listed
by model number regarding the maximum allowable flow.
Typically, these flows range between 1.31.6 gpm per square
foot (4.926.06 L/min/m2) of effective filter surface area. For
particle retention test results, refer to Figure 6-10.
Filtration efficacy is very dependent on the design and
construction of each specific filter. Flow characteristics regarding velocity uniformity and uniform turbulence have a
measurable effect on the DE-retention capabilities of each
filter design. If the equipment choice is based on quality of
filtration, investigation of previously installed operating
systems of this type should be undertaken.
In general, particulate removal efficacies in a welldesigned filter can be expected to track directly with the
permeability of the DE media used. With the most common
grade of DE used in commercial filters having a permeability
of 3 Darcy units, at least a 99 percent removal of 3-micron
particles can be expected. Some filters of this type have
proven performance in the 1.5-micron range. In this range,
a 2-log removal of bacteriological contaminants is possible.
That is well worth consideration with the current interest in
removing Cryptosporidium bacteria from pool environments.
Figure 6-7 Horizontal High-rate Sand Filtration

System, Multi-tank
AUGUST 2013
Again, this should be closely investigated to justify the use

of these systems.
As stated, static cake filters require more frequent cleaning. They also require a pumped backwash to force the DE
and dirt out of the weave of the multi-filament fabric of the
filter elements. The filter elements themselves require removal and more thorough cleaning, usually on a yearly basis.
That is not the case with regenerative DE filters.
The cleaning requirements of a regenerative DE filter vary
greatly depending on the load and filter size. In a heavy-use
indoor facility, a regenerative DE filter should be recharged
every three to four months. For a heavily used outdoor pool,
if long filter runs are desired, the filter is sized for a filter
media rate of approximately 1 gpm per square foot (3.79 L/
min/m2) of filter area, which usually results in four- to fiveweek filter runs. When filters are selected for operation near
their maximum allowable filter media rate, they will probably
require a DE change approximately every two to three weeks.
The procedure for replacing the DE is quite simple. The
filter is bumped and then drained. No pumped backwash is
required. After one or two additional fills with pool water
for rinsing, the filter is refilled with DE, usually through a
specially designed vacuuming system, which eliminates the
concern about airborne DE. The infrequent need for DE
changes, along with the fact that these filters dont require
a pumped backwash, can be a major factor in reducing the
water replacement and reheating requirements inherent in
other systems.
Regenerative Alternative Media Filters
In recent years, some filters listed as regenerative DE filters
under NSF/ANSI 50 have been tested using alternative media, and perlite and cellulose have been approved under NSF/
ANSI 50 as DE substitutes. However, the challenge particulate material (U.S. Silica SCS 106) used in NSF test protocol
is largely incapable of evaluating the particulate reduction
characteristics of any filter aid, including DE products of
varying permeability at or below the 12-micron level. Other
independent test results indicate that cellulose has filtration
efficacies only slightly better than sand media filters.
A paper presented at the National Swimming Pool Foundation (NSPF) World Aquatic Health Conference in October
2009 offered findings resulting from careful testing of the
filtration efficacy of perlite compared with DE. When the
two media were tested at the same permeability (1.5 Darcy),
same coating thickness (0.125 inch) on the filter elements
(tortuous path), and same filter media rate (1.5 gpm per
square foot), the DE gave a reasonable expectation of a 4-log
(99.99 percent) capture of cryptosporidium sized particles,
compared with a 2-log (99 percent) capture by perlite. That
is a sizeable difference when a single diarrheal accident can
contain millions of crypto oocysts. If a million oocysts are
filtered by a DE filter, less than 100 will make it through.
The same million oocysts encountering a perlite-coated filter
have a much better chance of making it through and out to
the pool. At a 2-log removal capability, perlite would allow
almost 10,000 oocysts to pass through. Since it only takes 10
oocysts to infect a susceptible swimmer, the media choice is
an important consideration.
Figure 6-8 Vacuum DE Filter in Pre-coat Mode

If the choice of a regenerative DE filter is predicated on
crypto-removal capability, some type of performance specification should be established. The above test results were
arrived at through the use of a perfect filter for testing.
Actual results in the field will be affected by the design of
the filter selected, as well as the piping layout in the equipment room.
Circulation Pump Selection

Centrifugal pumps are the type of pump used on swimming
pool circulation systems. They can be of an end-suction
form or a vertical turbine configuration. The most common
end-suction centrifugal pump is the horizontal, either base
mounted or motor mounted. In some instances, an owner
may opt for a horizontal or vertical mounted, inline, splitcase design, but the instances of this are rare.
Horizontal End-suction Centrifugal Pumps
A flooded suction centrifugal pump should be used only when
it can be installed below the pools operating water level. In
some installations, they are placed on grade, and a check
valve or foot valve is used, supposedly, to maintain a filled
suction pipe. This configuration is not recommended, as these
installations always are operationally problematic. Flooded
suction pumps are not designed to effectively evacuate air.
Once the check or foot valve gets jammed by a foreign object,
re-priming the pump is almost impossible. Most flooded suction pumps have a tapped hole in the top of the pump volute
to release air if the pump become air-locked.
Self-priming pumps are designed for installations where
the equipment room is above the pools water level. Selection
should take into account the lift required for the application
when operating at the duty point, as it relates to net positive
suction head required (NPSHR). Self-priming pumps are
effective at passing air during the priming process, but care
must be taken to never operate them dry. A check valve in the
suction piping on the vertical run of pipe as it drops to the
surge tank is helpful during the priming process. If some form
of backflow prevention is in place on the freshwater system,
a hose bibb connection on the suction side of the pump also
might be considered to assist in the priming process (if this
is allowed by the local code).
Since swimming pool water has a constant

residual of chlorine, swimming pool pumps
should be fabricated of materials that offer decent life expectancy. These pumps are, according
to most codes, required to operate 24 hours per
day. Pumps with cast iron volutes and impellers can be expected to provide many years of
service. Maintaining proper water balance, as
discussed later under Chemical Control and
Feed Systems, plays a major role in ensuring
this longevity. Proper piping schemes, designed
to prevent conditions that might lead to cavitation, will extend the life of the impeller.
For situations in which the pump operates
intermittently, such as when its function is to
provide flow to a water feature or as a spa jet
pump, all wetted components of the pump must
be made of noncorrosive materials. If a cast iron
pump were used, rust would form during the
quiescent period (primarily overnight). Then,
when the cast iron pump is restarted in the morning, the
operator and patrons will be treated to an initial flow of
brown, rusty water.
Stainless steel pumps are available. These are not truly
noncorrosive; stainless merely means that the material stains
less frequently than other materials. However, stainless steel
pumps will not discharge rusty water after an overnight
shutdown period.
Also, many plastic pumps with plastic impellers are used
in the pool industry. Most of these are self-priming pumps,
so they can be used whether the equipment room is above
or below grade. The stainless steel pumps are a little more
heavy duty and seem to hold up better in conditions where
the equipment room is in a basement below the hot tub or
water feature. They are not self-priming pumps, so this
below-grade location is ideal.
Many swimming pool codes for filtration and circulation
pumps contain a minimum performance capability requirement based on the mandated flow rate needed to attain the
minimum turnovers per day. The pump must be able to move
the resultant minimum required flow at some code-estimated
total dynamic head (TDH). This might be a TDH of 70 feet
for a sand filter system or as high as 7580 feet for a pressure DE filter system.
Basically, the pump must be selected to guarantee that it
can move the required flow through the filter in a worst-case
scenario, or when the filter is the dirtiest. Therefore, even
if the code mandates a minimum pump TDH capability, the
designer should perform a system head calculation. All pipe
and fitting losses on the suction and discharge sides of the
pump must be included. The additional losses through system
componentshair strainer, valves, dirty filter, heaterand
discharge and friction losses through the inlet fittings must
be added to the pipe and fitting losses to come to a total
system head requirement. This will verify that the codemandated performance requirement is sufficient.
Vertical Turbine
Vertical turbine pumps can save up to 75 percent of floor
space as compared to horizontal end-suction centrifugal
AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn17

