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part

PREPARING
FINAL
ACCOUNTS
9 The final accounts of sole
traders
10 Accounting principles,
concepts and policies
11 Depreciation and fixed
assets
12 Bad debts and provisions
for bad debts
13 Accruals and prepayments
14 The preparation of final
accounts from the trial
balance
15 Manufacturing accounts
and the valuation of stocks

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chapter

The final
accounts of sole
traders
Learning objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
1 explain the meaning of the key terms and
concepts listed at the end of the chapter;
2 explain the purpose and structure of profit and
loss accounts, including the subtotals for gross
profit and net profit;
3 explain the purpose and structure of balance
sheets, including the subtotals for net current
assets, total assets less current liabilities and net
assets;
4 describe the nature of administrative expenses,
selling and distribution expenses, fixed assets,
current assets, current liabilities long-term
liabilities and capital;
5 explain the relevance of stock and the cost of
sales in the determination of the gross profit;
6 prepare a simple trading and profit and loss
account and balance sheet from a trial balance
using either an account
horizontal format or a
vertical format;
7 make all the necessary ledger account and
journal entries relating to the preparation of
trading and profit and loss accounts.

89

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Introduction
Final accounts consist of a profit and loss account and balance sheet. These are prepared at
the end of the businesss accounting year after the trial balance has been completed. Some
businesses also produce final accounts half yearly, quarterly or even monthly. The purpose,
structure and preparation of the profit and loss account and balance sheet are discussed
below.

The purpose and structure of profit and loss accounts

The profit and loss account provides a summary of the results of a businesss trading activities
during a given accounting year. It shows the profit or loss for the year. The purpose of a profit
and loss account is to enable users of accounts, such as the owner, to evaluate the financial
performance of a business for a given accounting year. It may be used to determine the
amount of taxation on the profit.
Chapter 2 explained that profit can be defined as the amount which could be taken
out of a business as drawings in the case of a sole trader or partnership, or is available for
distribution as dividends to shareholders in the case of a company, after maintaining the
value of the capital of a business. Profit is not the same as an increase in the amount of
money the business possesses. It is the result of applying certain accounting principles to the
transactions of the business. These will be described in detail in the next chapter.
The basic format of a profit and loss account is as follows:
ABC
Profit and loss account for the year ended ...

Sales
Less: cost of sales
Gross profit
Less: other costs and expenses:
Selling and distribution costs
Administrative expenses
Interest payable on loans

X
X
X

X
X
X

Net profit

X
X
__

In the accounts of sole traders and partnerships the actual composition of each of the
above groupings of costs would be shown. Selling and distribution costs include advertising
expenditure, the wages of delivery-van drivers, motor expenses including petrol and repairs,
etc. Administrative expenses usually comprise the salaries of office staff, rent and rates, light
and heat, printing and stationery, telephone and postage, etc. The published final accounts of
companies contain a classification of costs similar to that shown above.

The purpose and structure of balance sheets

The balance sheet is a list of the assets and liabilities, and capital, of a business at the end of a
given accounting year. It therefore provides information about the resources and debts of

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91

the reporting entity. This enables users of accounts to evaluate its financial position, in
particular whether the business is likely to be unable to pay its debts. The balance sheet is like
a photograph of the financial state of affairs of a business at a specific point in time.
Balance sheets contain five groups of items, as follows.
1 Fixed assets
These are items not specifically bought for resale but to be used in the production or distribution of those goods normally sold by the business. Fixed assets are durable goods that
usually last for several years, and are normally kept by a business for more than one
accounting year. Examples of fixed assets include land and buildings, plant and
machinery, motor vehicles, office equipment, furniture, fixtures and fittings.
2 Current assets
These are items that are normally kept by a business for less than one accounting year.
Indeed, the composition of each type of current asset is usually continually changing.
Examples include stocks, trade debtors, short-term investments, money in a bank cheque
account and cash.
3 Current liabilities
These are debts owed by a business that are payable within one year (often considerably
less) of the date of the balance sheet. Examples include trade creditors and bank overdrafts.
4 Long-term liabilities
These are debts owed by a business that are not due until after one year (often much
longer) from the date of the balance sheet. Examples include loans and mortgages.
5 Capital
This refers to the amount of money invested in the business by the owner(s).
The structure of a balance sheet is shown in the diagram below. Note that the items
shown in colour are subtotals or totals which should be shown on the balance sheet:
ABC
Balance sheet as at ...
Fixed assets
!
Current assets
0 Current liabilities
# Net current assets
#
Total assets less current liabilities
0
Long-term liabilities
#
Net assets
#
Capital

