Social Network Analysis

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Applications of Social Network Analysis for Building Community

Disaster Resilience: Workshop Summary
Sammantha L. Magsino, Rapporteur; National Research Council
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978-0-309-14094-2
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Applications of Social Network Analysis for Building Community Disaster Resilience: Workshop Summary
APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL NETWORK

ANALYSIS FOR BUILDING
COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE
WORKSHOP SUMMARY
Sammantha L. Magsino, Rapporteur
Board on Earth Sciences and Resources

Division on Earth and Life Studies
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

Washington, D.C.
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of
the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National
Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The
members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences
and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security under Award No.
HSHQDC-08-C-00176. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations contained
in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the agencies
that provided support for the project. Mention of trade names, commercial products, or
organizations does not constitute their endorsement by the sponsoring agencies.
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Cover: Social network image courtesy of Carl Latkin.
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PLANNING COMMITTEE FOR THE WORKSHOP

ON APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS FOR
BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE
SUSAN L. CUTTER, Chair, University of South Carolina
KATHLEEN M. CARLEY, Carnegie Mellon University
WILLIAM A. V. CLARK, University of California, Los Angeles
ERIC HOLDEMAN, ICF International
RANDOLPH H. ROWEL, Morgan State University
MONICA SCHOCH-SPANA, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
National Research Council Staff
SAMMANTHA MAGSINO, Study Director

JARED P. ENO, Research Associate
ERIC J. EDKIN, Program Assistant
iv
GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES COMMITTEE

WILLIAM L. GRAF, Chair, University of South Carolina
LUC E. ANELIN, Arizona State University
WILLIAM A.V. CLARK, University of California
CAROL P. HARDEN, University of Tennessee
CALESTOUS JUMA, Harvard University
JOHN A. KELMELIS, The Pennsylvania State University
VICTORIA A. LAWSON, University of Washington
SUSANNE C. MOSER, Susanne Moser Research & Consulting
THOMAS M. PARRIS, ISciences LLC
NORBERT P. PSUTY, Rutgers University
DAVID R. RAIN, The George Washington University
CAETLIN OFIESH, Associate Program Officer
TONYA FONG YEE, Senior Program Assistant
v
BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES

GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
KEITH C. CLARKE, University of California, Santa Barbara
DAVID J. COWEN, University of South Carolina
WILLIAM E. DIETRICH, University of California, Berkeley
ROGER M. DOWNS, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park
JEFF DOZIER, University of California, Santa Barbara
KATHERINE H. FREEMAN, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park
WILLIAM L. GRAF, University of South Carolina
RUSSELL J. HEMLEY, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
MURRAY W. HITZMAN, Colorado School of Mines, Golden
EDWARD KAVAZANJIAN JR., Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering
LOUISE H. KELLOGG, University of California, Davis
ROBERT B. McMASTER, University of Minnesota
CLAUDIA INS MORA, Los Alamos National Laboratory
BRIJ M. MOUDGIL, University of Florida
CLAYTON R. NICHOLS, Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (retired),
Standpoint
JOAQUIN RUIZ, University of Arizona, Tucson
WILLIAM W. SHILTS, Illinois State Geological Survey, Champaign
RUSSELL STANDS-OVER-BULL, BP American Production Company, Pryor, Montana
TERRY C. WALLACE JR., Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico
HERMAN B. ZIMMERMAN, National Science Foundation (Retired)
ANTHONY R. DE SOUZA, Director
ELIZABETH A. EIDE, Senior Program Officer
DAVID A. FEARY, Senior Program Officer
ANNE M. LINN, Senior Program Officer
SAMMANTHA L. MAGSINO, Program Officer
CAETLIN M. OFIESH, Associate Program Officer
JENNIFER T. ESTEP, Financial Associate
NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Research Associate
COURTNEY R. GIBBS, Program Associate
TONYA E. FONG YEE, Senior Program Assistant
ERIC J. EDKIN, Program Assistant
vi
Acknowledgments
In response to a request by the Department of Homeland Security, the National Research

Council formed an ad hoc committee to organize a two-day workshop to discuss the use of social
network analysis (SNA) for the purpose of building community disaster resilience. The
workshop was held February 11-12, 2009, in Washington, D.C., and engaged a group of
approximately 30 researchers in the fields of SNA and resilience science as well as emergency
management practitioners from different regions of the country. Gaps in knowledge regarding
SNA and its use for constructing designed networks for the purpose of increasing resilience were
discussed, as were areas of research that could fill those gaps.
The National Research Council greatly acknowledges the work of the planning
committee that designed this workshop. Susan L. Cutter of the University of South Carolina was
the workshop moderator and served as chair of the workshop planning committee. Kathleen
Carley, Carnegie Mellon University; William A.V. Clark, University of California, Los Angeles;
Eric Holdeman, ICF International; Randolph H. Rowel, Morgan State University; and Monica
Schoch-Spana, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center served as members of the planning
committee. All put a great deal of time, thought, and effort into planning an agenda, identifying
and inviting speakers and attendees, and preparing a detailed agenda book that included a list of
select references on SNA and resilience. Committee members also served as moderators and
rapporteurs for individual breakout sessions.
The National Research Council would like to thank Kathleen Carley; Carnegie Mellon
University; Fran H. Norris, Dartmouth Medical School; Carl Latkin, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg
School of Public Health; and Michael Byrne, ICF International for providing excellent workshop
presentations intended to orient attendees regarding the subject matter to be discussed.
Additionally, the workshop would not have been successful without the important contributions
of those who attended the event. A complete list of participants is found in Appendix C of this
document. Discussions were informative, professional, and conducted in a cooperative spirit
among, in large part, individuals who do not often have the opportunity to collaborate.
This workshop summary was prepared by National Research Council staff following the
workshop. It represents the findings of the workshop participants as interpreted by a rapporteur.
vii
viii
APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE
This workshop summary has been reviewed in draft form by persons chosen for their
diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with procedures approved by the
National Research Councils Report Review Committee. The purposes of this review are to
provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making the published
summary as sound as possible and to ensure that the summary meets institutional standards of
objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft
manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to
thank the following for their participation in the review of this summary:
William A.V. Clark, University of California, Los Angeles
Darrell Darnell, District of Columbia Homeland Security and Management Agency
Jeffrey Johnson, East Carolina University
Naim Kapucu, University of Central Florida
Ann Patton, Ann Patton Company LLC
Monica Schoch-Spana, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and
suggestions, they were not asked to endorse, nor did they see, the final draft of the workshop
summary before its release. The review of this summary was overseen by the Division on Earth
and Life Studies. The division was responsible for making certain that an independent
examination of this summary was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that
all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this
summary rests entirely with the author and the National Research Council.
Contents
SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION
Workshop Planning, 11
Workshop Summary Organization, 12
2 THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE

Workshop Vocabulary, 15
The State of the Art in Social Network Analysis, 17
Studying, Assessing, and Creating Resilient Communities, 22
Reaching Vulnerable Populations through Social Networks: Case Studies of Efforts to
Prevent the Spread of HIV, 25
Using Social Networking Tools to Enhance Communication, 28
15
3 SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS FOR IMPROVED DISASTER

PREPAREDNESS AND INTERVENTION PLANNING
SNA for Improving Communication, 34
SNA for Planned Interventions, 37
SNA for Enhancing Improvisational Response within Networks of Organizations, 39
4 FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Incentives for Fostering Preparedness, 43
Understanding and Using Social Networks, 44
Quantifying Adaptive Capacities, 46
Translation from Research to Practice, 46
The Need for a Measuring Stick, 47
Communication for Resilience, 48
Next Steps, 49
ix
33
43
REFERENCES
55
APPENDIXES
A Committee Biographies
B Selected Recent References on Disaster Resilience, Social Networks, and Social
Network Analysis
C Workshop Participants
D Breakout Session Descriptions
57
61
67
69
Summary
________________________________________________________________________
PURPOSE OF THE WORKSHOP

Social Network Analysis (SNA) is the identification of the relationships and attributes
of members, key actors, and groups that social networks comprise. The National
Research Council (NRC), at the request of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS),
formed an ad hoc committee to plan a two-day workshop on the use of SNA for the
purpose of building community disaster resilience. The workshop, held February 11-12,
2009, was designed to provide guidance to the DHS on a potential research agenda that
would increase the effectiveness of SNA for improving community disaster resilience.
Explored were the state of the art in SNA and its applications in the identification,
construction, and strengthening of networks within U.S. communities. Workshop
participants discussed current work in SNA focused on characterizing networks; the
theories, principles and research applicable to the design or strengthening of networks;
the gaps in knowledge that prevent the application of SNA to the construction of
networks; and research areas that could fill those gaps. Elements of a research agenda to
support the design, development, and implementation of social networks for the specific
purpose of strengthening community resilience against natural and human-made disasters
would be discussed. Box S-1 provides definitions of terms commonly used during the
workshop.
WORKSHOP PLANNING
A planning committee designed the workshop to explore how SNA could be applied
during all phases of the disaster cycle. The planning committee invited researchers with
expertise in resilience science and in SNA for a variety of applications (e.g., antiterrorism and public health) to participate in the workshop and discuss the states of the art
and science in their respective fields. Emergency management practitioners with experience responding to disasters were invited so that the needs of community leaders with
their boots on the ground could be considered. The committee included
1
participants from different geographical regions and with varying disaster experiences so
that a broad range of issues and perspectives could be explored.
Sessions of the workshop were devoted to specific themes. In the context of disaster
preparedness, the roles of SNA and communication in enhancing the functional, structural, and interactional connections between networks were discussed. Barriers to the use
of SNA for planning activities that decrease the impact of disasters (e.g., interventions)
were also discussed. Workshop participants considered how SNA could be used to make
network ties between organizations more productive, and how SNA could be applied
during and following a disaster to make improvisational responsesthose planned once
needs and resources are identifiedmore flexible. How individuals and communities
could be engaged to promote collective behavior when preparing for, responding to, and
recovering from disasters was considered.
BOX S-1
Definitions of Key Workshop Terms
The following are definitions of key terms used in the study of social networks, social network
analysis, resiliency science, and research translation used during this workshop.
Resilience. The response to stress at individual, institutional, and societal levels categorized as
the characteristics that promote successful adaptation to adversity.
Social network. The interactions between people and organizations, including who knows, works
with, or communicates with whom, that can be mapped. The data and information found on tools
such as Facebook and the Enron Email Corpus are examples of social networks.
Social network analysis. The process of analyzing a social network and identifying key actors,
groups, vulnerabilities, and redundancies as well as the changes in these variables.
Social networking. The process of creating, maintaining, or altering ones network and to ones
advantage by using the network to gain resources or influence, or to mobilize activity.
Social network analysis tools. The set of tools, technologies, metrics, models, and visualization
techniques used for social network analysis. These may include data extraction tools, link analysis, statistical techniques, and graph theory techniques using programs such as AutoMap, ORA,
UCINET, and Pajek.
Social network theory. The set of theories for forecasting, reasoning about, and understanding
how social networks form, are maintained, and evolve, and the role of variables such as social
networking tools, media, and stress in affecting the emergence, utilization, management, and
change in social networks.
Social network tools. A set of computational techniques that enable individuals and groups to
engage in social networking by monitoring and interacting within the networks with which they are
connected. Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter are examples of social networking tools.
Translation research. The research aimed at enhancing the movement of research results from
the scientific to the applied realms.
SUMMARY
WORKSHOP SUMMARY
This document summarizes the major points and ideas expressed during the workshop
as documented by the rapporteur. As such, the summary reflects the specific topics emphasized by workshop presentations and discussions and may not be a comprehensive
summary of all relevant topics and issues. Viewpoints expressed in this summary do not
necessarily represent the views of the workshop planning committee or the NRC, nor
does the summary contain conclusions or recommendations.
GENERAL WORKSHOP THEMES
A robust scientific literature on SNA exists, and literature in disaster and community
resilience is emergent. However, workshop participants noted that disjunctions exist between SNA theory and its application, and between the SNA research and emergency
management communities. Workshop participants discussed how properly targeted research in networking theory, the social and resiliency sciences, and research translation,
conducted in parallel with the development of SNA tools designed specifically for and
with emergency management practitioners, could facilitate the adoption of SNA by the
emergency management community. The adoption of SNA has the potential to revolutionize the way organizations and communities function in general, and prepare and respond to disasters in specific.
SNA allows study of complex human systems through the visualization and characterization of relationships between people, groups, and organizations. A graphical representation of a social network that shows individual network members (defined as nodes)
and their linkages (defined as ties) could be a product of the analysis (see Figure S-1).
The impact of information or activities on individuals and the network as a whole may be
analyzed and predicted for different scenarios and options. Because SNA can reveal the
characteristics, composition, and structure of networks at a given time and over time,
SNA could be an important tool for understanding how parts of the community work or
could work together to plan for and respond to disasters. SNA has been used to inform
policy in areas such as terrorism prevention and public health improvement, and could
facilitate decision making related to the improvement of community disaster resilience.
Community resilience, in sociological terms, is the ability of a community or social
unit to withstand external shocks, such as disasters, to its infrastructure. Community resilience emerges from a communitys ability to adapt to stress and return to healthy functioning. The speed with which a community can mobilize and use resources during and
following a disaster is strongly dependent on its abilities to adapt to change. The strength
of its social networks is a factor. Building community resilience is a process that develops the capacities that allow communities to adapt. The building of disaster resilience can
be considered a strategy for disaster readiness. Incremental improvements in resilience
can significantly improve the capacity of a community to prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters. However, just as a community may change with time, a communitys response to a disaster may change with time. A disaster that has little impact on a
community at one time may have a devastating impact on it at another time. An
understanding of the dynamic nature of resilience is essential for good planning.
Successful building of resilience is dependent on the reduction of risk to individuals and
FIGURE S-1 Graphical representation of a social network. SOURCE: Kathleen Carley, Carnegie Mellon
University, Institute for Software Research International (2009).
communities. It is also dependent on the development of long-term intervention programs

designed to change or improve conditions and behaviors in the community, making them
resistant to stress and changes over time.
Discussion among workshop participants brought to light that many of the same capacities and characteristics that allow a community to continue functioning during a disaster (e.g., being well informed, well networked, and possessing the ability to respond to
situations with creativity and flexibility) are those that allow a community to thrive during normal times. Many workshop participants stated that by increasing the capacity for
effective communication through social networks, a community may be created that is
resilient to a broad range of stressors. Investing in the building of community resilience is
highly likely to yield rapid returns through the creation of stronger and healthier communities. According to many at the workshop, the application of SNA could advance resilience science and benefit community planning.
Emergency management practitioners who attended the workshop noted the need to
establish measures of the effectiveness of disaster mitigation or response activities before
establishing priorities and allocating resources. A measuring stick for social, economic,
and relational capacities is of the utmost importance. However, because connections
among organizations are not fully understood, the status of the connections cannot be
measured, nor can they be measured for change. Workshop participants stated that baseline data could provide measuring sticks for changes in networks, the characteristics that
foster community resilience, and the magnitude of realized or potential stresses caused by
a variety of stressors. Quantifying which adaptive capacities are essential to community
disaster resilience is necessary, according to workshop participants, in order to measure
the effectiveness of activities to improve community disaster resilience.
SUMMARY
Workshop participants expert in the field considered SNA theory and applications to
be quite advanced, but participants stated that SNA is not being applied in ways that
assist local communities and practitioners. From the scientific perspective, more and
better data about networks are required for the development of the tools needed to
advance the science and practice of SNA. Additionally, the means to test the validity of
social science models resulting from SNA have yet to be developed. From the
practitioners perspective, explanations of SNA and its tools need to be made more
meaningful to gain acceptance in everyday practice. Innovations and a proliferation of
networking technologies (e.g., wireless technologies and networking software) are easily
accessible. Awareness of both the positive and negative issues associated with the use of
networking technologies to support social networking, however, would benefit the
emergency management community.
RESEARCH THEMES
Several research areas were identified by workshop participants as prerequisite to advancing the use of SNA for building community disaster resilience. Disaster management
decision making depends on numerous factors including the phase of the disaster, available resources, and the level of authority at which decisions are made. SNA could improve situational awareness by emergency management practitioners by allowing them to
understand and measure the status of networks within their communities. Using what is
learned from SNA, necessary interventions and the conditions and network associations
required for their success can be identified. The best means of communicating and implementing interventions can also be developed.
Numerous useful research topics were discussed by workshop participants and are described in the main body of this document. Recurring research themes discussed during
the workshop are synthesized in the following sections. Workshop participants stated that
addressing these themes could stimulate the use of SNA to build community disaster
resilience. Barriers to conducting and applying the research are also discussed.
Areas of Research
Baseline Data
Many workshop participants indicated that a certain level of baseline information regarding networks is necessary to determine the resilience of a community to extreme
events. Baseline data describe the starting conditions by which change can be measured
and include all manner of data regarding networks and their members. These data are fed
into SNA to produce baseline models. Little, for instance, is presently known about who
populates the formal, governmental networks responsible for a regions disaster management or how they may integrate with other social networks that reside in civil society
for emergency management purposes. Without this baseline level of knowledge, it is difficult to evaluate the evolution of the composition of social networks and how these
changes relate to resilience levels. However, collection and management of baseline data,
according to participants, is not currently feasible given research funding practices.