pumps. They have smaller footprints mainly due to the location of the pump below the floor. However, accommodations
should be made for pulling these pumps for service. If very
long shaft lengths are necessary, high ceilings and possibly an
overhead I beam may be necessary. These pumps are basically
flooded suction pumps that can be installed above the pools
water level. The downside to their use is the necessity for a
hair strainer screen or basket on the bottom of the pump.
Cleaning during normal use is difficult, so to facilitate this
cleaning, some installations use a screen that slides through
a slot in the floor and isolates the section of the surge pit
where the pumps suction bell is located.
When a buried concrete surge tank is part of the design,
a vertical turbine pump is an obvious choice. These pumps
require the operating level in the surge tank to be maintained
at or above the pumps required minimum submergence.
The pressure available at the mouth of the suction bell of
the pump is essential to proper pump operation without
cavitation. The NPSHR for a particular pump, at the design
operation point, controls the water depth above the suction
bell entry point (minimum submergence), and the resultant
depth-related water pressure at that point must be such that
the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) always exceeds NPSHR. This minimum submergence also guarantees
that the lowest impeller of the pump is always submerged
and that it will start pumping when it begins to rotate. This,
in effect, provides the same priming certitude as any flooded
suction pump.
These pumps can be used in a wet-pit installation or they
can be closed suction (direct piped), possibly in a dry pit. In
either configuration, some protection against large debris
entering the bowl assembly must be provided. The bowl assemblies can be either semi-open or closed.
Standard materials of construction for clear water service include cast iron bowls, bronze or cast iron impellers,
and stainless steel shafts. The column shaft connecting the
bowl assembly to the discharge head is usually steel, and the
discharge head is cast iron. All components, however, are
available in more corrosion- and abrasion-resistant materials.
Pumps can be custom-selected to allow variations in the
slope of the head curve to meet the head and capacity system
requirements. A pump with a steeper curve will allow for
better control when using a variable-frequency drive (VFD)
for flow control.
Placement of the vertical turbine pump (or multiple
turbine pumps) is critical to non-turbulent operating conditions. This topic includes too many variables to be effectively
covered in this chapter. As a starting point, the designer can
reference Hydraulic Institute Standards for Centrifugal,
Rotary, and Reciprocating Pumps, 14th Edition.
Manufacturers of vertical turbine pumps offer various
strainer basket assemblies for mounting on the suction
bell of the pump. On swimming pool applications where
the pump is required to operate all day, these strainers will
become fouled quickly, which can present a maintenance
nightmare. Often, instead of the factory-provided strainers,
pool designs call for a fabricated, perforated, stainless steel
wall or other perforated stainless steel enclosure. If properly
designed, this can provide much more free area and result
AUGUST 2013
in less frequent cleaning requirements (possibly only at the

end of an outdoor pool season).
Hair and Lint Strainers
Hair and lint strainers are required on the suction side of
end-suction centrifugal pumps and are intended to provide
pump protection. The baskets installed in the hair strainer
capture debris that could possibly plug the eye of the impeller or damage the impeller. Opening sizes in the basket are
usually prescribed by code. Typically, the operator is required
to have available two of the removable baskets for ease of
changing and cleaning.
The straight flow-through strainer is the most common
type. The inlet and outlet flanges are matched to the pipe
size on the suction side of the pump. The centerlines of both
the upstream and downstream openings in the strainer body
are equidistant from the bottom of the strainer.
Offset connection strainers are a specialty type. They
are custom-fabricated to simplify alignment of the suction
piping to the suction connection on the circulation pump.
The centerline of the influent side of the strainer can be at
a higher elevation than the leaving side (effluent) elevation.
Change-fitting connection strainers are also a custom
fabrication. This type of strainer provides a simplified way
to change from the suction pipe size to the actual size of
the suction connection on the pump, as the flanged suction
opening on most pumps is usually several pipe sizes smaller
than the suction piping. A combination of the offset and
change-fitting types is also available.
Cast iron hair strainers are no longer used in new construction in the swimming pool industry. The most common
types of strainers are made of fiberglass reinforced plastic
(FRP) or stainless steel. Removable covers are usually clear
acrylic. The removable baskets are stainless steel, but the
baskets may be made of plastic in smaller plastic pumps,
which are often provided with integral hair strainers.
Flow Sensors
Codes require a device to be provided in the circulation
system to verify that the pump is moving enough water
to satisfy code turnover requirements. These sensors with
displays take many forms.
Impact Type
The impact flow sensor usually has a small opening facing
upstream and another opening facing downstream. The
downstream opening merely senses static pressure in the
pipe, while the upstream opening senses total pressure (velocity pressure plus static pressure). The resultant difference
in total pressure versus static pressure forces a movable
indicator up inside a vertical measuring tube that has markings for associated flow. This type becomes easily plugged
and requires frequent cleaning. It is the least accurate type
of flow sensor.
Pressure Differential Style
The pressure differential sensor can consist of an orifice plate
with tubing connections on each side of the plate, or it can
consist of a tube extending across the interior diameter of the
pipe. This tube has two chambers, one on the upstream and
one on the downstream side of the tube, each with a single
opening or multiple openings spaced across the interior di-
ameter of the pipe. The attached display measures the total

pressure on the upstream side of the sensor and subtracts
the static pressure on the downstream side to arrive at a
resultant velocity pressure, which is converted to flow based
on the interior diameter of the pipe.
Paddle Wheel Type
The paddle wheel sensor measures the spinning rate of a
paddle wheel inserted in the flow stream. This rate of rotation
is converted into velocity and, based on the pipes interior
diameter, gallons per minute. The rotational speed of the
paddle wheel can be measured by pulses or magnetically,
depending on the manufacturer. With the magnetic type,
metallic particles present in the pool water can build up on
the sensor and restrict rotation.
Magnetic Sensors
A magnetic sensor can be used in situations where the piping
configuration only contains sufficient uninterrupted straight
runs of pipe on the dirty side of the filter, or in a section of
pipe that is within the pre-coat loop for a DE filter. Since
the signal is magnetic and doesnt require a paddle wheel or
orifice that could become plugged, these sensors work well
for such applications.
Installation Parameters
If at all possible, flow-measuring devices should be installed
in the relatively clean water downstream of the filter. In DE
systems, they should be outside of the pre-coat loop, unless
a magnetic type sensor (listed above) is used. Each manufacturer has specific requirements regarding placement on the
Figure 6-9 Regenerative DE Filter
Figure 6-10 Particle Retention Test Results

AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn19

pipe. They also recommend the number of pipe diameters
of straight, uninterrupted flow upstream and downstream
of the sensor. This is intended to ensure that the sensor is
measuring uniform turbulence and can achieve its maximum
accuracy.
Most codes, regardless of the manufacturers recommendations, have their own minimum requirements for
straight, uninterrupted flow upstream and downstream of
the sensor. Since the local board of health most likely is the
AHJ in these designs, its prescribed minimums are the ones
that must be met.
Pressure differential sensors are problematic when used
on installations where the equipment room is above the pool
level. They are designed to respond to a difference between
the total pressure and the static pressure. If water is siphoning back to the pool, as usually the case in these installations,
a vacuum will be on the downstream side of the sensor instead
of a measurable static pressure. As such, accuracy under
these conditions is totally compromised.
Flow Control Devices

