CCNA

CCNA NETWORKING
Project Report
on
CASE STUDY OF NETWORKING

(CCNA)
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Submitted to:
Submitted by:
Er Amandeep KAur
Kumar Vivek
HOD CSE/IT
Uni Roll No: 100240824348

College Roll No: 03
DESH BHAGAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Village Saunti,Mandi Gobindgarh
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CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the project entitled, Case study of
Networking(CCNA) , by Kumar Vivek (100240824348) in partial fulfillment of requirement for the
award of degree of B.Tech. (Information Technology) submitted in Desh Bhagat Engineering College,
Mandi Gobindgarh is an authentic record of my own work carried out during a period from 09 th Jan 2014
to 2nd May 2014 under the supervision of Pratik Raj, Trainer, APPIN Technology Lab, Patna. The matter
presented in this project report is original and has not been submitted by me for the award of any other
Degree.
Signature of the Student
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my/our
knowledge
Signature of the Supervisor

The B.Tech VivaVoce Examination of (Kumar Vivek) has been held on _________________.
Signature of the Supervisor
Signature of External Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to the Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar for giving me the opportunity
to work on the Project Case study of Networking during my final year of B.Tech.
I would like to thank Pratik Raj, Trainer, APPIN Technology Lab, Patna., Bihar for their kind support.
I would also like to thank my parents who helped and supported me. I would also like to thank everyone
who has knowingly & unknowingly helped me throughout my training. Last but not least, a word of
thanks for the authors of all those books and papers which I have consulted during my project work as
well as for preparing the report.
At the end thanks to the Almighty for giving me this opportunity to show my valuable knowledge.
Kumar Vivek
Uni. Roll No.100240824348
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ABSTRACT
The project deals with various aspects of networking and implementation of a network using various
network devices like switches router etc.the project also delas with the network fundamental,osi reference
model,ip routing,cabeking,switching etc.A case study of a network of a college to achieve desired
objectives is also part of this project.
Index
Sr. No.
Topic
Page No.
CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
INDEX
NETWORK BASIC
5-10
OSI REFERENCE MODEL
11-17
IP ADDRESSING
18-24
CABELING
25-27
ROUTER FUNDAMENTAL
28-39
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LAN SWITCHING
40-65
66-80
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NETWORKING BASICS
Network
It is an interconnection of computers to share resources (H/w & S/w). There are many types of networks.
(i) LAN (Local Area Networks)
(ii) MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
(iii) WAN (Wide Area Networks)
LAN: - When the computers connected with in a building or in a campus is called LAN. This type
of networking used up to 1 Km. Mostly we used twisted wire to connect computers.
MAN: - When the computers connected in a big city or which connect two LANs is called MAN.
We use coaxial or fiber optic to connect.
WAN: - When the computers all over the world are connected to each other is called WAN. It has
wireless connection it is generally used to communicate with other countries and at long distances.
We use satellites to communicate with each other.
Topology
It is a geometric representation of computer networks. There are many topologies in computer networks.
(i) Bus Network Topology
(ii) Ring Network Topology
(iii)Star Network Topology
(iv) Tree Network Topology
(v) Mesh Network Topology
(vi) Hybrid Network Topology
Bus Network Topology
In bus topology all the computers are connected with a single wire for a network. The message is
broadcast on the network. There is a T-connectorto attach wires. To attach each computer with network
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there is a BNC (Barrel Knack Connector, Bottle Knack Connector, and British Nabel
Connector)connector. In this we use coaxial cable. We use 2 50 connectors called terminatorsat both
ends to stop the data signal. If the signal travels continuously on the network it is called bouncing
Advantages
1. The main advantage of a broadcasting network is the reduction of physical lines.
2. The reliability of the network is high because the failure of a computer in the network does not
affect the network functioning for other computers.
3. Addition of new computers to the network is easy.
Limitation
1. Each computer connected to the line must have good communication and decision making
capability.
2. If the communication line fails, the entire system breaks down.
Star Network Topology
In star topology all the computers are connected to each other through a centralized device called HUB.
Maximum distance of a client from a hub is 100 m. In star network we use RJ 45 connector and Twisted
Pair cable.
There are two types of twisted pair:(i) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
(ii) UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
Normally we use UTP cable but in area, where

the EMI is more, we use STP cable. For example in Factories and Industries, where data wires and
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electricity wires are wired together. There are five categories of STP/UTP cable. Those are from cat -1 to
cat -5. In telephone lines we use cat -3 cables, which is three twisted per feet and its speed is 10 Mbps and
the connector is RJ 11. To data transfer we use cat -5 cables because its speed is 100 Mbps.
Advantages
1. This topology has minimal line cost because only n-1 lines are required for connecting n nodes.
2. Transmission delays between two nodes do not increase by adding new nodes to the n network
because any two nodes may be connected via two links only.
3
. If any of the local computers fail, the remaining portion of the network is unaffected.
Limitation
1. The system crucially depends on the central node. If the host computer fails, the entire network
fails.
Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of starconfigured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 4). Tree topologies allow for
the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
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Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Considerations When Choosing a Topology:
Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have
to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
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Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often
used with star topologies.
Networking Media
To do networking we need to use some type of media. There are many types of media.
(i) Twisted pair cable
(ii) Coaxial Cable
(iii) Fiber optic cable
(iv) Microwave
(v) Satellite
Twisted Pair Cable
There are two wires, which are twisted with each other to avoid EMI. There are two types of twisted pair.
This cable comes in 7 categories. We generally use the Cat 5 cable of speed 100 Mbps in networking.
Shield Twisted Pair Cable (STP): - In this an extra wire which is called shielded wire is wrapped
over the inner cover which holds copper in pairs.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (Utp): - In this type of wire no shielded cover is there for extra
protection from noise.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube shaped copper braid outer
copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis of curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is
basically of two types
(i) BROADBAND SIGNAL CABLE(RG 59)
(ii) BASEBAND SINGLE CABLE(RG 58)
We used Base band signal cable in Networking of Computers. Its speed is 10 Mbps and impedance is 50
.
Fiber Optical Cable
Fiber optic cable consists of a very fine fiber made from two types of glass, one for the inner core and the
other for the outer layer. That is transmitted as light through it. It is a costly but more secure transmission
media.
Types of Hub/Switch
Hub/Switch is a device, which is used to connect more than two computers with each other to use
resources and to communicate. There are many types of Hub/Switch
(i) Passive Hub: - In this type of hub, there is no electricity in hub; this hub does not
regenerate/amplify the data. It simply passes the data.
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(ii) Active Hub: - It is a combination of passive hubs and repeater. In this type of hub, we need to
give electricity. This hub is also called Multipart repeater. This hub also regenerates the signals.
(iii) Switch: - Switch is actually hardware based. Standard ports of HUB/SWITCH are
8/16/24/48/72 ports.
NIC
NIC is Network Interface Card. It is also called LAN card or Ethernet card. It is inserted in extension slots
of motherboard. In old NIC both BNC and RJ-45 connector attached, so it is called COMBO. If we attach
NIC of different speed on a network, then there is Bottle Neck Problem.
MAC ADDRESS
MAC is Media Access Control. It is a 48 bit unique number which is given by the company in the time of
manufacturing. Switches work on Mac address. The Mac address of each network card is stored in MACTable of switch.
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One of the greatest functions of the OSI specifications is to assist in data transfer between disparate hosts
meaning, for example, that they enable us to transfer data between a Unix host and a PC or a Mac.
The OSI isnt a physical model, though. Rather, its a set of guidelines that application developers can use
to create and implement applications that run on a network. It also provides a framework for creating and
implementing networking standards, devices, and internetworking schemes.
The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups. The top three layers define how the
applications within the end stations will communicate with each other and with users. The bottom four
layers define how data is transmitted end-to-end. These bottom layers also determine how to rebuild a data
stream from a transmitting host to a destination hosts application.
Network devices that operate at all seven layers of the OSI model include
Network management stations (NMS)
Web and application servers
Gatew
ays
(not
default
gateways)
Network hosts
Basically, the ISO is pretty much the Emily Post of the network protocol world. Just like Ms. Post, who
wrote the book setting the standardsor protocolsfor human social interaction, the ISO developed the
OSI reference model as the precedent and guide for an open network protocol set. Defining the etiquette
of communication models, it remains today the most popular means of comparison for protocol suites.
The OSI reference model has seven layers:
Application layer (layer 7)
Presentation layer (layer 6)
Session layer (layer 5)
Transport layer (layer 4)
Network layer (layer 3)
Data Link layer (layer 2)
Physical layer (layer 1)
The Application Layer

