DRIP IRRIGATION

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to land by artificial
means for the purpose of cultivation.Ordinarily water is supplied to land by nature
through rain but generally it is not enough for the proper growth of plants.As such as
the basic objective of irrigation is to supplement the natural supply of water to land
so as to obtain the an optimum yield from the crop grown on the land.
In order to achieve this objective of irrigation, an irrigation system is required to
developed, which involves planning, designing, construction, operation and
maintenance of various irrigation works viz, a source of water supply, a distribution
system for carrying water from the source to the agricultural land and its application
on the land, and various other associated works.The factors which neccessitate
irrigation are:
Inadequate rainfall
Uneven distribution of rainfall
Growing a number of crops during a year
Growing superior crops
1.2 METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation methods are commonly designated according to the manner in which water
is applied to the land to be irrigated.
1.2.1 Surface Irrigation Methods
The water is applied by spreading in it sheets or small streams on the land to be
irrigated.These methods are adopted for perennial irrigation system.
1.2.2 Sprinkler Irrigation Methods
The irrigation water is applied to the land in the form of spray, somewhat as in
ordinary rain.It can be used for all the crops except rice and jute and for almost all
soils except very heavy soils with very low filtration rates.
1.2.3 Sub-Surface Irrigation Methods
The water is applied below the ground surface so that it is supplied directly to the
root zone of the plants.The main advantages of these methods are that the
evaporation losses are considerably reduced and the hindrance caused to cultivation
by the presence of borders, pipes and field channels in the other methods of
irrigation is eliminated.
1.3 DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION METHOD

Drip irrigation,also known as trickle irrigation or microirrigation is one of the subsurface irrigation method of applying water or frequent application of water to crops
through small emitters in the vicinity of the root zone, wetting a limited amount of
surface area and depth of soil. The theory behind drip irrigation is to apply sufficient
moisture to the root of the crops to prevent water stress. A major difference between
drip system and most other systems is that the balance between crop
evapotranspiration and applied water is maintained over limited periods of 24 to 72
hours. The conversion from sprinkler to drip irrigation can result in water use
reduction of 50% and double yield. This is a result of improved water use and fertility
and reduced disease and weed pressure.
1.4 NEED OF DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip irrigation can help you use water efficiently.A well-designed drip irrigation
system loses practically no water to runoff, deep percolation, or evaporation. Drip
irrigation reduces water contact with crop leaves, stems, and fruit. Thus conditions
may be less favorable for the onset of diseases. Irrigation scheduling can be
managed precisely to meet crop demands, holding the promise of increased yield
and quality.Growers and irrigation professionals often refer to "subsurface drip
irrigation,"or SDI. When a drip tape or tube is buried below the soil surface, it is less
vulnerable to damage during cultivation or weeding. With SDI, water use efficiency is
maximized because there is even less evaporation or runoff.Agricultural chemicals
can be applied more efficiently with drip irrigation. Since only the crop root zone is
irrigated, nitrogen already in the soil is less subject to leaching losses, and applied
fertilizer N can be used more efficiently. In the case of insecticides, less product
might be needed.

CHAPTER 2
COMPONENTS AND WORKING
In drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, water is applied in the form of drops
directly near the base of the plant. Water is conveyed through a system of flexible
pipelines, operating at low pressure, and is applied to the plants through drip
nozzles. This technique is also known as feeding bottle technique where by the soil
is maintained in the most congenital form by keeping the soil-water-air proportions in
the optimum range. Drip irrigation limits the water supplied for consumptive use of
the plant by maintaining minimum soil moisture, equal to the field capacity, thereby
maximizing the saving. The system permits the fine control on the application of
moisture and nutrients at stated frequencies.

Fig 2.1 Drip Irrigation System Layout and its parts (Credits:Eric Simonne)
The main components of a typical drip irrigation system are:
Water Source
Pumping System
Distribution System
Drip Tape ( Drip Tube)
Injectors
Filtration System
2.1 WATER SOURCE
Common water sources for drip irrigation are surface water (pond, river, and creek),
groundwater, and potable water (from municipality, county orutility company). Use
the water source thatwill provide the largest amount of water of greatestquality and
lowest cost. Potable water is of high,constant quality, but is by far the most
expensive.