Workshop participants repeatedly stressed that the accuracy of network analysis, monitoring, and intervention design cannot be certain without baseline data.
Validation Techniques
Mechanisms to validate new data, network models, and decisions made using SNA
and related tools would also benefit practitioners and scientists. Practitioners described
the need for mechanisms that can vet for accuracy the data traveling through a network,
and indicate if the data require action or response. New networking technologies allow
large amounts of data to travel quickly through networks. Practitioners need a means to
sort which data are good, bad, redundant, and actionable.
Understanding Network Dynamics
Networks are likely to change quickly during a disaster as infrastructure fails or is restructured, people relocate, or the availability of resources change. Building resiliency
into social networks requires an understanding of how networks evolve during normal
times, and during times of stress. Understanding how networks change when stressed,
and how to promote positive changes that allow the networks to function during a disaster, is important. Some workshop participants suggested that new methods for studying
network dynamics are needed. It is essential that network models be constantly updated.
SNA tools would be more useful to practitioners if they allowed quick visualization of
the changing nature and uncertainties in linkages within and between networks. This
would allow more effective diffusion of information during all stages of the disaster
cycle.
Better Data Gathering Techniques
New and more refined data gathering techniques could result in better social network
models. For example, workshop participants repeatedly stressed how SNA could be more
effective if the means of obtaining proprietary and personal data for SNA while preserving the privacy of individuals and institutions were developed. Such data as who within
and between private sector organizations communicates with whom and what kinds of
people receive certain medical treatment under certain circumstances provide real insights into the nature of networks and their members. Workshop participants stressed the
importance of maintaining privacy. Legal and ethical barriers are an issue.
Government and Community Interaction
Workshop participants discussed that greater understanding of the ways individuals,
organizations, locales, and agencies are connected to social networks and how these
components are used would likely result in more effective use of networks to build
SUMMARY
community resilience. An understanding of how connectivity to networks may change

under stress would also be valuable. Additionally, the skill sets and attributes of network
members need to be understood in order to identify members that may emerge as trusted
opinion leaders within their communities. These are individuals who could be enlisted to
effectively disseminate information to their communities. Research on emergent behaviorsbehaviors that arise as a consequence of a disasterand the promotion of proresponse emergent behaviors among private individuals and individuals within organizations could also lead to better planning and the promotion of resilience.
Exploring SNA in other Contexts
Study of how SNA is applied in areas such as network centric warfare, counter terrorism, and public health would aid in the application of SNA for improving community
disaster resilience. The vocabulary of network-centric warfare is different from that used
by social scientists, but the goals are similar: to understand and improve how information
is sought and exchanged; and to develop action instruments that enable decision making.
According to workshop participants, practitioners who collect, analyze, understand,
model, and incorporate network data into their decision-making processes may be better
poised to help their communities become more resilient. Building resilience is not only
about preparation for disasters. Studying how networks deal with broader social issues
would also be useful. Research on how communities deal with issues such as ethnic
oppression may yield a rich and pertinent literature on community resilience from which
to draw.
New Research Paradigms
Barriers to SNA research and use of SNA tools by practitioners for building
community disaster resilience were often discussed during the workshop. Although
addressing these barriers is not directly part of the charge given the workshop planning
committee, many participants noted that these barriers could affect the effectiveness of a
future research agenda and the adoption of SNA tools in practice. Suggested strategies to
overcome these barriers are summarized below.
Participants pointed out that current strategies for funding research and moving research results into practice are not adequate to address the large-scale and complex social
science issues. New funding frameworks that accommodate larger and longer-term
studies would benefit both the research and practice communities. For example, better
baseline data from which progress can be benchmarked would probably result. Incentives
to encourage rapid-response investigations immediately following an event, and
multidisciplinary research in general, could lead to more immediately useful results for
practitioners including information on topics such as intervention methodologies that
have proven successful. Collaborative research conducted with practitioners, and between
public and private entities, could make the adoption of SNA techniques among
practitioners more likely. Removing barriers of access to infrastructure and data may also
result. Workshop participants noted that the most relevant research, tools, and data for
decision making would be those identified jointly by researchers and practitioners, with
input received from the private sector.
Some practitioners and researchers at the workshop expressed concern that current
homeland security priorities tend to encourage a focus on antiterrorism activities within
the emergency management community. Some suggested that sources of community
stress need to be adequately assessed to confirm whether a focus on antiterrorism is
locally warranted. A better understanding of community stressors could allow for more
informed allocation of resources.
Several workshop participants stated that researchers needed incentives to collaborate
with practitioners. Placing more value within the university and research cultures in
moving research into practice might foster such incentives. For example, the medical
community has begun to support translational research (e.g., research on how to enhance
the adoption of research products into practice) and translational activities (e.g., the
training in the use of research results). These incentives have also encouraged universities
to consider translational work in their decisions to award tenure to faculty. Adoption of
similar policies in other research communities could encourage younger researchers
(those most likely to be familiar with social networking technologies) to engage in
translational work.
Workshop participants discussed the idea of developing regional collaboratives
among local universities, agencies, and businesses. For example, local, state, and federal
resources could be used to establish collaboratives to encourage thorough baseline expertise on regional social networks and adaptive capacities. The regions could be consistent
with the 10 regions into which Federal Emergency Management Agency divides the
United States. Each collaborative could be a repository for regional baseline data and
serve as a resource for federal and local response agencies during crises. Longitudinal
and rapid response investigations could tap those resources and be conducted within the
collaborative framework.
1
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
A communitys ability to respond to and recover from natural or human-caused

disasters is in part dependent on the strength and effectiveness of its social networks.
Effective interventionsactivities designed to change or improve conditions in the
communityduring all phases of a disaster can be facilitated by community leaders
taking advantage of existing social networks to send and receive information.
Conversely, a community may be at risk if the relationships across the economic,
cultural, social, and political sectors of the civic infrastructure are not understood. The
ability to visualize interactions within and between community networks (for example,
who communicates or works with whom) promotes situational awareness, rigorous
coordinated planning, and the optimal allocation of resources necessary for disaster
preparedness, community resilience, and response.
In sociological terms, community resilience is the ability of a community or social
unit to withstand external shocks to its infrastructure (Norris et al., 2008). Community
resilience emerges from the ability to adapt to stress and return to healthy functioning.
The speed with which a community can mobilize and use resources during and following
a disaster event is strongly dependent on its various capacities to adapt to change and is
related to the strength of its social networks.
Social network analysis (SNA) is the study of complex human systems through the
mapping and characterizing of relationships between people, groups, or organizations.
Because SNA can reveal the characteristics, composition, and structure of existing networks, SNA may prove an important tool for understanding how the public and private
sectors work together to respond to a disaster. SNA has been used to inform policy
making in areas such as terrorism prevention, and could be useful for building community disaster resilience.
SNA could also be used to design or build networks for the purpose of building
community resilience. The Human Factors Division within the Science and Technology
Directorate of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) applies social and behavioral
sciences to support the preparedness, response, and recovery of communities affected by
catastrophic events. Its goal is to advance homeland security technologies and planning
by integrating human factors. The DHS contracted with the National Research Council
9
10
(NRC) to hold a two-day workshop to examine the current state of the art in SNA and its
applicability to the identification, construction, and strengthening of networks within U.S.
communities for the purpose of building community disaster resilience.
To answer its charge, the NRC formed an ad hoc workshop planning committee under
the auspices of the Geographical Sciences Committee of the Board on Earth Sciences and
Resources. The committee was tasked with organizing and conducting the workshop. The
committees statement of task is provided in Box 1-1. It includes the identification of
elements of a future research agenda to support the design, development, and implementation of social networks for the specific purpose of strengthening the resilience of communities against natural and man-made hazards and terrorist events. The workshop took
place February 11-12, 2009, and featured presentations and discussions on social networks, social networking tools, SNA theory and tools, and community resilience.
As described by Michael Dunaway of DHS, the ultimate result of a research agenda
influenced by this workshop summary could be the creation of accessible tools that
would enable county-level emergency management directors and other community
leaders to define and visualize networks within their communities. With the ability to
identify relationships within and among networks, social structures and adaptive capacities can be built and reinforced to make communities more disaster resilient. Workshop
participants discussed whether such tools were possible and the type of research that
could enable their development.
BOX 1-1
Statement of Task
An ad hoc committee will organize a two-day public workshop to examine the current state of
the art in Social Network Analysis (SNA) and its applicability to the identification, construction,
and strengthening of networks within U.S. communities for the purpose of building community
resilience.
The workshop will explore the topic through invited presentations and facilitated discussions
among invited participants, including the following issues:
Current work in SNA that has focused on defining the characteristics, composition, and
structure of existing networks (e.g., terrorist cells; infectious disease transmission;
narcotics trafficking);
Theories, principles, or hypotheses within the science of SNA that could be applied to
the construction of designed networks to develop or enhance the strength of
relationships within geographic or functional communities;
Current research that has focused on the use of SNA for the development of designed
networks;
Gaps in current knowledge within the field of SNA that would inhibit the ability to apply
SNA theories or principles to the construction of networks;
Research areas that could fill gaps in this knowledge; and
Elements of a research agenda that could be pursued to support the design, development, and implementation of social networks for the specific purpose of strengthening
the resilience of communities against natural and man-made hazards and terrorist
events.
INTRODUCTION
11
WORKSHOP PLANNING
The Planning Committee
The workshop planning committee consisted of six members with expertise in the areas of SNA, spatial social science, hazards, resilience science, and community and disaster management. Appendix A provides biographies of the planning committee members.
The committee held five teleconferences to discuss the statement of task, identify workshop participants, and develop an agenda. References shared among the committee members became the basis for the bibliography included in the workshop briefing materials
and as Appendix B of this document.
Structure of the Workshop
The workshop planning committee selected two major themes around which to organize the workshop: the use of SNA for preparedness and intervention, and the use of
SNA in improvisational disaster response. The committee invited researchers and emergency management practitionersthose with their boots on the ground during an
emergencyto participate. Researchers and community leaders from different geographical regions of the country, and with varying disaster experiences, were invited so
that a broad range of issues and perspectives could be considered. A list of participants is
presented as Appendix C of this document. Participants included individuals familiar
with SNA for other purposes, such as identification of terrorist cells and for the
development of programs to thwart the spread of infectious disease. Individuals that work
with populations that could be disenfranchised during an emergency, such as the nonEnglish speaking poor, were included among participants. The workshop agenda appears
in Box 1-2.
The planning committee devoted the first morning of the workshop to defining topics
to be discussed, including community resilience, social networking, and the states of the
science and practice of SNA. Case studies in the use of social networks and SNA were
provided. Summaries of presentations and discussions are found in Chapter 2. As indicated in Box 1-2, the introductory session was followed by concurrent breakout sessions
on the major workshop themes, moderated by a member of the planning committee. The
first set of concurrent sessions addressed how SNA could be used to enhance communication, and how SNA could be used for planning interventions in preparation for a disaster. The second set of concurrent breakout sessions addressed how SNA might enhance
communications when coordinating the improvisational response of networks of
organizations; and how SNA could enhance communication within local communities
and among individuals. Breakout sessions concluded with a reconvening of workshop
participants to summarize discussions. Appendix D includes descriptions of breakout
session topics as well as questions developed by the workshop planning committee to
guide discussion. Workshop participants were given these descriptions and questions
before the workshop.
12
A concluding plenary session focused on key gaps in knowledge regarding the application of SNA to foster community disaster resilience and the research needed to fill
them. Specific research themes were considered.
WORKSHOP SUMMARY ORGANIZATION
This document summarizes the major points and ideas presented at the workshop as
documented by a rapporteur. The summary reflects the specific topics emphasized by
workshop presentations and discussions and may not be a comprehensive summary of all
relevant topics and issues. Any documented observations contained in this summary are
those of individual participants or groups of participants and do not necessarily represent
the consensus of the workshop participants or planning committee, nor does the summary
contain any consensus conclusions or recommendations.
This workshop summary is organized into four chapters. This chapter introduces the
reader to the purpose and organization of the workshop. Chapter 2 summarizes the
introductory presentations and discussions and explores the current states of the science
and practice as presented by workshop speakers. Definitions of key terms used by
workshop participants and in this summary are also provided. Chapter 3 summarizes the
discussions of the utility of SNA in identifying networks and improving community
resiliency before and during a disaster and in the response and recovery phases of a disaster. Chapter 4 synthesizes the ideas of workshop participants on how to move from the
theoretical realm to the practical application of SNA for improving community resilience.
Gaps in knowledge and potential research that could fill those gaps as identified by participants are summarized, as are barriers to SNA research and application.
INTRODUCTION
13
BOX 1-2
Applications of Social Network Analysis for Building Community
Disaster Resilience: A Workshop
February 11-12, 2009
AGENDA
Wednesday, February 11, 2009
8:30
Welcome and Introductory Remarks

Susan Cutter, Ph.D., Chair, Committee on Applications of Social Network
Analysis for Building Community Disaster Resilience
University of South Carolina
SESSION 1
INTRODUCTION: TOPIC OVERVIEW AND DEFINITIONS
(PLENARY)
8:45
Current State of the Art in Social Network Analysis

Kathleen Carley, Ph.D., Carnegie Mellon University Institute for Software
Research International
9:05
Discussion
9:20
Fostering Community Resiliency: Theory and Practice

Fran H. Norris, Ph.D., Dartmouth Medical School National Center for Disaster
Mental Health Research
9:40
Discussion
10:10
Reaching Vulnerable Populations through Social Networks

Carl Latkin, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
10:30
Discussion
10:45
Using Social Networks to Enhance Communications

Michael Byrne, ICF International
11:05
Discussion
11:20
Synthesis and Discussion of Goals for Breakout Sessions

Susan Cutter, Chair
SESSION 2
USING SNA FOR PREPAREDNESS AND INTERVENTION
(CONCURRENT SESSIONS)
1:00 p.m.
Session 2a: Communication

Moderator: William A. V. Clark, Ph.D., University of California, Los
Angeles
Rapporteur: Kathleen Carley, Ph.D., Carnegie Mellon University
14

Session 2b: Planned Interventions
Moderator: Randolph H. Rowel, Ph.D., Morgan State University
Rapporteur: Monica Schoch-Spana, Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh
Medical Center
Plenary Session
3:45
Reports from Break-out Sessions & Wrap Up
4:30
Adjourn
Thursday, February 12, 2009

SESSION 3
IMPROVISATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE
(CONCURRENT SESSIONS)
8:30
Session 3a: Networks of Organizational Connections

Moderator: Monica Schoch-Spana, Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh
Medical Center
Rapporteur: William A. V. Clark, Ph.D., University of California, Los
Angeles
Session 3b: Networks within Local Communities and between Individuals
Moderator: Eric Holdeman, ICF International
Rapporteur: Randolph H. Rowel, Ph.D., Morgan State University
Plenary Session
11:15
Reports from Break-out Sessions & Wrap Up

SESSION 4
RESEARCH NEEDS AND IMPLEMENTATION GAPS
(PLENARY)
1:00 p.m.
What we dont know and need to know about SNA and resilience
Identification of knowledge gaps and priority research areas
Identification of specific research themes that enhance

implementation of social networks as a means for increasing
community resilience against disasters.
2:30
Next Steps: Moving the research agenda forward
3:45
Closing Remarks
Susan Cutter, Chair
4:30
Adjourn
2
________________________________________________________________________
The Science and Practice
This chapter summarizes introductory presentations and discussions of the first session
of the workshop. The purpose of the session was to introduce participants to the workshop
charge (see Box 1-1) and the terminology to be used throughout discussions. Speakers
were invited to provide basic information on the sciences and practices of social network
analysis (SNA), fostering community resilience, reaching vulnerable populations through
social networks, and the use of social networking tools to improve communication.
WORKSHOP VOCABULARY
During the first day of workshop discussions, the workshop planning committee
observed inconsistent use of key terms related to social networks and SNA by
participants. To avoid confusion, the committee provided definitions for these terms (see
Box 2-1). A social network is a group of people and organizations that form a web of
relationships. Social networks were being confused with the tools used to facilitate them
(such as Facebook1) or to analyze them. Social network analysis is the process of
analyzing the key actors and connections within a social network. SNA can reveal
redundancies and vulnerabilities within a network, and can be used to study the changes
in all these variables. A product of SNA may be a graphical representation of a network
that shows the interconnectedness of network members. An example is provided as
Figure 2-1.
Issues were also encountered with the use of the term resiliency. As described in
Chapter 1, resiliency is the ability of a social unit to withstand external shocks to its
infrastructure (Norris presentation to workshop participants).
Facebook is a free-access, privately owned social networking website. See www.facebook.com (accessed
March 24, 2009).
15
16
BOX 2-1
Definitions of Key Social Network Terms
The workshop planning committee developed the following definitions of key terms used in the
study of social networks and social network analysis.
Social network. The interactions between people and organizations, including who knows, works
with, or communicates with whom, that can be mapped. The data and information found, for
example, in Facebooka and the Enron Email Corpusb are examples of social networks.
Social network tools. A set of computational techniques that enable individuals and groups to
engage in social networking by monitoring and interacting within the networks with which they are
connected. Facebook, MySpace,c and Twitterd are examples of social networking tools.
Social networking. The process of creating, maintaining, or altering ones network to ones
advantage by using the network to gain resources or influence, or to mobilize activity.
Social network analysis. The process of analyzing a social network and identifying key actors,
groups, vulnerabilities, and redundancies as well as the changes in these variables.
Social network analysis tools. The set of tools, technologies, metrics, models, and visualization
techniques used for social network analysis. These may include data extraction tools, link
analysis, statistical techniques, and graph theory techniques using programs such as AutoMap,e
ORA,f UCINET,g and Pajek.h
Social network theory. The set of theories for forecasting, reasoning about, and understanding
how social networks form, are maintained, and evolve, and the role of variables such as social
networking tools, media, and stress in affecting the emergence, utilization, management, and
change in social networks.
a
See www.facebook.com (accessed March 2, 2009).