The Application layer of the OSI model marks the spot where users actually communicate to the computer.
This layer only comes into play when its apparent that access to the network is going to be needed soon.
Take the case of Internet Explorer (IE). You could uninstall every trace of networking components from a
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system, such as TCP/IP, NIC card, etc., and you could still use IE to view a local HTML documentno
problem.
But things would definitely get messy if you tried to do something like view an HTML document that
must be retrieved using HTTP, or nab a file with FTP. Thats because IE will respond to requests such as
those by attempting to access the Application layer. And whats happening is that the Application layer is
acting as an interface between the actual application programwhich isnt at all a part of the layered
structureand the next layer down, by providing ways for the application to send information down
through the protocol stack. In other words, IE doesnt truly reside within the Application layerit
interfaces with Application-layer protocols when it needs to deal with remote resources.
These tasks are important because computer applications sometimes require more than only desktop
resources. Often, theyll unite communicating components from more than one network application. Prime
examples are file transfers and e-mail, as well as enabling remote access, network management activities,
client/server processes, and information location. Many network applications provide services for
communication over enterprise networks, but for present and future internetworking, the need is fast
developing to reach beyond the limits of current physical networking. Today, transactions and information
exchanges between organizations are broadening to require internetworking applications such as the
following:
World Wide Web
Connects countless servers (the number seems to grow with each passing day) presenting diverse formats.
Most are multimedia and can include graphics, text, video, and sound. (And as pressure to keep up the
pace mounts, websites are only getting slicker and snappier. Keep in mind, the snazzier the site, the more
resources it requires. Youll see why I mention this later.) Netscape Navigator and IE simplify both
accessing and viewing websites.
E-mail gateways
Versatile; can use Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) or the X.400 standard to deliver messages
between different e-mail applications.
Electronic data interchange (EDI)
A composite of specialized standards and processes that facilitates the flow of tasks such as accounting,
shipping/receiving, and order and inventory tracking between businesses.
Special interest bulletin boards
Include the many Internet chat rooms where people can meet (connect) and communicate with each
other either by posting messages or by typing a live conversation. They can also share public-domain
software.
Internet navigation utilities Include applications such as Gopher and WAIS, as well as search engines such
as Google and Yahoo!, which help users locate the resources and information they need on the Internet.
Financial transaction services
Target the financial community. They gather and sell information pertaining to investments, market
trading, commodities, currency exchange rates, and credit data to their subscribers.
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The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer gets its name from its purpose: It presents data to the Application layer and is
responsible for data translation and code formatting. This layer is essentially a translator and provides
coding and conversion functions. A successful data-transfer technique is to adapt the data into a standard
format before transmission. Computers are configured to receive this generically formatted data and then
convert the data back into its native format for actual reading (for example, EBCDIC to ASCII). By
providing translation services, the Presentation layer ensures that data transferred from the Application
layer of one system can be read by the Application layer of another one.
The OSI has protocol standards that define how standard data should be formatted. Tasks like data
compression, decompression, encryption, and decryption are associated with this layer. Some Presentation
layer standards are involved in multimedia operations too. The following serve to direct graphic and visual
image presentation:
PICT
A picture format used by Macintosh programs for transferring QuickDraw graphics.
TIFF
Tagged Image File Format; a standard graphics format for high-resolution, bitmapped images.
JPEG
Photo standards brought to us by the Joint Photographic Experts Group. Other standards guide movies and
sound.
MIDI
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (sometimes called Musical Instrument Device Interface), used for
digitized music.
MPEG
Increasingly popular Moving Picture Experts Group standard for the compression and coding of motion
video for CDs. It provides digital storage and bit rates up to 1.5Mbps.
QuickTime
For use with Macintosh programs; manages audio and video applications.
RTF Rich Text Format, a file format that lets you exchange text files between different word processors,
even in different operating systems
The Session Layer
The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing, and then tearing down sessions between
Presentation layer entities. This layer also provides dialogue control between devices, or nodes. It
coordinates communication between systems, and serves to organize their communication by offering
three different modes: simplex, half duplex, and full duplex.
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To sum up, the Session layer basically keeps different applications data separate from other applications
data. The following are some examples of Session layer protocols and interfaces (according to Cisco):
Network File System (NFS)
Developed by Sun Microsystems and used with TCP/IP and Unix workstations to allow transparent access
to remote resources.
Structured Query Language (SQL)
Developed by IBM to provide users with a simpler way to define their information requirements on both
local and remote systems.
Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
A broad client/server redirection tool used for disparate service
created on clients and performed on servers.
environments.
Its
procedures
are
X Window
Widely used by intelligent terminals for communicating with remote Unix computers, allowing them to
operate as though they were locally attached monitors.
AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)
Another client/server mechanism, which both establishes and maintains sessions between AppleTalk client
and server machines.
Digital Network Architecture Session Control Protocol (DNA SCP)
A DECnet Session layer protocol.
The Transport Layer

The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a data stream. Services located in the Transport
layer both segment and reassemble data from upper-layer applications and unite it onto the same data
stream. They provide end-to-end data transport services and can establish a logical connection between the
sending host and destination host on an inter network.
Some of you are probably familiar with TCP and UDP already. (But if youre not, no worries Ill tell
you all about them in Chapter 2, Internet Protocols.) If so, you know that both work at the Transport
layer, and that TCP is a reliable service and UDP is not. This means that application developers have more
options because they have a choice between the two protocols when working with TCP/IP protocols. The
Transport layer is responsible for providing mechanisms for multiplexing upper-layer applications,
establishing sessions, and tearing down virtual circuits. It also hides details of any network-dependent
information from the higher layers by providing transparent data transfer.
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The Network Layer

The Network layer (also called layer 3) manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network, and determines the best way to move data, which means that the Network layer must transport
traffic between devices that arent locally attached. Routers (layer 3 devices) are specified at the Network
layer and provide the routing services within an internetwork.
Two types of packets are used at the Network layer: data and route updates.
Data packets
Used to transport user data through the internetwork. Protocols used to support data traffic are called
routed protocols; examples of routed protocols are IP and IPX. Youll learn about IP addressing in Chapter
2 and Chapter 3, IP Subnetting and Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSMs).
Route update packets
Used to update neighboring routers about the networks connected to all routers within the internetwork.
Protocols that send route update packets are called routing protocols; examples of some common ones are
RIP, EIGRP, and OSPF. Route update packets are used to help build and maintain routing tables on each
router.
The Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer provides the physical transmission of the data and handles error notification, network
topology, and flow control. This means that the Data Link layer will ensure that messages are delivered to
the proper device on a LAN using hardware addresses, and translates messages from the Network layer
into bits for the Physical layer to transmit.
The Data Link layer formats the message into pieces, each called a data frame, and adds a customized
header containing the hardware destination and source address. This added information forms a sort of
capsule that surrounds the original message in much the same way that engines, navigational devices, and
other tools were attached to the lunar modules of the Apollo project. These various pieces of equipment
were useful only during certain stages of space flight and were stripped off the module and discarded
when their designated stage was complete. Data travelling through networks is similar.
For a host to send packets to individual hosts on a local network as well as transmitting packets between
routers, the Data Link layer uses hardware addressing. Each time a packet is sent between routers, its
framed with control information at the Data Link layer, but that information is stripped off at the receiving
router and only the original packet is left completely intact. This framing of the packet continues for each
hop until the packet is finally delivered to the correct receiving host. The IEEE Ethernet Data Link layer
has two sublayers:
Media Access Control (MAC) 802.3
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Defines how packets are placed on the media. Contention media access is first come/first served access
where everyone shares the same bandwidthhence the name. Physical addressing is defined here, as well
as logical topologies. Whats a logical topology? Its the signal path through a physical topology. Line
discipline, error notification (not correction), ordered delivery of frames, and optional flow control can
also be used at this sub layer.
Logical Link Control (LLC) 802.2
Responsible for identifying Network layer protocols and then encapsulating them. An LLC header tells the
Data Link layer what to do with a packet once a frame is received. It works like this: A host will receive a
frame and look in the LLC header to find out where the packet is destined forsay, the IP protocol at the
Network layer. The LLC can also provide flow control and sequencing of control bits.
The Physical Layer