Fig 2.2 Pond: Water Source (Credits:Eric Simonne)

2.2 PUMPING SYSTEM
The role of the pumping system is to move waterfrom the water source to the field
through the distribution system. Pumping systems may be classified as electric
powered
systems,
gas/diesel powered
systems,
and
gravity
systems.Gas/diesel pumps offer the greatest versatility in isolated fields.

Fig 2.3 Diesel Powered Pumping System (Credits:Eric Simonne)

2.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The role of the distribution system is to convey the water from the source to the field.
Distribution systems may be above ground (easily movable) or underground (less
likely to be damaged).Pipes are most commonly made of PVC or polyethylene
plastics.Aluminum pipes are also available, but are more difficult to customize, cut,
and repair.The size and shape of the distribution system may vary widely from field
to field and from farm to farm.
2.4 DRIP TAPE (OR DRIP TUBE)
The drip-irrigation system delivers water to each plant through a thin polyethylene
tape (or tube) with regularly spaced small holes (called emitters). Selection of drip
tape should be based on emitter spacing and flow rate. The typical emitter spacing
for vegetables is 12 inches, but 8 inches or 4 inches may be acceptable. Dry
sections of soil may develop between consecutive emitters when a wider emitter
spacing (18 inches) is used on sandy soils. Flow rates are classified into low flow
(<20gal/100ft/hr), medium flow (20 to 30 gal/100ft/hr) and high flow(>30 gal/100ft/hr).
The risk of emitter clogging is generally higher with the lower-flow drip tapes.In the
field, drip-irrigation tape should be installed with emitters upward (looking up) to
prevent clogging from sediment deposits settling in the emitters between irrigation
events. Drip tapes are widely available from several manufacturers.

Fig 2.4 Drip Tapes (Credits:Eric Simonne)

2.5 INJECTORS
Injectors allow the introduction of fertilizer, chemicals and maintenance products into
the irrigation system. Florida law requires the use of an anti-siphoning device (also
called backflow-prevention device) when fertilizer, chemicals or any other products
are injected into a drip-irrigation system.Backflow-prevention devices ensure the
water always moves from the water source to the field. The devices prevent
chemicals in the water from polluting the water source. The most common injectors
used with smalldrip-irrigation systems are the Venturi (or Mazzei) injector and the
Dosatron.Because Venturi injectors involve no moving parts and are less expensive,
they are commonly used on small farms. The injector is typically located as close as
possible to the irrigation zone, but before the filter.

Fig 2.5 Venturi Injector (Credits:Eric Simonne)

Fig 2.6 Dosatron Injector (Credits:Eric Simonne)

2.6 FILTRATION SYSTEM
Because drip-irrigation water must pass through the emitters, the size of the particles
in the water must be smaller than the size of the emitter to prevent clogging. Nearly
all manufacturers of drip-irrigation equipment recommend that filters be used. The
filtration system removes "large" solid particles in suspension in the water. Different

types of filters are used based on the type of particles in the water. Media filters
(often containing angular sand) are used with surface water when large amounts
of organic matter (live or dead) need to be filtered out. Screen filters or disk filters
may be used withgroundwater. A 200-mesh screen or equivalent is considered
adequate
for drip irrigation.When the water contains sand, a sand separator should be
used. Rapid clogging may occur when no filter or the incorrect type of filter is used. A
filter needs to be cleaned when the difference in pressure across the R filter
(measured before and after the filter) is greater than 5 - 8 psi. A drip-irrigation system
should never be operated without a filter even if the filter requires clogged drip-tape
emitters, often resulting in poor uniformity and sometimes in crop loss. The
filter should be cleaned as often as needed. Efforts should be made to understand
the cause of the rapid clogging, and remediation for the problem should
bdeveloped. The presence of the filter after the point of fertilizer injection means
totally soluble fertilizers must be used. Otherwise fertilizer particles may contribute to
filter clogging.

