CHAPTER 17 Revolutions of Industrialization 17501914

I. Opening Vignette
A. Mahatma Gandhi criticized industrialization as economic exploitation.
1. few people have agreed with him
2. every kind of society has embraced at least the idea of industrialization since it started in
Great Britain in the late eighteenth century
B. The Industrial Revolution was one of the most significant elements of Europes modern
transformation.
1. initial industrialization period was 17501900
2. drew on the Scientific Revolution
3. utterly transformed European society
4. pushed Europe into a position of global dominance
5. was more fundamental than any breakthrough since the Agricultural Revolution
C. We dont know where we are in the industrial eraat the beginning, in the middle, or at the end.
II. Explaining the Industrial Revolution
A. Origins of Industrial Revolution lay in the population growth and an energy crisis.
1. development of nonrenewable fossil fuels for energy
2. mounting impact on the environment
a. extractions of raw materials altered the landscape
b. sewers emptied industrial waste into environment
c. smoke polluted the air
d. some voiced opposition
3. for many historians Industrial Revolution ushered in the age of man
B. The Industrial Revolution brought enormous increases in the output of goods and services.
1. in Britain, output increased some fiftyfold in the period 17501900
2. based on a culture of innovation
3. before 1750/1800, the major Eurasian civilizations were about equal technologically
4. greatest breakthrough was the steam engine
a. soon spread from the textile industry to many other types of production
b. agriculture was transformed
5. spread from Britain to Western Europe, then to the United States, Russia, and Japan
6. in twentieth century became global

CHAPTER 17 Revolutions of Industrialization 17501914

B. Why Europe?
1. many scholars have debated why industrialization appeared first in Great Britain, and why
it started in the late nineteenth century
2. some have argued that unique features of European society explain the development
3. that view has been challenged by:
a. the fact that other parts of the world have had times of great technological and
scientific flourishing
b. the fact that Europe did not enjoy any overall economic advantage as late as 1750
c. the rapid spread of industrial techniques to much of the world in the past 250
years
4. contemporary historians tend to see the Industrial Revolution as a rather quick and
unexpected eruption in the period 17501850
5. why it might have occurred in Europe
a. some patterns of European internal development favored innovation
b. European rulers had an unusual alliance with merchant classes
6. other societies developed market-based economies by the eighteenth century (e.g.,
Japan, India, and China)
a. but Europe was at the center of the most varied exchange network
b. contact with culturally different peoples encouraged change and innovation
c. the Americas provided silver, raw materials, and foods
C. Why Britain?
1. Britain was the most commercialized of Europes larger countries
a. small farmers had been pushed out (enclosure movement)
b. market production fueled by a number of agricultural innovations
c. guilds had largely disappeared
2. ready supply of industrial workers with few options
3. British aristocrats were interested in commerce
4. British commerce was worldwide
5. British political life encouraged commercialization and economic innovation
a. policy of religious toleration (established 1688) welcomed people with technical
skills regardless of faith
b. British government imposed tariffs to protect its businessmen
c. it was easy to form companies and forbid workers unions

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d. unified internal market, thanks to road and canal system
e. patent laws protected inventors interests
f. checks on royal authority gave more room for private enterprise
6. emphasis of the Scientific Revolution was different in Great Britain
a. on the continent: logic, deduction, mathematical reasoning
b. in Britain: observation and experiment, measurement, mechanical devices,
practical applications
c. in Britain, artisan/craftsman inventors were in close contact with scientists and
entrepreneurs
d. the British Royal Society (founded 1660) took the role of promoting useful
knowledge
7. Britain had plenty of coal and iron ore, often conveniently located
8. Britain was not devastated by the Napoleonic wars
9. social change was possible without revolution
III. The First Industrial Society
A. A massive increase in output occurred as industrialization took hold in Britain.
1. rapid development of railroad systems
2. much of the dramatic increase was in mining, manufacturing, and services
3. agriculture became less important by comparison (in 1891, agriculture generated only 8
percent of British national income)
4. vast transformation of daily life
a. it was a traumatic process for many
b. different people were affected in different ways
B. The British Aristocracy
1. landowning aristocrats had little material loss in the Industrial Revolution
2. but the aristocracy declined, because urban wealth became more important
a. many businessmen, manufacturers, and bankers were enriched
b. aristocrats had declining political clout
c. by 1900, businessmen led the major political parties
3. titled nobles retained great social prestige and personal wealth
a. many found an outlet in Britains colonial possessions
C. The Middle Classes