Since all commercial pools have a requirement for minimum
turnovers per day (flow rate) and since pumps must be selected for the worst-case scenario of a dirty filter with maximum
pressure loss through the filter, some means must be provided
to control the flow output of the pump. If the filter is clean,
thus placing little or no restriction on pump discharge, the
flow through the filter may exceed the acceptable filter media
rate, which will result in inefficient filtration.
Manual Butterfly Valves
Manual butterfly valves are disc-type valves with either a
lever handle with 10 position stops or a gear-operated drive
with either a chain (for valves positioned at high elevations)
or an extended operator (for valves in a pit or not easily accessible).
Figure 6-11B depicts a butterfly valve using PVC as the
body and disc for better chemical resistance. Figure 6-11C
shows a butterfly valve with a polyester-coated cast iron
body, nylon II-coated ductile iron disc, and a 416 SS stem.
All of these materials are intended to make the assembly
impervious to chemicals present in the pool water. The use
of the type of valve shown in Figure 6-11A will be described
in the section covering level control systems.
Both the PVC and cast iron valves employ EPDM seats
for bubble-tight closure. Of the two, the cast iron will probably hold up better to frequent use and/or rough handling.
Diaphragm-actuated Valves
A diaphragm-actuated valve is very accurate in controlling
flow. The large weir allows for minor flow adjustments with
only a slight movement of the hand wheel, which controls
the movement of the diaphragm. The body and bonnet of
the valve are solid thermoplastic, PVC, CPVC, PP, or PVDF.
Diaphragms are made of EPDM or Teflon with EPDM backing. The valve design is excellent for throttling of corrosive
fluids, since only the body and diaphragm are wetted parts.
They also provide bubble-tight closure, even in slurry applications or flows with suspended particles.
AUGUST 2013
Variable-frequency Drives
Though not commonly found on past swimming pool applications, VFDs are slowly gaining popularity, as dramatic
energy savings can be realized through their use. The pump
Affinity Laws provide the engineering verification of this.
With a VFD, the rotational speed of the circulation pump can
be slowed when system head requirements are at their lowest
(i.e., clean filter, clean hair strainer conditions). Rather than
closing a valve to reduce the flow to the design flow, the speed
of the pump can be slowed while still maintaining the minimum turnover rate to the pool. As the pump performance is
always designed well above the required duty point, use of
a VFD offers the potential for substantial speed reduction.
The pump Affinity Laws show the cubed relationship
between speed and power:
BHP2 = BHP1 x (S2)3 (S1)3
BHP2 = BHP1 x (0.80)3 (1.00)3
BHP2 = 0.512 x BHP1
As shown in the calculation above, a mere 20 percent
reduction in speed lowers the pump power requirements by
almost 49 percent compared to the power the pump would
require using a standard across-the-line motor starter. Also,
reduced demand charges are incurred when the pump is
started gradually (soft started) by the VFD. The demand
spike created by the lock-rotor-amp draw inherent with a
standard motor starter is not experienced. The resultant
system performance when a VFD is employed is sometimes
even more appealing than the expected energy savings. The
soft start and gradual ramp down during start and stop
operations reduce wear and tear on the system components.
Care must be taken when implementing a VFD as a system
component. For instance, if the pump selection is marginal,
the pump may need to run at or near 100 percent. At this
operating point, the use of a VFD will actually result in a
higher operating cost due to some minor power transmission
losses associated with the circuitry of the VFD. Other system
pressure concerns also must be evaluated. Simple solutions to
these potential operational problems are available, but they
must be dealt with in the initial design stages of a project.
Pool Water Heating Systems

One component of virtually all swimming pools is a system
for heating the pool water. In rare cases, the owner may
consider this an expensive, unnecessary luxury, but instances
of this are rare.
Temperatures generally are maintained in the range of
7884F (25.628.9C) and sometimes higher when the facility has an older clientele with many water aerobic classes.
Most heater manufacturers provide a general selection criteria table, which can be used to estimate the British thermal
unit (Btu) output desired, regardless of the type of heating
system chosen.
This method of selection is basically intended to offset
an expected average heat loss and is more directed toward
maintaining temperature in the pool water. If the Btu output selection is based on how long it will take to heat a total
volume of fresh water from the source water temperature
to the operating temperature (T), the required Btus must
be calculated using the following equation.
Equation 6-1
Btus required=Pool gallons 8.33 T System
efficiency (percent)
This is usually the method used for hot tub heater sizing.
If the desire is to reheat a tub full of water within two hours,
divide the calculated Btus required by two to arrive at the
Btu per hour (Btuh) output for the heating system.
Another area of consideration when designing the water
heating system is providing for the ability to flow the correct amount of water through the heaters tube bundle.
Many heaters are provided with integral booster pumps;
others are not. The goal, especially on outdoor pools at
initial startup, is to produce an optimum temperature rise
across the tube bundle. On startup, if the pool water is cold
(5055F [1012.8C]) and the flow through the tubes is too
high, condensation on the tube bundle will occur, and sulfuric
acid will form. This will quickly shorten the life of the tube
bundle and even the burners.
Maintaining optimum inlet water temperatures is greatly
facilitated by the use of a VFD. With proper heater by-pass
piping and the implementation of a heater booster pump,
the heater manufacturers required inlet temperature can
be effectively maintained. Once the pool is at the desired
temperature, the pressure and water flow at the suction side
of the heater booster pump will remain constant. With the
heater firing, a one-time adjustment to the mix of heated
water and the pool water being heated can be made to attain a
desired inlet temperature. That setting will never change and
will ensure a noncondensing situation for the tube bundle.
Direct-fired Gas Heaters
If space is available in or near the pool equipment room,
a dedicated gas-fired pool water heater may be used. Two
choices are available.
The atmospheric gas-fired heater uses the ambient air
from the area in which it is installed for its combustion air
needs. Manufacturers of these units have stringent requirements regarding the sizing of air-admittance louvers or grilles
serving the operating space. If this type of heater is installed
in the pool equipment room, the combustion air may contain
high levels of chemicals or corrosive fumes, which obviously
will have a detrimental effect on the longevity of the heater.
In a sealed combustion gas-fired heater, combustion air is
outside air, drawn into the heater by an integral fan. Exhaust
gases are evacuated outside of the building by the same fan
or a supplemental fan. These units are often rated at high
efficiencies, since the exhaust fan can move cool exhaust air
out through the vent pipe before any condensation occurs.
Indirect Heating
Often, a dedicated pool heater or boiler will heat a primary
water source and pass it through an enclosure that has a
secondary coil or tube bundle immersed in the boiler water,
which carries pool water. The heat transfer between the two
raises the pool water temperature.
These heat exchangers are required by code to be of
double-wall construction. The intermediate space must be
drip-vented to atmosphere to prevent the intermingling of
pool water and boiler water, which may contain unwanted
boiler treatment chemicals. In consideration of the pool water
chemistry, the more expensive cupro-nickel tubes are worth

the additional cost versus life performance characteristics.
Central Heating Boiler
The only difference in the central heating design choice is the
lack of a dedicated boiler or direct-fired heater for the pool
system. Water from a central boiler is used as the primary
loop supplying a heat exchanger for the pool. This will require
the boiler system for the whole building to be in operation
whenever the pool is in use.
If a central boiler is the main component of the pool water
heating system and there are substantial periods when the
pool is the only system requiring operation of the boiler,
a supplemental system should be considered. An electric
heater, piped in parallel with the heat exchanger, is an option. With an electric heater in place, the central boiler can
be shut down while the electric heater maintains the pool
water temperature.
Dehumidification and
Heat Recovery Systems
Maintaining air quality in an indoor pool facility can be quite
difficult, yet it is essential to the comfort of the patrons.
The HVAC engineer should try to bring in as much outside
air as possible. Humidity must be maintained at an acceptable
level to reduce any impact high humidity might have on the
building structure and ceiling components. If there are large
window areas, excessive humidity will cause condensation
and possibly damage the window casings.
Using a refrigerant loop to capture the heat of condensation from exhausted air provides some supplemental heating
possibilities. The captured heat can be used to preheat incoming outside air if needed, or it may be used to assist in
pool water heating.
Using these systems with a dedicated gas-fired pool heater
or in conjunction with a heat exchanger can present some
difficult control decisions. Which system will do the primary
heating? Will each system have a different temperature control point? Will the heat recovery unit merely be a backup, or
will it be used only when the central boiler isnt in operation?
Dehumidification and heat-recovery units are commonly
used in current pool design. However, they may present high
maintenance costs. The air passing through the heat-recovery
or dehumidification coil can be quite corrosive. Special materials should be used for these coils, or the coil should have
a special corrosion-resistant coating applied.
These are expensive systems with the potential for
substantial repair costs, yet they offer some energy-saving
benefits. It is recommended that the pool designer do a thorough psychometric evaluation of the particular installation
and make an informed cost/benefit evaluation.
Chemical Control and Feed Systems