Finally arriving at the bottom, we find that the Physical layer does two things: It sends bits and receives
bits. Bits come only in values of 1 or 0a Morse code with numerical values. The Physical layer
communicates directly with the various types of actual communication media. Different kinds of media
represent these bit values in different ways. Some use audio tones, while others
employstate transitionschanges in voltage from high to low and low to high. Specific protocols are
needed for each type of media to describe the proper bit patterns to be used, how data is encoded into
media signals, and the various qualities of the physical medias attachment interface.
The Physical layer specifies the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional requirements for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating a physical link between end systems. This layer is also where
you identify the interface between the data terminal equipment (DTE) and the data communication
equipment (DCE). Some old-phone-company employees still call DCE data circuit-terminating
equipment. The DCE is usually located at the service provider, while the DTE is the attached device. The
services available to the DTE are most often accessed via a modem or channel service unit/data service
unit (CSU/DSU).
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IP Addressing Scheme
IPv4 uses a 32-bit binary addressing scheme to identify networks, network devices, and networkconnected machines. These addresses, known as IP addresses, are strictly regulated by the Internet
Network Information C!=nter (InterNIC). It is entirely possible for a network administrator to arbitrarily
select unregistered IP addresses; this practice should not be condoned. Computers having such spurious IP
addresses will function properly only within the confines of their domain. Attempts to access the Internet
will demonstrate the ramifications of this shortsighted act.
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Each TCP/IP host is identified by a logical IP address. A unique IP address is required for each host and
network component that communicates by using TCP/IP.
The IP address identifies a system's location on the network in the same way that a street address identifies
a house on a city block. Just as a street address must identify a unique residence, an IP address must be
globally unique and have a uniform format.
Network ID
Each IP address defines the network ID and host ID. The network ID identifies the systems that are
located on the same physical segment. All systems on the same physical segment must have the same
network ID. The network ID must be unique to the internet work.
Host ID
The host ID identifies a workstation, server, router, or other TCP/IP host within a segment. The address for
each host must be unique to the network ID.
Each IP address is 32 bits long and is composed of four OS-bit fields, called octets. Octets are separated
by periods. The octet represents a decimal number in the range 0-255. This format is called dotted decimal
notation. The following is an example of an IP address in binary and dotted decimal formats.
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Binary format
Dotted decimal notation
10000011.01101011.00000011.00011000
131.107.3.24
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The Internet community has defined five IP address classes to accommodate networks of varying sizes.
TCP/IP in Windows 2000 supports class A, B, and C address assigned to hosts. The class of address
defines, which bits are used for the network TD and which bits are used for the host TD. It also defines the
possible number of networks and the number of hosts per network.
The following chart shows the network and host ID fields for class A, B, and C IP addressing:
Class
IP address
Network ID
Host ID
w.x.y.z
x.y.z
w.x.y.z
w.x
y.z
w.x.y.z
w.x.y
Class A
Class A address is assigned to networks with a very large number of hosts. The high order bit in a class A
address is always set to zero. The next seven bits (completing the first octet) complete the network ID. The
remaining 24 bits (the last three octets) represents the host ID. This allows for 126 networks and
approximately 17 million hosts per network.
Class B
Class B addresses are used for small local area networks (LANs). The three high order bits in a class C
address are always et to binary 110. The next 21 bits (completing the first three octets) complete the
network ID. The remaining 16 bits (last two ocetets) represents the host ID. This allows for 16, 384
networks and approximately 65,000 hosts per network.
Class C
Class C address are used for small local area networks (LANs). The three high order bits in a class C
address are always set to binary 1 10. The next 21 bits (completing the first three octets) complete the
network ID. The remaining 8 bits (last octet) represent the host ID. This allows for approximately 2
million network and 254 hosts per network.
Class D
Class D addresses are used for multicast group usage. A multicast group may contain one or more hosts, or
none at all. The four high order bits in a class D address are always set to binary 1110. The remaining bits
designated the specific group in which the client participates. There are no network or host bits in the
multicast operations. Packets are passed to a selected subset of hosts on network. Only those hosts
registered for the multicast address accept the packet. Microsoft uses class D addresses for applications to
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multicast data to hosts on an internet work, including Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) and
Microsoft NetShow .
Class E
Class E is an experimental address that is not available for general use; It is reserved for future use. The
high-order bits in a class E address are set to 1111.
Note For more information about multicasting, see the white paper Multicasting under Additional
Readingon the Web page on the Student Materials compact disc.
The graphic in the previous slide summarizes the number of networks and number of hosts per network,
and the range of network IDs in class A, B and C IP addresses. The 32 bit IP addressing scheme presented
in the graphic supports a total of 3, 720,314, 628 hosts.
Addressing Guidelines
Net ID Cannot Be 127

127 is reserved for loopback functions
Network ID and Host ID cannot Be 255 (All Bites Set to 1)

255 is a broadcast address
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Network ID and Host ID Cannot Be 0 (All Bits Set to 0)

0 means this network only
Host ID Must Unique to the Network
Follow this guidelines when assigning network IDs and host IDs:
The network ID cannot be 127. This ID is reserved for loopback functions.
The network ID and host ID cannot be 255 (all bits set 1). If all bits are set to 1, the address
is interpreted as a broadcast rather than a host ID.
The network ID and host ID bits cannot all be set to 0. If all bits are set to 0, the address is
interpreted to mean this network only.
The host ID must be unique to the local network ID.
The network ID identifies the TCP/IP hosts that are located on the same physical network. All hosts on the
same physical network must be assigned the same network ID to communicate with each other. If your
networks are connected by routers, a unique network ID is required for each wide area connection. For
example, in the graphic :
Networks 1 and 3 represent two routed networks.
Network 2 represents the wide area network ID so that the interfaces between the two routes can
be assigned unique host IDs.
If you plan to connect your network to the Internet, you must obtain the network ID portion of the IP
address to guarantee IP network ID uniqueness. For domain name registration and IP network number
assignment, see your ISP.
The host ID identifies a TCP/IP host within a network and must be unique to the network ID. All TCP/IP
hosts, including interfaces to routers, required unique host IDs.
The host ID of the router interface is the IP address confugred as a default gateway to the work station
when TCP/IP is installed. For example, for the host on subnet 1 with an IP address of 124.0.0.27, the IP
address of the default gateway is 124.0.0.1.
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Valid Host IDs

The following table lists the valid ranges of host IDs for a private inter network.
Address class
Beginning range
Ending range
Class A
w. 0.0.01
w. 255.255.254
Class B
w.x.0.1
w.x.255.254
Class C
w.x.y.1
w.x.y.254
Suggestions for Assigning Host IDs

There are no rules for assigning valid IP addresses. You can number all TCP/IP hosts consecutively, or you
can number them can easily be identified for example.
Assign host IDs in groups based on host or server type.
Designate routers by their IP address.
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CABLING
In cat-3 we use 2 pairs or 4 wires, which are used in telephone. In cat-5 there are 4 pairs or 8 wires. In a
pair of wire there is one wire, which is fully colored called solid and second is color with white color
called stripe. We measure the cable length in 10 base 5 form, in which 10 means speed, base means band
and 5 means 500 m. In 8 pin connector pin no. 1,2,3,6 are used for transmit data on a network.
Connection: (i) Hub- to- PC: - To transmit data from a Hub to PC, we use straight cabling.
(ii) PC- to- PC: - To transmit data from a PC to PC, we use cross cabling.
(iii) Hub- to- Hub: (a) In this type of attachment we attach two hubs, to transmit data from a Hub to Hub, we
use cross cabling. But we can attach only 14 PCs with two 8 ports Hub i.e. 2 ports are
wasted.
(b) In this type, we use uplink to attach/connect two hubs. It is an extra port in a hub. In this
we attach an uplink to a normal port. When we attach any PC to uplink, we use cross cable,
instead of straight because uplink is cross by default which change it into straight. In
straight cabling we connect wires straightly but in this only 10 MBps data can be transmit
not 100 MBps. In cross cabling 1st wire is attached with 3rd (1-3) and 2nd with 6th (2-6).
We can also call it rule 13 26.
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(1) Processor
Speed: - 20 MHz to 1GHz
Architecture: - RISC
Reduce Instruction set computer
Manufacturers: - Motorola, IBM, Power PC, Texas, Dallis, Intel.
(2) Flash RAM
Flash Ram is the permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one or more
copies of router o/s. Router o/s is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating System).
Flash Ram stores the only o/s.
The size of flash ram in the router is 4mb to 128mb. The flash ram may be
available in one of the following three packages: SLMM Flash: - Single Line Memory Module
PCMCIA Flash: - Personal Computer Memory Card Interface Architecture Compact
Router
Fundamental
s
Flash: - (Small Memory)
(3) NVRAM
NVRAM is a Non Volatile Random Access Memory. It is used to store the
configuration of the Router. The size of NVRAM is 8 KB to 512 KB.
(4) RAM
Ram of the router is divided into two logical parts.
(i)
Primary RAM
(ii)
Shared RAM
Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: (a) Running copy of IOS.
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(b) Running configuration