See, for example, ebiquity.umbc.edu/blogger/2006/02/05/search-the-enron-email-corpus-online/ (accessed
March 2, 2009).
c
See www.myspace.com (accessed April 5, 2009).
d
See twitter.com/ (accessed March 2, 2009).
e
See www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/automap/ (accessed May 10, 2009).
f
See www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/ora/ (accessed May 10, 2009).
g
See www.analytictech.com/downloaduc6.htm (accessed May 10, 2009).
h
See vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/ (accessed May 10, 2009)
b
THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
17
FIGURE 2-1 Graphical representation of a social network. SOURCE: Kathleen Carley, Carnegie Mellon
University, Institute for Software Research International (2009).
THE STATE OF THE ART IN SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS

Kathleen M. Carley of the Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organization
Systems (CASOS) of the Carnegie Mellon Institute was invited to give a presentation on
the state of the art in SNA. She provided an overview of the main tools of SNA that focus
on defining the characteristics, composition, and structure of existing social networks.
Her presentation and subsequent discussion are summarized here. Other topics and issues
may be relevant to SNA, such as the study of ego networks, but were not discussed at the
workshop and not included in this summary. Unless otherwise noted, the ideas expressed
in the following sections are attributable to Dr. Carley.
People, units of action, partners, departments, resources, ideas, skills, events, and
countries can be graphically represented as nodes in a network (for example, the dots in
Figure 2-1). The linksor tiesbetween the nodes are the interrelations and may
represent physical ties such as roads or rivers, or less tangible ties such as alliances,
associations, authority lines, transfer of resources, precedence, or who likes or respects
whom. SNA can be used to identify and understand the relationships and strengths of the
ties within a network, and understand how these ties are vulnerable under certain
circumstances. SNA can also be used to conduct sentiment analyses to understand the
flow of ideas or feelings.
Classic social network and link analysis modeling and basic pattern detection
capabilities are readily available but not commonly applied in policy making.
Nonetheless research in SNA is rapidly expanding and cutting-edge technologies yield
exciting results with sociopolitical ramifications. SNA is mostly unused at the local level
with the exception of epidemiological studies, such as the tracking of disease sources,
18
and in counterterrorism and counternarcotic investigations. Most of what is known about

social networks, however, is not integral to disaster management practice.
SNA for any purpose is often thwarted by the discrepancy between the amount of
data needed to yield meaningful results and the amount of data available. The lack of
technological capacity and the lack of social science skills needed to correctly apply
SNA-derived models are also factors. Researchers addressing the data question do not
expect to close this gap within the next decade.
Cutting-Edge Approaches: Dynamic Network Analysis
Traditional SNA focuses on nodes within a network and considers the attributes that
make an individual node stand out. The state of the art in the field of SNA is beyond
determining who communicates with whom. Newer approaches to SNA consider
networks as a whole, and powerful techniques exist that allow the analyses of the what,
where, how, why, and when of situations. These techniques enable a user to identify the
need for interventions, plan for them, and provide input for policy management. Most
agencies, including disaster management agencies, currently collect trail data, such as
who entered a health department on what day for what information, or who crossed the
border at what time.
State-of-the-art data collection includes a dynamic network analysis suite of three
types of tools to track and analyze trail and other network data. The suite includes (1)
data mining tools, such as AutoMap, that collect network data from open sources such as
newspapers to identify network components; (2) statistical analysis-type packages, such
as Organizational Risk Analyzer (ORA), that take into account social and dynamic
network metrics, conduct broader data mining and link analyses, and apply machine
learning techniques for clustering; and (3) simulation tools, such as DyNet, Construct,
and BioWar, that allow scenario analysis for the consideration of various options. Box 22 provides descriptions of some of these tools.
Although dynamic social network analysis is used in some applications, many
barriers exist to their widespread use for analyzing complex networks. It is difficult to
extract text and links from the wide range of required data sources. Many applicable
analytical techniques for city-scale networks require extensive computational resources.
Additionally, many simulation models are built for a single purpose and cannot be
reused, quickly making them obsolete. Finally, interpreting and moving this level of
information into the policy realm and scale is not yet a functional reality.
19
BOX 2-2
Dynamic Network Analysis Tools
AutoMap is a product of CASOS at the Carnegie Mellon University and is a text mining tool that
enables the extraction of network data from texts. The tool can extract content analytic data
(words and frequencies), semantic networks, and metanetworks. The main functions of AutoMap
are to extract, analyze, and compare mental models of individuals and groups, and to reveal the
structure of social and organizational systems from texts.
SOURCE: www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/automap/ (accessed March 21, 2009).
BioWar is a CASOS package that enables community leaders to prepare for biological attacks
using computational models of social networks, communication media, disease models,
demographically accurate agent modes, wind dispersion models, and a diagnostic error model
combined into a single model of the impact of an attack on a city.
SOURCE: www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/biowar/ (accessed March 21, 2009).
Construct, developed by CASOS, is a multiagent model of group interactions where agents
communicate, learn, and make decisions in a continuous cycle. The program takes into account
how agents learn through interaction and change their perception of the environment.
SOURCE: www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/construct/info.html (accessed March 21, 2009).
DyNet is a reasoning support tool developed by CASOS intended to simulate reasoning about
dynamic networked organizations under varying levels of uncertainty using computer science,
social network, and organization theory.
SOURCE: www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/DyNet/dynet_info.html (accessed March 21, 2009).
i2 Analysts Notebook is a commercial visual investigative analysis tool that allows investigators
to organize large volumes of disparate data and conduct link and timeline analyses.
SOURCE: www.i2inc.com/products/analysts_notebook/ (accessed May 12, 2009).
Organizational Risk Analyzer (ORA) is a risk assessment tool developed by CASOS that
examines network information and identifies individuals or groups that are potential risks to a
network given social, knowledge, and task network information.
SOURCE: www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/projects/ora/ (accessed May 12, 2009).
Palantir is a commercially available information analysis platform for integrating, visualizing, and
analyzing structured, unstructured, relational, temporal, and geospatial data for security,
intelligence, defense, and financial applications.
SOURCE: www.palantirtech.com/ (accessed May 12, 2009).
R is a computer language and environment for statistical computing and graphics developed by
Bell Laboratories. SOURCE: www.r-project.org/ (accessed May 12, 2009).
Starlight Information Visualization System is a visualization-oriented user interface for
temporal and spatial information analysis and network modeling developed by the Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory. SOURCE: starlight.pnl.gov/ (accessed May 12, 2009).
UCINET is a commercially available comprehensive package for the analysis of social network
data using a variety of network and statistical analysis methods.
SOURCE: www.analytictech.com/ucinet6/ucinet.htm (accessed May 12, 2009).
20
Functional Applications in Dynamic Social Network Analysis

Available tools make it possible to conduct network analysis with open-source, rawtext data input, such as information from newspapers, and then conduct scenario analysis
(e.g., what would happen given a certain set of circumstances), and finally conduct
analysis that can identify emergent leaders. Analysis is possible, for example, that can
connect all of the potential emergency responses in a community to specific emergency
responders in order to see where vulnerabilities in a response network exist. Location
analysis can be done to see how things are done differently in different areas. Geospatial
network analysis is possible, as is information gain and loss tracking. It is also possible to
detect changes in organizations and behavior over time within a network using available
analytical techniques. If the resources are available, the mapping of belief structures and
trends over time is possible and may allow policy makers to identify where people hold
certain beliefs, where beliefs are likely to change, who the critical actors are that enable
change, and to predict who will be central to the network in the future. Belief forecasting
analysis can be conducted for given types of network structures and sociodemographics.
The results of the analysis provide policy makers and leaders with powerful information
to help them determine how best to communicate with and enlist the assistance of their
communities.
The resulting data and models from dynamic social network analyses can allow
managers to identify critical network features, identify opportunities for intervention
analysis or action, and conduct limited types of event forecasting.
Issues and Knowledge Gaps in the Application of SNA
Traditional SNA technologies that are able to reveal weaknesses in response
networks, identify vulnerable populations, target opinion leaders in communities, or
conduct text mining to support hot-topic analyses are not regularly utilized in policymaking settings. This is also true in the disaster management community where, in
general, networks do not exist that link emergency responders with one another or with
networks elsewhere in the community. Some workshop participants expressed the view
that SNA could be applied in analysis of the emergency management community and
emergency response plans that are in place at the national, state, and local levels.
Proper Use of Tools
Framework modeling and network statistical analysis tools are readily available to
community and disaster managers, but those using them often are not familiar with community social science models. Under such circumstances, statistical analyses may be
overapplied, good interpretation of network situations may be missing, and resulting
models may be in error. Even scientifically sound network models may be used incorrectly, or metrics for change may be misinterpreted. According to some workshop participants, increased communication between social scientists in the research community
and modelers within emergency management communities would be beneficial. A barrier
to collaboration, however, is that researchers and practitioners do not use the same
21
analysis tools. Different tools are used, in part because of the cost and accreditation of
software, and because of the scalability and visualization capabilities of various software
packages.
Need for Translational Research
To realize the benefits of SNA, it is essential that information move from the research
realm into practice, also known as translation of research. Research conducted on the best
means to translate information is defined as translation research. Translation research can
be helpful in developing an educational process that demonstrates how the adoption of
new ideas and tools will yield actionable results for practitioners. Methodologies,
language, and examples that would be most meaningful to a target audience can be
identified. Louise Comfort of the Graduate School of Public and International Affairs,
University of Pittsburgh, described experiences promoting the use of networking
technologies in different municipalities. She found that new technologies could be
quickly accepted if individuals were willing to think beyond their traditional routines
(Comfort and Wukich, 2009). She described the interaction and process of learning that
occurs on at least three levels to create a learning network:
(1) Individuals learn the technologies;
(2) Efficient and easier communication occurs among individuals as a result; and
(3) Collaboration and validation of information occurs.
Generally, younger personnel with access to better equipment were more willing to
accept new technologies. Acceptance of technologies into practical use has occurred
within the drug-traffic enforcement and healthcare communities. Acceptance more often
occurs when champions of the technologies are identified within the communities to
collaborate in the development of educational materials. Similar relationships would be
useful to the disaster management community.
Translational activities validate basic findings for practitioners in language that can
be understood, and can result in the decrease in the time to move a concept from the
research realm into practice. Dr. Carley indicated that the engineering field engages in
translational research that results in a relatively small lag of six years between the
inception of an idea and its practical application. She stated that the translation of
complex SNA techniques is estimated to occur only after approximately 24 years because
the SNA community is not actively engaged in translational research and activities.
Without translation research, widespread benefits resulting from the application of SNA
will be negligible. In spite of this, no agency is charged with funding such research.
Cost
There are different but related costs to be factored in by a community when
considering SNA technologies for building community disaster resilience: the cost of the
necessary analytical tools, the cost of creating the network of individuals to conduct the
analyses, and the cost of creating the community networks necessary to develop community
22
resilience. It was discussed during the workshop that a complex network analysis for a
system at the city level could require between half a million and several million dollars.
The cost can vary significantly depending on the data already available and the level and
condition of available hardware. The cost of SNA tools may be controlled by taking
advantage of free and currently available state-of-the-art tools. Agencies typically use
commercially available software at a cost of thousands of dollars.
Validation of Models
According to Dr. Carley, confidence in models developed using SNA tools is
necessary before policy makers will make model-based decisions. However, global
datasets essential to validating models do not exist. This is particularly true in the area of
disaster preparedness for which large-scale baseline or control data for comparison to
projected models are not available. Detailed data may be available regarding specific
investigations, for example, arrest records for research documenting specific crimes
following a disaster, or health care records documenting a specific disease outbreak.
These data, however, are often incongruent, not comprehensive, and not global in scope.
When combined they can often lead to baseline models that are inadequate. Legal barriers
and unwillingness of agencies or jurisdictions to share data factor into the unavailability
of data. Privacy and security issues are a primary reason for this unwillingness to share.
A workshop participant indicated that this issue was recognized and discussed in a recent
NRC study Successful Response Starts with a Map (2007).
The only standards available with which to validate complex social system models
are engineering standards. These are not adequate for the task. New technologies for
social model validation could result in reduced error and better models.
Behavioral Factors
Not enough is currently understood about how trust in and reliance on information
sources change as a result of stress. A better understanding of the nature of these changes
in a technology environment could allow these concepts to be usefully incorporated into
network models and decision making. Additionally, researchers may understand how data
are collected off the Web and how individuals use their networks, but it might not be
understood how the flow of information changes if the status of individuals connectivity
to the Web changes. Researchers do not know, for example, how Internet penetration in a
network changes who the opinion leaders of a network are. This gap is acknowledged and
being addressed by the Office of the Secretary of Defense.
STUDYING, ASSESSING, AND CREATING RESILIENT COMMUNITIES
Fran H. Norris of the National Center for Disaster Mental Health Research of the
Dartmouth Medical Center was invited to define community resiliency in a presentation
to workshop participants. This section summarizes her presentation in combination with
23
the discussion it generated. Unless otherwise noted, conclusions may be attributed to Dr.
Norris.
What is Resilience?
Resilience can be understood as a response to stress and can be considered as (1) a
theory that guides the understanding of stress response dynamics; (2) a set of adaptive
capacities that call attention to the resources that promote successful adaptation in the
face of adversity; and (3) a strategy for disaster readiness against unpredictable and
difficult to prepare for dangers. Response to stress can occur at the individual,
institutional, or societal levels. The overarching concept is one that can guide research,
policy, and the design and sequencing of interventions. Building community disaster
resilience is more than a focus on disaster preparedness. It represents a paradigm shift
that relies on building economically strong communities whose members can work
together and use information to make and act on decisions.
The concept of resilience is familiar in many disciplines. In physics and mathematics,
resilience refers to the speed with which a material or system returns to equilibrium after
displacement. In ecology, resilience refers to the persistence of relationships within a
system and the ability to absorb change. In psychological terms, resilience refers to the
process of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances. In
sociology, resilience is the ability of social units, such as communities or cities, to
withstand external shocks to their infrastructure. In all these definitions, resilience
involves a process and reflects adaptability rather than stability. Resilience is not an
immutable condition but rather a set of adaptive capacities to be continuously attended to
and modified to prevent their loss. A community that functions well, consists of members
that are behaviorally and mentally healthy, and offers a high quality of life is more likely
to be able to adapt after a disturbance or adversity.
Resilience as a Trajectory of Adaptation
Resilience is one of multiple possible stress responses to a disaster that also include
resistance, recovery, and chronic dysfunction. Communities resistant to a specific event
are barely affected by it. A resilient community may display transient dysfunction that is
quickly resolved following an event. For some communities, dysfunction is more slowly
resolved, but the community ultimately recovers. Chronic dysfunction represents the
failure to adapt to the new circumstances. Factors controlling response trajectories are
severity of exposure, the existence (or the perception of the existence) of social supports,
and social class.
Different levels of distress can be observed within a single community following a
disaster, as demonstrated in a case study of mudslide victims in Mexico in 1999. A high
degree of property damage, bereavement, and complete displacement was observed
following mudslides that destroyed a large portion of a community. Levels of distress,
such as symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, were monitored among the
population over time. Approximately one-third of the community was resistant to stress
and was observed to have few symptoms. Another third of the community showed very
24
high initial distress that improved at different rates. This group displayed different levels
of resiliency but eventually returned to normal function. The remainder of the population
showed moderate and high levels of distress that did not improve over a 24-month period.
This group was considered chronically dysfunctional.
Building Adaptive Capacities to Increase Community Resilience
Community resilience emerges from the ability to withstand stress without
degradation. It is largely dependent on access to vital community resources. The rapidity
with which resources can be accessed and used during and following disruption
contributes to resiliency, as does redundancy of vital community elements in the case of
failure of an individual element. Community resilience is more likely to result in the
building and balancing of different qualities related to:
The social capital available to the community through its networks, including
organizational linkages within a community, the amount of social embeddedness,
the attachment to place, the sense of community, citizen participation, and the real
and perceived support in the face of adversity;
Community competencea measure of how ordinary people make decisions.

