HOW TO DESIGN

CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
Deflection Calculations

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How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

8. Deflection Calculations

Introduction
This should be redrafted as appropriate
in each country

Methods for checking deflection

This guide describes the use of Eurocode 21 to check deflection by
calculation. The alternative method for complying with the code
requirements is to use the deemed-to-satisfy span-to-effective-depth
ratios, which are appropriate and economic for the vast majority of
designs. Further guidance on the span-to-effective-depth method is
given in other guides in this series on beams2, slabs3 and flat slabs4.
However, there are situations where direct calculation of deflection is
necessary, as listed below:

When an estimate of the deflection is required.

When deflection limits of span/250 for quasi-permanent actions
(see reference 5 for Eurocode terminology) or span/500 for partition
and/or cladding loads are not appropriate.
When the design requires a particularly shallow member, direct
calculation of deflection may provide a more economic solution.
To determine the effect on deflection of early striking of formwork or
of temporary loading during construction.

Overview
In the past structures tended to be stiff with relatively short spans. As
technology and practice have advanced, more flexible structures have
resulted. There are a number of reasons for this, including:

The increase in reinforcement strength leading to less

reinforcement being required for the ultimate limit state (ULS) and
resulting in higher service stresses in the reinforcement.
Increases in concrete strength resulting from the need to improve
both durability and construction time, and leading to concrete that is
more stiff and with higher service stresses.

Note

What affects deflection?

There are numerous factors
that affect deflection. These
factors are also often timerelated and interdependent,
which makes the prediction of
deflection difficult.
The main factors are:
Concrete tensile strength
Creep
Elastic modulus

Other factors include:

Degree of restraint
Magnitude of loading
Time of loading
Duration of loading
Cracking of the concrete
Shrinkage
Ambient conditions
Secondary load-paths
Stiffening by other
elements

A greater understanding of structural behaviour and

the ability to analyse that behaviour quickly by
computer.
The requirement to produce economic designs for
slabs whose thicknesses are typically determined
by the serviceability limit state (SLS) and which
constitute 80% to 90% of the superstructure costs.
Client requirements for longer spans and greater
operational flexibility from their structures.

Factors affecting deflection

An accurate assessment of deflection can only be
achieved if consideration is given to the factors that
affect it. The more important factors are discussed in
detail below.

Tensile strength
The tensile strength of concrete is an important
property because the slab will crack when the tensile
stress in the extreme fibre is exceeded. In Eurocode 2
the concrete tensile strength, fctm, is a mean value
(which is appropriate for deflection calculations) and
increases as the compressive strength increases.
The degree of restraint to shrinkage movements will
influence the effective tensile strength of the concrete.
A layout of walls with high restraint will decrease the
effective tensile strength. Typical examples of wall
layouts are given in Figure 1. For a low restraint layout
the following expression may be used for the concrete
tensile strength:
fctm,fl = (1.6 h/1000) fctm > fctm
where
fctm,fl = Mean flexural tensile strength of reinforced
concrete
fctm = Mean tensile strength of concrete

It is often recommended that the design value of the

concrete tensile strength for a low restraint layout is
taken as the average of fctm,fl and fctm, to allow for
unintentional restraint. For high restraint fctm should be
used.

Creep
Creep is the time-dependant increase in compressive
strain in a concrete element under constant
compressive stress. Creep is usually considered in the
design by modifying the elastic modulus using a creep
coefficient, , which depends on the age at loading,
size of the member and ambient conditions, in
particular relative humidity. Eurocode 2 gives advice on
the calculation of creep coefficients in detail in Annex B.
It also advises on the appropriate relative humidity to
use in Figure 3.1.
The cement strength class is required in the
assessment of creep, however, at the design stage it is
often not clear which class should be used. Generally,
Class R should be assumed. Where the ground
granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) content exceeds
35% of the cement combination or where fly ash (pfa)
exceeds 20% of the cement combination, Class N may
be assumed. Where ggbs exceeds 65% or where pfa
exceeds 35% Class S may be assumed.

Elastic modulus
The elastic modulus of concrete is influenced by
aggregate type, workmanship and curing conditions.
The effective elastic modulus under sustained loading
will be reduced over time due to the effect of creep.
These factors mean that some judgement is required to
determine an appropriate elastic modulus. Eurocode 2
gives recommended values for the 28-day secant
modulus, Ecm, (in Table 3.1) and makes
recommendations for adjustments to these values to
account for different types of aggregate. The long-term
elastic modulus should be taken as:

Ec,LT = Ec28/(1 + )
where
Ec28 = 28-day tangent modulus = 1.05 Ecm

= Creep factor. (Note that with Eurocode 2,

relates to a 28-day short-term elastic
modulus, whereas a true creep factor
would be associated with the modulus at
the age of loading.)
The assessment of the long-term E-value can be
carried out more accurately after the contractor has
been appointed because they should be able to identify
the concrete supplier (and hence the type of
aggregates) and also the construction sequence (and
hence the age at first loading).

Loading sequence
The loading sequence and timing may be critical in
determining the deflection of a suspended slab
because it will influence the point at which the slab will
crack (if at all) and is used to calculate the creep factors
for the slab. A loading sequence is shown in Figure 2,
which shows that in the early stages relatively high
loads are imposed while casting the slab above. The
loading sequence may vary, depending on the
construction method.
Smaller loads are imposed when further slabs are cast
above. The loads are then increased permanently by
the application of the floor finishes and erection of the
partitions. Finally, the variable actions are applied to the
structure and, for the purpose of deflection calculation,
the quasi-permanent combination should be used. (See
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2:
Introduction to Eurocodes5 for further information on
combinations of actions.) However, it is likely that the
quasi-permanent combination will be exceeded during
the lifetime of the building and, for the purpose of
determining whether the slab might have cracked, the
frequent combination may be critical.