(c) Routing table
(d) ARP table (IP address to MAC address)
(e) Processor & other data structure
Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from
different interfaces. Size of ram in a router may vary from 2 mb to 512 mb. The types of
memory that may be present in a ram are: (a) DRAM -> Dynamic RAM
(b) EDORAM -> Extended Data Out Ram
(c) SDRAM -> Synchronous Dynamic Ram
(5) BIOS ROM
The BIOS ROM is the permanent ROM. This memory is used to store following program
& Routines: (i)
Boot strap loader (doing booting)
(ii)
Power on self test routines
(iii)
Incomplete IOS
(iv)
ROM Monitor (ROM-MON)
Booting difference between router & Pc
Router
ROM-MON
Incomplete IOS
FLASH
PC
CMOS Setup
Bootable Floppy/CD
O/S From HDD
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Router Interfaces & Ports

Interface is used to connect LAN networks or wan networks to the router. Interface will
use protocol stacks to send/receive data. Ports are used for the
configuration of
routers. Ports are not used to connect different n/ws. The
primary purpose of port
is the management of router.
Router Interfaces
Interface
Ethernet
Connector
RJ45
color
yellow
AUI
DB15
yellow
RJ45
DB60
Technology like Leased
yellow
blue
Speed
Use
10 mbps
to connect Ethernet LAN
Using UTP media
10 mbps
Using Trans-Receiver
100 mbps
E1-2 mbps
to connect WAN
SS
RJ45
blue
orange
Lines, Radio link, Frame

Relay, X.25, ATM
192 kbps
to connect ISDN Basic
RJ11
white
Fast Ethernet
Serial
T1-1.5 mbps
Smart Serial
BRI ISDN
Rate Interface
VOIP
EPABX
to connect Phones, Fax,
AUI - Attachment Unit Interface

EPABX - Electronic Private Automatic Branch
PSTN - Public Switched Telephone Network
Router Ports
Port
Console
Connector
RJ45
Auxiliary
RJ45
Virtual terminal
Vty
interface
Color
sky blue
black
Modem
-
Speed
9600bps
depend on
-
Details
used for configuration
Using PC
to connect remote
router using PSTN line
to connect remote router
with telnet protocol via
Types of routers:(1) Fixed configuration router

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(2) Modular router

(3) Chassis based router
Other interfaces:(1) Token Ring
RJ45
To connect Token Ring network.
(2) E1/T1 controller RJ45
T1-1544 kbps
(3) ADSL
RJ11
(Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line)
Violet
4/16 mbps
White
E1-2048 kbps
up-640 kbps
Down-8 mbps
Router Access Modes

When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
User mode
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test connectivity and perform
telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not enable to manage & configure router.
Privileged mode
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task, debugging, testing
and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here configuration editing of the router. The
command to enter in this mode is enable. We have to enter enable password or enable secret password to
enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority
than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will
work.
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Global configuration
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global parameters applied to the
entire router.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router
The command enter in this mode is configure terminal.
Line configuration mode
This mode is used to configure lines like console, vty and auxiliary. There are main types of line that are
configured.
(i) Console
router(config)#line console 0
(ii) Auxiliary
router(config)#line aux 0
(iii) Telnet or vty
router(config)#line vty 0 4
Interface configuration mode
This mode is used to configure router interfaces. For e.g:- Ethernet, Serial, BRI etc.
Router(config)#interface <type><number>
Router(config)#interface serial 1
Routing configuration mode
This mode is used to configure routing protocol like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc.
Router(config)#router <protocol> [<option>]
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config)#router eigrp 10
Configuring Password
There are five types of password available in a router
(1) Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
to erase password do all steps with no command.
(2) Vty Password
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router>enable
router(config)#line vty 0 4
(3) Auxiliary Password
router(config)#line Aux 0
(4) Enable Password
router>enable
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit
(5) Enable Secret Password
Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in configuration
where as enable secret password is the encrypted password with MD5 (Media Digest 5)
algorithm.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit
Encryption all passwords
All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text password. We can encrypt
all passwords using level 7 algorithm. The command to encrypt all password are
Router(config)#service password-encryption
Managing Configuration
There are two types of configuration present in a router
(1) Startup Configuration
(2) Running Configuration
(1) Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is used to save
settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of booting in to the
Primary RAM.
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(2) Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a command
for configuration, this command is written in the running configuration.
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
To erase old configuration
Router#erase startup-configuration
Router#reload
Save[y/n]:n
Access Router using console
Com/Port--------DB9------------------------Console
Cisco Console
RJ45
Router
In windows
Click start=> program=> accessories=> comm.
(communication)=>hyperterminalType any name
Select com port
Set settings
Speed 9600
stop bit 1
Data bits 8
Parity no
Click ok
Press shift+home to default prompt
CISCO command line shortcuts
Tab - to auto complete command
? - To take help
Ctrl+P - to recall previous command
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Ctrl+N - next command

Ctrl+Z - alternate to end command
Ctrl+C - to abort
Q - to quit
Ctrl+Shift+6 - to break connection
Command line editing shortcuts
Ctrl+A - to move cursor at start of line
Ctrl+E - to move cursor at end of line
Ctrl+ B - to move cursor one character back
Ctrl+F - to move cursor one character forward
Ctrl+W - to delete word one by one word back
Ctrl+D - to delete one character
Ctrl+U - to delete one line
Esc+B - to take cursor one word back
Esc+F - to take cursor one word forward
Configuring HostName
Router#hostname<name>
<name>#exit or end or /\z
Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router configuration. By
default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to use different
commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Configuring IP, Mask and Enabling the Interface
Router(config)#interface <type><no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip><mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Interface Numbers
Interface numbers start from 0 for each type of interface some routers will directly used
interface number while other router will use slot no/port no addressing technique.
Eth 0
Serial 0
Serial 1
Slot 1
Serial 1/0
Serial 1/1
Slot 0
Serial 0/0
To configure Interface description

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Router(config-if)#description <line>
Configuring optional parameter on LAN interface
Router(config-if)#duplex <half|full|auto>
Router(config-if)#speed <10|100|auto>
Router(config-if)#end
Configuring optional parameter on WAN interface
Router(config)#interfac<type><no>
Router(config-if)#encapsulation <protocol>
Router(config-if)#clock rate <value>
Router(config-if)#end
To display interface status
Router#show interfaces (to show all interfaces)
Router#show interface <type><no>
This command will display following parameters about an interface

1)Status
2)Mac address
3)IP address
4)Subnet mask
5)Hardware type / manufacturer
6)Bandwidth
7)Reliability
8) Delay
9)Load ( TxloadRx load)
10)Encapsulation
11) ARP type (if applicable)
12)Keep alive
13)Queuing strategy
14)Input queue detailsOutput queue details
15) Traffic rate(In packet per second, bit per second)
16) Input packet details
17) Output packet details
18) Modem signals (wan interface only)
19) M.T.U maximum transmission rate (mostly 1500 bytes)
Configuring sub interface
Sub interface are required in different scenario. For e.g:- in Ethernet we need sub
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interface for Vlan communication and in frame relay we need sub interface for multipoint
connectivity. Sub interface means creating a logical interface from physical interface.
Router#configter
Router(config)#interface <type><no><subint no>
Router(config-subif)#
Router(config-subif)#end
Router(config)#interface serial 0.2
Configuring secondary IP
Router#config terminal
Router(config-if)#IP address 192.168.10.5 255.255.255.0
Router(config-if)#IP address 192.168.10.18 255.255.255.0 secondary
Router(config-if)#no shutdown (to enable the interface because they always shutdown)
Router#show run (to display secondary IP)
Managing Command Line History
We can use CTRL+P & CTRL+N shortcuts to display command history. By default
router will up to 10 commands. In the command line history, we can use following
commands to edit this setting
To display commands present in history
Router#show history
To display history size
Router#show terminal
To change history size

Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config-if)#history size <value(0-256)>
Configuring Banners
Banners are just a message that can appear at different prompts according to the type.
Different banners are: Message of the day (motd)
This banner appear at every access method
Login
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Appear before login prompt

Exec
Appear after we enter to the execution mode
Incoming
Appear for incoming connections
Syntax:Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner <type><delimation char>
Text Massage
<delimation char>
Router(config)#
Example:Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner motd $
This router is distribution 3600 router connected to Reliance
$
Router(config)#
To configure synchronous logging on console
Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config)#logging synchronous
Router(config)#exit
Configuring Router Clock
We can configure router clock with the help of two methods.
(1) Configure clock locally
(2) Configure clock on NTP server (Network Time Protocol)
Router does not have battery to save the clock setting. So that clock will reset to the default on reboot.
To display clock
Router#show clock
To configure clock
Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year
00-23: 00-59:00-59 1-31 JAN-DEC 1993-2035
To configure clock from NTP server
Router(config)#ntp server <IP address>
Router(config)#exit
C:\>ping pool.ntp.org
To get ntp server ip from internet
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C:\>route print
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IP Routing
When we want to connect two or more networks using different n/w addresses then we have to use IP
Routing technique. The router will be used to perform routing between the networks. A router will perform
following functions for routing.
(1) Path determination
(2) Packet forwarding
i)
ii)
IP
R
ou
tin
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(1) Path determination