Community competence is dependent on actions of the community, community
problem-solving skills, flexibility, creativity, mutual trust in the effectiveness of
people working together, and the belief that the community is empowered to
control resources; and
Information and communication, including competent communication skills

and infrastructure, and trusted, responsible, and relevant sources of information.
Balanced levels of social capital, community competence, and ability to access and
communicate information build resilience by enabling those qualities that help a
community function as a community in the face of adversity. Economic development
including the level and diversity of economic resources, the equity of resource
distribution, and the fairness of distribution of risk and vulnerability to hazardsis also
important in building resilience.
Significant improvements in community resilience could result using the public
health approach of encouraging small shifts in population response to disaster events.
Figure 2-2a shows the distribution of the common response trajectories of victims of the
Mexican landslide case study described earlier. Figure 2-2b shows what the responses in
the same population could be if only 5 percent of the total population could be made
more resistant, 5 percent could be made more resilient, and 5 percent of those who would
not have recovered could be assisted into recovery. Such improvements can be achieved
by intervening at multiple points, and addressing multiple adaptive capacities, before and
during a disaster, and again later in time. Such improvements may include
Developing economic resources, reducing of resource inequities, and giving

attention to the areas of greatest social vulnerability;
25
Meaningfully engaging local people in all steps of mitigation processes;

Fostering organizational relationships to rapidly mobilize needed services;
Boosting and protecting naturally occurring social supports;
Planning for the unexpected by exercising flexibility; and
Building trusted information sources that can continue to function in the face of
unknowns.
The means to measure adaptive capacities, especially in the area of communication, have
not been developed. SNA may provide a reasonable means of measuring the adaptive
capacities associated with community resilience and in determining how best to intervene
to achieve the desired improvements.
Chronic
dysfunction
Chronic
dysfunction
22%
Recovery
35%
Resistance
7%
Recovery
16%
40%
11%
37%
32%
Resilience
(a) observed stress responses
Resistance
Resilience
(b) target stress responses
FIGURE 2-2 Distribution of response over a 24-month period by a population impacted by Mexican
mudslides in 1999. 2-2a represents observed responses. 2-2b represents the potential response given a
positive shift of 5 percent in both the resistant and resilient groups, and in those able to recover in the
longer term. Note the percentage of the population that remained chronically dysfunctional would be
dramatically reduced with the application of this public health approach. SOURCE: Fran Norris,
Dartmouth, workshop PowerPoint presentation.
REACHING VULNERABLE POPULATIONS THROUGH

SOCIAL NETWORKS: CASE STUDIES OF EFFORTS TO PREVENT THE
SPREAD OF HIV
The workshop planning committee sought to explore how social networks and SNA
could be used to reach vulnerable populations that may become disenfranchised from the
larger community following a disaster. Because of the limited number of case studies on
this topic, the committee looked to a case study from the public health community. Carl
Latkin of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health was asked to give a
presentation on his efforts to recruit inner-city residents at high risk for HIV infection and
transmission to promote positive behaviors within their communities. His presentation
was related to how social and personal network approaches were used to both create
26
networks among vulnerable populations and potentially influence behaviors within the
networks. In the social network of impoverished inner-city populations, a high degree of
network linkages exist among impoverished individuals and individuals with chronic
physical illnesses, mental illnesses, and drug addiction. Consequently, social network
analyses afford a viable approach to reaching these vulnerable populations.
A summary of Dr. Latkins presentation and ensuing discussion are provided here.
Conclusions presented are by Dr. Latkin unless otherwise noted.
The Urban Social Service Network Setting
Insufficient service capacity exists to deal with the demands of daily medical
emergencies in many major northeast urban cities. Emergency Medical Services (EMS)
may be overwhelmed by nonemergency uses by substance abusers, the mentally ill, those
in nursing homes, and the homeless. The design of social service networks discourages
use of public resources by forcing people to wait in long lines, by treating them poorly,
and encouraging distrust between service providers and impoverished populations.
Building successful networks and services is dependent on building trust, an important
adaptive capacity. Interacting with EMS or the fire department is a good way to see the
conditions, plights, and social isolation before developing interventions.
Understanding the Network
The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health used network approaches to
reach highly impoverished individuals and change unhealthy behaviors. Inner-city
residents at high risk for HIV infection and transmission were recruited in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, and in Thailand to promote risk reducing behaviors in their communities
(Latkin et al., 2009). Systematic study of and establishment of rapport with the
communities were necessary to gain the trust vital to the success of the programs. The
nature and stability of needle-sharing networks over time were studied. Networks
consisted of up to 10 individuals who shared needles and sex. Some network stability
existed, but a fair amount of fluidity and turnover of individuals were observed. Some
linkages of these smaller individual networks to a larger social network were noted, but
not all members of the community were linked.
Introducing Interventions
Individuals with a desirable combination of skills and natural leadership abilities were
enlisted from over 400 of the needle-sharing networks to educate their peers. They were
18 years or older, had weekly contact with active drug users, and were willing to be
trained to conduct outreach education and bring network members into the program. The
identified leaders were paid to receive training, but received only symbolic rewards for
talking to their friends, modeling risk reduction behaviors, and socially influencing the
critical behaviors that prevent HIV infection. Given the high level of stressors and
traumas within these populations, redundancies were incorporated into the networks
27
because of the likelihood a leader would become unavailable. Control groups were
established to measure the effectiveness of information diffusion and the potential of
behavioral changes.
Over a thousand community members participated in the intervention that consisted
of six small-group peer-educator training sessions. After 24 months, participating
network members were up to twice as likely to have reported not engaging in high-risk
injection behaviors. These individuals were also more likely to have engaged in
conversations regarding HIV risk behaviors following the training. The efficacy in
reducing risk was not established in the studies.
Issues Related to Designing Interventions
Recruitment methods to identify program participants may substantially influence
interpretation of network structures and functions. People identified as central to
networks may not be interested in participating in the interventions or may not be the best
opinion leaders. Negative reactions may result if a message is received from a source
lacking credibility. There may be role conflict for a member of the community
representing the program. Individuals need to be trained in how to maintain credibility.
Lack of resources within networks is a barrier to effectiveness, but changes in behavior
can be associated with a small amount of resources.
Workshop participants discussed how interventions have to be carefully planned and
translation efforts targeted to be robust and sustainable, especially given the lack of
control over the message once it moves into the network. Information has to be
disseminated in an appealing and memorable way to withstand mutations as it spreads.2
Using rumors (described as the grapevine by workshop participants) to translate
information can be an effective way to make messages more durable. Narratives that give
experiences shared meaning and purpose are important.
Inherent in attempting to change behaviors of individuals in a network is the
possibility of changing the network itself. In the case studies presented, individuals
whose risk behaviors changed the most were also more likely to drop their ties with the
network. This is something to consider when designing intervention networks. How the
role of the trained leader is maintained or transitioned at the end of the intervention
program so that the message is sustainable is another consideration.
Issues Related to Disaster Preparedness
Concentrated in many impoverished inner-city neighborhoods is a phenomenally high
level of drug and alcohol addiction, chronic disease requiring medication, and mental
illness. Individuals afflicted by these ailments often have only the care of others similarly
afflicted on which to depend. Community resources are unavailable or not trusted by the
population during times of normal operation, but are even scarcer when disaster strikes.
2
For example a more durable approach to informing drug users of the effectiveness of cold water on
needles may be to compare the use of cold water on needles with using cold water on clothing to wash out
blood.
28
The case studies presented here describe intervention efforts targeting small networks
whose members may not be attached to larger community networks. Workshop
participants discussed that the stability of these networks is fragile at best, and
disintegration of the networks is likely following a disaster. Individuals within these
communities are at severe risk of being further disenfranchised from the larger
community, and may lack any knowledge of, access to, or trust in aid offered in response
to a disaster.
Workshop participants expressed a need to consider how communication with all
members of a community, including individuals within disenfranchised or potentially
disenfranchised populations, should occur. The means to communicate and provide
services to all community members during each phase of the disaster cycle is essential.
Special study of the means to build disaster resilience among fragile communities, such
as those described by Dr. Latkin, is desirable.
It is important to go into communities to understand the access, feasibility, and
reliability of resources, and to understand how many people are reliant on the same
resources. This is especially true in disaster management settings when many people may
depend on the same resources, or the availability of the resources may change. Social
network analyses afford a viable approach to reaching these vulnerable populations.
USING SOCIAL NETWORKING TOOLS TO ENHANCE
COMMUNICATION
In the last decade, numerous digital networking tools have been developed that are
changing the way many in American culture communicate. The workshop planning
committee invited Michael Byrne of ICF International Inc. to provide background on
these tools and relate how emergency managers could use them during all phases of a
disaster. This section summarizes his presentation, entitled Impact of Technology on
Collaborative Homeland Security: Web 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 and Beyond, and the discussion that
followed. Many of the experiences relayed were anecdotal but are descriptive of the
issues and solutions at hand.
A new vision for the Internet began to take shape during the Web 2.0 Conference in
2004.3 Web 2.0 represents a culture shift, with the Internet being controlled by users from
the bottom and providing an interactive environment that fosters innovation. Users
become active participants rather than observers. The Internet now offers rich user
experiences including Web video, interactive maps, timely content, and virtual worlds4
which can be used not only for online entertainment but also for practical purposes such
as conferencing and training. The evolution of the Internet will continue beyond Web 2.0
with the development of tools such as autonomous intelligent agents that are programmed
to recognize user interests and filter and manipulate information the user sees. This is
already being applied to some extent to target advertisements to Internet users.
As defined in Box 2-1, social networking tools enable individuals and groups to
engage in social networking by monitoring and interacting within their networks. Text
3
A conference held by OReilly Media Inc. and MediaLive International (www.web2con.com/web2con

[accessed April 5, 2009]).
4
Virtual worlds are computer-based simulated environments in which single or multiple users can
communicate and manipulate events within the environment.
29
and multimedia information can be easily shared using relatively inexpensive and
accessible technologies and distribution networks available for free on the Internet.
According to Mr. Byrne, 3.75 billion people in the world have mobile communication
devices. Sixty-two percent of all Americans have experience accessing wireless digital
data and tools (Horrigan, 2008). Emergency managers who do not use these tools to reach
their communities, build networks, and improve communication risk the possible
detriment of their communities.
Twitter allows members to distribute text messages, called tweets, of up to 140character with their cell phones to geographically-, group-, or friend-based networks.
According to the website TechCrunch,5 information regarding the 2008 terrorist attacks
in Mumbai was shared worldwide in quasi-real-time using Twitterfaster than news
agencies such as CNN reported the events. In London, 62,000 cameras record much that
occurs in public spaces. Communities in England are networked, and video information
of interest can be shared in real-time. Individuals anywhere in the world can share visual
information over networks using tools such as Flickr6 and YouTube.7
The emergency management community has largely missed the networking
revolution. Emergency management practitioners would benefit from a new
communication paradigm and from studying how others are using social networking
tools. For example, the Department of Health and Human Services has used the virtual
world Second Life to run training drills;8 law enforcement agencies have used gaming
technologies for shoot, dont shoot drills; and Americas Army9 uses gaming
technologies to teach basic first-aid skills. This type of training could prove to be an
inexpensive alternative to traditional training approaches.
Workshop participants heard anecdotal evidence that evacuated New Orleans city
staff used social networking tools to organize and get things done following Hurricane
Katrina. This was possible in spite of individuals being spread geographically, and far
from New Orleans. The electronic convergence of people into widespread information
networks can enhance the concept of resiliency in a global sense.
Digital Divides
Multiple digital divides exists among users of social networking technologies.
Currently, social network tools are used most actively by people younger than 25 and
older than 50 years (Li and Bernoff, 2008). Fifty-five percent of online teens have created
profiles on social networking websites but far fewer online adults have done so (Madden
et al., 2007). Other divides exists because of lack of financial or technical resources.
Whatever the reason for the divides, penetration of networking technologies in society is
far from complete and the incompleteness can be socially stratifying. The most
vulnerable populations during and following Hurricane Katrina were those least likely to
5
See www.techcrunch.com/2008/11/26/first-hand-accounts-of-terrorist-attacks-in-india-on-twitter (accessed

April 3, 2009).
6
Flickr is a Web-based photo management and sharing tool (see www.flickr.com [accessed April 3, 2009]).
7
YouTube is a video sharing website where users can upload, share, and view video clips (see
www.youtube.com [accessed April 4, 2009]).
8
See secondlife.com (accessed April 5, 2009).
9
See www.americasarmy.com (accessed April 5, 2009).
30
use or have access to social networking tools. It is still essential to conduct door-to-door
searches following an emergency in spite of great advances in networking technologies.
A digital divide also exists between many government entities and the public. Many
organizations prohibit access to Internet sites such as Facebook and MySpace.10 The
organizations have not kept up with networking technologies or have not used them advantageously to communicate with constituents. Government agencies will be unable to
ignore networking tools because of the growing reliance on networking (versus
traditional communication approaches) by the public. Many municipalities resist the
adoption of networking tools because of valid or perceived security concerns. Agencies at
all levels often opt to take control of security issues by creating their own networking
toolsan expensive approach that could result in quickly outdated technologies.
However, some government agencies are now exploring and even embracing the active
use of social networking tools.
Double-Edged Sword
Even though networking tools can be successfully used to spread information, Mr.
Byrne also sees them as a double-edged sword. Information may not be well managed,
systems may be overwhelmed by a large number of messages, it is difficult to prevent the
spread of misinformation, and infrastructure can fail during catastrophic events. Hightech solutions need to be balanced with lower-tech solutions to ensure that redundancies
and backups exist. Network tools are easily used by those with both honest and dishonest
intent. Workshop participants learned how some terrorist organizations are known to use
tools such as Twitter and Google Earth11 to update their networks. The challenge for the
emergency management practitioner is to synthesize and analyze the large volume of
information available and determine whether the information is correct, actionable, or
requires response.
Some believe that a large group of people sharing information can arrive at more
accurate conclusions than a small group of experts discussing a given topic (Surowiecki,
2004). Many believe this is the strength of the Internet. Interactive connectivity implies
constant feedback that makes a system self-correcting. As of 2007, there were over 60
million blogs12 on the Internet (Wyld, 2007). Sites such as YouTube and Facebook create
a value beyond what a top-down control model provides. However, bottom-up
organizations largely shaped by its members can be disorganized, loosely controlled,
unmethodical, and sometimes inconsistent, in part because they are in constant states of
flux. Conflicting information may make it difficult to determine which information
sources are accurate, and bad information may promote unwanted behaviors. Charles
Mackay wrote a book in 1841 entitled Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness
of Crowds in which he discusses the perils of the spread of misinformation. The high
10
See www.myspace.com (accessed July 16, 2009).

Google Earth is a virtual on-line globe with free downloadable drivers that displays satellite images of the
earths surface at different resolutions. Users can add their own data and overlay their own images (see
earth.google.com/index.html [accessed April 3, 2009]).
12
A blog is a user-generated and regularly updated online journal. An example blog mentioned by Michael
Byrne is Disaster Zone: EmergencyManagement in the Blogosphere, maintained by Eric Holdeman (see
www.disaster-zone.com [accessed April 3, 2009]).
11
31
level of connectivity in society today creates the potential for major disasters or
magnification of disasters through the unintentional or intentional misuse of networking
tools.
Bad information can be long-lived on the Internet and can persist even on successful
social institutions such as Wikipedia,13 where entries are subject to constant review by
members. Even considering content error, these institutions remain successful because
within their bottom-up organizational structures, ways are available to manage data, look
for and fix problems, and recognize and resolve attacks on the system.
For application in the disaster management community, it is essential that systems
and networks are functioning before a disaster in order for them to be effective during
and following a disaster. The physical infrastructure required to operate the networks
may be resilient, but infrastructure failure is possible during a catastrophic event. In this
situation it is essential to assess the needs of the impacted community and to
communicate to people outside the affected area about the contributions they can make. It
is also essential that the physical infrastructure be restored.
Workshop participants pointed out that emergency response plans generally call only
for restoration of communication infrastructure among response agencies, and no authority exists among emergency managers to restore communication and networks used by
the public. However, current networking technologies allow the quick localized reemergence of networks wherever a transmitting device is functioning. Some management
of network re-emergence would benefit emergency managers. Partnerships among public
and private entities could provide solutions.
Shifting Paradigms
Workshop participants discussed how emergency management organizations within
the United States do not employ a command and control structure for disaster
management. Instead, a kind of diplomatic structure is in place. This structure can be
enhanced and made more effective using networking tools to build community networks
and improve disaster resilience. Technology now allows emergency managers to shift
from a focus on what needs to be done for the community, to what can be done with the
community. There are an increasing number of examples of how emergency managers
are using networking tools to change the mindset of community memberschanging
them from victims to survivors and eventually to community resources.
Inexpensive networking tools and devices used by a large proportion of the
population. Emergency managers can engage an existing audience, and there is a great
potential for positive outcomes and for lives saved. Positive outcomes will only be
achieved, however, with an understanding of how a population will behave in response to
new information, how a message may change once it is broadcast, and how durable
messages are developed to have the desired effect. Many workshop participants
expressed the importance of understanding the effective use of social networks and social
networking tools during all phases of the disaster cycle while remaining cognizant that
the infrastructure for these tools may fail. Understanding how to apply networking
13
Wikipedia is a free, Web-based encyclopedia with entries created, collaborated on, and maintained by
volunteer users (see en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About [accessed April 3, 2009]).
32
innovations at different social and management levels to identify and close disconnects
between those that need resources and those that have access to them would be
beneficial. Networking tools can be intelligently used to engage meaningfully with the
community to positively influence behaviors, influence mitigation and preparedness
strategies, build more resilient systems, and improve response and interventions.
________________________________________________________________________
Social Network Analysis for