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Learning Activity 9.1

Prepare a balance sheet listing your assets and liabilities, or those of your family. Use an
appropriate method of classifying the assets and liabilities and show the relevant totals
and subtotals.

The gross profit: stock and the cost of sales

The first stage in the determination of the profit for the year involves calculating the gross
profit. It is usually carried out in the profit and loss account. However, this part of the profit
and loss account is sometimes presented as a separate account referred to as the trading
account.
The gross profit for a given period is computed by subtracting the cost of goods sold
cost
of sales from the sales revenue. It is important to appreciate that the cost of goods sold is not
usually the same as the amount of purchases. This is because most businesses will have
purchased goods that are unsold at the end of the accounting period. This is referred to as
stock or inventory.
A manufacturing business will have a number of different types of stocks. However, for
simplicity the following exposition is confined to non-manufacturing businesses whose stock
consists of goods purchased for resale that have not undergone any further processing by the
entity.
The cost of sales is determined by taking the cost of goods in stock at the start of the
period, adding to this the cost of goods purchased during the period, and subtracting the cost
of goods unsold at the end of the period. The cost of sales is then deducted from the sales
revenue to give the gross profit. This is illustrated in Example 9.1.

Example 9.1
S. Mann, whose accounting year ends on 30 April, buys and sells one type of product. On
1 May 20X8 there were 50 units in stock which had cost 100 each. During the subsequent
accounting year he purchased a further 500 units at a cost of 100 each and sold 450 units
at a price of 150 each. There were 100 units which cost 100 each that had not been sold
at 30 April 20X9. You are required to compute the gross profit for the year.

S. Mann
Trading account for the year ended 30 April 20X9
Units
450
____
50
500
550
100
450

Sales revenue
Less: Cost of goods sold:
Stock of goods at 1 May 20X8
Add: Goods purchased during the year
Cost of goods available for sale
Less: Stock of goods at 30 April 20X9
Cost of sales
Gross profit for the year

67,500

5,000
50,000
55,000
10,000
45,000
22,500_
______

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93

Note
1 The number of units is not usually shown in a trading account. They have been included
in the above to demonstrate that the cost of sales relates to the number of units that
were sold.

The preparation of final accounts

The trading account
The trading account is an account in the ledger and is thus a part of the double-entry system.
It is used to ascertain the gross profit and is prepared by transferring the balances on the sales,
purchases and returns accounts to the trading account. In addition, certain entries are
required in respect of stock. These are as follows:
1 Stock at the start of the period:
Debit trading account
Credit stock account
2 Stock at the end of the period:
Debit stock account
Credit trading account
Note that the stock at the start of the period will be the stock at the end of the previous period.
The ledger entries in respect of stocks are illustrated below using the data in Example 9.1.
Prior to the preparation of the trading account the ledger will appear as follows:
Sales
20X9
30 Apr

balance b
d

67,500

Trading a
c

Sales
20X9
67,500
30
Apr
_______

Balance b
d

67,500
_______

Balance b
d

Purchases
20X9
50,000
30 Apr
_______

Trading a
c

50,000
_______

Purchases
20X9
30 Apr

Balance b
d

50,000
Stock

20X8
30 Apr

Balance b
d

5,000

The trading account will then be prepared as follows:

20X9
30 Apr

20X9
30 Apr

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PREPARING FINAL ACCOUNTS

20X8
30 Apr

Balance b
d

Stock
20X9
05,000
30 Apr
_______

20X9
30 Apr

Trading a
c

10,000

Trading a
c

S. Mann
Trading account for year ending 30 April 20X9

Stock at 1 May 20X8

5,000
Sales
Purchases
50,000
Stock at 30 April 20X9
Gross profit c
d
22,500
77,500
_______
Gross profit b
d

05,000
_______

67,500
10,000
00,000
77,500
_______
22,500

Notes
1 The gross profit is the difference between the two sides of the trading account and must be
brought down to the opposite side of the account.
2 No date columns are shown in the trading account since the date appears as part of the
heading of the account.
3 When the trading account is prepared in account form the stock at the end of the year may
be shown as either a credit entry or deducted on the debit side as shown below, This has
the advantage of showing the cost of sales.
S. Mann
Trading account for the year ended 30 April 20X9
Opening stock
5,000
Sales
Add: Purchases
50,000
55,000
Less: Closing stock
10,000
Cost of sales
45,000
Gross profit c
d
22,500
67,500
_______
Gross profit b
d

67,500

22,500
67,500
_______
22,500

4 The trading account is an account in the ledger and thus part of the double-entry system.
However, when it is prepared for submission to the management, the owner(s) of a
business or the Inland Revenue, it is often presented vertically as shown at the start of
Example 9.1.
5 No entries other than those shown above (and the correction of errors) should be made in
a stock account. It is not a continuous record of the value of stock.
6 The debit balance in the stock account on 30 April 20X8 was the result of an entry
identical to that on 30 April 20X9.
7 The stock shown in a trial balance will always be that at the end of the previous year (and
thus the opening stock of the year to which the trial balance relates).

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95

The profit and loss account

The profit and loss account is an account in the ledger and thus a part of the double-entry
system. It is used to ascertain the net profit (or loss) for the year and is prepared in the same
way as the trading account. That is, the balances on the income and expense accounts in the
ledger are transferred to the profit and loss account by means of a double entry.

The balance sheet

The balance sheet is a list of the balances remaining in the ledger after the trading and profit
and loss accounts have been prepared. In effect it is like a trial balance except that the balance
sheet is presented using a different format. Note that the balances are not transferred to the
balance sheet by means of a double entry.
In practice, and in examinations, it is usual to prepare final accounts from the information given in the trial balance. However, it is important to appreciate that the ledger
entries described above also have to be done, although students are not normally expected to
show them in their answer to examination questions.
An illustration of the preparation of final accounts, including the required ledger entries,
is shown in Example 9.2.

Example 9.2
The following is the trial balance of A. Dillon at 31 March 20X0.
Debit

Capital
Drawings
Loan from S. Rodd
Bank
Cash
Sales
Purchases
Sales returns
Purchases returns
Stock at 1 Apr 19X9
Carriage inwards
Carriage outwards
Trade debtors
Trade creditors
Motor vehicles
Fixtures and fittings
Wages and salaries
Rent
Light and heat
Telephone and postage
Discount allowed
Discount received

Credit

042,140

0013,600
010,000
005,800
000,460
088,400
046,300
005,700
003,100
008,500
002,400
001,600
015,300
007,200
023,100
012,400
006,800
004,100
003,200
001,700
000,830
000,000
151,790

000,950
151,790

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The stock at 31 March 20X0 was valued at 9,800. The loan from S. Rodd is repayable on
1 January 20X4.
You are required to prepare the trading and profit and loss accounts and a balance
sheet.