The process of obtaining path in routing table is called path
determination. There are three different methods to which router can
learn path.
Automatic detection of directly connected n/w.
Static & Default routing
iii) Dynamic routing
(2) Packet forwarding
It is a process that is by default enable in router. The router will
perform packet forwarding only if route is available in the routing
table.
Routing Process
(i) The pc has a packet in which destination address is not same as the
local n/w address.
(ii) The pc will send an ARP request for default gateway. The
router will reply to the ARP address and inform its Mac
address to pc.
(iii)
The pc will encapsulate data, in which source IP is pc itself,
destination IP is server, source Mac is pcs LAN interface and
destination Mac is routers LAN interface.
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S. MAC
PC1
D. IP 172.16.0.5
S. IP 10.0.0.6
D. MAC
R1
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The router will receive the frame, store it into the buffer. When obtain packet from the frame then forward
data according to the destination IP of packet. The router will obtain a route from routing table according
to which next hop IP and interface is selected
(iv) According to the next hop, the packet will encapsulated with new frame and data issend to the
output queue of the interface.
Static Routing
In this routing, we have to use IP route commands through which we can specify routes for different
networks. The administrator will analyze whole internetwork topology and then specify the route for
each n/w that is not directly connected to the router.
Steps to perform static routing
(1) Create a list of all n/w present in internetwork.
(2) Remove the n/w address from list, which is directly connected to n/w.
(3) Specify each route for each routing n/w by using IP route command.
Router(config)#ip route <destination n/w><mask><next hop ip>
Next hop IP it is the IP address of neighbor router that is directly connected our router.
Static Routing Example: Router#confter
Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 192.168.10.2
Advantages of static routing
(1) Fast and efficient.
(2) More control over selected path.
(3) Less overhead for router.
(4) Bandwidth of interfaces is not consumed in routing updates.
Disadvantages of static routing
(1) More overheads on administrator.
(2) Load balancing is not easily possible.
(3) In case of topology change routing table has to be change manually.
Alternate command to specify static route
Static route can also specify in following syntax: Old
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 172.25.0.2
Or
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 serial 0
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Backup route or loading static route

If more than one path are available from our router to destination then we can specify one route as primary
and other route as backup route.
Administrator Distance is used to specify one route as primary and other route as backup. Router
will select lower AD route to forward the traffic. By default static route has AD value of 1. With backup
path, we will specify higher AD so that this route will be used if primary route is unavailable.
Protocols
Directly Connected
Static
BGP
EIGRP
IGRP
OSPF
RIP
AD
0
1
20
90
100
110
120
Syntax: - To set backup path

Router(config)#ip route <dest. n/w><mask><next hop><AD> Or
<exit interface>
Example: Router#confter
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 255.255.0.0 150.20.0.5 Router(config)#ip route
150.10.0.0 25.255.0.0 160.20.1.1 8 (below 20) Router(config)#exit
Default Routing
Default routing means a route for any n/w. these routes are specify with the help of following
syntax: Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <next hop> Or
<exit interface> This type of
routing is used in following scenario.
Scenario 1: Stub network
A n/w which has only one exit interface is called stub network.
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If there is one next hop then we can use default routing.

Scenario 2
Internet connectivity
On Internet, million of n/ws are present. So we have to specify default routing on our router.
Default route is also called gateway of last resort. This route will be used when no other routing protocol
is available.
Router9(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 172.16.0.5 Router9(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0

200.100.100.11
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To display routing table

Router#ship route
To display static routes only
Router#ship route static
S 192.168.10.0/28 [1/0] via 172.16.0.5
To display connected n/ws only
Router#ship route connected
To check all the interface of a router
Router#sh interface brief
Dynamic Routing
In dynamic routing, we will enable a routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing
information to the neighbor router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write new routes to the
routing table.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other router also. If there are
more than one path available then routes are compared and best path is selected. Some examples of
dynamic protocol are: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF
Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols
According to the working there are two types of Dynamic Routing Protocols.
(1) Distance Vector
(2) Link State
According to the type of area in which protocol is used there are again two types of protocol: (1) Interior Routing Protocol
(2) Exterior Routing Protocol
Autonomous system
Autonomous system is the group of contiguous routers and n/w, which will share their routing
information directly with each other. If all routers are in single domain and they share their information
directly with each other then the size of routing updates will depend on the no. of n/w present in the
Internetwork. Update for each n/w may take 150 200 bytes information.
For example: - if there are 1000 n/ws then size of update will be 200*1000 =
200000 bytes
The routing information is send periodically so it may consume a large amount of bandwidth in
our n/w.
Domain
Protocols
Interior Routing
RIP
IGRP
EIGRP
OSPF
Exterior Routing
BGP
EXEIGRP
Distance Vector Routing

The Routing, which is based on two parameters, that is distance and direction is called Distance Vector
Routing. The example of Distance Vector Routing is RIP & IGRP.
Operation: (1) Each Router will send its directly connected information to the neighbor router. This information is send
periodically to the neighbors.
(2) The neighbor will receive routing updates and process the route according to following
conditions: (i) If update of a new n/w is received then this information is stored in routing table.
(ii) If update of a route is received which is already present in routing table then route will be refresh that is
route times is reset to zero.
(iii)
If update is received for a route with lower metric then the route, which is already present in our
routing table. The router will discard old route and write the new route in the routing table.
(iv) If update is received with higher metric then the route that is already present in routing table, in
this case the new update will be discard.
(3) A timer is associated with each route. The router will forward routing information on all interfaces
and entire routing table is send to the neighbor. There are three types of timers associated with a route.
(i) Route update timer
It is the time after which the router will send periodic update to the neighbor.
(ii) Route invalid timer
It is the time after which the route is declared invalid, if there are no updates for the route. Invalid
route are not forwarded to neighbor routers but it is still used to forward the traffic.
(iii) Route flush timer
It is the time after which route is removed from the routing table, if there are no updates about
the router.
Metric of Dynamic Routing
Metric are the measuring unit to calculate the distance of destination n/w. A protocol may use a one or
more than one at a time to calculate the distance. Different types of metric are: (1) Hop Count
(2) Band Width
(3) Load
(4) Reliability
(5) Delay
(6) MTU
Hop Count
It is the no. of Hops (Routers) a packet has to travel for a destination n/w.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the speed of link. The path with higher bandwidth is preferred to send the data.
Load
Load is the amount of traffic present in the interface. Paths with lower load and high throughput are
used to send data.
Reliability
Reliability is up time of interface over a period of time.
Delay
Delay is the time period b/w a packet is sent and received by the destination.
MTU Maximum Transmission Unit
It is the maximum size of packet that can be sent in a frame mostly MTU is set to 1500.
Problems of Distance Vector

There are two main problems of distance vector routing
(1)
Bandwidth Consumption
(2)
Routing Loops
Bandwidth Consumption
The problem of accessive bandwidth consumption is solved out with the help of autonomous system.
It exchanges b/w different routers. We can also perform route summarization to reduce the traffic.
Routing Loops
It may occur b/w adjacent routers due to wrong routing information. Distance Vector routing is also
called routing by Rumor. Due to this the packet may enter in the loop condition until their TTL is
expired.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Method to solve routing loops

There are five different methods to solve or reduce the problem of routing loop.
Maximum Hop Count
Flash Updates/Triggered Updates
Split Horizon
Poison Reverse
Hold Down
Maximum Hop Count
This method limits the maximum no. of hops a packet can travel. This method does not solve loop
problem. But it reduce the loop size in the n/w. Due to this method the end to end size of a n/w is also
limited.
Flash Updates/Triggered Updates
In this method a partial update is send to the all neighbors as soon as there is topology change. The router,
which receives flash updates, will also send the flash updates to the neighbor routers.
Split Horizon
Split Horizon states a route that update receive from an interface can not be send back to same interface.
Poison Reverse
This method is the combination of split Horizon and Flash updates. It implements the rule that information
received from the interface can not be sent back to the interface and in case of topology change flash
updates will be send to the neighbor.
Hold Down
If a route changes frequently then the route is declared in Hold Down state and no updates are
received until the Hold Down timer expires.
Routing Information Protocol
Features of RIP: * Distance Vector
* Open standard
* Broadcast Updates (255.255.255.255)
* Metric
Hop Count *Timers
Update 30 sec Invalid 180 sec
Hold 180 sec Flush 240 sec
* Loop Control Split Horizon
Triggered Updates
*
*
*
*
*
*
Maximum Hop Count