Improved Disaster Preparedness and Intervention Planning
Chapter 2 summarized presentations and discussions of the first session of the

workshop regarding case studies and real-world examples of social network analysis
(SNA) application. This chapter summarizes Sessions 2 and 3 of the workshop (see Box
1-2 for workshop agenda). Session 2 was devoted to exploring the use of social
networking and SNA for disasters and public health emergencies; it was focused on the
empirical identification of social support networks, the measuring of networks and
understanding communication among them, and on assessing opportunities for
interventions to improve community disaster resilience. Workshop participants broke into
two groups that met concurrently. Session 2a addressed the role of communication and
ways to improve the functional, structural, and interactional linkages between networks
to foster preparedness. Session 2b examined the opportunities and constraints in the
application of SNA for planning interventions that improve community disaster
resilience.
Session 3 was devoted to exploring the use of social networking and SNA for
improvisational disaster response. Opportunities to use SNA to facilitate emergency
preparedness and response were examined for two different venues: networks among and
between organizations; and networks within local communities. As in Session 2,
workshop participants were broken into two groups that met concurrently. Session 3a
addressed how SNA could be used to make interactions among networks of organizations
more productive and improvisational responses more flexible. Session 3b focused on how
individuals and communities could be empowered and engaged to foster collective
behavior while preparing for, responding to, and recovering from disasters.
As described in Chapter 1, questions for guiding discussion were prepared in advance
for each session by the workshop planning committee. A member of the planning
committee served as moderator for each session. Descriptions of each session and the
guiding questions were provided to workshop participants prior to the workshop, and are
provided in Appendix D of this document. Workshop participants regrouped for summary
discussions at the end of each session. Discussions in these sessions were generally more
abstract and conducted at a higher level than in Session 1. This level of conceptualization
is reflected in the remainder of the summary.
33
34
SNA FOR IMPROVING COMMUNICATION

Session 2a participants (see workshop agenda, Box 1-2) identified three inter-related
long-term goals for improving communication for disaster preparedness and intervention:
1.
2.
3.
The development of a networking planning tool, such as desktop computer

software, to support homeland security. The tool could be designed to be used
by an individual with at least some college education to define and model a
given community. Such a tool would allow the user to identify community
members, the resources available to the community, and the best pathways to
disseminate information to the community to achieve a desired outcome;
A better understanding of networking theory. This includes processes by which
individuals emerge as leaders within a network, and what happens to
information disseminated across a network. With a better understanding of
network theory, knowledge of various processes can be leveraged to support
community resilience, create more effective support for communities, and to
mobilize resources quickly when necessary; and
The means to conduct impact analysis (e.g., what happens in a network when
specific information is disseminated) and scenario analysis (e.g., which of
multiple scenarios will have the most desired impact).
Tools are currently available to accomplish some of these objectives, and new
technologies are rapidly evolving. However, many existing tools may be too
academically oriented for practical application or are not packaged for the specific needs
of the disaster management community. The most effective user interfaces for computer
programs could be developed with the full cooperation of emergency management
practitioners and an understanding of the practitioners needs. Workshop participants
noted that to get the most out of networking tools, practitioners will need training in their
use. Interpretation of network visualization graphs (Figure 2-1, for example) will need to
be incorporated into the training of law enforcement and first responders. Training in the
use of networking tools would also be essential at the community level to educate the
public on topics such as how to send text messages, and how to communicate with family
members during emergency events.
The next three sections of this document discuss in greater detail the three objectives
stated above.
A Network Planning Tool for Practitioners
Many workshop participants stated that a network planning and visualization tool for
the emergency management practitioner cannot be designed to perfectly plan for every
disaster or reach every individual in a community. However, such a tool could be
invaluable in helping managers maximize connectivity within networks and building
community disaster resilience.
Building the tool could be accomplished in phases. Initial phases could allow basic
SNA functions as described in Chapter 2. Emerging technologies, such as data mining
SNA FOR IMPROVED DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND INTERVENTION PLANNING
35
and different analysis techniques, could be incorporated into future phases. The goal of
the primary phase could be to provide planning support for the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS), community leaders, and other community groups. Initial challenges will
likely be indentifying the capabilities the tool should have, identifying aspects of
networks that need to be targeted, getting data into the tool, and developing the capacity
to maintain and update the data. Workshop participants stated that for planning purposes,
the tools would give practitioners an understanding of a communitys adaptive capacities
during different emergencies. Sufficient flexibility to accommodate dynamic networks
and technologies would make the tool more useful.
Workshop participants considered lessons learned from organization theory research.
Optimizing a network could reduce the adaptability of that network; for example,
optimizing a network to increase the speed with which goods are delivered during
nonemergencies may involve choosing specific resources and transportation modes.
Without backup plans and flexibility during times of crisis, people may be put at risk if
the goods are unavailable from regular sources, or infrastructure fails. If the goal is to
increase resiliency, it is essential that the networks adaptive capacitiesits abilities to
function under stressare encouraged to expand and remain flexible. Given this
information, workshop participants discussed incorporating network optimization
functions into planning and visualization tools only with proper caution so as not to limit
flexibility.
The Theory of Networking
A better understanding of network theory can lead to better knowledge of
communication processes. This kind of knowledge can be leveraged to support
community disaster resistance, resilience, and recovery. The practitioner may be better
informed on how networking tools such as Twitter and Facebook can be used to
advantage. Understanding how networks and networking tools function is vital for
practitioners, but it is also essential that practitioners understand how to create and
distribute a robust message so that the correct message is sent to appropriate networking
sites and media. Marketing experts may provide insight regarding how to create and
distribute correctly received messages. Theory has not yet been developed on how to
accomplish this.
Participants indicated the importance of basic research on concepts related to trust
and online networks. Community members have different levels of trust in data sources
and in the digital networking tools through which data are transmitted. For example,
many individuals may be distrustful of information coming from community leaders or
from networking sites community leaders support. Understanding issues of trust can help
practitioners more effectively use social networks to convey their messages.
Understanding the processes by which individuals or groups of network members gain
trust within their networks to become online opinion leaders is another area to be
explored. Practitioners may be able to take advantage of the same processes and gain the
trust of networks, or they may be able to predict who the opinion leaders will be and
meaningfully engage with these potential leaders to encourage the spread of important
information.
36
On the infrastructure side of the issue, the means of managing bandwidths required
for social networking is challenging. Understanding the impact of the use of various
cyber-enabled communication tools during a disaster situation is a new endeavor, and
difficulties encountered when encouraging the public to use the communication channels
designated by emergency managers is exacerbated during disaster situations. Theory
building and data analyses in these areas would also be beneficial.
Impact and Scenario Analyses
The third of the long-term communication goals described earlier is the development
of tools to conduct impact and scenario analyses. The tools could include those that (1)
explore the best ways to disseminate negative news without making a bad situation worse
(for example, what happens in a network if a specific warning is sent to a specific media
outlet); and (2) choose the best of several options given a specific scenario (for example,
what happens if electricity is restored first to one location rather than another). Tools that
allow the user to understand the impact of information and actions were considered
useful by workshop participants, but their use is largely dependent on an understanding of
networking theory.
Workshop participants noted that the need for tools for impact and scenario analyses
is not unique to disaster management. Commercial tools are under development for
marketing purposes, and the Department of Defense is developing tools for security
purposes. Multiple private sector organizations are exploring tracking capabilities using
text mining and text analysis techniques. Quickly and visually tracking the rapid changes
that occur during an emergency is challenging, especially when changes are monitored
over a variety of media.
Challenges in the Use of SNA and Networks
Workshop participants observed that quality data are required to conduct SNA
analysis, and that such data are often unavailable. The lack of data and the capacity to
manage large datasets are impediments to the use of SNA for real-time applications. In
some cases, data exist to populate SNA tools, but there may be legal issues regarding the
use of private information by public entities, or reluctance among jurisdictions and
organizations to share data. The use of networking tools, as noted by workshop
participants, is also somewhat incompatible with the DHS National Incident Management
System (NIMS) guidelines for managing domestic incidents.1
Quality baseline data were also considered essential to effective SNA. The current
state of a community has to be understood before effective interventions can be optimally
designed and implemented, and their impacts measured. However, some workshop
participants stated that the cost of collecting baseline data through interviews, fieldwork,
and other means is prohibitive.
The DHS issued and revised the National Incident Management System (NIMS) to serve as a template to
manage incidents of any size regardless of the cause, location, or complexity. See
www.fema.gov/emergency/nims/index.shtm (accessed April 20, 2009).
37
The cost of developing and maintaining new technologies is also high. Champions of
networking technologies within communities and in Washington, D.C. (where they could
interact with the federal government or appropriate interest groups) could be identified
and asked to encourage the development and use of network planning and analysis tools.
The most effective champions would be able to communicate the utility of networking
and analysis tools to people such as first responders and those empowered within the
community to overcome political obstacles. Partnering with groups that are already
developing tools for impact and scenario analyses may be an effective means of
advancing their development and use for emergency management purposes. Including
emergency management practitioners in all stages of the conversation regarding the
promotion of networking technologies would likely yield the most promising results.
SNA FOR PLANNED INTERVENTIONS
Participants of Session 2b (see workshop agenda, Box 1-2) discussed three main
issues:
1.
2.
3.
The ways that knowledge of social networks is currently used to support

disaster management and build resilience;
Additional research needed to help improve disaster management and
community resilience, namely, additional SNA of formal disaster networks,
community-based networks, and the intersection between the two; and
Funding strategies to support the required research.
Integration of Networking and SNA into Emergency
Management Policy and Practice
Workshop participants shared examples of how some practitioners and policy makers
have at least a rudimentary understanding of social networks. Local communities in
Southern California, for instance, have tapped into existing social networks to
disseminate preparedness information. Lay health educators from the Latino community
use their existing social networks to distribute information on earthquake preparedness
and to share coping strategies across communities. American Red Cross staff are seeking
to build organizational linkages with business partners, creating a more robust network of
people able to staff emergency shelters. SNA is being incorporated to some degree in
models to measure the effectiveness of epidemic disease containment measures in the
case of pandemic influenza.
Practitioners and researchers alike raised numerous questions regarding the integration of social networking and SNA into management policy and practice. According to
some workshop participants, the research literature already answers some of these questions, but primary research is still needed on a variety of topics and scales related to disaster management agency responsibilities, community networks, and the interactions
between them. For example, does being prepared for disaster within one network (e.g.,
where an individual is employed) make an individual more prepared in another network
(e.g., at home or within a religious community)? The effectiveness of using networks to
38
promote resilience, disaster readiness, response, and recovery at different levels of society down to the household level could be studied. The identification and roles of faithand community-based organizations within a community need to be explored. Comparative studies on the ways social networks affect levels of community resilience in diverse
places such as Israel, the United Kingdom, and Japan would help build understanding of
the network characteristics that are successful in this context.
Several questions were raised by workshop participants regarding the role of
organizational culture (for example, fire, police, emergency medical services, and public
health departments) in building social networks, in the sharing of information in the
disaster context, and in building resilience in general. Research on the ideal network
among these groups and the role of technology in facilitating it could provide the
guidance needed to create the robust and flexible networks that are sustainable during a
disaster. Research on networks that cut across districts or local, state, and federal levels
of government and disaster management goals could lead to study of how these networks
could be improved.
Emergency management practitioners would benefit from understanding the
difference between information and resource networks, as well as the implications of
those differences, so that they may effectively use networks to plan and implement
interventions. Understanding how to identify and communicate with the correct people
and organizations within different types of networks would also be useful. Research on
the characteristics and behaviors of groups that are effective at organizing themselves for
action around the hazards in their communities could inform practitioners about which
community behaviors are advantageous and which are not. Similarly, research on how
emergent groups use social networking technologies, for what purposes, and how these
activities could be improved would also be important.
A New Research Funding Strategy
Several workshop participants observed that the research infrastructure does not
support the longitudinal research necessary to understand and apply SNA for building
community resilience. A substantial infusion of research support would be essential to
develop and maintain both longitudinal and rapid-response research. Workshop
participants discussed the idea of creating regional collaboratives of local universities,
agencies, and businesses. These collaboratives could be funded with local, state, and
federal resources, and could serve as repositories for regional baseline data. Their
existence could encourage thorough baseline expertise on regional social networks and
adaptive capacities, and they could be information resources for federal and local
response agencies during times of crisis. The regions could be consistent with the 10
regions into which the United States is divided by FEMA. Both longitudinal and rapidresponse research could be conducted within the framework of the collaboratives.
39
SNA FOR ENHANCING IMPROVISATIONAL RESPONSE WITHIN

NETWORKS OF ORGANIZATIONS
In thinking about how organizations work together during a disaster, the participants
of Session 3a (see workshop agenda, Box 1-2) considered improvisation an important
aspect of disaster response. SNA has the potential to reveal new ways to coordinate or
influence the convergence of people, resources, and information to improve
improvisational responsethose activities planned in immediate response to changed
conditions or resources. Different organizations (e.g., police, public utilities) are
responsible for different aspects of response, and all benefit from knowing what the
others are doing. An organization or individual that responds in unexpected ways outside
the organizational mission context can be like a musician playing a sour note; discord can
be the result. Questions arise regarding how to involve individuals and groups in the
response process; who is responsible for doing so; and how is information about their
involvement shared among networks. The data essential for making these decisions are
often unavailable.
The next sections of this chapter summarize workshop discussion of how networks of
networks may be used to foster improvisational response, communication, and resilience.
Tools for Fostering Sustainable Ties
SNA is a useful tool for understanding the nonlinear nature of many ties within
networks and organizations. It may also help identify how flexibility could be built into
networks and organizations to allow for effective planning given uncertain
circumstances. Practitioners are most successful working with teams that continue to
function sustainably during the unexpected. Of importance to the practitioner is how to
create ties with those groups with interests relevant to a particular problem. For example,
developing ties with animal rights groups may be beneficial when dealing with problems
associated with the increased number of stray animals following a disaster. Better ties
with a large number of organizations will likely yield greater network resiliency during
times of disaster. A greater probability of successful and timelier response and recovery
may also result.
Baseline data help researchers understand the conditions necessary for building
successful relationships to achieve desired outcomes. Because disasters are not contained
within jurisdictional or geographical boundaries, building ties and brokering information
across agencies and jurisdictions could prove effective. The knowledge base is increased
and additional resilience is built into the combined networks. Baseline data and SNA may
also help emergency practitioners determine the needed balance between efficiency and
redundancy when developing relationships for resilient networks. Establishing
redundancy in a network requires resources, but is essential in situations when a part of
the network fails. Some workshop participants cautioned that redundancy that creates
competiveness among network members should be avoided.
Sustainable ties can be built with interfaces between government and communitybased networks. Traditionally, communication during a disaster has been one-way, from
emergency management to the public. Many workshop participants predicted that two-way
40
communication will be central to future disaster responses. The practitioner will be most
effective by staying informed of the dynamic nature of relationships within a network and
how these relationships may change day to day and in response to stress. This is essential
to sustainable communication within the network. Technologies available today can
already provide practitioners with many pieces of information that when combined, tell a
story of what a network is doing and how it may be changing. Practitioners can use cell
phones to monitor movement and receive status updates from the emergency
management community or the public using networking tools, such as Twitter, to stay
informed. SNA research conducted to determine how best to monitor constantly changing
and emerging networks would aid practitioners. Avoiding infringement of privacy rights
would be an aspect of this research.
Chaos and Improvisation
Workshop participants discussed the critical need for baseline research to understand
how a community and its networks function normally and under stress. Some functioning
may be chaotic and emergency managers could benefit from understanding when chaos
does not need to be controlled. Some chaos may appear in the form of ad hoc groups that
spontaneously offer assistance. Effectively working with these groups without a plan or
knowledge of their capabilities depends on the ability of practitioners to direct volunteer
response efforts appropriately. Impromptu enthusiasm can be harmful if not controlled.
For example, the delivery of unneeded supplies could create added burden for emergency
managers and distract them from more essential responsibilities. SNA may help
determine where volunteer group efforts can be used. Research on how to foster the
ability to rely more on improvisational response could be useful. According to workshop
participants, determining who will direct these groups is as important as how to direct
them.
A census will never exist that lists all resources available during a disaster. Disaster
management practitioners do not know what groups exist or who will ultimately be able
to provide services once a disaster occurs. They may not have a full understanding of the
critical dependencies for decision making (for example, who depends on whom and for
what). Such gaps in knowledge limit the ability to improvise effectively. Unpredictable
failure and re-emergence of networks add to the chaos. SNA research and the
development of tools that help practitioners sort through this kind of chaos could be
valuable.
Networks that emerge or re-emerge following a disaster may be unstable or loosely
constructed. Understanding how these emerging networks are organized is more complex
the bigger the disaster. Understanding how mistakes may occur during the re-emergence
of networks, and of how to correct them, is essential if practitioners are to use the
networks effectively in disaster response.
Networks of Networks
The way SNA tools can be used to understand how networks function has already
been discussed in this summary. SNA tools can be used beyond postdisaster case studies
41
of individual networks. They could be used to understand how networks of networks