Trading a
c

88,400
_______

Sales
Balance b
d

88,400
_______

Balance b
d

Sales returns
05,700
Trading a
c
_______

05,700
_______

Balance b
d

Purchases
46,300
Trading a
c
_______

46,300
_______

Trading a
c

Purchases returns
03,100
Balance b
d
_______

03,100
_______

Stock
Trading a
c

08,500
_______

Trading a
c

08,500
_______
9,800

Balance b
d

Carriage inwards
02,400
Trading a
c
_______

02,400
_______

Balance b
d

Carriage outwards
01,600
Profit and loss a
c
_______

01,600
_______

Balance b
d

Wages and salaries

06,800
Profit and loss a
c
_______

06,800
_______

Balance b
d

04,100
_______

Profit and loss a
c

04,100
_______

Balance b
d

Light and heat

03,200
Profit and loss a
c
_______

03,200
_______

Balance b
d

Telephone and postage

01,700
Profit and loss a
c
_______

01,700
_______

Balance b
d

Discount allowed
0,0830
Profit and loss a
c
_______

0,0830
_______

Profit and loss a
c

Discount received
0,0950
Balance b
d
_______

0,0950
_______

Balance b
d

Rent

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THE FINAL ACCOUNTS OF SOLE TRADERS

Drawings
Capital
13,600
_______

Balance b
d

Drawings
Balance c
d

13,600
49,660
63,260
_______

97

13,600
_______

Capital
Balance b
d
Profit for year

42,140
21,120
63,260
_______

Balance b
d

49,660

All other accounts contain only the balances shown in the trial balance.
A. Dillon
Trading and profit and loss accounts for the year ended 31 March 20X0
00
Stock at 1 Apr 20X9
Purchases
Less: Returns
Add: Carriage inwards

46,300
03,100
43,200
02,400

Less: Stock at 31 Mar 20X0

Cost of sales
Gross profit c
d

Carriage outwards
Wages and salaries
Rent
Light and heat
Telephone and postage
Discount allowed
Net profit c
d
Capital a
c

00
8,500

88,400
05,700
82,700

Sales
Less: returns

45,600
54,100
09,800
44,300
38,400
82,700
_____
__

00,000
82,700
_____
__

1,600
6,800
4,100
3,200
1,700
830
21,120
39,350

Gross profit b
d

Discount received

21,120
_____
__

Net profit b
d

38,400
950

39,350
21,120
_____
__

A. Dillon
Balance sheet as at 31 March 20X0
Credit
Capital
Balance at 1 Apr 20X9
Add: Profit for year
Less: Drawings
Balance at 31 Mar 20X0
Long-term liabilities
Loan from S. Rodd
Current liabilities
Creditors

42,140
21,120
63,260
13,600
49,660
10,000
07,200
66,860
_____
__

Debit
Fixed assets
Motor vehicles
Fixtures and fittings
Current assets
Stock
Debtors
Bank
Cash

23,100
12,400
35,500

9,800
15,300
5,800
00,460
31,360
66,860
_____
__

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Notes
1 The gross profit is the difference between the two sides of the trading account and must
be brought down to the opposite side of the profit and loss account.
2 The net profit is the difference between the two sides of the profit and loss account. This is
brought down to the credit side of the profit and loss account and then transferred to the
capital account by debiting the profit and loss account and crediting the capital account.
The reason for this transfer is because the profit belongs to the owner and it increases the
amount of capital he or she has invested in the business.
3 If the debit side of the profit and loss account exceeds the credit side this is shown as a net
loss (carried down) on the credit side and debited to the capital account.
4 The balance on the drawings account at the end of the period must be transferred to the
capital account.
5 Each of the transfers from the ledger accounts to the trading and profit and loss accounts
should also be entered in the journal.
6 Notice that the debit balances remaining in the ledger after the profit and loss account
has been prepared are shown on the right-hand side of the balance sheet and the credit
balances on the left-hand side. This may seem inconsistent with the debit and credit sides
of the ledger being on the left and right, respectively. However, it is a common form of
presentation in accounting.
7 Like the trial balance, the total of each side of the balance sheet should be the same. That
is, the total of the ledger accounts with debit balances should equal the total of the ledger
accounts with credit balances. If this is not the case it indicates that an error has occurred
in the preparation of the trading and profit and loss account (or the balance sheet).
8 The current assets in the balance sheet are shown in what is called their reverse order of
liquidity. The latter refers to how easily assets can be turned into cash.
9 The current liabilities are sometimes shown on the balance sheet as a deduction from
current assets.
10 The entries on the balance sheet in respect of capital are a summary of the capital
account in the ledger.
11 Carriage inwards is added to the cost of purchases because it relates to the haulage costs
of goods purchased. Carriage outwards is shown in the profit and loss account because it
relates to the haulage costs of goods sold and is thus a selling and distribution expense.
When the trading and profit and loss account and balance sheet are presented to the owner(s)
of a business and the Inland Revenue it is common to use a vertical format. This is illustrated
next using the data in Example 9.2.
A. Dillon
Trading and profit and loss accounts for the year ending 31 March 20X0
00
00
Sales
Less: Returns
Less: Cost of sales:
Stock at 1 Apr 20X9
Add: Purchases
Less: Returns