Hold Down
Maximum Hop Count 15
Administrative Distance 120
Equal Path Cost Load Balancing
Maximum Load path 6
Default 4
Does not support VLSM
Does not support Autonomous system
Configuring RIP
Router#confterRouter(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#network <own net address> Router(configrouter)#network <own net address>
--------------------------Router(config-router)#exit
172.16.0.6
10.0.0.1
172.16.0.5
200.100.100.12
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
175.2.0.0 via 172.16.0.6
Display RIP Routes
Router#ship route rip
175.2.1.1
R 192.168.75.0/24 [120/5] via 172.30.0.2 00:00:25 serial 1/0

RIP Dest. n/w mask AD Metric Next Hop Timer own Interface
RIP advanced configuration Passive Interfaces
An interface, which is not able to send routing updates but able to receive routing update only is called
Passive Interface. We can declare an interface as passive with following commands: Router#confterRouter(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#Passive-interface <type><no> Router(configrouter)#exit
Configuring Timers
Router(config-router)#timers basic <update><invalid><hold down><flush> Router(configrouter)#exit
Example: Router(conf-router)#timer basic 50 200 210 300
Update 50 sec
Invalid 200 sec
Hold 210 sec
Flush 300 sec
To change Administrative Distance
Router(config-router)#distance <value>
Router(config-router)#exit
95 or 100
To configure Load Balance
RIP is able to perform equal path cost Load Balancing. If multiple paths are available with equal Hop
Count for the destination then RIP will balance load equally on all paths.
Load Balancing is enabled by default 4 paths. We can change the no. of paths. It can use
simultaneously by following command: Router(config)#router rip Router(config-router)#maximumpath <1-6>
To display RIP parameters
Router#ship protocol
Or
Router#shipprotocol RIP
This command display following parameters: -
(i) RIP Timers

(ii) RIP Version
(iii) Route filtering
(iv)Route redistribution
(v) Interfaces on which update send
(vi)And receive
(vii) Advertise n/w
(viii) Passive interface
(ix)Neighbor RIP
(x) Routing information sources
(xi)Administrative Distance
RIP version 2
RIP version 2 supports following new features: (1) Support VLSM (send mask in updates)
(2) Multicast updates using address 224.0.0.9
(3) Support authentication
Commands to enable RIP version 2
We have to change RIP version 1 to RIP version 2. Rest all communication will remain same in RIP
version 2.
Router(config)#Router RIP
Router(config-router)#version 2
To debug RIP routing
Router#debugip rip
To disable debug routing
Router#no debug ip rip
Or
Router#nodebug all
Or
Router#undebug all
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

Features: * Cisco proprietary
* Distance vector
* Timers
Update 90 sec Invalid 270 sec Hold
time 280 sec Flush 630 sec
* Loop control
All methods
* Max hop count
100 upto 255
* Metric (24 bit composite) Bandwidth
(default) Delay (default)
Load Reliability MTU
* Broadcast updates to address 255.255.255.255
* Unequal path cost load balancing
* Automatic route summarization
* Support AS
* Does not support VLSM
Configuring IGRP
Router(config)#router igrp<as no>(1 65535)
Router(config-router)#network <net address>
Router(config-router)#network <net address>
Configuring Bandwidth on Interface for IGRP
By default the router will detect maximum speed of interface and use this value as the bandwidth metric
for IGRP. But it may be possible that the interfaces and working at its maximum speed then we have to
configure bandwidth on interface, so that IGRP is able to calculate correct method.
Router(config-if)#bandwidth <value in kbps>
Router(config)#interface serial 0
Router(config-if)#bandwidth 256
Serial E1
modem
Serial
2048 k
2048 k
256 k
sync
Configuring Unequal path cost load balancing

To configure load balancing, we have to set two parameters
(1) Maximum path (by default 4)
(2) Variance (default 1)
Maximum Path: - it is maximum no. of paths that can be used for load balancing simultaneously.
Variance: - it is the multiplier value to the least metric for a destination n/w up to which the load can be
balanced.
Router(config)#Router igrp<as no>
Router(config-router)#variance <value>
Configuring following options in IGRP as same as in case of RIP: (1) Neighbor
(2) Passive interface
(3) Timer
(4) Distance (AD)
(5) Maximum path
Link State Routing

This type of routing is based on link state. Its working is explain as under
(1) Each router will send Hello packets to all neighbors using all interfaces.
(2) The router from which Hello reply receive are stored in the neighborship table. Hello packets are
send periodically to maintain the neighbor table.
(3) The router will send link state information to the all neighbors. Link state information from one neighbor
is also forwarded to other neighbor.
(4) Each router will maintain its link state database created from link state advertisement received
from different routers.
(5) The router will use best path algorithm to store the path in routing table.
Neighbor
11.0.0.1
13.0.0.2
Topology
R1 11.0.0.0 dc
12.0.0.0 dc
13.0.0.0 dc
R2 11.0.0.0
10.0.0.0
R3 13.0.0.0
14.0.0.0
15.0.0.0
16.0.0.0
R4 16.0.0.0
17.0.0.0
R5 18.0.0.0
19.0.0.0
20.0.0.0
14.0.0.0
R6
20.0.0.0
21.0.0.0
Routing
R6
20.0.0.0
21.0.0.0
19.0.0.0
20.0.0.0
R
6
18.0.0.0
R
5
21.0.0.0
14.0.0.0
15.0.0.0
R
3
16.0.0.0
17.0.0.0
13.0.0.0
R
1
11.0.0.0
R
2
10.0.0.0
12.0.0.0
R
4
Problems of Link State Routing

The main problems of link state routing are: (1) High bandwidth consumption.
(2) More hardware resources required that is processor and memory (RAM)
The routing protocols, which use link state routing are: (1) OSPF
(2) EIGRP
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
Features: * Cisco proprietary
* Hybrid protocol Link State
Distance Vector
* Multicast Updates using Address
224.0.0.10
* Support AS
* Support VLSM
* Automatic Route Summarization
* Unequal path cost load balancing
* Metric (32 bit composite)
*
*
*
*
*
Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Reliability
MTU
Neighbor Recovery
Partial updates
Triggered updates
Backup Route
Multi Protocol Routing
EIGRP Protocols & Modules
(1) Protocol depended module
This module is used to perform multi protocol routing that is the router will maintain 3 routing table for
TCP/IP, IPX/SPX and Appletalk.
IP Routing
TCP/IP
Pack
IPX/SPX
et
type?
Appletalk
IPX Routing
Appletalk
Routing
Reliable Transport Protocol (Quiet Protocol)

RTP is used to exchange routing updates with neighbor routers. It will also maintain neighbor
relationship with the help of Hello packet. RTP has following features: (1) Multicast updates (224.0.0.10)
(2) Neighbor recovery
If neighbor stops responding to the Hello packets then RTP will send unicast Hello packet for that
neighbor.
(3) Partial updates
(4) No updates are send if there is no topology change.
Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
DUAL is responsible for calculating best path from the topology table. Dual has following
features: * Backup Path
* VLSM
* Route queries to neighbor for unknown n/w.
Configuring EIGRP
Router(config)#router eigrp<as no>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Advanced Configuration EIGRP
Configuring following options are same as configuring IGRP
(1) Bandwidth on Interfaces
(2) Neighbor
(3) Load balancing
Max path
Variance
Configuring EIGRP Metric
If we want our router to use additional metric then we can use following command: Router(config)#Router eigrp<as no>
Router(config-router)#metric weights 0 <k1><k2><k3><k4><k5>
Type of service (default)
Metric
Bandwidth
Load
Delay
Reliability
MTU
K
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
Default value
1
0
1
0
0
All routers exchanging update with each other must have same AS no. and same K value.
To up the Ethernet without connect wire
Router(config)#int eth0
Router(cofig-if)#no keepalive
Router(config-if)#bandwidth 64
Router#clearip route *
Hush routing table and again make it.
Router#shipeigrp topology It shows topology database.
P-> passive->stable A->active->under updation
Router#shipeigrp neighbor
It shows neighbor table
Router#redistribute<protocol> ?
Metric also need to be modified
Debug IGRP
Router#debugipigrp events
Its display info. On special event
Router#debugipigrp transactions
It shows every update
Debug EIGRP
Router#debugipeigrp
For full debug
Router#debugipeigrp summary
For few debug
Open Shortest Path First