The owner or operator of any commercial or public swimming
pool is expected to maintain a safe environment regarding
water quality. The water environment that is shared by the
patrons must be clear and free of debris and contain no bacteriological contaminants. To ensure this safety factor, codes
place minimum requirements regarding oxidizer/sanitizer
levels in the pool water, as well as a proper range in which
the pH of the water must be maintained. In all but extreme
AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn21

cases, these levels provide proper bacteria kill as well as help
maintain water clarity.
Proper pH and Sanitizer Levels
Typical sanitizer levels and pH ranges can be found in APSP
publications as well as NSPF textbooks. These ranges are
as follows:
Pool sanitizer levels: 15 parts per million (ppm) when
some form of chlorine is used as the sanitizer/oxidizer and
45 ppm when bromine is used as the sanitizer/oxidizer
Pool pH levels: 7.27.8 pH (acceptable), 7.47.6 pH (ideal)
Whirlpool and hot tub sanitizer levels: 23 ppm when
chlorine is used and 45 ppm when bromine is used
Many people do not recognize the importance of maintaining pH in the proper range. In fact, the pH of the water is the
primary factor in determining the killing power of the chlorine. When any type of chlorine is dissolved in water, it forms
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is the most active form
the dissolved chlorine can take. HOCl is a strong oxidizer/
sanitizer, but the pH of the water is the determining factor
for how much of the dissolved chlorine remains as HOCl.
Hypochlorous acid easily disassociates into a hypochlorite ion
(OCl-) and a hydrogen ion (H+), and this disassociation is
much greater at a higher pH. The hypochlorite ion is still an
oxidizer/sanitizer, but it is considerably weaker than HOCl.
Thus, at a higher pH, less of the chlorine in the pool water
is in the strong hypochlorous acid form.
For example, at a pH of 8.0, it will take a residual of 3 ppm
of free chlorine to have the equivalent killing power that 1
ppm of free chlorine has at a pH of 7.4. This merely emphasizes the fact that just as much attention must be paid to the
output capabilities of the acid or pH adjustment systems as is
paid to chlorine feed systems. If proper pH control cannot be
maintained, the sanitizing characteristics in the pool water
cannot be effectively controlled.
Water Balance
Water balance is based on a combination of factors. It is a
measurement of five primary chemical levels that determine
whether the pool water is scale forming (oversaturated) or
corrosive (undersaturated). The Langelier Index is the most
common calculation used to determine this.
Water is the universal solvent. It will try to dissolve anything it comes into contact with until it becomes satisfied
(saturated). At this point, any additional solids introduced
into the solution cause it to become oversaturated. These
solids eventually will settle out or form layers of calcification
on the surfaces or components of the circulation system. This
calcification can degrade system performance, and oversaturated water also affects water clarity. Undersaturation, or
corrosive conditions, can also degrade performance as well
as destroy the pools structure (i.e., tile, grout) and metallic
system components.
All of these factors point out the importance of maintaining proper water balance. The chemistry of the fill and
makeup water of any facility should be examined. It can
be a major factor in determining the proper chemical feed
system to use.
AUGUST 2013
Choosing Proper Control Chemicals

The chemistry of the source water at a potential pool location
should be examined to see if it could impact a decision on the
type of control chemicals to use. If the fill and/or makeup water is essentially balanced, almost any of the various sanitizer/
oxidizer and pH-adjustment systems can be used. Balanced
water would fall within the following ranges:
Total alkalinity: 80120 ppm
pH: 7.27.8
Calcium hardness: 200400 ppm
Total dissolved solids: <1,000 ppm
Gas chlorine is seldom used in new designs. The acceptable sanitizers/oxidizers are primarily chlorines (stabilized
or unstabilized) and bromine. Lithium hypochlorite is sometimes suggested by various suppliers but is seldom used.
Its relatively low active strength (29 percent) and high cost
relegate its use primarily to backyard pools, where it is ideal
for use on vinyl-liner pools.
Acid is used to lower pH; soda ash (calcium carbonate)
is used to raise pH. The available common acids used are
muriatic acid (dilute hydrochloric acid) and sodium bisulfate.
Sometimes carbon dioxide is used. When carbon dioxide is
injected into the return water, it forms carbonic acid (a weak
acid).
Where high total alkalinity is present or when designing
an indoor pool facility, care should be taken when considering
carbon dioxide for pH control. Since carbon dioxide raises
alkalinity when injected into the pool water, it would potentially make an existing total alkalinity problem worse. High
total alkalinity encourages high pH levels, and more acid
(carbonic acid) is needed to offset this. The required feeding
of more carbon dioxide results in even greater increases in
alkalinity levels.
Source water with high calcium hardness levels, more
than 400 ppm, presents similar difficulties, and using calcium
hypochlorite as the sanitizer/oxidizer may compound the
problem. It may be necessary to consider sodium hypochlorite
as the sanitizing and oxidizing agent.
Other factors to consider are the different effects the
unstabilized chlorine products can have on water balance
and the need for pH adjustments. Calcium hypochlorite has
a pH of approximately 10 when dissolved in water; sodium
hypochlorite (a liquid) has a pH of approximately 13. This
higher pH can require almost twice the amount of acid
used for pH control. Sodium hypochlorite also introduces
approximately two times more total dissolved solids (TDS)
into the pool water. Most codes limit the amount of total dissolved solids in pool water to a range of less than 2,500 ppm
(sometimes as low as 1,500 ppm). Another common criteria
is to maintain TDS no greater than 1,500 ppm over the TDS
of incoming source water.
Stabilized chlorines are chlorine products that have been
combined with a stabilizing chemical (cyanuric acid). The
available choices are trichlor (trichloro-s-triazinetrione)
and dichlor (dichloro-s-triazinetrione), which are chlorine
products that have been chemically combined with cyanuric
acid. The addition of cyanuric acid (also called stabilizer or
conditioner) is used to reduce the amount of chlorine burned
off by the ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun striking the pool
water. Since indoor pools are seldom faced with a problem