CHAPTER 17 Revolutions of Industrialization 17501914

1. the middle classes had the most obvious gains from industrialization
2. upper middle class: some became extremely wealthy, bought into aristocratic life
3. middle class: large numbers of smaller businessmen and professionals
a. politically liberal
b. stood for thrift, hard work, rigid morals, and cleanliness
c. Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859): individuals are responsible for their own destiny
d. middle-class women were more frequently cast as homemakers, wives, and
mothers
4. lower middle class: service sector workers (clerks, secretaries, etc.)
a. by 1900, they were around 20 percent of Britains population
b. employment opportunities for women as well as men
D. The Laboring Classes
1. in the nineteenth century, about 70 percent of Britons were workers
2. laboring classes suffered most/benefited least from industrialization
3. rapid urbanization
a. by 1851, a majority of Britains population was urban
b. by 1900, London was the largest city in the world (6 million)
4. horrible urban conditions
a. vast overcrowding
b. inadequate sanitation and water supplies
c. epidemics
d. few public services or open spaces
e. little contact between the rich and the poor
5. industrial factories offered a very different work environment
a. long hours, low wages, and child labor were typical for the poor
b. what was new was the routine and monotony of work, direct supervision, discipline
c. industrial work was insecure
d. many girls and young women worked
e. gendered hierarchy of labor in factories with men in supervisory and more skilled
positions
E. Social Protest

CHAPTER 17 Revolutions of Industrialization 17501914

1. friendly societies, especially of artisans, for self-help were common
2. other skilled artisans sometimes wrecked machinery and burned mills
3. some joined political movements, aimed to enfranchise working-class men
4. trade unions were legalized in 1824
a. growing numbers of factory workers joined them
b. fought for better wages and working conditions
c. at first, upper classes feared them
5. socialist ideas spread gradually
a. Robert Owen (17711858) established an ideal industrial community in New
Lanark,
Scotland
b. Karl Marx (18181883) laid out a full ideology of socialism
c. socialist ideas were attractive among more radical trade unionists and some
middle-class intellectuals in the late nineteenth century
6. British working-class movement remained moderate
a. material conditions for workers improved in second half of the century
b. capitalists and impoverished working class didnt polarize because of the large
middle and lower middle class
c. workers bettered their standard of living
7. nationalism bound workers to countries rather than other workers around the world
8. but immense inequalities remained
9. by 1900, Britain was in economic decline relative to newly industrialized states like
Germany and the United States
F. Europeans in Motion
1. massive migratory process uprooted millions, setting them in motion both internally and
around the world.
a. half or more of the rural population in Europe migrated to cities
b. twenty percent of Europeans between 1815 and 1939 left Europe
2. temporarily increased Europes share of the worlds population
3. greatest impact in the Americas
a. emigration to Latin America changed the social makeup of many regions
b. emigration to the United States was larger and more diverse than elsewhere
c. become part of the American myththe melting pot

CHAPTER 17 Revolutions of Industrialization 17501914

4. European immigration into the Russian empire as well
a. 10 million or more migrated to Siberia from Russia and the Ukraine
IV. Variations on a Theme: Industrialization in the United States and Russia
A. The Industrial Revolution soon spread to continental Western Europe.
1. by 1900, it was established in the United States, Russia, and Japan
2. industrialization had broadly similar outcomes wherever it was established
a. aristocratic, artisanal, and peasant classes declined
b. middle and working classes grew
c. middle-class women withdrew from paid labor
d. working-class women were usually paid lower wages and had difficulty joining
unions
e. establishment of trade unions and socialist movements
3. but the spread of industrialization was affected by the cultures of the lands where it was
established, pace and timing of industrialization, nature of major industries, role of the state,
political expression of social conflict, etc.
a. French industrialization was slower, perhaps less disruptive
b. Germany focused at first on heavy industry
4. variations are most apparent in the cases of the United States and Russia
B. The United States: Industrialization without Socialism
1. American industrialization began with New England textiles (1820s)
2. explosive growth after the Civil War
a. by 1914, the United States was the worlds leading industrial power
b. closely linked to European industrialization
3. the U.S. government played an important role through tax breaks, land grants to
railroads, laws making formation of corporations easy, absence of overt regulation
4. pioneering of mass production techniques
5. creation of a culture of consumption through advertising, catalogs, and department
stores
6. self-made industrialists became cultural heroes (Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller)
7. serious social divisions rose
a. growing gap between rich and poor
b. constant labor of the working class