8,500
46,300
03,100

00
88,400
05,700
82,700

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THE FINAL ACCOUNTS OF SOLE TRADERS

Add: Carriage inwards

Less: Stock at 31 Mar 20X0

43,200
02,400
54,100
09,800
44,300
38,400
00,950
39,350

Gross profit
Add: Discount received
Less: Expenditure:
Carriage outwards
Wages and salaries
Rent
Light and heat
Telephone and postage
Discount allowed
Net profit for the year

99

1,600
6,800
4,100
3,200
1,700
00,830

18,230
21,120
_______

Balance sheet as at 31 March 20X0

00
Fixed assets
Motor vehicles
Fixtures and fittings
Current assets
Stock
Debtors
Bank
Cash
Less: Current liabilities
Creditors
Net current assets
Total assets less current liabilities
Less: Long-term liabilities
Loan from S. Rodd
Net assets
Capital
Balance at 1 Apr 20X9
Add: Profit for year
Less: Drawings
Balance at 31 Mar 20X0

00
23,100
12,400
35,500

9,800
15,300
5,800
00,460
31,360
07,200
24,160
59,660
10,000
49,660
_____
__

42,140
21,120
63,260
13,600
49,660
_____
__

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Summary
Final accounts comprise a trading and profit and loss account, and balance sheet. These
are prepared at the end of the accounting year after the trial balance has been completed.
The trading and profit and loss accounts provide a summary of the results of a businesss
trading activities during a given accounting year. They show the gross and net profit or
loss for the year, and enable users to evaluate the performance of the enterprise. The
balance sheet is a list of the assets and liabilities (and capital) of a business at the end of a
given accounting year. It enables users to evaluate the financial position of the enterprise,
including whether it is likely to be able to pay its debts. In the balance sheet assets are
classified as either fixed or current, and liabilities as either current or long term. The
balance sheet also contains several useful subtotals comprising net current assets, total
assets less current liabilities, and net assets.
The gross profit is the difference between the sales revenue and the cost of sales. The
cost of sales is the amount of purchases as adjusted for the opening and closing stocks. The
stock at the end of an accounting year has to be entered in the ledger by debiting a stock
account and crediting the trading account. The trading and profit and loss accounts are
then prepared by transferring the balances on the nominal accounts in the ledger to these
accounts.
The balance sheet is a list of the balances remaining in the ledger after the trading and
profit and loss accounts have been prepared. It is extracted in essentially the same way as
a trial balance, but presented using a more formal layout to show the two groups of both
assets and liabilities, and pertinent subtotals.

Key terms and concepts

Balance sheet (90)
capital (91)
cost of sales (92)
current assets (91)
current liabilities (91)
final accounts (90)
fixed assets (91)

gross profit (92)

inventory (92)
long-term liabilities (91)
loss (95)
net assets (91)
net current assets (91)
net profit (95)

profit (90)
profit and loss account (90)
stock (92)
total assets less current liabilities (91)
trading account (93)

Review questions
9.1

a Explain the purposes of a profit and loss account and a balance sheet.
b Describe the structure of each.

9.2

Explain the relevance of stocks of goods for resale in the determination of the gross profit.