emerge and evolve in a disaster situation, and may help identify the sustainable linkages
among them. Given enough data, the commonalities and important characteristics that
allowed these networks and linkages to survive can be discovered. However, accessing
and using public data for the purpose of studying or constructing networks of networks is
often challenging.
Knowing what public data exist and getting access to them are challenging issues that
are inadequately resolved by the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA),2 according to some
workshop participants. Jurisdictions have independent protocols for recording data that
may be incompatible with one another. As already mentioned, jurisdictions and agencies
may be reluctant to share information. Some of the most useful data for analyzing and
constructing networks could be the informal or confidential data representing personal
communications between individuals and between different organizations. There are no
means to obtain data from informal sources.
The ways the fire, emergency management systems, police, and public health
organizational cultures help or hinder the process of building networks of networks for
disaster management and resilience is not well understood. Understanding the optimal
role of networking technologies in creating sustainable ties among the organizations
could enhance communication and collaboration during normal operations as well as
during emergencies. Because disasters do not proceed according to a plan, emergency
managers may be able to use SNA and related technologies to help networks of
organizations coordinate improvisational responses.
The full text of the Freedom of Information Act (5 U.S.C. 552, as amended by Public Law No. 104-231,
110 Stat. 3048) can be found at www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_XVII_4/page2.htm (accessed April
20, 2009).
4
________________________________________________________________________
From Theory to Practice
Workshop participants discussed how properly targeted research in networking theory, the social and resiliency sciences, and in research translation--conducted in parallel
with the development of Social Network Analysis (SNA) tools designed specifically for
and with emergency management practitionerscould facilitate the adoption of SNA by
the emergency management community. In the same way that the adoption of geographic
information system (GIS) technologies has changed how decisions are made, the
adoption of SNA has the potential to revolutionize the way in which organizations and
communities function in general, and prepare and respond to disasters in particular.
Workshop discussion was driven by the charge from the sponsor to identify current
research and theories in the use of SNA for studying and constructing social networks.
The preceding chapters of this document describe several information and technology
gaps identified by workshop participants that potentially hinder the common application
of SNA by practitioners. Consistent with the workshop charge, research areas that could
fill those gaps were also identified.
Specific research needs identified by workshop participants are found throughout the
preceding chapters. This chapter synthesizes several recurrent and overarching themes of
the workshop discussions. As in earlier chapters, ideas presented here are those of
individuals or groups of workshop participants and do not necessarily represent
consensus among all those present, or the views of the workshop planning committee or
the National Research Council.
INCENTIVES FOR FOSTERING PREPAREDNESS
Some practitioners at the workshop were concerned that homeland security policies
and funding structures often compel community leaders and emergency practitioners to
function reactively rather than proactively. Planning is often done within the constraints
of top-down policies that focus on protection and response rather than mitigation, and
few incentives exist for communities to work toward resiliency. Disaster preparedness
43
44
and continuity planning, although desirable, are often not well developed. Resiliency, a
concept not well understood among emergency management practitioners, is not a part of
the top-down emergency management culture. Policies are in place that can inhibit the
use of innovative tools that may foster community resilience.
At present, disincentives to prepare for disaster may exist because a community may
receive greater monetary benefits in the form of federal postdisaster aid. Although research findings indicate that communities can expect a four-to-one return for every dollar
spent on disaster mitigation (Multihazard Mitigation Council, 2005), communities often
do not take advantage of the expected savings. The return is not realized unless a disaster
occurs and a reduction in recovery costs is observed. Additionally, mitigation planning
may be thwarted by an inability to decide where mitigation is needed. A community may
mitigate in the wrong way or be prepared for the wrong disaster. Under these circumstances, a community may suffer during a disaster and see no return on its investment.
Workshop participants have observed that at least some federal money is distributed
as incentive for mitigation. For example, the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) instituted a pilot program to increase the federal costshare for communities who
developed FEMA-approved debris management plans.1 The program ended in 2008, but
it reflected congressional interest in reducing the cost of disasters and rewarding communities for better disaster preparedness. Many participants expressed the view that
incentive programs are helpful, but also expressed concern that they be carefully designed to avoid draining on resources.
Some participants noted that incentives can also come from the private sector, for example, through lower cost of insurance premiums for better construction or retrofitting
practices. Property owners, contractors, and suppliers could see immediate financial
benefits, and properties are better protected against disaster.
UNDERSTANDING AND USING SOCIAL NETWORKS
A wide range of computer-based and other social networks thrive at many community
levels. Determining how best to apply SNA to understand preparedness among these
networks and improve preparedness at the household, community, and organizational
levels is important. Understanding how to adapt preparedness plans and interventions to
serve at-risk populations, such as those disenfranchised from community networks, is
also important. Workshop participants noted that SNA could be used to understand how
communities organize around hazards and how people and organizations use networks
during disasters. The use of SNA for understanding the effective role of advocacy groups
(for example, those supporting special-needs individuals) in building resilience and
providing recovery assistance was also stressed. How social support and social
embeddedness influence community resilience, and the importance of public connectivity
in facilitating resilience are also topics meriting consideration.
SNA can be used to identify and study the characteristics and functions of trusted
leaders, organizations, and information sources within networks. By understanding how
leaders and organizations emerge within the computer-network environment under
1
See http://www.fema.gov/news/newsrelease.fema?id=46906 (accessed May 4, 2009).
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
45
different circumstances, and understanding the characteristics that allow them to become
trusted, emergency management practitioners could more effectively engage leaders and
organizations in improving community resilience. Understanding the constraints under
which decisions are made within organizations will also allow practitioners to target their
communication with the organizations effectively. SNA could be applied to government
organizations and networks, such as emergency response organizations, to study the attributes and functions that make them successful during all phases of a disaster. Once
positive attributes are identified and understood, practitioners can build similar attributes
into their own organizations and networks.
The social network community is a complex and interdisciplinary enterprise requiring
the sharing of information in different ways among different members. Organization
charts cannot explain the important relationships and transactions that take place between
individuals and within and between organizations. SNA experts stated that better tools
exist to display the same information and that practitioners could benefit from learning
their use.
In general, those in authority benefit from the situational awareness of who is
working with whom, on what tasks, and under what circumstances. SNA tools could help
them visualize the important connections within networks. Effective disaster preparation
is dependent on knowing before a disaster what groups and organizations work well with
one another, which individuals know one another, and what sources of information are
trusted. This is especially relevant if communication systems fail during an event.
Workshop participants pointed out that optimal response depends on understanding what
links remain active and which will quickly be restored following infrastructure failure.
Critical links need to be identified and plans put in place so communication is sustainable
during total infrastructure failure.
Communication is essential to situational awareness. Situational awareness gives
practitioners an understanding of what is happening within the community to determine
who needs what resources, and who needs to know what information. Workshop participants repeatedly discussed the need for practitioners to understand how to use their
situational awareness to better disseminate the right information to the right people. SNA
tools could be used to identify the right people and the most efficient means of
communicating with them. SNA can then be applied to determine the impact of the
information once sent. For example, in 2008, people on the Texas coast failed to evacuate
despite warnings of the immanent arrival of Hurricane Ike. The perception among the
public was that a category 2 hurricane was not dangerous. However, some workshop
participants noted that had information of the storms hazards been broken down into the
dangers associated with wind, water, and storm surge, and had the information been
conveyed effectively, people in the community may have reacted differently and the
outcomes may have been less severe. SNA applied in this type of scenario could lead to
better outcomes.
Study of how SNA or similar analyses are applied in areas such as network-centric
warfare,2 counter terrorism, and public health could be applied to SNA for improving
community disaster resilience. The vocabulary of network-centric warfare is different
2
Network-centric warfare is a Department of Defense doctrine based on using information technology to

the militarys advantage (Alberts et al., 1999). A well-networked military improves situational awareness
and information sharing, resulting in the increased effectiveness of military missions.
46
from that used by social scientists during this workshop, but the goals are similar: to
understand and improve how information is sought and exchanged, and to develop an
action instrument that enables decision making. Understanding different patterns of
network analysis and the different reasons and conditions under which the analyses are
conducted could benefit both researchers and practitioners by helping them to
characterize and use social networks for the advantage of communities. According to
workshop participants, practitioners who are able to collect, analyze, understand, model,
and incorporate network data into their decision-making processes will likely be better
poised to help their communities become more resilient.
QUANTIFYING ADAPTIVE CAPACITIES
According to some workshop participants, understanding and fostering community
resilience implies the ability to measure a communitys adaptive capacitiesthe skills
and knowledge of a community that allow it to adapt to changeto different stressors
over time. This is difficult given the dynamic nature of communities, especially during
times of stress, and the external factors that impact them (e.g., changing legislation,
availability of educational resources, changes in economic factors). Communities may
require a variety of adaptive capacities to respond well to different stressors, and different
communities may require different capacities to respond to the same stressors. It is important to quantify at what point a community is no longer able to function through a
disasterits capacity thresholdsand to understand the role social networks serve at
different levels of functioning. An example was provided by workshop participants: the
communities of Prince William Sound in Alaska were destroyed by a 1964 earthquake,
and studies documented the physical, social, and self-help networks that formed in response. In 1989, the same communities were severely affected by the Exxon Valdez oil
tanker spill. The networks did not come together following the 1989 event, and a social
chaos was created that exists today.
More empirical data could help researchers understand how communities react to
stress and determine under what conditions they might fail. Data could help researchers
quantify the adaptive capacities that lead to community resilience.
TRANSLATION FROM RESEARCH TO PRACTICE
According to workshop participants, scientific literature on SNA is fairly robust, and
literature in disaster and community resilience is emergent. Until fairly recently, these
research communities have had little interaction, and there has been even less communication between researchers and emergency management practitioners. Bringing multidisciplinary perspectives to bear on any given topic is difficult, but researchers and practitioners would both benefit from a greater exchange of information. Practitioners could
learn state-of-the-art techniques that could be applied in their decision making. Researchers could obtain the data they need to refine their theories and models. Successful communication, however, is dependent on the ability of all parties to understand the terms
related to social networks, SNA, and resiliency.
47
Workshop participants emphasized that translation researchresearch on how to

enhance the adoption of research products into practiceis essential for learning how to
move SNA from the research realm into application by practitioners in their communities. Transfer of technologies to practitioners is dependent on an understanding of which
linkages among the research and practitioner communities need to be made. SNA could
be applied to these communities to learn where the networks overlap and where relationships could be cultivated for better communication.
Researchers among the workshop participants stated that they and their colleagues do
not know how to translate their findings for practitioners. Practitioners stated that
translation would be most effective if findings were presented in a language and style that
are applicable. For example, some suggested that to educate practitioners on the concept
of resiliency, the paper written by Norris et al. (2008) on community resilience could be
rewritten for journals such as the Journal of Emergency Management3 and presented at
conferences such as those of the International Association of Emergency Managers4 and
the National Emergency Management Association.5 Just as important, researchers could
involve practitioners in identifying research gaps and by creating the means to receive
practitioner feedback on tentative research results. According to practitioners, receiving
timely research results is important. Rapid response following an event is extremely helpful to practitioners, but it was recognized that not all research results could be shared
quickly. A balance between rapid response and long-term analysis would be most useful.
Some practitioners described what they called [Hurricane] Katrina fatigue. They indicated that many practitioners may now be numb to useful findings still being reported
after the 2005 event. Because practitioners are burnt out from reading Katrina-related
reports, the reports have become less useful as a means of translating important messages
or information about new technologies.
THE NEED FOR A MEASURING STICK
Practitioners noted that from a government perspective, there is a need to establish
intervention effectiveness measures before priorities can be set and resources allocated.
Government agencies are more often required to show the impact of their activities and
investments to validate expenditure of resources. For example, before a program is put in
place to mitigate for a specific type of hazard, the means to measure how effective the
program is once implemented have to be developed. To that end, participants stated it is
essential to establish and quantify which adaptive capacities are most critical for building
community resilience. Developing a measuring stick for social, economic, and relational capacities would be beneficial. However, because the connections among organizations are not fully understood, the status of the connections cannot be measured, nor
can they be measured for change. Baseline data could provide metrics for change in
networks, the characteristics that foster community resilience, and the magnitude of
realized or potential stresses caused by a variety of stressors.
See http://www.pnpco.com/pn06001.html (accessed May 8, 2009).

See http://www.iaem.com/ (accessed May 8, 2009).
5
See http://www.nemaweb.org/home.aspx (accessed May 8, 2009).
4
48
Workshop participants stated that with the application of SNA, practitioners could
gain a better understanding of the thresholds at which communities fail, and could look at
different thresholds of community fragility in response to different levels of stress.
Empirical data on past disasters could allow estimates of failure thresholds for cities of
different size and complexity, and with different types of networks among emergency
response organizations. These kinds of post-event assessments of the effectiveness of
social networks and the prevention of their failures are important components of baseline
data. The data could allow the opportunity for researchers to document good practices
and understand the characteristics of a community that enable resilience or rapid
recovery. Participants also stated that comparative studies of networks that have emerged
following a variety of disasters would be helpful.
Researchers do not have the capacity to collect much of the data needed to support
SNA for building resilience, especially inter- and intraorganizational data. Many
workshop participants stated that there is a great unevenness in the data available to
populate databases, models, and SNA tools. As a result, comparative longitudinal studies
of community resilience and change have not been conducted to any great extent.
Because few resources are available to conduct much more than post-disaster case study
research, the collective knowledge of the research community is focused on local
systemic and episodic changes. The development of mechanisms for collecting network
data, similar to surveillance mechanisms used for epidemiological monitoring, could be
helpful. Additionally, workshop participants stated that data collection is underfunded,
and that funding mechanisms do not exist solely for collecting and managing the large
datasets required for SNA.
Baseline data as input to SNA can contribute to the understanding of how parts of a
network draw on available resources during normal operations, and how those resources
are stressed during a disaster. For example, baseline data on the normal operations of
supply carriers and their distribution routes could allow the application of SNA to
determine the best distribution options when service routes are disrupted or carriers become unavailable. Under stress, systems can fail catastrophically. SNA can help explain
the extent of critical dependencies (who depends on whom) and the linkages between
them. Analysis may allow planning of interventions to avoid systemic or cascading
failures.
Workshop participants repeatedly stressed that the accuracy of network analysis,
monitoring, and intervention design cannot be certain without baseline data.
49
COMMUNICATION FOR RESILIENCE

Workshop participants stated that the ability to communicate as a vital capacity for
resilience. Few things are more fundamental to community resilience than the ability to
access, communicate, and use information. Information may be in the form of baseline
data, media reports, and data that move across social networks. Development and transfer
to emergency management practitioners of the correct technologies linking SNA to tools
for collecting data, monitoring change, and conducting geospatial analyses are essential
for reliable communication. With such tools, practitioners could potentially measure the
quality of information received, determine what information is actionable, and determine
what constitutes the best actions in timeframes that are useful during a disaster. Such
tools could increase resilience by enabling two-way communication between emergency
managers and the public.
By understanding how information is spread, and by understanding how trust is built
between practitioners and the public and private sectors, practitioners may efficiently use
networks to spread helpful messages and control rumors. Identifying the behavioral
characteristics of those networks most effective at organizing themselves around hazards
could help community leaders foster those characteristics in the networks within their
own communities.
NEXT STEPS
DHS Call for Proposals
A purpose of this workshop was to provide the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS) Human Factors Division of the Office of Science and Technology guidance on a potential research agenda to promote the use of SNA for improving community
disaster resilience. This workshop was requested by DHS to inform a broad agency announcement (BAA) requesting white papers and proposals targeting research related to
SNA and resilience. DHS plans to model awards after those given for the Small Business
Innovation Research6 program. In evaluating proposals, DHS considers metrics that show
return on investments. Research outcomes may be products or knowledge. Workshop
participants often stated that research partnerships between researchers and practitioners
would improve networking between the two communities and reduce the need for
translational efforts. According to DHS, the department cannot accommodate such
partnerships through this BAA.
Research Themes
Several research areas were identified by workshop participants as possible
prerequisite to advancing the use of SNA for building community disaster resilience.
Disaster management decision making depends on numerous factors, including the phase
6
See http://www.dhs.gov/xres/grants/ (accessed May 8, 2009).
50
of the disaster, available resources, and the level of authority at which decisions are
made. The application of SNA could improve the situational awareness of emergency
management practitioners by allowing them to understand and measure the status of
networks within their communities. Using knowledge gained through SNA, the necessary
interventions and conditions and network associations required for their success can be
identified. The best means of communicating and implementing interventions may be
developed.
Baseline Data
Baseline data include all manner of data regarding networks and their members.
Without baseline data, researchers and practitioners do not know how communities and
networks normally function; the impact of interventions may not be quantified; and the
effectiveness of communication and operations may not be measured. Without a measure
of community capacities to adapt to stress, interventions may not be effectively targeted
for maximum benefit. Little is known, for example, about who populates the formal,
governmental networks responsible for a regions disaster management or how they
integrate with other social networks that reside in civil society. Without this baseline
level of knowledge, it is difficult to evaluate how the compositions of social networks
evolve and how this relates to resilience levels. Though workshop participants emphasized the importance of baseline data, current research funding makes the collection and
management of baseline data not feasible.
Validation Techniques
New networking technologies allow large amounts of data to travel quickly through
networks. Workshop participants observed that mechanisms to validate new data, network models, and decisions made using SNA and related tools would be valuable to
practitioners and scientists. Practitioners described needing mechanisms that vet for
accuracy of data traveling through networks, and indicate whether information requires
action or response. Practitioners need a means to categorize data as good, bad, redundant,
and actionable.
Understanding Network Dynamics
Building resiliency into social networks requires an understanding of the dynamic
nature of networks and of how positive changes that prevent network failure during a disaster may be promoted. Because networks are constantly changing, workshop participants
suggested that network models be constantly updated and that new methods for studying
network dynamics are needed. Networks are likely to change quickly during a disaster
and SNA tools could be more useful if they allowed the practitioner to quickly visualize
the changing nature and uncertainties in relationships within and between networks. This
would allow more effective diffusion of information at all stages of the disaster cycle.
51
Better Data Gathering Techniques