of excessive sunlight conditions, these stabilized products
are normally recommended only for outdoor pools and are
sometimes not allowed by code for indoor applications.
The use of stabilized chlorine can, over time, result in
the buildup of high levels of cyanuric acid in the pool water,
and the cyanuric acid does not degrade. It remains in the
pool until it is backwashed away or splashed out. Most codes
limit the level of cyanuric acid to 100 ppm because levels
exceeding 30 ppm substantially limit the time it takes for
the chlorine residual in the pool to oxidize the contaminants
or kill bacteria, which can lead to unsafe conditions.
These concerns are frequently enough to relegate the
isocyanuric chemicals to private backyard pools because the
patron loading on these pools is substantially lower than any
commercial facility. Instead of using stabilized chlorines, calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite with the manual
addition of a small amount of cyanuric acid to the pool will
have a reasonable resistance to UV degradation. This can
be done at a much lower chemical cost and without the unwanted buildup of cyanuric acid.
The final consideration regarding pH control is the effect
that the adjustment chemical used can have on the longevity of the mechanical equipment. The strongest form of acid
used in the pool industry to lower pH is muriatic acid. If feed
equipment handling muriatic acid is not sealed properly, the
fumes emanating from the acid will rapidly destroy or corrode
all metal components in the equipment room.
Chemical Controllers
Automatic water chemistry controllers have become the norm
on almost every design of a new pool facility or the upgrade
or retrofit of an older system. Some codes only require controllers on pools; others require them on pools and hot tubs.
Numerous choices are available. Low-cost controllers
simply measure pH and oxidizer/sanitizer levels and then
send power to the associated feed equipment to bring either
back into the proper range.
Most controllers measure these chemical levels through
the use of measuring probes immersed in a stream of filtered
pool water or in a larger sample cell with pool water flowing
through it. These probes produce a millivolt signal, which is
the feedback to the controller that allows that control device
to maintain proper pH and chlorine levels. The millivolt
output of the pH probe is directly related to the pH level of
the pool water. The chlorine or bromine level is not given
directly by the probe.
The probe measuring the chlorine or bromine level is actually measuring how active the sanitizer is, not the quantity of
it in the pool water. This activity is defined as oxidation reduction potential (ORP). In other words, the probe is measuring
the potential of the sanitizer for oxidizing contaminants.
As was discussed earlier in this chapter, changes in pH
levels affect the activity of chlorine. The controller can only
control to an ORP set point, measured in millivolts. If pH
rises, the ORP of the chlorine (i.e., the millivolt signal from
the ORP probe) decreases. As a result, the controller will turn
on the chlorine feed system, often when the chlorine level
is actually in the desired range. This relationship reinforces
the premise that pH is equal in importance to chlorine in
Figure 6-11 Flow Control Valves

maintaining safe water conditions. High pH results in weak
chlorine; low pH results in the controller underfeeding chlorine on a ppm basis.
Other controllers that are programmable actually control
to a ppm set point. This type of controller uses curve fitting
(high-end floating-point math) to calculate ppm based on
standard ppm curves on a pH versus ORP axis provided by
the manufacturer of the probe.
The last type of automatic controller treats pool water
samples on an intermittent schedule with test chemicals.
It then compares the color of the sample to a standardized
series of colors and determines pH and chlorine levels directly.
This type of controller requires regular replenishment of the
test chemicals.
In general, more complex controllers have a higher initial
cost. Controllers with unnecessary bells and whistles may
require frequent service calls and related service costs. This
should be considered when trying to design an operatorfriendly system.
pH Control Systems
There are two distinct systems for controlling pH. Chemical
feed pumps can be used to pump some form of acid to lower
pH. The same style of pump can also feed soda ash to raise
pH, if that is what the pool requires.
Typically, if using sodium hypochlorite (a liquid sometimes
incorrectly referred to as bleach) or calcium hypochlorite (a
dry chemical that is mixed with water) as the oxidizer/saniAUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn23

tizer, acid would need to be used as the pH control chemical.
Sodium hypochlorite has a pH of approximately 13, and calcium hypochlorite has a pH of approximately 10. Obviously,
using these products to maintain proper sanitizer residuals
would increase the pH of the pool water.
The other system that is sometimes employed to lower
pH is a carbon dioxide feed system. The carbon dioxide gas
is injected into the water returning to the pool, and it forms
carbonic acid when dissolved in the stream of water. Carbonic
acid is weak, but it will effectively lower pH.
Acid Feed Pumps
Two basic types of chemical feed pumps are used on pool
systems. They each have advantages and disadvantages.
Peristaltic pumps use a motor-driven series of rollers that
rotate in an enclosed pump head, and as the assembly rotates,
it squeezes a feed tube. This creates a vacuum on one end of
the tube, which allows atmospheric pressure to push the acid
solution into the evacuated area of the feed tube. The next
roller then forces that solution toward the other end of the
tube and creates a new evacuated area of tube in its wake.
In the past, there were concerns that the pressure developed by peristaltic pumps (usually no more than 25 psi
[172.4 kPa]) might be insufficient for injecting chemicals
into the circulation system. However, this is seldom true.
Chemicals must be injected downstream of all system
components, such as heaters, heat exchangers, and dehumidification equipment. At that area of the return piping,
the only back-pressure or system head remaining is merely
due to elevation head, small return pipe and fitting losses,
and friction and discharge losses through the filtered water
inlets. It is seldom more than 710 psi (48.368.9 kPa). In
cases where pressures greater than 25 psi (172.4 kPa) are
expected, some peristaltic pumps can create output pressures
as high as 100 psi (689.5 kPa).
These are relatively inexpensive pumps. The internal
components dont usually have a long life expectancy, but
they are not costly to replace. The only other concern is that
peristaltic pumps must be placed close to the acid solution
holding tank. The weak vacuum that they create does not
allow for long suction tubing runs.
The other type, the diaphragm pump, uses a rotating
cam to move a diaphragm in an enclosed housing. Check
valves are used on both the suction and discharge sides of
the diaphragm enclosure.
The rotating cam controls the inward and outward
movement of the diaphragm. When the diaphragm moves
outward, a vacuum is created in the enclosure. This vacuum
closes the discharge check valve and opens the suction check
valve. Thus, the outward motion allows the chemicals to be
drawn from the solution tank. The inward movement of the
diaphragm has the opposite effect: Pressure is created in the
housing. That pressure closes the suction check valve and
opens the discharge side to allow chemicals to be pumped
into the piping system.
As many as four check valves can be used with this type
of pump. If the chemical being pumped is prone to calcification or particulate buildup, frequent cleaning is required. If
sediment impairs the operation of the check valves, pumping
will cease.
AUGUST 2013
These pumps usually create pressures in excess of 100 psi