CHAPTER 17 Revolutions of Industrialization 17501914

c. creation of vast slums
d. growing labor protest
8. why socialism didnt appeal to American workers
a. Populists denounced corporate interests
b. Progressives were more successful, especially after 1900
c. socialism was labeled as fundamentally un-American
C. Russia: Industrialization and Revolution
1. Russia was an absolute monarchy, with the greatest state control of anywhere in the
Western world
a. in 1900: no national parliament, no legal political parties, no nationwide elections
b. dominated by a titled nobility (many highly Westernized)
c. until 1861, most Russians were serfs
2. in Russia, the state, not society, usually initiated change
a. Peter the Great (r. 16891725) was an early example of transformation from
above
b. the state directed freeing of the serfs in 1861
c. the state set out to improve Russias economic and industrial backwardness
3. Russian Industrial Revolution was launched by the 1890s
a. focused on railroads and heavy industry
b. substantial foreign investment
c. industry was concentrated in a few major cities
d. fewer but larger factories than was typical in Western Europe
4. growing middle class disliked Russias deep conservatism, sought a greater role in political
life
a. but they were dependent on the state for contracts and jobs
b. also relied on the state to suppress worker radicalism
5. Russian working class (only about 5 percent of the population) rapidly radicalized
a. harsh conditions
b. no legal outlet for grievances
c. large-scale strikes
6. Marxist socialism appealed to some educated Russians, gave them hope for the future

CHAPTER 17 Revolutions of Industrialization 17501914

a. founded the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (1898)
b. got involved in workers education, union organizing, and revolutionary action
7. major insurrection broke out in 1905, after defeat in war by Japan
a. in Moscow and St. Petersburg, workers went on strike, created their own
representative councils (soviets)
b. peasant uprisings, student demonstrations
c. non-Russian nationalities revolted
d. military mutiny
e. brutally suppressed, but forced the tsars regime to make reforms
8. limited political reforms failed to pacify the radicals or bring stability
a. growing belief that only a revolution would help
b. World War I provided the revolutionary moment
9. Russian Revolution broke out in 1917
a. brought most radical of the socialist groups to powerthe Bolsheviks, led by
Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin)
b. only in Russia did industrialization lead to violent social revolution
V. The Industrial Revolution and Latin America in the Nineteenth Century
A. Beyond Europe and North America, only Japan underwent major industrialization in the
nineteenth century.
1. elsewhere, only modest experiments in industry
2. did not transform societies
3. nonindustrialized societies still felt the impact of European and North American
developments
B. After Independence in Latin America
1. the struggle for independence in Latin America took a long time and was very destructive
2. the four vice-royalties of Spanish America became eighteen separate countries
3. international wars hindered development of the new nations
a. Mexico lost vast territories to the United States (18461848)
b. Paraguay was devastated by war (18641870)
4. political life was highly unstable
a. conservatives tried to maintain the old status quo

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b. liberals attacked the Church, sought some social reforms, preferred federalism to a
centralized government system
c. often, military strongmen (caudillos) gained power
d. states ran through multiple constitutions
5. independence brought little fundamental change to social life
a. slavery was abolished (though not until late 1880s in Brazil and Cuba)
b. most legal distinctions between racial categories were abolished
c. creole whites remained overwhelmingly in control of productive economic
resources
d. the military and a small middle class allowed social mobility for a few
e. the vast majority were impoverished
f. only rarely did active rebellions occur
C. Facing the World Economy
1. second half of the nineteenth century: greater stability, integration into world economy
2. rapid growth of Latin American exports to industrializing countries
a. exported food products and raw materials
b. imported textiles, machinery, tools, weapons, luxury goods
3. major investment of European and U.S. capital in Latin America
D. Becoming like Europe?
1. rapid population increase
2. rapid urbanization
3. actively sought European immigrants
4. few people benefited from the export boom
a. upper-class landowners did very well
b. middle class grew some
c. more than 90 percent of the population was still lower class
5. industrial workers made up a modest segment of the lower class
a. attempted unions and strikes
b. harshly repressed
6. most of the poor remained rural
7. only in Mexico did conditions provoke a nationwide revolution

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a. overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Daz (18761911)
b. major, bloody conflict (19101920)
c. huge peasant armies
d. transformed Mexico
8. the export boom did not cause a thorough Industrial Revolution
a. there was little internal market for manufactured goods
b. rich landowners and cattlemen had little incentive to invest in manufacturing
c. governments supported free trade, so cheaper and higher-quality foreign goods
were available than could be made at home
d. instead, economic growth was dependent on Europe and North America
VI. Reflections: History and Horse Races
A. Historians are fascinated by historic firsts.
B. But a focus on firsts can be misleading.
1. most first achievements in history were not intentional
2. the Industrial Revolution was certainly an unexpected outcome of converging
circumstances
C. Europeans used their development of industrialization to claim an innate superiority.
1. its important to emphasize the unexpectedness of the Industrial Revolution
2. spread of industrialization around the world diminishes the importance of the why
Europe? question
3. industrialization will increasingly be seen as a global process