Features: * Link State
* Open standard
* Multicast updates 224.0.0.5 224.0.0.6
* Support VLSM
* Support Area similar to AS
* Manual Route Summarization
* Hierarchical model
* Metric
Bandwidth
* Equal path cost load balancing
* Support authentication
* Unlimited hop count
OSPF Terminology
Already known topics in this: (1) Hello packets
(2) LSA (Link State Advertisement)
(3) Neighbor
(4) Neighbor table
(5) Topology table (LSA database)
Router ID
Router ID is the highest IP address of router interfaces. This id is used as the identity of the router. It
maintaining link state databases. The first preference for selecting router ID is given to the Logical
interfaces. If logical interface is not present then highest IP of physical interface is selected as router id.
ROUTER ID
ROUTER ID
Area
Area is the group of routers & n/ws, which can share their routing information directly with each
other.
Adjacency
A router is called adjacency when neighbor relationship is established. We can also say adjacency
relationship is formed between the routers.
OSPF Hierarchical Model
Area Router (Autonomous System Border Router ASBR)

A router, which has all interfaces member of single area, is called area router.
Backbone Area
Area 0 is called backbone area. All other areas must connect to the backbone area for communication.
Backbone Router
A router, which has all interfaces members of area 0, is called backbone router.
Area Border Router
A router, which connects an area with area 0, is called area border router.
LSA Flooding in OSPF

If there are multiple OSPF routers on multi access n/w then there will be excessive no. of LSA generated
by the router and they can choke bandwidth of the network.
A
B
C
D
C
A
C
E
A
B
F
Neighbor
This problem is solved with the help of electing a router as designated router and backup designated
router.
Designated Router
A router with highest RID (router id) will be designated router for a particular interface. This router is
responsible for receiving LSA from non-DR router and forward LSA to the all DR router.
Backup Designated Router
This router will work as backup for the designated router. In BDR mode, it will receive all information
but do not forward this information to other non-DR router.
Commands to configure OSPF
Router#confter
Router(config)#router ospf<process no>
Router(config-router)#network <net address><wild mask> area <area id> Router(configrouter)#network <net address><wild mask> area <area id> Router(config-router)#exit
Wild Mask Complement of subnet mask
Example 255.255.0.0
0.0.255.255
255.255.255.255
- Subnet mask
Wild mask
255.255.255.255
- 255.255.192.0
subnet mask
0.0.63.255
wild mask
R1
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
R2
R3
Configuring bandwidth on interface
If the actual bandwidth of interface is not equal to the maximum speed of interface then we have to use
bandwidth command to specify the actual bandwidth.
Router(config-if)#bandwidth <speed>
Configuring logical interface for OSPF
By default the highest IP address of interface will be elected as Router id. If there is a change in status of
interface then router will reelect some IP as Router id. So if we create logical interface, it will never go
down and first preference give to the logical interface for RID.
Command: Router(config)#interface loopback <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address 200.100.100.1 255.255.255.0 Router(config-if)#no sh

Command to display OSPF parameter
Router#showip protocol
Router#showipospf
Router#showipospf neighbor
Router#showipospf database (it shows RID of router) Router#showipospf interfaces
LAN Switching
Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet n/ws. Switches forward the traffic on the basis of
MAC address. Switches maintain a Mac Addresse table in which mac
addresses and port no.s are used to perform switching decision. Working
of bridge and switch is similar to each other.
LA
N
Sw
itc
hin
g
Classification of switches
Switches are classified according to the following criteria: Types of switches based on working
(1) Store & Forward
This switch receives entire frame then perform error checking and
start forwarding data to the destination.
(2) Cut through
This switch starts forwarding frame as soon as first six bytes of
the frame are received.
(3) Fragment-free
This switch receives 64 bytes of the frame, perform error checking
and then start forwarding data.
(4) Adaptive cut-through
It changes its mode according the condition. If it see there are errors in
many frames then it changes to Store & Forward mode from Cut through
or Fragment-free.
Types of switches based on management
2 Manageable switches
3 Non-Manageable switches
4 Semi-Manageable switches
Types of switches based on OSI layer
(1) Layer 2 switches (only switching)
(2) Layer 3 switches (switching & routing)
Types of switches based on command mode (only in Cisco)
(1) IOS based
(2) CLI based
Type of switches based on hierarchical model
(1) Core layer switches
(2) Distribution layer switches

(3) Access layer switches
Qualities of switch
No. of ports
Speed of ports
Type of media
Switching or wire speed or throughput
Basic Switch Administration
IOS based switches are similar to the routers. We can perform following function on switches in a
similar manner as performed on router.
(1) Access switch using console
(2) Commands to enter & exit from different mode
(3) Commands to configure passwords
(4) Manage configuration
(5) Backup IOS and configuration
(6) Configuring and resolving hostnames
(7) Managing telnet
(8) Configuring CDP
(9) Configuring time clock
(10) Configuring Banners
(11) Command line shortcuts and editing shortcuts
(12) Managing history
(13) Configure logging
(14) Boot system commands
Following function and options are not similar in router and switch.
(1) Default hostname is Switch
(2) Auxiliary port is not present
(3) VTY ports are mostly 0 to 15
(4) By default interfaces are enabled
(5) IP address cannot be assign to interfaces
(6) Routing configuration mode is not present
(7) Interface no. starts from 1
(8) Web access is by default enabled
(9) Configuration registry is not present in similar manner
(10)
Flash memory may contain multiple files and startup-configuration is also saved in flash
Configuring IP and Gateway on switch
We can configure IP address on switch for web access or telnet IP address is required for the
administration of the switch. If we have to access switch from remote n/w then we will configure default
gateway in addition to IP address.
IP address is assigned to the logical interface of switch with following command:Switch(config)#interface vlan 1
Switch(config)#IP address <ip><mask>
Switch(config)#no sh Switch(config)#exit
Old Switches
Switch(config)#ip address <ip><mask>
Switch(config)#exit
Configuring Gateway
Switch(config)#ip default-gateway <ip>
Switch(config)#exit
Breaking Switch Password
(1) Power off switch press mode button present in front of switch then power on the switch.
(2) Keep mode button press until Switch: prompt appears on console.
(3) In switch monitor mode, type following commands: flash_initload_helper
renameflash:config.text flash:<anyname>dir flash:
boot
(4) After booting switch will prompt to enter in initial configuration dialog. Enter no here and type.
Switch>enable
Rename flash:<anyname>Flash:config.text Configure memory
Change password and save config. Then copy run start_config.
Cisco Hierarchal Model
When we want to create a large sized LAN network then we may face following problems if we are
going design the network in flat model.
(1) High latency
(2) Conjunction between switches
(3) Large broadcast domain
Cisco hierarchal model recommends three layer design of the network
(i) Core layer
(ii) Distribution layer
(iii) Access layer
on each layer there are some rules which we have to follow
(1) Highest performance devices are connected on Core layer
(2) Resources should be placed on Core layer
(3) Polices should not be applied on core layer
(4) On distribution layer, we can implement policies
(5) Distribution and Core devices should be connected with high-speed links.
(6) Access layer devices are basic devices and may be non manageable.
CORE LAYER
DISTRIBUTION
LAYER
ACCESS
LAYER
(Hierarchal model)
After using hierarchal model the most of LAN problem will be solve but one problem still
remain same that is all pc s will be in single broadcast domain. We have to implement
following solution for this problem.
(1) Physical Segmentation
(2) Logical Segmentation VLAN
Trunking
VTP
Inter
VLAN
Pruning
Logical Segmentation of Network
To perform logical segmentation, we have to create VLAN in the network. With the help of
VLAN, we can logically divide the broadcast domain of the network
VLAN (Virtual LAN)
VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The devices, which are
member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The devices of different Vlan may
communicate with each other with routing. So that different Vlan devices will use different n/w addresses.
Vlan provides following advantages: (1) Logical Segmentation of network
(2) Enhance network security
Creating port based Vlan
In port based Vlan, first we have to create a Vlan on manageable switch then we have to add ports to the
Vlan.
Commands to create Vlan
Switch#configterSwitch(config)#vlan<no>
[name<word>] Switch(config)#exit
optional
Or
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan<no>
[name<word>]
Switch(vlan)#exit
Commands to configure ports for a Vlan
By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. we can change vlan membership
according to our requirement.
Switch#confter
Switch(config)#interface <type><no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan<no>
Switch(config-if)#exit
Commands to configure multiple ports in a vlan
Switch#confter
Switch(config)#interface range <type><slot/port no (space)(space) port no> Switch(configif)#switchport access vlan<no>
Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5Switch#configter
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 18 Switch(configif)#switchport access vlan 5 Switchconfig-if#exit
In 1900 & Compatible switches

Switch#configter
Switch(config-if)#vlan-membership static <vlan no>
To Disable web access in switch
Switch#configter
Switch(config)#no ip http server
To display mac address table
Switch#sh mac-address-table
Vlan
20
Mac address
00-08-a16-ab-6a-7b
type
dynamic
ports
fa0/7
To Display Vlan and port membership