New and more refined data-gathering techniques could result in better social network
models. For example, workshop participants frequently stressed the importance of developing the means to obtain proprietary and personal data for SNA, while preserving the
privacy of individuals and institutions. Data, such as who communicates with whom
within and between private sector organizations and what kinds of people receive certain
medical treatment under certain circumstances, provide important insights into the nature
of networks and their members.
Government and Community Interaction
How government networks interface with community-based networks for disaster
management and building community resilience was often considered during the
workshop. Workshop participants discussed how researchers and practitioners would
benefit from greater understanding of the different ways that individuals, organizations,
locales, and agencies are connected to social networks and understanding their use. An
understanding of how their connectivity may change under stress would also be of
benefit. Research on behaviors that emerge as a consequence of a disaster and research
on the skill sets and attributes of individual and organizational network members that
emerge as trusted opinion leaders could result in better identification of those able to
collaborate with emergency management practitioners to build resilience.
Exploring Community Resilience in other Contexts
Exploring other broader social issues where SNA has been or could be applied may
provide useful information related to the application of SNA for building community
resilience. Building resilience is not only about preparation for disasters. Research on
how communities deal with issues such as ethnic oppression may yield a rich and
pertinent literature regarding community resilience.
New Research Paradigms
Although addressing these barriers was not directly part of the charge given the
workshop planning committee, many participants stated that the barriers could affect the
effectiveness of a future research agenda and slow the adoption of SNA tools by
practitioners. Strategies to overcome these barriers were suggested by workshop
participants and are summarized in the next paragraphs.
Workshop participants discussed how current strategies for funding research and its
translation into practice are not adequate to address the large-scale and complex social
science issues raised. New funding paradigms to accommodate larger and longer-term
studies would benefit both the research and practice communities. One result could be
52
better baseline data from which progress can be measured. Incentives to encourage
multidisciplinary research and the rapid response efforts needed immediately following
disasters could lead to results that are more immediately useful to practitioners.
Workshop participants expressed the view that research collaborations among researchers
and practitioners, and between public and private entities, could enhance the adoption of
SNA techniques among practitioners. Issues associated with barriers of access to
infrastructure and data could also be overcome. Collaboration between researchers and
practitioners, with input from the private sector, could result in the most relevant
research, tools, and data for decision making.
Among the workshop participants, some practitioners and researchers expressed concern that current homeland security priorities tend to encourage a focus on antiterrorism
activities within the emergency management community. Some suggested that sources of
community stress need to be adequately assessed to confirm whether a focus on
antiterrorism is locally warranted. A better understanding of community stressors could
allow for more informed allocation of resources.
Several workshop participants stated that researchers need incentives to collaborate
with practitioners. Placing more value within the university and research cultures in research translation might foster such incentives. The medical community has begun to
support translational research and activities, and has encouraged universities to consider
the importance of translational work when making tenure decisions. Adoption of similar
policies in other research communities could encourage younger researchers (those most
likely to be familiar with social networking technologies) to do translational work.
The idea of developing regional collaboratives among local universities, agencies,
and businesses was discussed among workshop participants. Local, state, and federal resources could be used to establish the collaboratives to encourage thorough baseline expertise on regional social networks and adaptive capacities. The regions could be consistent with the 10 regions into which the Federal Emergency Management Agency divides
the United States.. Each of these collaboratives could serve as a repository for regional
baseline data, and be a resource for federal and local response agencies during times of
crisis. The longitudinal studies needed for disaster planning and rapid response
investigations needed in the face of a disaster could tap those resources and be conducted
within the collaborative framework.
Broader Benefits of Community Resilience
It is relatively easy to determine how to mitigate damage to the physical infrastructure
of a community. It is less straightforward to mitigate damage to the social fabric of the
community and to make that community more resilient in the face of stress. Practitioners
would benefit from understanding the critical interdependencies of a community using a
system of systems approach. This could lead to better understanding of how disruptions
can cause the cascading failure of infrastructure. It is essential to understand how to use
emergent technologies to make strong and dynamic connections between people,
53
information, and physical resources. Encouraging the creation of robust and flexible
networks during times of normal operation could enable networks to be resilient during
times of stress.
Many of the same capacities that allow a community to function during times of disaster (e.g., being well informed, well networked, and possessing the ability to respond to
situations with creativity and flexibility) are those that allow a community to thrive during normal times. Many workshop participants expressed the view that by increasing the
capacity for effective communication through social networks, a community may be created that is resilient to a broad range of stressors. Investing in building of community
resilience is highly likely to yield rapid returns through the creation of stronger and
healthier communities.
References
________________________________________________________________________
Alberts, D. S., J. J. Gartska, and F. P. Stein. 1999. Network Centric Warfare: Developing
and Leveraging Information Superiority, 2nd edition. Washington, D.C.: National
Defense University Press, 287 pp.
Comfort, L. K., and C. Wukich. 2009. Designing Resilience for Communities at Risk:
Building Capacity for Collective Action. In Disaster Management: Global
Challenges and LocalSolutions, R. Shaw. and R. R. Krishnamurthy, eds.
Hyderabad: Universities Press India.
Horrigan, J. 2008. Info on the go: Mobile access to data and information. Available at
http://pewresearch.org/pubs/753/mobile-access-data-information accessed (April
7, 2009).
Latkin, C. A., D. Donnell, D. Metzger, S. Sherman, A. Aramrattna, A. Davis-Vogel, V.
Minh Quan, S. Gandham, T. Vongchak, T. Perdue, and D. D. Celentano. 2009.
The efficacy of a network intervention to reduce HIV risk behaviors among drug
users and risk partners in Chiang Mai, Thailand and Philadelphia, USA. Social
Science and Medicine 68(4):740-748.
Li, C., and J. Bernoff. 2008. Groundswell: Winning in a World Transformed by Social
Technologies. Boston: Forrester Research, 282 pp.
Mackay, C. 1841. Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. New
York: Three Rivers Press, 740 pp.
Madden, M., S. Fox, A. Smith, and J. Vitak. 2007. Digital Footprints: Online Identity
Management and Search in the Age of Transparency. Washington, D.C.: Pew
Internet and American Life Project.
Multihazard Mitigation Council. 2005. Natural Hazard Mitigation Saves: An
Independent Study to Assess the Future Savings from Mitigation Activities,
Volume 1 Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Washington, D.C.:
National Institute of Building Sciences, 19 pp.
Norris, F. H., S. P. Stevens, B. Pfefferbaum, K. F. Wyche, and R. L. Pfefferbaum. 2008.
Community resilience as a metaphor: Theory, set of capacities, and strategy for
disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology 41(1-2):127-150.
NRC, 2007. Successful Response Starts with a Map: Improving Geospatial Support for
Disaster Management. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 198 pp.
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Surowiecki, J. 2004. The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Random House, 320 pp.
Wyld, D. C. 2007. The blogging revolution: Government in the age of Web 2.0.
Available at http://www.businessofgovernment.org/pdfs/WyldReportBlog.pdf
(accessed June 23, 2009).
Appendix A
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Committee Biographies
Susan L. Cutter, Chair, is a Carolina Distinguished Professor of Geography at the

University of South Carolina, and director of the universitys Hazards and Vulnerability
Research Institute. Her primary research interests are in the area of vulnerability
sciencewhat makes people and the places where they live vulnerable to extreme events
and how this vulnerability is measured, monitored, and assessed. She has authored or
edited 12 books, and more than 100 peer-reviewed articles and book chapters. Dr. Cutter
has also led post event field studies of the role of geographic information technologies in
rescue and relief operations in the September 11th World Trade Center attack and studies
of evacuation behavior from Three Mile Island (1979), Hurricane Floyd (1999), and the
Graniteville, South Carolina, train derailment and chlorine spill (2005). Most recently, in
2006, she led a Hurricane Katrina post event field team that examined the geographic
extent of storm surge inundation along the Mississippi and Alabama coastlines and its
relationship to the social vulnerability of communities. She has provided expert testimony
to Congress on hazards and vulnerability and was a member of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Interagency Performance Evaluation Taskforce that evaluated the social
impacts of the New Orleans and Southeast Louisiana Hurricane Protection System in
response to Hurricane Katrina. Dr. Cutter serves on many national advisory boards and
committees, including those of the National Research Council, American Association for
the Advancement of Science, National Science Foundation, Natural Hazards Center, and
the H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment. She is also a
co principal investigator and member of the Executive Committee of the National
Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, a Department of
Homeland Security Center of Excellence focused on the social and behavioral sciences.
She is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and past
president of the Association of American Geographers. Dr. Cutter is currently president
of the Consortium of Social Science Associations. She received her B.A. from California
State University, Hayward, and her M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Chicago.
Kathleen M. Carley is a professor at Carnegie Mellon Universitys Institute of Software
Research, Department of Engineering and Public Policy, and Department of Social and
Decision Sciences, and director of the universitys Center for Computational Analysis of
Social and Organizational Systems. She specializes in research on organization theory,
dynamic network analysis, social networks, multiagent systems, and computational social
57
58
science. In her work, she examines how cognitive, social, and institutional factors affect
individual, team, social, and policy outcomes. She is the author or coauthor of numerous
books and articles in the areas of computational social and organizational science and
dynamic network analysis. She served on the organizing committee for the National
Research Council Workshop on Statistical Analysis of Networks and the Panel on
Modeling Human Behavior and Command Decision Making: Representations for
Military Simulations. She is a member of the Academy of Management, International
Network for Social Network Analysis, American Sociological Society, American
Association for the Advancement of Science, Informs, and Sigma Xi. In 2001, she received the lifetime achievement award from the sociology and computers section of the
American Sociological Association. She is a founding and current editor of
Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory. She received her Ph.D. in
sociology from Harvard University.
William A. V. Clark (NAS) is a professor of geography and an adjunct professor of
statistics at the University of California, Los Angeles. His research has focused on
demographic change and the nature of the spatial outcomes of both internal and
international population migration flows. He provided fundamental insights into the roles
of preferences, discrimination, and public intervention in generating ethnic and racial
segregation in America's urban mosaic. Dr. Clark has received several international and
domestic awards, including the Association of American Geographers Award in 1987. He
was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2003, and to the National
Academy of Sciences in 2005. He currently serves on the NRC Geographical Sciences
Committee. He received his B.A. and M.A. from the University of New Zealand, his
Ph.D. in geography from the University of Illinois, and a D.Sc. from the University of
Auckland.
Eric Holdeman is a principal in emergency management and homeland security at ICF
International. His areas of expertise include building regional coalitions between agencies,
governments, the private sector, and nonprofits. He has extensive experience in regional
planning, emergency operations center design and construction, multimedia public
education programs, joint information center formation and operations, media relations,
and integration of technology into emergency management and homeland security
programs. In 2007, he was recognized by Government Technology magazine as one of the
top 25 people in the nation who challenge convention, confront entrenched bureaucracy
and promote innovation. Mr. Holdeman has authored numerous articles for professional
journals and opinion pieces for local, regional, and national newspapers. Prior to joining
ICF, Mr. Holdeman was the local emergency management director for King County,
Washington, which encompasses the metropolitan Seattle area. In this position he
established the King County Office of Emergency Management as a national leader in
many areas of emergency management and homeland security. In 2005, King County was
given a national award by the National Association of Counties for establishing a regional
approach to homeland security. Additionally, the 9/11 Commission recognized the King
County Regional Disaster Response Plan as a best practice for integrating the private
business sector into community-wide disaster planning. Mr. Holdeman also served in the
Washington State Division of Emergency Management for five years and in the U.S. Army
for 20 years. He currently serves on the board of directors for the King County Crisis
APPENDIX A
59
Clinic and the Emergency Information Infrastructure Partnership and is on the advisory
council for the Center for Regional Disaster Resilience. He is a past president of the
Washington State Emergency Management Association. Mr. Holdeman received a B.A. in
education from Concordia University.
Randolph H. Rowel is an associate professor at the Morgan State University School of
Community Health and Policy and an associate faculty member at the Johns Hopkins
University Center for Public Health Preparedness. Dr. Rowel's research agenda is to
examine the cultural implications of public health emergency preparedness, response, and
recovery. In partnership with the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene,
Dr. Rowel recently completed a project that examined natural disaster experiences of
low-income African American and Spanish-speaking Latino populations. He currently
serves on the Maryland Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Advisory Committee,
and is director of the Why Culture Matters Work Group for Disaster Studies, an organization that informs public health professionals and faith and community organizations
about the needs of vulnerable populations during natural and technological disasters. Dr.
Rowel serves as an investigator for the Department of Homeland Security-funded
National Center for Preparedness and Catastrophic Event Response, where he is working
to establish the scientific foundation and principles of the practice of homeland security
in matters of preparedness and response to catastrophic events. He received his
undergraduate degree at Morgan State University and his masters and doctoral degrees
from the University of Utah and the University of Maryland College Park, respectively.
Monica Schoch-Spana is a senior associate with the Center for Biosecurity at the
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) and an assistant professor in the School
of Medicine Division of Infectious Diseases. The Center for Biosecurity works to affect
policy and practice in ways that lessen the illness, death, and civil disruption that would
follow large epidemics, whether they occur naturally or result from the use of a biological
weapon. Dr. Schoch-Spana, a medical anthropologist, has led research, education, and
advocacy efforts to encourage greater consideration by authorities of the general publics
capacity to confront bioattacks and epidemics constructively. She recently chaired the
Centers Working Group on Citizen Engagement in Health Emergency Planning, and was
the principal organizer for the 2006 U.S.-Canada summit on Disease, Disaster, and
Democracy: The Publics Stake in Health Emergency Planning. In 2003, she organized
the national summit, Leadership During Bioterrorism: The Public as an Asset, Not a
Problem, and chaired the Working Group on Governance Dilemmas in Bioterrorism
Response that issued consensus recommendations to mayors, governors, and top health
officials nationwide in 2004. Dr. Schoch-Spana has served on the NRC Steering
Committee of the Disasters Roundtable, the Committee on Educational Paradigms for
Homeland Security, and the Committee on Standards and Policies for Decontaminating
Public Facilities Affected by Exposure to Harmful Biological Agents: How Clean is
Safe? She serves on the faculty for the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism
and Responses to Terrorism, a university center of excellence supported by the U.S.
Department of Homeland Security. Dr. Schoch-Spana helped establish the Biosecurity
Center of UPMC in 2003; prior to that she worked at the Johns Hopkins Center for
Civilian Biodefense Strategies, starting in 1998. She received a Ph.D. in cultural
anthropology from Johns Hopkins University and a B.A. from Bryn Mawr College.
Appendix B
_______________________________________________________________________________
Selected Recent References on Disaster Resilience,

Social Networks, and Social Network Analysis
The first part of this appendix is a bibliography of references compiled in January