Commercial pressures often lead to a requirement to

strike the formwork as soon as possible and move on to
subsequent floors, with the minimum of propping. Tests
on flat slabs have demonstrated that as much as 70%
of the loads from a newly cast floor (formwork, wet
concrete, construction loads) may be carried by the
suspended floor below7. It can generally be assumed
that early striking of formwork will not greatly affect the
deflection after installing the cladding and/or partitions.
This is because the deflection affecting partitions will be
smaller if the slab becomes cracked before, rather
than after, the installation of the cladding and/or
partitions.

Cracking
Deflection of concrete sections is closely linked to the
extent of cracking and the degree to which cracking
capacity is exceeded. The point at which cracking
occurs is determined by the moments induced in the
slab and the tensile strength of the concrete, which
increases with age. Often the critical situation is when
the slab is struck, or when the load of the slab above is
applied. Once the slab has cracked its stiffness is
permanently reduced.
It is therefore necessary to find the critical loading stage
at which cracking first occurs. This critical loading stage
corresponds with the minimum value of K, where:

where
W

fctm

The serviceability loading applied up to

that stage
The concrete tensile strength at that stage

Where the frequent combination is the critical load

stage, then the degree of cracking () calculated for the
frequent combination should also be used for the
quasi-permanent combination, but not for any of the

earlier load stages. If, however, an earlier stage proves

critical, the value at that stage should be carried
forward to all subsequent stages.

Figure 3
Outline of rigorous method for calculating deflection

Further information can be found in the best practice

guide Early striking and improved backpropping6.

Shrinkage curvature
Shrinkage depends on the water/cement ratio, relative
humidity and the size and shape of the member. The
effect of shrinkage in an asymmetrically reinforced
section is to induce a curvature that can lead to
significant deflection in shallow members. This effect
should be considered in the deflection calculations.

Methods for calculating

deflections
Two methods for calculating deflection are presented
below, and these are based on the advice in TR58
Deflections in concrete slabs and beams8.

The rigorous method for calculating deflections is the

most appropriate method for determining a realistic
estimate of deflection. However, it is only suitable for use
with computer software. The Concrete Centre has
produced a number of spreadsheets that use this
method to carry out deflection calculations for a variety
9
of slabs and beams . These offer a cost-effective way to
carry out detailed deflection calculations, and they
include the ability to consider the effect of early age
loading of the concrete. Figure 3 illustrates the principles
of the method and shows how the factors affecting
deflection are considered in the rigorous deflection
calculations.
Finite element analysis may also be used to obtain
estimates of deflection. In this case the principles in
Figure 3 should be applied if credible results are to be
obtained.

Repeat at 1/20 points for all three loading stages

Rigorous method

Simplified method

Figure 5

A simplified method for calculating deflection is presented

in Figure 5. It is feasible to carry out these calculations by
hand, and they could be used to roughly verify deflection
results from computer software, or used where a computer
is not available.

Simplified method for calculating deflection

The major simplification is that the effects of early age

loading are not considered explicitly; rather an allowance
is made for their effect when calculating the cracking
moment. Simplified creep factors are used and deflection
from the curvature of the slab is approximated using a
factor.

Precamber
A slab or beam can be precambered to reduce the effect
of deflection below the horizontal (see Figure 8).
However, in practice too much precamber is generally
used and the slab remains permanently cambered. This
is because of the difficulty in accurately calculating
deflection. A precamber of up to half the quasipermanent combination deflection could be used, but a
lower figure is recommended. Precamber does not
reduce the deflections affecting partitions or cladding.

Flat slabs
Flat slabs are very popular and efficient floor systems.
However, because they span in two directions, it can be
difficult to calculate their deflection. TR588 gives several
suitable methods for assessing flat slab deflection. Of
these, a popular method is to take the average deflection
of two parallel column strips and to add the deflection of
the middle strip spanning orthogonally to get an
approximation of the maximum deflection in the centre of
the slab.
The recommended acceptance criteria for a flat slab are
shown in Figure 9.

Accuracy
The calculation of deflection in Eurocode 2 using the
rigorous method presented here is advanced. It can be
used to take account of early-age construction loading
by considering reduced early concrete tensile strengths.
However, the following influences on deflections cannot
be accurately assessed:

Tensile strength, which determines the cracking

moment.

Construction loading.

Elastic modulus.
Therefore any calculation of deflection is only an
estimate, and even the most sophisticated analysis can
still result in +15% to -30% error. It is advisable to give a
suitable caveat with any estimate of deflection that
others are relying on.

Cladding tolerances

Manufacturers may say that their glazed systems can

only accommodate deflection as low as 5 mm.

Deflection may affect cladding or glazing in the following

ways:
When a slab deflects, the load on the central fixings
will be relieved and shed to outer fixings.

There should be open discussions between the designers

for the various elements to determine the most costeffective way of dealing with the interaction of the structure
and cladding.

References
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

EN 199211, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for building.
MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete
Centre, 2006.
MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Slabs. The Concrete Centre,
2006.
MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Flat slabs. The Concrete
Centre, 2006. .
NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to
Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005
BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Early striking and improved backpropping. BCA, 2001. (Available from
www.concretecentre.com)
PALLETT, P. Guide to flat slab formwork and falsework. Construct, 2003
THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report No. 58 Deflections in concrete slabs and beams. The Concrete
Society, 2005.

Acknowledgements
This guide was originally published by BCA and The Concrete Centre in the UK. The authors of the original publication
were R Webster CEng, FIStructE and O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

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