F ig 2.7 Disk filters (Credits:Eric Simonne)

The whole field is divided into suitable plots. A secondary line is provided for each
such plot, and a number of trickle lines are connected to each secondary line. A
discharge regulator is provided at the beginning of each secondary line, and its
capacity is fixed in accordance with the size and the number of nozzles used. The
automatic valve at the head is so adjusted to deliver the desired quantity of water
and the irrigation terminates automatically after this amount is discharged.
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN AND LAYOUT
3.1 HOLTICULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
The goal of drip irrigation is to bring water to the crop. The main parameters that
determine crop water use are the type of crop planted and row spacing. A drip
irrigation system should be able to supply 110% - 120% of crop water needs. In other

words, the system should be slightly oversized. In designing a drip-irrigation system,

it is common to consider that vegetable crops ordinarily need approximately 1.5
acre-inches of water for each week of growth or approximately 20 acre-inches of
water per crop. Actual crop water use will be more or less than this amount,
depending on weather and irrigation efficiency.
3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Start with what is already available, the water source or the field. If a water source is
already available (pond or well), the amount of water available may be used to
calculate the maximum size of each irrigation zone.
If no water source is available, the amount of water needed by the crop, based on
the size of the planted area, may be used to calculate the type of well or pond size
needed.
3.3 LAY OUT OF BEDS AND ROWS
Because differences in altitudes affect water pressure, it is preferable to lay out beds
perpendicular to the slope. This arrangement of rows is called "contour farming.

Fig 3.1 Layout of Beds and Rows (Credits:Eric Simonne)

Excessive water velocities (>5 feet/second) in the lines, the result of a too-small
diameter are likely to create a water hammer (pressure wave), which can damage
the delivery lines. Growers should be aware of the maximum acreage that can be
irrigated with different pipe sizes at a water velocity of 5 feet/second.
The maximum length of drip tape should be based on the manufacturer's
recommendation and the actual terrain slope. Typically 400 - 600 feet are
maximum values for drip-tape length. Excessive length of laterals will result in poor
uniformity and uneven water application. When the field is longerthan 400 - 600 feet,
consider placing the secondary (submain) line in the middle of the field rather than
at the end and connect drip tape on both sides.

Table 3.1 Maximum length of drip tape (feet) and maximum irrigatable field
size (acre) with low- and medium-flow drip tape at awater velocity of 5-feet-persecond for selected diameters of Class 160 PVC pipes

CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM CONTROLS
System controls are devices that allow the user to monitor how the drip-irrigation
system performs. These controls help ensure the desired amount ofwater is applied
to the crop throughout the growing season.The different devices used for the control
are:
Pressure Regulators
Water Meters
Pressure Gauges
Soil moisture Measuring Devices
Electrical Timers
4.1 PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pressure regulators,installed in-line with the system, regulate water pressure at a
given water flow there by helping to protect system components against damaging
surges in water pressure. Pressure surges may occur when the water in the pipe has
a velocity >5 feet /second ("water hammer") or when water flowing in the pipe has no
avenue for release due to a closed valve or a clog inthe pipe.

Fig 4.1 Pressure Regulators (Credits:Eric Simonne)

4.2 WATER METERS
Water meters monitor and record the amount of water moving through a pipe where
the water meter is installed. When a stopwatch is used together with a water meter, it
is possible to determine the water flow in the system in terms of gallons-per-minute.

Fig 4.2 Water meters installed near the field (Credits:Eric Simonne)
4.3 PRESSURE GAUGES
Pressure gauges monitor water pressure in the system and ensure operating
pressure remains close to the recommended or benchmark values. Based on where
the pressure gauge is installed, it will measure water pressure in a various ranges,
from 0-100 psi near the pump to 0-20 psi at the end of drip tape.Pressure gauges
may be installed at set points (near the pump, before and after the filter, near the
Field.They can also be mounted as portable devices and installed temporarily at the
end.
4.4 SOIL MOISTURE MEASURING DEVICES
Soil-moisture-measuring devices (such as tensiometers, capacitance probes or Time
Domain Reflectometry probes) are used to measure soil moisture in the root zone of
the crop.

4.5 ELECTRICAL TIMERS

Electrical timers connected to solenoid valves may be used to automatically operate
a drip-irrigation system at pre-set starting and ending operating times of day.