2009 by the National Research Council Committee on Applications of Social Network
Analysis for Building Community Disaster Resilience. These references were provided to
workshop participants in briefing materials distributed prior to the workshop. Given the
broad range of research professionals and practitioners that were to attend the meeting,
the committee prepared the bibliography in order to provide general background on the
topics of social network analysis (SNA) and resiliency for those unfamiliar with the research or terminologies in these fields.
Workshop participants were invited to provide additional references. These are included in the final sections of this appendix.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY PREPARED BY THE
WORKSHOP PLANNING COMMITTEE
Books
Carrington, P. J., J. Scott, and S. Wasserman, eds. 2005. Methods and Models in Social
Network Analysis. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 328 pp.
Freeman, L. 2004. The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the
Sociology of Science. Vancouver: Empirical Press, 205 pp.
Grotberg, E. H., ed. 2003. Resilience for Today: Gaining Strength from Adversity.
Westport, CT: Praeger, 281 pp.
Lindell, M. K., and R. W. Perry. 1992. Behavioral Foundations of Community
Emergency Planning. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Press, 309 pp.
NRC. 2006. Community Disaster Resilience: A Summary of the March 20, 2006,
Workshop of the Disasters Roundtable. Washington, D.C.: The National
Academies Press, 15 pp.
Schoon, I. 2006. Risk and Resilience: Adaptations in Changing Times. Cambridge, U.K.:
Cambridge University Press, 222 pp.
61
62
Scott, J. 2000. Social Network Analysis: A Handbook. Newberry Park, Calif.: SAGE
Publications, 208 pp.
Tierney, K., M. K. Lindell, and R. W. Perry. 2001. Facing the Unexpected: Disaster
Preparedness and Response in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Joseph
Henry Press, 306 pp.
Wasserman, S., and K. Faust. 1994. Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications.
Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 825 pp.
Articles
Anderson, W. A. 2008. Mobilization of the black community following Hurricane
Katrina: From disaster assistance to advocacy of social change and equity.
International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 26(3):198-218.
Beaudoin, C. E. 2007. News, social capital and health in the context of Katrina. Journal
of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 18(2):418-430.
Berke, P. R., and T. J. Campanella. 2006. Planning for post-disaster resiliency. Annals of
the American Academy of Political and Social Science 604(1):192-207.
Black, K., and M. Lobo. 2008. A conceptual review of family resilience factors. Journal
of Family Nursing 14(1):33-55.
Campanella, T. J. 2006. Urban resilience and the recovery of New Orleans. Journal of the
American Planning Association 72(2):141-146.
Carley, K. M. 2006. A dynamic network approach to the assessment of terrorist groups
and the impact of alternative courses of action. In Visualising Network
Information (pp. KN1-1-KN1-10). Meeting Proceedings RTO-MP-IST-063, Keynote 1. Neuilly-sur-Seine, France: RTO. Available from:
http://www.rto.nato.int/abstracts.asp.
Chen, A. C. C., V. M. Keith, K. J. Leong, C. Airriess, W. Li, K.-Y. Chung, and C.-C.
Lee. 2007. Hurricane Katrina: prior trauma, poverty and health among
Vietnamese-American survivors. International Nursing Review 54(4):324-331.
Colten, C. E., R. W. Kates, and S. Laska. 2008. Community Resilience: Lessons from
New Orleans and Hurricane Katrina. CARRI Research Report #3. Available at
http://www.resilientus.org/reports.html.
Cutter, S. L., L. Barnes, M. Berry, C. G. Burton, E. Evans, E. Tate, and J. Webb. 2008.
Community and Regional Resilience: Perspectives from Hazards, Disasters and
Emergency Management. CARRI Research Report #1. Available at
http://www.resilientus.org/reports.html.
Cutter, S. L., L. Barnes, M. Berry, C. G. Burton, E. Evans, E. Tate, and J. Webb. 2008. A
place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters.
Global Environmental Change 18(4):598-606.
Gunderson, L. 2008. Comparing Ecological and Human Community Resilience. CARRI
Research Report #5. Available at http://www.resilientus.org/reports.html.
Harrald, J. R. 2009. Achieving agility in disaster management. International Journal of
Information Systems for Crisis Response Management 1(1):1-11.
Israel, B. A. 1985. Social Networks and Social Support: Implications for Natural Helper
and Community Level Interventions. Health Education Quarterly 12(1):65-80.
APPENDIX B
63
Joshi, P. T., and S. M. Lewin. 2004. Disaster, terrorism: Addressing the effects of traumatic events on children and their families is critical to long-term recovery and
resilience. Psychiatric Annals 34(9):710-716.
Kautz, H., B. Selman, and M. Shah. 1997. Combining social networks and collaborative
filtering. Communications of the ACM 40(3):63-65.
Manyena, S. B. 2006. The concept of resilience revisited. Disasters 30(4):434-450.
Mathbor, G. M. 2007. Enhancement of community preparedness for natural disastersThe role of social work in building social capital for sustainable disaster relief and
management. International Social Work 50(3):357-369.
Moore, S., M. Daniel, L. Linnan, M. Campbell, S. Benedict, and A. Meier. 2004. After
Hurricane Floyd passed: investigating the social determinants of disaster preparedness and recovery. Family and Community Health 27(3):204-217.
Morrow, B. H. 2008. Community Resilience: A Social Justice Perspective. CARRI
Research Report #4. Available at http://www.resilientus.org/reports.html.
Norris, F. H., and S. P. Stevens. 2007. Community resilience and the principles of mass
trauma intervention. Psychiatry-Interpersonal and Biological Processes
70(4):320-328.
Norris, F. H., S. P. Stevens, B. Pfefferbaum, K. F. Wyche, and R. L. Pfefferbaum. 2008.
Community resilience as a metaphor: Theory, set of capacities, and strategy for
disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology 41(1-2):127-150.
Pais, J. E., and J. R. Elliott. 2008. Places as recovery machines: Vulnerability and
neighborhood change after major hurricanes. Social Forces 86(4):1415-1453.
Ritchie, L. A., and D. A. Gill. 2007. Social capital theory as an integrating theoretical
framework in technological disaster research. Sociological Spectrum 27(1):103129.
Sadovich, J. 2008. Review-Disaster resilience: An integrated approach. Journal of
Homeland Security and Emergency Management 4(4): Article 6.
Schoch-Spana, M., C. Franco, J. B. Nuzzo, and C. Usenza. 2007. Community engagement: leadership tool for catastrophic health events. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism
: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 5(1): 8-25.
Schoch-Spana, M., B. Courtney, C. Franco, A. Norwood, and J. B. Nuzzo. 2008.
Community resilience roundtable on implementation of Homeland Security
Presidential Directive 21 (HSPD-21). Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense
Strategy, Practice, and Science 6(3): 269-278.
Troy, D. A., A. Carson, J. Vanderbeek, and A. Hutton. 2008. Enhancing communitybased disaster preparedness with information technology. Disasters 32(1):149165.
Vogel, C., S. C. Moser, R. E. Kasperson, and G. D. Dabelko. 2007. Linking vulnerability,
adaptation, and resilience science to practice: Pathways, players, and partnerships.
Global Environmental Change 17(3-4):349-364.
Walsh, F. 2007. Traumatic loss and major disasters: Strengthening family and community
resilience. Family Process 46(2):207-227.
Zakour, M. J., and E. B. Harrell. 2003. Access to disaster services: Social work interventions for vulnerable populations. Journal of Social Service Research 30(2):27-54.
64
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL SUGGESTED BY WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Books
Li, C., and J. Bernoff. 2008. Groundswell: Winning in a World Transformed by Social
Technologies. Boston: Forrester Research, 282 pp.
Mackay, C. 1841. Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the madness of Crowds. New
York: Three Rivers Press, 740pp.
Surowiecki, J. 2004. The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Random House, Inc., 320 pp.
Articles
Butts, C. T. 2008. A relational event framework for social action. Sociological
Methodology 38(1):155-200.
Butts, C. T.; M. Petrescu-Prahova, and B. R. Cross. 2007. Responder communication
networks in the World Trade Center disaster: Implications for modeling of
communication within emergency settings. Journal of Mathematical Sociology
31(2):121-147.
Comfort, L. K. 2002. Rethinking security: Organizational fragility in extreme events.
Public Administration Review 62(s1):98-107.
Comfort, L. K. 2005. Risk, security and disaster management. Annual Review of Political
Science 8 (June):335-356. First published online as a Review in Advance on Mar.
17, 2005.
Comfort, L. K. 2006. Cities at risk: Hurricane Katrina and the drowning of New Orleans.
Urban Affairs Review 41(4):501-516.
Comfort, L. K. 2006. Communication, coherence, and collective action: The impact of
Hurricane Katrina on communications infrastructure. Public Works Management
and Policy 10(4):328-343.
Comfort, L. K. 2007. Asymmetric information processes in extreme events: The 26
December 2004 Sumatran earthquake and tsunami.In Communicable Crises:
Prevention, Response and Recovery in the Global Arena, D. Gibbons, ed. pp. 135165 Charlotte: Information Age Publishing.
Comfort, L. K. 2007. Crisis management in hindsight: Cognition, communication,
coordination, and control. Public Administration Review (Special Issue,
Administrative Failure in the Wake of Katrina) 67(s1):S188-S196.
Comfort, L. K., and N. Kapucu. 2006. Inter-organizational coordination in extreme
events: The World Trade Center attacks, September 11, 2001. Natural Hazards
39(2):309-327.
Comfort, L. K. and C. Wukich. 2009. Designing resilience: Building community capacity
for action. In disaster management: Global Challenges and Local Solutions, R.
Shaw. and R. R. Krishnamurthy, eds.. Hyderabad: Universities Press India.
Comfort, L. K., K. Ko, and A. Zagorecki. 2004. Coordination in rapidly evolving
systems: The role of information. American Behavioral Scientist 48(3): 295-313.
Cutter, S. L., L. Barnes, M. Berry, C. Burton, E. Evans, E. Tate, and J. Webb. 2008. A
place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters.
Global Environmental Change 18(2008):598-606.
APPENDIX B
65
Kalashnikov, D. V., Y. Ma, S. Mehrotra, R. Hariharan, and C. T. Butts. 2006. Modeling

and querying uncertain spatial information for situational awareness applications.
In Proceedings of the 14th Annual ACM International Symposium on Advances in
Geographic Information Systems (ACM SIGIR), pp. 131-138. New York: ACM
Press.
Lenhart, A., and S. Fox. Twitter and status updating. Pew Internet & American Life
Project. Available online at
http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/276/report_display.asp. Accessed February 20,
2009.
Lind, B. E., M. Tirado, C. T. Butts, and M. Petrescu-Prahova. 2008. Brokerage roles in
disaster response: Organisational mediation in the wake of Hurricane Katrina.
International Journal of Emergency Management 5(1-2):75-99.
Mehrotra, S., C. T. Butts, D. V. Kalashnikov, N. Venkatasubramanian, R. Rao, G.
Chockalingam, R. Eguchi, B. Adams, and C. Huyck. 2003. Project RESCUE:
Challenges in responding to the unexpected. SPIE Journal of Electronic Imaging,
Displays, and Medical Imaging 5304(January):179-192.
Mehrotra, S., C. T. Butts, D. V. Kalashnikov, N. Venkatasubramanian, K. Altintas, R.
Hariharan, H. Lee, Y. Ma, A. Myers, J. Wickramasuriya, R. Eguchi, and C.
Huyck. 2004. CAMAS: A citizen awareness system for crisis mitigation. In
Proceedings of the 2004 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on
Management of Data, eds. G. Weikum, A.C. Knig, and S. DeBloch, pp. 955956. New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
Petrescu-Prahova, M., and C. T. Butts. Forthcoming. Emergent coordinators in the World
Trade Center disaster. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters.
Appendix C
________________________________________________________________________
Workshop Participants
Louise K. Comfort
Graduate School of Public and International
Affairs
University of Pittsburgh
Lauren Alexander Augustine

Disasters Roundtable
The National Academies
Victor Asal
Rockefeller College of Public Affairs and Policy
University at Albany
State University of New York
Susan L. Cutter
Department of Geography
University of South Carolina
Darrell L. Darnell
District of Columbia Homeland Security and
Emergency Management Agency
Carter T. Butts
Department of Sociology
Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Sciences
University of California, Irvine
Michael Dunaway
Directorate of Science and Technology
Department of Homeland Security
Michael Byrne
Homeland and National Security Division
ICF International
Eric Edkin
Kathleen M. Carley
Institute for Software Research International
Carnegie Mellon University
David Eisenman
David Geffen School of Medicine
University of California, Los Angeles
Jay Chunn
National Center for Health Behavioral Change
Urban Medical Institute
Morgan State University
Jared Eno
William A. V. Clark
Department of Geography
University of California, Los Angeles
Scott Feld
Purdue University
67
68
Jeffrey Friedland
Emergency Management/Homeland Security
St. Clair County, Michigan
Caetie Ofiesh
Geographical Sciences Committee
Craig Fugate
Florida Division of Emergency Management
Randolph H. Rowel
Department of Behavioral Health Sciences
Morgan State University
Jack Harrald
Institute for Crisis, Disaster and Risk
Management
George Washington University
Monica Schoch-Spana
Center for Biosecurity
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
Arleen Alice Hill

Department of Earth Sciences
The University of Memphis
John Shea
External Affairs
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Eric Holdeman
Homeland and National Security Division
ICF International
Ellis M. Stanley
West Coast Emergency Management Operations
Dewberry
Carl Latkin
Department of Health, Behavior and Society
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public
Health
Jeannette Sutton
Natural Hazards Center
University of Colorado at Boulder
Richard Lempert
Human Factors Behavior Sciences Division
Department of Homeland Security
David L. Maack
Office of Emergency Management
Racine County, Wisconsin
Tricia Wachtendorf
Disaster Research Center
University of Delaware
Barry Wellman
University of Toronto
Sammantha Magsino
Matthew Morrison
Pacific NorthWest Economic Region
Fran H. Norris
National Center for Disaster Mental Health
Research
Dartmouth Medical School
Jennifer B. Nuzzo
Center for Biosecurity
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
Appendix D
________________________________________________________________________
Breakout Session Descriptions
The workshop agenda included breakout sessions during which workshop participants
were divided into two groups. Participants of each concurrent session were to discuss
specific issues related to themes defined by the workshop planning committee. The
planning committee described the themes and provided questions to guide discussions.
This section includes the text of materials regarding the concurrent breakout sessions
provided to the participants prior to the workshop.
CONCURRENT SESSIONS
SESSION 3: Improvisational Disaster Response and Social Network Analysis
This session examines opportunities for social network analysis in understanding and
facilitating preparedness and response to emergencies in two different venues: networks
among and between organizations and networks within local communities. In
organizational response (Session 3a), we are interested in how more productive
interactions and flexibility for improvisation and how these can be enhanced through
social network analysis and social networking technology. For local networks within
communities and among individuals (Session 3b), the concern is how to empower and
engage such communities and foster collective behavior in preparing for, responding to,
and recovering from disasters.
Session 3a: Improvisational Disaster Response and Social Network Analysis:
Networks of Organizational Connections
among and between organizations and networks within local communities. In
organizational response (Session 3a), we are interested in how more productive
interactions and flexibility for improvisation and how these can be enhanced through
social network analysis and social networking technology. Participants are provided the
following questions to help guide the discussion. The session rapporteur will summarize
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the discussion to all workshop participants during the plenary session following the
discussion.
1. How do social networks operate organization to organization and what are current
knowledge gaps in our understanding of their functioning?
2. To what extent is this currently measured using Social Network Analysis (SNA)?
3. To what extent is SNA used and how can SNA facilitate, maximize, and foster preconditions that will permit improvisational response during disasters?
4. What SNA research or change in practice is required to facilitate more productive
interaction between the Incident Command System (ICS) and the emergent
networks and responders? What tools would be most useful in this effort?
5. How can social networking technology be used to maximize the utility of emergent
responders?
6. How can SNA be used in choosing what social networking technologies should be
utilized?
7. What are the gaps in knowledge and technology that inhibit the application of social
network tools and theory to improvisational response?
8. What are the barriers in terms of training, technology, and policy to applying social
network theory and tools to improvisational response?
Session 3b: Improvisational Disaster Response and Social Network Analysis:
Networks within Local Communities and Between Individuals
among and between organizations and networks within local communities. For local
networks within communities and among individuals (Session 3b), the concern is how to
empower and engage such communities and foster collective behavior in preparing for,
responding to, and recovering from disasters. Participants are provided the following
questions to help guide the discussion. The session rapporteur will summarize the
discussion for all workshop participants during the plenary session following the
discussion.
1. What Social Network Analysis (SNA) tools are used currently to identify preexisting networks in communities?
2. How is and can SNA be used to understand the collective and emergent behavior of
social networks before, during, and after the disaster cycle
3. How can the collective and emergent behavior of social networks be fostered and
directed before, during, and after the disaster cycle?
4. What technologies are most appropriate for engaging and empowering social
networks at the community level?
5. What SNA tools can be used to determine what we dont know about how such
social networks are built, function, grow, prosper during both pre- and postdisaster? What are the gaps in knowledge and technology that inhibit the
application of social network tools and theory to improvisational response?
6. What are the barriers in terms of training, technology, and policy to applying social
network theory and tools to improvisational response?

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This PDF is available from The National Academies Press at http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?

Applications of Social Network Analysis for Building Community

Sammantha L. Magsino, Rapporteur; National Research Council

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL NETWORK

Sammantha L. Magsino, Rapporteur

Board on Earth Sciences and Resources

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

PLANNING COMMITTEE FOR THE WORKSHOP

SAMMANTHA MAGSINO, Study Director

GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES COMMITTEE

BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES

In response to a request by the Department of Homeland Security, the National Research

APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

2 THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE

3 SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS FOR IMPROVED DISASTER

APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

PURPOSE OF THE WORKSHOP

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APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

communities. It is also dependent on the development of long-term intervention programs

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

according to participants, is not currently feasible given research funding practices.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

community resilience. An understanding of how connectivity to networks may change

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

A communitys ability to respond to and recover from natural or human-caused

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Welcome and Introductory Remarks

Current State of the Art in Social Network Analysis

Fostering Community Resiliency: Theory and Practice

Reaching Vulnerable Populations through Social Networks

Using Social Networks to Enhance Communications

Synthesis and Discussion of Goals for Breakout Sessions

Session 2a: Communication

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APPLICATIONS OF SNA FOR BUILDING COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Thursday, February 12, 2009

Session 3a: Networks of Organizational Connections

Reports from Break-out Sessions & Wrap Up

Identification of knowledge gaps and priority research areas