Switch#shvlan
Trunking
When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to connect one switch with other. If we
are not using trunk links then we have to connect one cable from each vlan to the corresponding vlan of
the other switch.
Normal: Vlan 1
6
In Trunking: -
Vlan 1,3,7
Trunk
Trunk
Switches will perform trunking with the help of frame tagging. The trunk port will send data frames by
adding a Vlan id information to the frame, at the receiving end vlanidinformation is removing from the
end and according to the tag data is delivered to the corresponding vlan. There are two protocols to
perform frame tagging.
(1) Inter switch link (cisco prop)
(2) IEEE 802.1 q
Configuring Trunking
In cisco switches all switch ports may be configured in three modes
(1) Trunk desirable (default)
(2) Trunk on
(3) Trunk off
Switch#confter
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode <trunk|access|auto>
on
off desirable
To configure Vlans allowed on Trunk
By default all Vlans are allowed on Trunk port. We can add/remove a partucularVlan from trunk port
with following command
Switch#configterSwitch(config)#interface <type><no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan all
Remove <vlan> Add
<vlan>Except<vlan>
To display trunk interfaces
Switch#sh interface trunk
Switch#sh interface <type><no> trunk
VlanTrunking Protocol (VTP)
With the help of VTP, we can simplify the process of creating Vlan. In multiple switches, we can
configure one switch as VTP server and all other switches will be configured as VTP client. We will create
Vlans on VTP server switch. The server will send periodic updates to VTP client switches. The clients will
create Vlans from the update received from the VTP server.
VTP server
VTP server is a switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans. The server will send periodic
updates for VTP clients.
VTP client
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The client will receive and forward vtp
updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in vtp update.
VTP Transparent
Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able to create, delete and
modify Vlans locally. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will not learn any information
from received vtp update.
Commands
Switch#confter
Switch(config)#vtp domain <name>
Switch(config)#vtp password <word>
Switch(config)#vtp mode <server|client|transparent>
Switch(config)#exit
By default in cisco switches the VTP mode is set as VTP server with no domain and no password.
To display VTP status
Switch#shvtp status
VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically disable, for a particular Vlan if
neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1 is not prun eligible.
Command to configure VTP Pruning
We have to use only one command on VTP server for VTP Pruning. Switch#confter
Switch(config)#vtp pruning
Switch(config)#exit
Inter Vlan Communication

After creating Vlans, each Vlan has own broadcast domain. If we want communication from one Vlan to
another Vlan then we need to perform routing. There are three methods for inter vlan communication.
(1) Inter Vlan using multi-interface router
(2) Inter Vlan using router on a stick method
(3) Inter Vlan using layer 3 switch
1751, 2621 routers supports Vlan
(1) Inter Vlan using multi-interface router
In this case, we have to connect one interface of router in each Vlan. This interface will act as
gateway for the corresponding vlan. Each Vlan has to use different n/w addresses. Data from one Vlan
to another Vlan will travel by router.
Router
E0
E2
10.0.0.1
12.0.0.1
E1
11.0
Vlan1
T
Vlan3
T
Vlan5
T
1, 3, 5
1 3 5
13 5
1 3
N/w
10.x.x.x
11.x.x.x
12.x.x.x
Gateway 10.0.0.1
11.0.0.1
12.0.0.1
(2) Inter Vlan using router on a stick method
In this method a special router is used for Inter Vlan. In this router, we can create one interface for
each Vlan. The physical interface of router will be connected on trunk port switch. This router will route
traffic on the same interface by swapping vlan id information with the help of frame tagging protocol.
Router
Fa 0/0.1 10.0.0.1 -> Vlan1
Fa 0/0.2 11.0.0.1 -> Vlan3
Fa 0/0.3 12.0.0.1 -> Vlan5
Fa 0/0
Vlan 1, 3, 5
T
Trunk
T
T
1
N/w 10.x.x.x
Gateway 10.0.0.1
T
5
T
3
11.x.x.x
11.0.0.1
Configuration on Router
Router#configter
Router(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
Router(config-if)#no ip address
Router(config-if)#no sh
Router(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0.1
Router(config-if)#encapsulation dot1q 1
Router(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
12.x.x.x
12.0.0.1
Configuration on Core switch
(1) Configure switch as VTP server
(2) Create Vlans
(3) Configure interface connected to router as Trunk
(4) Configure interfaces connected to other switches as trunk (if required)
Configuration on Distribution layer switches
(1) Configure switch as VTP client
(2) Configure required interface as Trunk (optional)
(3) Add ports to Vlan
Configuration on Pc
Configure IP and Gateway
Spanning Tree Protocol
When we connect multiple switches with each other and multiple path exist from one switch to another
switch then it may lead to the switching loop in the network. Multiple paths are used to create
redundancy in the network. STP is only required when multiple path exist then there is possibility of
loop in n/w.
Packets
Switch
Switch
Switch
Problems the occur with redundancy path

(1) Multiple copies of the frame will be received by destination.
(2) Frequent changes in the mac address table of switch.
(3) A mac address may appear at multiple ports in a switch.
(4) Packets may enter in the endless loop.
Spanning Tree Protocol will solve this problem by blocking the redundancy interface. So that only one
path will remain active in the switches. If the primary path goes down then disabled link will become
enable and data will be transferred through that path.
Working of STP
The STP will create a topology database in which one switch will be elected as Route switch. Path cost
is calculated on the basis of bandwidth. The lowest path cost link will be enable mode and another path
will be disable.
Root Switch
1 Gb
1 Gb
Switch
Switch
100 Mb
100 Mb
100 Mb
Switch
Switch
Lowest cost (Disable)
STP terminology
(1) Bridge id
It is the combination of bridge priority and base mac address. In Cisco switches default priority
no. is 32768.
(2) Root Bridge
The Bridge/Switch with lowest Bridge id will become the Route Bridge. Route Bridge is used as
the center point for calculating path cost in topology.
(3) BPDU Bridging Protocol Data Units
It is the STP information, which is exchange between the switches to create topology and path
selection.
(4) STP port mode
An STP is enabled a port may be in one of the following mode.
(i) Listening: - in this mode a port will send/receive BPD.
(ii)
Learning: - a port will learn mac address table.
(iii)
Forwarding: - the port will forward data based on mac address table.
(iv)Blocking: - the port is block to send/receive data by Spanning Tree Protocol.
(v) Disable: - the port is administratively disabled.
Path cost calculation
The links in switches will be enable or disabled on the basis of path cost. The path cost for each link is
calculated according to following table.
Old IEEE
Speed
10 Mb
100 Mb
1 Gb
10 Gb
Cost
New IEEE
Cost
100
10
1
1
100
19
4
2
To configure ports for forwarding mode directly

Switch#configter
Switch(config-if)#switchport host
Configuring port security
In manageable switches, we can restrict the no. of mac addresses that a port can learn. Even we can
specify the mac address statically with a command. With port security, we can also specify the action to be
perform if port security violation is detected.
Switch#confterSwitch(config)#interface <type><no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security maximum <no. of
mac>
Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security violation <shutdown|restrict|reject> Switch(configif)#switchport port-security mac-address sticky Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security mac-address
sticky <mac address> Switch(config-if)#exit

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What is the OSI reference model and how many layers does it have?

What is the OSI reference model and how many layers does it have?

CCNA NETWORKING

CASE STUDY OF NETWORKING

Uni Roll No: 100240824348

DESH BHAGAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Signature of the Student

Signature of the Supervisor

Signature of the Supervisor

Signature of External Examiner

OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Normally we use UTP cable but in area, where

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

The Application Layer

The Presentation Layer

The Transport Layer

The Network Layer

The Data Link Layer

The Physical Layer

Dotted decimal notation

Net ID Cannot Be 127

Network ID and Host ID cannot Be 255 (All Bites Set to 1)

Network ID and Host ID Cannot Be 0 (All Bits Set to 0)

Host ID Must Unique to the Network

The network ID cannot be 127. This ID is reserved for loopback functions.

The host ID must be unique to the local network ID.

Networks 1 and 3 represent two routed networks.

Valid Host IDs

Suggestions for Assigning Host IDs

Assign host IDs in groups based on host or server type.

Designate routers by their IP address.

Flash: - (Small Memory)

(b) Running configuration

Router Interfaces & Ports

Lines, Radio link, Frame

to connect Phones, Fax,

AUI - Attachment Unit Interface

Types of routers:(1) Fixed configuration router

(2) Modular router

Router Access Modes

Ctrl+N - next command

To configure Interface description

This command will display following parameters about an interface

To change history size

Appear before login prompt

(1) Path determination

Backup route or loading static route

Syntax: - To set backup path

If there is one next hop then we can use default routing.