Fig 4.3 Portable Pressure Gauge (Credits:Eric Simonne)

Fig 4.4 Electrical Timer (Credits:Eric Simonne)

CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM MAINTENENCE
The goal of drip-irrigation maintenance is to preserve the high uniformity of water
application allowed by drip irrigation. A successful program of maintenance for a
drip-irrigation system is based on the prevention-is-the-best-medicine approach. It is
easier to prevent a drip tape from clogging than to"unclog" it or replace it.
5.1 WATER SAMPLING
An essential part of drip-irrigation management is determining water quality through
water testing. Water testing will help determine water chemical composition, pH, and
hardness.These parameters have direct implications on chlorination, acidification
and filtration needs for irrigation water.
Table 5.1 Water quality parameter levels for emitter plugging potential of

Drip irrigation systems

5.2 THE PREVENTION IS THE BEST MEDICINE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM

This maintenance program is based on filtration, chlorination/acidification, flushing
and observation.
Table 5.2 Components of the prevention is the best medicine maintanence plan

5.3 WATCH FOR LEAKS

Leaks can occur unexpectedly as a result of damage by insects, animals, or farming
tools. Systematically monitor the lines for physical damage. It is important to fix holes
as soon as possible to prevent uneven irrigation.
5.4 CHLORINE CLEARS CLOGGED EMITTERS

If the rate of water flow progressively declines during the season, the tubes or tape
may be slowly plugging, resulting in severe damage to the crop. In addition to
maintaining the filtering stations, regular flushing of the drip tube and application of
chlorine through the drip tube will help minimize clogs. Once a month, flush the drip
lines by opening the far ends of a portion of the tubes at a time and allowing the
higher velocity water to rush out the sediment.Because algae growth and biological
activity in the tube or tape are especially high during warmer months,chlorine usually
is applied at 2-week intervals during these months.
5.4 CHEMIGATION
Manage irrigation and fertilization together to optimize efficiency. Chemigation
through drip systems efficiently delivers chemicals in the root zone of the receiving
plants. Because of the precision of application, chemigation can be safer and use
less
material.

5.5 FERTILIZATION
Soil microorganisms convert nitrogen (N) fertilizers to nitrate. Nitrate is water soluble,
available to plants, and subject to leaching loss.Fertilizer can be injected through the
drip system. Fertilizer usually is introduced into the irrigation system in front of the
filter station so the filters can remove any precipitates that occur in the solution
Fertilizers containing sulfate, phosphate, calcium, or anhydrous or aqua ammonium
can lead to solid chemical precipitation inside the drip lines, which can block
emitters.
5.6 PLACEMENT OF TAPE
The drip tape must be close enough to the surface to germinate the seed if
necessary, or a portable sprinkler system should be available. For example, a tape
tube 4 to 5 inches deep has successfully germinated onion seeds in silt loam
soil. Tape at 12 inches failed to uniformly germinate onions.
5.8 TIMING AND RATES
The total irrigation water requirements for crops grown with a drip system is greatly
reduced compared to a surface flood system because water can be applied much
more efficiently with drip irrigation. For example, with furrow irrigation, typically at
least 4 acre-feet/acre/year of water is applied to onion fields in the Treasure Valley of
eastern Oregon and southwestern Idaho. Depending on the year, summer rainfall,
and the soil, 14 to 32 acre-inches/acre of water has been needed to raise onions
under drip irrigation in the Treasure Valley.

5.9 STANDARD MAINTENANCE

Add chlorine or other chemicals to the drip line periodically to kill bacteria and algae.
Acid might also be needed to dissolve calcium carbonates. Filters must be managed
and changed as needed. Even with filtration, however, drip tape must be flushed
regularly. The frequency of flushing depends on the amount and kinds of
sedimentation in the tape.
CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DRIP IRRIGATION
6.1 ADVANTAGES
6.1.1 Reduced water use
Because drip irrigation brings the water to the plant root zone and does not wet the
entire field, drip irrigation typically requires half to a quarter of the volume of water
required by comparable overhead-irrigation systems.
6.1.2 Joint management of irrigation and Fertilization
Drip irrigation can improve the efficiency of both water and fertilizer. Precise
application of nutrients is possible using drip irrigation. Hence, fertilizer costs and
soluble nutrient losses may be reduced with drip irrigation. Nutrient applications may
also be better timed to meet plant needs.
6.1.3 Reduced pest problems
Weed and diseaseproblems may be reduced because drip irrigation does not wet
the row middles or the foliage of the crops as does overhead irrigation.
6.1.4 Simplicity
Polyvinyl chloride (pvc) andpolyethylene parts are widely available in several
diameters and are easy to assemble. Many customized, easy-to-install connectors,
endcaps, and couplers are available in different diameters. Cutting and gluing allows
for timely repairs.
6.1.5 Low pumping needs
Drip systems require low operating pressure (20-25 psi at field entrance, 10-12 psi at
the drip tape) compared to overhead systems (50-80 psi). Many existing small
pumps and wells may be used to adequately irrigate small acreage using drip
systems.