(689.5 kPa). Caution must be taken to ensure that the check
valve, usually installed at the chemical injection point into the
circulation piping, doesnt become blocked. If the diaphragm
pump becomes dead-headed, the resultant high pressure in
the feed tubing can cause it to burst.
Carbon Dioxide Feed Systems
Carbon dioxide has become an alternate choice for lowering
pH. When it is injected into the circulation system, it forms
carbonic acid. It also has a tendency to increase total alkalinity in the pool water. If the makeup water for the pool already
has high total alkalinity characteristics, carbon dioxide may
not be a good choice for pH control.
Carbon dioxide comes in 50-pound (23-kg) or 150-pound
(68-kg) high-pressure tanks. For large facilities or especially
for outdoor pools, permanent installation of 750-pound (340kg) tanks can be employed. These are usually set up to be
refilled from outside the pool building.
In general, a gas-control electric solenoid is used to regulate the flow of the carbon dioxide gas. The solenoid is most
commonly connected to an automatic water chemistry controller. Some system manufacturers use a side stream with
a venturi and possibly a booster pump to create a vacuum to
assist in drawing in the gas and dissolving it in the return
water.
Carbon dioxide is heavier than air. It is best located in a
separate, force-ventilated area. The vent fan pickup should
be positioned near the floor.
Sanitizer/Oxidizer Feed Systems
Feed pumps are used when the oxidizer/sanitizer chemical
is in a liquid form. This can be sodium hypochlorite (sold as
a liquid), a dry calcium hypochlorite, or granular dichloro-striazinetrione (dichlor) dissolved in water. The pumps used
for feeding chlorine solutions are the same as those indicated
earlier for pH-adjusting acid feed systems. However, since
acid solutions do not generate calcium carbonate (calcification) and do not contain insolubles or sediment, the working
parts of the pump operate in a much cleaner environment.
Chlorine solutions are much more prone to sediment and
calcification concerns. This should be considered when deciding on the type of pump to use.
Erosion feeders are used where the control chemical is
manufactured in a tablet or briquette form. The briquettes
or tablets are dissolved by either a flow of water across their
surface or contact with a water spray. The feeder can be either
atmospheric or pressurized. NSF International requires that
only the chemical product prescribed by the manufacturer
be used in a given feeder. This mandate is directly related to
concerns about mixing different chemicals, as well as maintaining NSF-verified feeder output capabilities (pounds per
day of available chlorine).
Calcium hypochlorite is often manufactured in a tablet
or briquette form and has to be dissolved in some manner.
Several types of these systems are available. The feeder
can be installed in a side stream, with or without a booster
pump. The design can be as simple as a flow-through device
or a more complex spray device with a venturi and booster
pump. Overflow protection is usually provided as part of the
Automatic water chemistry controllers rely on the millivolt signal from the ORP probe for feedback regarding
chlorine levels in the pool water. High stabilizer levels cause
inaccuracies in the output of the ORP probes.
Elemental bromine is a heavy reddish-brown liquid. In its
elemental form, its use is no longer allowed by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations. Thus, bromine, when
used as a spa disinfectant, must be provided in some other
form. One form is sodium bromide activated by potassium
monopersulfate (an oxidizer). This two-part system is not
used on commercial systems, so it is mentioned here for informational purposes only. The second means of introducing
bromine into the pool water is by use of an erosion feeder. The
pressurized feeder is filled with bromine tablets. The flowthrough feeder is installed in a side stream, with isolation
valves and possibly a solenoid. The solenoid is only used if an
automatic water chemistry controller is part of the system.
Pound for pound, bromine is a much weaker sanitizer/
oxidizer than chlorine. It requires approximately 2.25 times
more bromine to achieve the same oxidation and sanitation
Piston Actuated Butterfly Valve w/ Pilot Positioner
results available with chlorine use. Its main advantage
PRESSURE REGULATOR
is that it is less prone to degradation due to high water
BUBBLER
set for 20 psi
temperatures. For that reason, bromine is often the
choice for hot tub and whirlpool applications where
3way Solenoid (1/4")
104F (40C) temperatures are the norm. If heavy
(Interlock with Pump or
Pool Return Valve))
user loads are expected, chlorine, due to its greater
Pressure Regulator
set for 80 psi
oxidizing and sanitizing properties, may still be the
proper choice.
1/4" Ball Valve
feeder design. Most codes require a certain output capability,

in pounds per day based on the gallons in the system being
treated. This will be the determining factor for specifying
feeder sizing.
The stabilized chlorine product trichloro-s-triazinetrione
(trichlor) is introduced into the pool using a pressurized
feeder. The feeder is filled with the trichlor tablets and
then sealed. When pool water flows through the feeder, the
tablets dissolve. Trichlor feeders are usually installed in a
side stream with isolation valves. Feed of the chemical can
be accomplished by manually opening the isolation valves
or by using a normally closed solenoid on the influent side
of the feeder. Use of a solenoid requires an automatic water
chemistry controller to be part of the system. The solenoid is
opened by the automatic chemical controller when it senses
a drop in chlorine residual. If trichlor is selected as the oxidizer/sanitizer, there are some concerns regarding buildup of
stabilizer in the pool water. As more and more trichlor is fed
to replace what is used for sanitation purposes, the stabilizer
remains and builds to higher
ppm
levels.
Differential
Pressure
Controller Detail
Pool Deck Level
Fresh Water
INPUT OUTPUT
SIGNAL
(typ.)
Fresh Water Make-Up
Solenoid
Pressure
Switchl
From Gutter
Surge Tank
Air Connection to
pressure switch and
120 volt connection to
water make-up solenoid
Signal
Supply
Butterfly Valve
Check Valve
FROM MAIN DRAIN

Piston Type Modulating Valve
w/Pilot Positioner
2" OR 3"
TO PUMP SUCTION
ASPE-4
Figure 6-12 Differential Pressure Controller Detail, Piston-actuated
Butterfly Valve with Pilot Positioner
Differential Pressure Controller Detail
Diaphragm Actuated Butterfly Valve
PRESSURE REGULATOR
BUBBLER
Fresh Water
Fresh Water Make-Up

Solenoid
(optional)
SIGNAL
INPUT OUTPUT
3way Solenoid (1/4")

(Interlock with Pump or
Pool Return Valve))
1/4" Ball Valve
(typ.)
Gutter Water
Pressure
Switch
(optional)
Optional Connection to
pressure switch and
120 volt connection to
water make-up solenoid
Air Operated
Diaphragm Type
Modulating Valve
Butterfly Valve
Surge Tank
or
Gutter Trench
Check Valve
FROM MAIN DRAIN

2" OR 3"
TO PUMP SUCTION
Figure 6-13 Differential Pressure Controller Detail, Diaphragm-actuated

ASPE-4
Butterfly Valve
Level Control Systems

Some method is needed to maintain a proper level in
the surge tank, primarily for pump protection. If the
level in the surge tank drops too low, vortex conditions
will occur, and the resultant cavitation can damage
the pump.
Float-operated Main Drain Butterfly Valve
The float-operated main drain butterfly valve is the
simplest form of control (see Figure 6-11A). The main
drain pipe is connected to the surge tank, and this
valve is installed on the end of that pipe between a
set of flanges. As the level drops in the surge tank,
the floats drop, allowing more water to flow from
the main drain. As the level rises, the main drain is
restricted, which results in a higher percentage of
circulated water being taken from the top of the pool
(not a very accurate means of level control). The surge
tank usually ends up at an operating level near the
top, with little room for acceptance of actual surge.
This is due to the fact that this type of valve is only
capable of 80 percent closure.
Pneumatically Operated Main Drain
Modulating Valves
Pneumatically operated main drain modulating
valves are butterfly valves with either a diaphragmdriven actuator or an air-operated piston actuator.
They require some type of control device, which will
constantly reposition the butterfly valve disc based
on level changes in the surge tank. They are primarily installed on the main drain line. The use of these
AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn25

valves does not require the main drain to be piped into the
surge tank. Remote devices measuring the level in the surge
tank provide the feedback needed for valve positioning.
The diaphragm-driven type of modulating valve uses a
large diaphragm, with pressure applied to one side. The other
side of the diaphragm is connected to linkage that moves
the disc of the butterfly valve. The pressure source can be
either water or a pneumatic air system. If water is used, the
controller is a simple float assembly controlling city water
or pump discharge pressure.
The piston type with pilot positioner has a piston in a
chamber. When air pressure is introduced into one side of the
chamber, the piston strokes away from that increased pressure. Linkage attached to the piston changes the position of
the disc of the butterfly valve. The actual stroke of the piston
is controlled by a pilot positioner that responds to a feedback
control signal from the level control device. These are two
separate air signals. One air connection merely provides the
power to move the piston against system pressure. The other
lower-pressure signal is the control signal that tells the pilot
positioner how far to move the piston.
Differential-pressure Controller
Using pneumatic air, a differential-pressure controller is an
extremely accurate way to control the surge tank level. It is
sometimes referred to as a bubbler system. As the level
rises in the surge tank (a mere quarter-inch), the controller
begins to close the main drain modulating valve. If the level
continues to rise, the valve may close completely, allowing
the flow of water from the top of the pool (where all of the
contaminants are being introduced) to be the first through
the filtration and chemical treatment systems.
When bathers leave the pool, the pool level will drop below
the lip of the gutter. This is because the swimmers displaced
water from the pool into the surge tank. Since the main drain
modulating valve restricts the main drain flow until the
predetermined surge operating level is achieved, the surge
water will quickly be sent from the surge tank back to the
pool. In this way, skimming action will quickly resume. (See
Figures 6-12 and 6-13.)
connected to the controller, is positioned at the operating