9.3

Explain each of the entries in the following stock account:

Stock
Trading account
Trading account

4,600
_____
6300

Trading account

4,600
_____

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101

Exercises
An asterisk after the question number indicates that there is a suggested answer in the
Appendix.
9.4*

Level I
The following is the trial balance of R. Woods as at 30 September 20X6:

Stock 1 Oct 20X5

Purchases
Sales
Salaries and wages
Rent and rates
Insurance
Motor expenses
Printing and stationery
Light and heat
General expenses
Premises
Motor vehicles
Fixtures and fittings
Debtors
Creditors
Cash at bank
Drawings
Capital

Debit
00
2,368
12,389

Credit
00

18,922
3,862
504
78
664
216
166
314
5,000
1,800
350
3,896
1,731
482
1,200
00,000
33,289
_______

12,636
33,289
_______

The stock at 30 September 20X6 is valued at 2,946.

You are required to prepare a trading and profit and loss account for the year ended
30 September 20X6 and a balance sheet at that date.
9.5*

Level I
On 31 December 20X3, the trial balance of Joytoys showed the following accounts and
balances:

Bank
Capital
Bank loan
Inventory
Purchases
Sales
Rent, rates and insurance
Plant and machinery at cost
Office furniture and fittings at cost

Debit
00
500

Credit
00
75,000
22,000

12,000
108,000
167,000
15,000
70,000
24,000
continued

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Discount allowed
Bank interest
Discount received
Wages and salaries
Light and heat
Drawings
Returns outwards
Returns inwards
Creditors
Debtors

Debit
00
1,600
400

Credit
00

3,000
13,000
9,000
10,000
4,000
1,000
16,000
022,500
287,000
________

287,000
________

You are given the following information:

1 The inventory at 31 December 20X3 was valued at 19,500.
2 The bank loan is repayable in 5 years time.
You are required to prepare a trading and profit and loss account for the year ended
31 December 20X3, and a balance sheet at that date.
9.6*

Level I
The following is the trial balance of A. Evans as at 30 June 20X2:
Debit
00
Capital
Drawings
Loan

Solihull Bank
Leasehold premises
Motor vehicles
Investments
Trade debtors
Trade creditors
Cash
Bank overdraft
Sales
Purchases
Returns outwards
Returns inwards
Carriage outwards
Stock
Rent and rates
Light and heat
Telephone and postage
Printing and stationery
Bank interest
Interest received

Credit
00
39,980

14,760
20,000
52,500
13,650
4,980
2,630
1,910
460
3,620
81,640
49,870
960
840
390
5,610
1,420
710
540
230
140
000,000
148,730
________

000,620
148,730
________

15_1312MH_CH09

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8:38 am

Page 103

THE FINAL ACCOUNTS OF SOLE TRADERS

103

You are given the following additional information:

1 The stock at 30 June 20X2 has been valued at 4,920.
2 The bank loan is repayable on 1 June 20X5.
You are required to prepare a trading and profit and loss account for the year ended
30 June 20X2 and a balance sheet as at that date.
9.7

Level I
The following is the trial balance of J. Peters as at 30 September 20X0:
Debit
00
Capital
Drawings
Loan from A. Drew
Cash
Bank overdraft
Sales
Purchases
Returns inwards
Returns outwards
Carriage inwards
Carriage outwards
Trade debtors
Trade creditors
Land and buildings
Plant and machinery
Listed investments
Interest paid
Interest received
Rent received
Stock
Repairs to buildings
Plant hire charges
Bank charges

Credit
00
32,890

5,200
10,000
510
1,720
45,600
29,300
3,800
2,700
960
820
7,390
4,620
26,000
13,500
4,800
1,200
450
630
3,720
810
360
00,240
98,610
_______

00,000
98,610
_______

Further information:
1 The stock at 30 September 20X0 was valued at 4,580.
2 The loan from A. Drew is repayable on 1 January 20X7.
You are required to prepare a trading and profit and loss account for the year ended
30 September 20X0 and a balance sheet as at that date.