6.1.6 Automation
Drip-irrigation application may be simply managed and programmed with an AC- or
battery-powered controller, thereby reducing labor cost.
6.1.7 Adaptation
Drip systems are adaptable to oddly shaped fields or those with uneven topography
or soil texture, thereby eliminating the underutilized or non-cropped corners and
maximizing the use of available land.
6.1.8 Production advantages
Combined with raised beds, polyethylene mulch, and transplants, drip irrigation
enhances earliness and crop uniformity. Using polyethylene mulch also increases
the
cleanliness of harvested products and reduces the risk of contamination with soilborn pathogens. Reflective mulches further help reduce the incidence of viral
diseases by affecting insect vectors, such as thrips, whiteflies or aphids.

6.2 DISADVANTAGES
6.2.1 Drip irrigation requires an economic Investment
Drip-irrigation systems typically cost $500 - $1,200 or more per acre (Table 1). Part
of the cost is a capital investment useful for several years, and another part is due to
the annual cost of disposable parts. Growers new to drip irrigation should start with a
relatively simple system on a small acreage before moving to a larger system.
6.2.2 Drip irrigation requires maintenance and high-quality water
Once emitters are clogged or the tape is damaged, the tape must be replaced. Water
dripping from an emitter and the subsequent wetting pattern are hard to see, which
makes it difficult to know if the system is working properly. Proper management of
drip irrigation requires a learning period.
6.2.3 Water-application pattern must match planting pattern
If emitter spacing (too far apart) does not match the planting pattern, root
development may be restricted and/or plants may die.
6.2.4 Safety

Drip tubing may be lifted by wind or may be displaced by animals unless the drip
tape is covered with mulch, fastened with wire anchor pins,or lightly covered with
soil.
6.2.5 Leak repair
Drip lines can be easily cut or damaged by other farming operations, such as tilling,
transplanting, or manual weeding with a hoe. Damage to drip tape caused by
insects, rodents or birds may create large leaks that also require repair.
6.2.6 Drip-tape disposal causes extra cleanup costs after harvest
Planning is needed for drip-tapedisposal, recycling or reuse.

CHAPTER 7
APPLICATIONS OF DRIP IRRIGATION

Drip irrigation is used by farms, commercial greenhouses and residential

gardeners.

Fig 7.1 Drip irrigation for crops production

For cultivation in roof gardens

Fig 7.2 Drip irrigation in roof gardens

In shopping malls and embankments

Fig 7.3 Drip irrigation in embankments

In steep slopes

F ig 7.4 Drip irrigation in steep slopes

CONCLUSIONS
Drip irrigation is a latest sub-surface methods of irrigating water with higher water
demands in arid region.It may not be applicable to all farms.Yet, when properly
designed, installed and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water
conservation by reducing evaporation and deep drainage when compared to other
types of irrigation such as flood or overhead sprinklers since water can be more
precisely applied to the plant roots.In addition, drip can eliminate many diseases that
are spread through water contact with the foliage.It also results reduced energy
costs.

REFERENCES
1. Eric Simonne, Robert Hochmuth, Jacque Breman, William Lamont, Danielle
Treadwell and Aparna Gazula ( June 2008), Drip Irrigation System for Small

Conventional Vegetable Farms and Organic Vegetable Farms, Horticultural Sciences

Department, Florida Co-operative Extension Service, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, HS 1144.
2. Shock.C.C (August 2006, June 2001), Drip Irrigation: An Introduction, Malheur
Experiment Station, Oregon State University, EM 8782.
3. Modi.P.N (2008), Irrigation Water Resources and Water Power
Engineering, Standard Book House, Rajsons Publications Pvt.Ltd,1705-A, Nai
Sarak, New Delhi-110 006.