level desired. When the water drops and the sensor comes
out of contact with the water, the controller sends voltage to
a slow-closing electric solenoid that opens and allows fresh
water to be added. A time delay is built in before solenoid
actuation to limit short-cycling.
The stainless steel probe system is a set of three probes
used to measure water level. A reflecting line is also required
for this system. The probe module is mounted on the top of
the reflecting line, with the probes extending into the water.
When the level drops below the medium-length probe, the
freshwater solenoid is energized. When the level rises and
touches the shortest probe, freshwater fill is discontinued.
The difference in length between these two probes determines the sensitivity of this system. If the difference in length
is not enough, short-cycling will occur.
Pneumatic
The action of this control system was described under
Pressure Differential Control System. The combination
of the air pressure signal to the modulating valve and an
adjustable 120-volt pressure switch controls the freshwater
makeup solenoid.
When the flow from the pool gutter diminishes, the level
in the surge tank begins to drop. In response to this, the
pressure-differential controller increases its output pressure to the main drain modulating valve. This allows flow
to increase from the main drain piping to make up for the
reduction in gutter flow. In this way, the desired surge tank
operating level can be maintained.
If skimming action continues to decrease and the controller must continue to increase pressure to the main drain
valve, the set point of the adjustable pressure switch will
be reached, and it will send power to the electric solenoid to
begin freshwater makeup. This is the most accurate means
of controlling the total volume of water in the system (pool
plus surge). For piping details, see Figures 6-12 and 6-13.
Fresh Water Makeup
In general, the use of a proper oxidizer/sanitizer and pH-adjustment chemicals should be all that is required to maintain
a safe swimming environment. For a swimming pool chemical treatment strategy, less is better. While a preponderance
of unproven products are on the market, some technologies
have possible merit.
Ozone Systems
Ozone is a gas that is heavier than air. It is a very strong
oxidizer and bactericide. Since it is very unstable, it must
be produced on site. Two methods are used for the production of ozone: corona discharge and UV. Of the two, corona
discharge is more applicable to large commercial systems.
The lower output of UV ozone units relegates them to small
systems or hot tubs.
Ozone gas is usually drawn into the water and dissolved
through the use of a side stream off the main circulation system. Since ozone is quickly used up in the oxidation process
or converts back to oxygen due to its short half-life, it cannot
be used as the primary sanitizer/oxidizer. It must be used in
Commercial pools are required to maintain a level where

skimming action occurs continuously, which requires the
maintenance of sufficient water in the system to offset splash
out, evaporation, or any other water losses (leaks).
If there is no means provided for automatic freshwater
makeup, the operator will be required to regularly monitor
the water level. The simplest form of water level control is
for the operator to manually open a water fill valve. The
fresh water will usually be discharged from the fill pipe into
a surge tank or balance tank with the required air gap. If fill
water is directly connected to the circulation system, some
form of backflow prevention must be employed.
Level-sensing System with Electric Solenoid
A level-sensing system can be used when automatic water
makeup is desired. Numerous control systems are available.
The electronic sensor type of controller requires a reflecting line from the body of water being measured and whose
level is being maintained. An encapsulated electronic sensor,
AUGUST 2013
Specialty Systems
Supplemental Sanitation and Oxidation
conjunction with one of the other oxidizers/sanitizers that

leave a residual in the pool water.
Ozone is a supplemental system. Its use is not required
on every pool design. However, on systems such as an indoor
facility with multiple pools and water features, it can be a
beneficial addition. The heavy bather load experienced at
these venues overtaxes the usual water treatment resources.
The buildup of objectionable combinations of organic and
inorganic materials locked up with the chlorine will rapidly
result in unsatisfactory ambient air and water conditions.
The addition of a properly sized ozone-generating system
can totally eliminate this problem.
The corona discharge ozone system consists of several
components. An oxygen concentrator preps the air entering
the ozone generator. A side stream off the main return piping,
along with a booster pump and venturi, is used to create a
vacuum that draws the ozone from the ozone generator and
injects it into the side-stream flow.
The water is then piped into a contact chamber. The contact chamber is sized to allow approximately four minutes of
contact time between the water and the dissolved ozone. By
the time this flow leaves the contact chamber, the ozone has
been depleted either through the oxidation and sanitation
processes or by reverting back to its basic form of oxygen.
Any ozone gas that bubbles out of solution in the contact
chamber is vented out the top of the chamber through an
automatic air vent and flows to an ozone destruct unit. The
contact chamber and automatic air vent ensure that no ozone
remains by the time the ozone side stream mixes back into
the circulation system return flow. This protects pool patrons
from any undue exposure to ozone.
The installation protocol is quite straightforward. Essentially, the side stream ties in right after the filter at the point
of highest remaining system pressure. The side-stream flow
is then assisted by the booster pump through the venturi into
the contact chamber and reconnected to the main circulation
flow after the pool water heater and before any other chemical injection. For details, see Figure 6-14.
UV Systems
In contrast to UV ozone systems that pass air over an ultraviolet bulb, sanitizing UV systems immerse an ultraviolet
bulb into the full flow of water returning to the pool. A fine
strainer screen is required downstream of the bulb to limit
Figure 6-14 Complete System Piping
the amount and size of glass particles that might flow into
the pool if the bulb shattered. The UV contact cell is piped,
full size, into the return piping. Thus, every gallon of water
circulated passes through the UV rays on the way back to
the pool or water feature.
UV radiation alters the molecular structure of compounds
that experience sufficient exposure to the rays. The components remain in the water, only in an altered form. The
DNA of most bacteria is changed, rendering most of them
harmless. Despite the fact that written promotional material
claims that UV has oxidation capabilities, that statement
is untrue. Oxidation is a chemical process that requires an
oxygen atom to be given up by the oxidizing agent to the
material being oxidized.
The prime consideration here is contact time. For this
exposure to UV to have the desired results, there must be
sufficient contact time. At the velocities common in most
circulation systems (810 fps), there is little exposure time
for the UV rays to do their job.
On outdoor pools, the loss of chlorine from UV degradation caused by exposure to sunlight can be substantial. The
same occurs with UV sanitizing systems. The UV will strip
most if not all of the chlorine residual from the pool water
passing through. This chlorine must be replaced on the way
out to the pool; otherwise, the necessary residual wont be
maintained in the pool. This chlorine destruction may cause
the chlorine consumption of the facility to increase by 4050
percent. Due to that fact and the cost to replace the UV contact cell bulbs every six to 12 months, these systems can be
quite expensive to operate.
Another concern is that these systems place the UV disinfectant bulb in the stream of water returning to the pool.
Because of the potential for bulb breakage, a fine stainless
steel mesh screen is placed downstream of the UV bulb to
limit the size of glass shards that might be pumped out to
the pool. This UV disinfecting bulb contains mercury, and
when replacement becomes necessary, it must be disposed of
as a hazardous waste. With this potential for breakage, the
designer should carefully consider if they are comfortable
with even a small amount of mercury being present in the
water exiting a pool inlet with a patron in the nearby water.
Water Features
Many different types of playground featuresspray features,
slides, flumes, vortexes, etc.are available. See
Chapter 5 of this volume for detailed information
on their design. Following are some ideas on what
should be considered when incorporating these
into a pool design.
The primary concern is user safety. Will the
structures themselves create tripping hazards on
the pool deck or limit free movement around the
pool deck? Can the area near the bottom of a slide
or flume be kept free of bathers so patrons exiting
the play feature will not strike fellow swimmers?
Will separate pumps be used for each feature?
If so, from where will they draw their water? If it
will be from the dirty water in the surge tank, how
can the pump be protected against being plugged
with debris? This same dirty water also has the
AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn27

potential to plug any play feature that incorporates small
orifices for spray action.
If water will be drawn directly from the pool, the same
dirty water concerns exist. An additional concern is protecting against possible hair, limb, or suction entrapment of the
patrons. Some codes require the use of a vacuum breaker
open to atmosphere through a sizeable pipe connection at
pump suction. Exercise caution in the use of these, as many
times they are adjusted improperly. If they are triggered
inadvertently and the operator is not aware of an open connection at pump suction, cavitation over a long period may
destroy the circulation pump.
If these water features are part of the design of an indoor
facility, consider some type of sanitation of the water being
atomized into the pool facility atmosphere. This can be a
good use for ozone or other non-chlorine means of oxidation.
Pool Site Components

Ladders, Ramps, and Handicapped Access
Selecting and specifying ladders and ramps may fall under the
responsibilities of the architect designing the pool structure.
However, if the design assumes that a pool contractor will do
the installation, these items may end up being included in
the swimming pool section of the specification (usually Section 13150). Most ladders are made of stainless steel, with
an outside diameter of 1.9 inches and a wall thickness of
0.065 inch or 0.109 inch. (0.145 inch is also available.) Recently, ladders and rails for access ramps with an outside
diameter of the stainless steel tube of 1.5 inches have been
introduced. This is purported to be more user friendly and
possibly is soon to be recommended by American with Disabilities Act guidelines.
Handicapped access can be accommodated on rehabs of
older pools by the use of portable stairs or battery-powered
movable lifts. For an idea of how these systems look, see
Figure 6-15.
Underwater Pool Lights

The majority of pool lights are wet niche-type lights, with
the wet niche set into the concrete of the pool wall. The light
has a long, sealed power cord that can be removed from the
niche and lifted to the pool deck for re-lamping.
These lights can be 120 volt or 12 volt with a 12012-volt
transformer. The 12-volt lights are usually available with
300-watt bulbs; the 120-volt lights are available with 400watt or 500-watt bulbs.
Pool Inlets
Inlets come in many forms. Adjustable floor inlets are shaped
like a cone, tapering from the surface of the pool floor to the
pipe connections. A movable flat disc with an adjustment
screw moves in or out to change the volume of flow through
the inlet. Wall inlets can be of an eyeball variety or merely a
flat grate with the option of a flow-adjustment mechanism.
Some codes strictly restrict any wall inlets that stick out
beyond the surface of the wall. This is to prevent injuring a
patron who might slide down the wall. Other designs include
hydrotherapy inlets used in hot tubs. Good design for all
return inlets employs the use of some type of no-leak flange
for pipe penetrations through the pool structure.
Safety Equipment
Safety items typically required are as follows:
U.S. Coast Guard-approved ring buoys with 60-foot
throw lines
Approved first aid kit
Life hook with pole
Spineboard with head immobilizer, body straps, and wrist
and ankle straps
Test kit
Acknowledgements
DE/Perlite Performance Test Data, Ken Bergstrom,
President, Filtrex Inc.
Improving Bacteriological Safety: A Comparison of DE
and Perlite, presented at The World Aquatic Health
Conference, October 2009.
References
Figure 6-15 Handicapped Access

AUGUST 2013
Hydraulic Institute Standards for Centrifugal, Rotary,

and Reciprocating Pumps, 14th Edition
Wisconsin Administrative Code, Table 6-1
ASME A112.19.8 (2007): Suction Fittings for Use in
Swimming Pools, Wading Pools, Spas, and Hot Tubs
Understanding the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and
Spa Safety Act 2007, Plumbing Systems & Design,
September 2009.
ASPE Read, Learn, Earn Continuing Education
You may submit your answers to the following questions online at aspe.org/readlearnearn. If you score 90 percent or higher on the test,
you will be notified that you have earned 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept
on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Notice for North Carolina Professional Engineers: State regulations for registered PEs in North Carolina now require you to complete ASPEs
online CEU validation form to be eligible for continuing education credits. After successfully completing this quiz, just visit ASPEs CEU Validation Center at aspe.org/CEUValidationCenter.
Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through August 31, 2014.
CE Questions Public Swimming Pools (CEU 202)

1. What is the intent of the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa
Safety Act?
a. prevent suction entrapment
b. prevent bacterial contamination of the water
c. prevent entrapment due to hair entanglement
d. both a and c
7. Which of the following typically has a higher initial cost than

any other type of filter system?
a. static cake diatomaceous earth filter
b. vacuum sand filter
c. regenerative diatomaceous earth filter
d. pressure diatomaceous earth filter
2. What is the deep-end minimum depth for pools with a 10-foot

springboard?
a. 4.5 feet
b. between 9 and 12 feet
c. 7 feet
d. between 11.5 and 13 feet
8. The most common types of hair strainers are made of _______.

a. stainless steel
b. fiberglass reinforced plastic
c. cast iron
d. both a and b
3. How many public urinals would be required for an

8,000-square-foot water attraction without sleeping or
dwelling units?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
4. What is the typical minimum turnover rate for a wading pool?
a. 30 minutes
b. 2 hours
c. 4 hours
d. 6 hours
5. To reduce the chance of hair entanglement, velocities through
the gratings covering main drain sumps are usually mandated
to not exceed _______.
a. 0.5 foot per second
b. 11.5 feet per second
c. 1.52 feet per second
d. 2.5 feet per second
6. What is currently the most common type of filter employed on
swimming pool systems?
a. diatomaceous earth filter
b. vacuum sand filter
c. high-rate sand filter
d. vacuum diatomaceous earth filter
9. Which of the following is an advantage of the diaphragmactuated valve?

a. excellent for throttling of corrosive fluids
b. provides bubble-tight closure
c. allows for minor flow adjustments with only a slight
movement of the hand wheel
d. all of the above
10. Pool water temperatures generally are maintained in the range
of _______.
a. 7080F
b. 7585F
c. 7884F
d. 7886F
11. _______ can be used to lower the pH of pool water.
a. muriatic acid
b. sodium bisulfate
c. carbon dioxide
d. all of the above
12. Which of the following is the simplest form of level control in
a surge tank?
a. float-operated main drain butterfly valve
b. pneumatically operated main drain modulating valve
c. differential-pressure controller
d. electric solenoid
AUGUST 2013
Read, Learn, Earn29

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What are the main components discussed for swimming pool design?

What are the main components discussed for swimming pool design?

What standards and codes govern public swimming pool construction and operation?

What standards and codes govern public swimming pool construction and operation?

Continuing Education from the

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

READ, LEARN, EARN

CODES AND STANDARDS

Virginia Graeme Baker Pool

the cover/grate brittle and cause attachment failure. These

The final important requirement of VGB is the ASME

Field Built Sump

Figure 6-1 Field-fabricated Sump Dimensions

Read, Learn, Earn3

READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools

pRELIMINARY DESIGN PARAMETERS

Occupant Capacity and Size of the Facility

4 Read, Learn, Earn

This method of determining the maximum number of

Location of the Facility

whether treatment (e.g., softening or pH control) should be

General Physical Character

Read, Learn, Earn5

READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools

6 Read, Learn, Earn

In areas where freezing temperatures are possible and

Bathhouses, Toilets, and Showers

Minimum Number of Sanitary Fixtures Required at

(example of location and

1. Swimming pools, wading

pools and whirlpools in

pools and whirlpools without

See note below for requirements

attraction complexes without

4. Water attraction and water

attraction complexes with

See note below for requirements

3. Water attractions and water

See note below for requirements

See note below for requirements

5. Slash pad (independent of any

Per departmental approval

Read, Learn, Earn7

READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools

POOL OPERATING SYSTEMS

8 Read, Learn, Earn

One additional point to consider in deciding on a turnover

achieving this are covered under the Surge Vessel or Surge

Main Drain and Grate

draining the pool via gravity to a remote sump for pumping

Read, Learn, Earn9

READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools

Filtration, Circulation, and Water Chemistry

For these reasons, many codes mandate that a pump be

Pool Water Heating Systems

Formed Concrete Main Drain Sump with Hydrostatic Relief Valve

Read, Learn, Earn11

READ, LEARN, EARN: Public Swimming Pools

COMPONENT EVALUATION AND