Money Management

X
PREFACE
you also goes to Dave Lowdon of Logical Systems Inc. for programming support and to Mark Wiemeler and Ken McGahan for the charts
presented in the book. Thanks are also due to graduate assistants Daniel
Snyder and V. Anand for their untiring efforts. Special thanks are due
to John Oleson for introducing me to chart-based risk and reward estimation techniques.
My debt to these individuals parallels the enormous debt I owe to Dean
Olga Engelhardt for encouraging me to write the book and Associate
Dean Kathleen Carlson for providing valuable administrative support.
My chairperson, Professor C. T. Chen, deserves special commendation
for creating an environment conducive to thinking and writing. I also
wish to thank the Northeastern Illinois University Foundation for its
generous support of my research endeavors.
Finally, I wish to thank Karl Weber, Associate Publisher, John Wiley
& Sons, for his infinite patience with and support of a first-time writer.
Contents
1 Understanding the Money Management Process
Steps in the Money Management Process, -1

Ranking of Available Opportunities, 2
Controlling Overall Exposure, 3
Allocating Risk Capital, 4
Assessing the Maximum Permissible Loss on
a Trade, 4
The Risk Equation, 5
Deciding the Number of Contracts to be Traded:
Balancing the Risk Equation, 6
Consequences of Trading an Unbalanced Risk
Equation, 6
Conclusion, 7
2 The Dynamics of Ruin
Inaction, 8
Incorrect Action, 9
Assessing the Magnitude of Loss, 11
The Risk of Ruin, 12
Simulating the Risk of Ruin, 16
Conclusion, 21
.
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xii
CONTENTS
3 Estimating Risk and Reward
The Importance of Defining Risk, 23

The Importance of Estimating Reward, 24
Estimating Risk and Reward on Commonly
Observed Patterns, 24
Head-and-Shoulders Formation, 25
Double Tops and Bottoms, 30
Saucers and Rounded Tops and Bottoms, 34
V-Formations, Spikes, and Island Reversals, 35
Symmetrical and Right-Angle Triangles, 41
Wedges, 43
Flags, 44
Reward Estimation in the Absence of Measuring
Rules, 46
Synthesizing Risk and Reward, 51
Conclusion, 52
4 Limiting Risk through Diversification
53
Measuring the Return on a Futures Trade, 55

Measuring Risk on Individual Commodities, 59
Measuring Risk Across Commodities Traded Jointly:
The Concept of Correlation Between Commodities, 62
Why Diversification Works, 64
Aggregation: The Flip Side to Diversification, 67
Checking for Significant Correlations Across
Commodities, 67
A Nonstatistical Test of Significance of Correlations, 69
Matrix for Trading Related Commodities, 70
Synergistic Trading, 72
Spread Trading, 73
Limitations of Diversification, 74
Conclusion, 75
5 Commodity Selection
76
Mutually Exclusive versus Independent

Opportunities, 77
The Commodity Selection Process, 77
The Shame Ratio, 78
...
XIII
CONTENTS
Wilders Commodity Selection Index, 80

The Price Movement Index, 83
The Adjusted Payoff Ratio Index, 84
Conclusion, 86
6 Managing Unrealized Profits and Losses
87
Drawing the Line on Unrealized Losses, 88

The Visual Approach to Setting Stops, 89
Volatility Stops, 92
Time Stops, 96
Dollar-Value Money Management Stops, 97
Analyzing Unrealized Loss Patterns on Profitable Trades, 98
Bull and Bear Traps, 103
Avoiding Bull and Bear Traps, 104
Using Opening Price Behavior Information to Set Protective
Stops, 106
Surviving Locked-Limit Markets, 107
Managing Unrealized Profits, 109
Conclusion, 112
114
7 Managing the Bankroll: Controlling Exposure
Equal Dollar Exposure per Trade, 114

Fixed Fraction Exposure, 115
The Optimal Fixed Fraction Using the Modified Kelly
System, 118
Arriving at Trade-Specific Optimal Exposure, 119
Martingale versus Anti-Martingale Betting
Strategies, 122
Trade-Specific versus Aggregate Exposure, 124
Conclusion, 127
8 Managing the Bankroll: Allocating Capital
129
Allocating Risk Capital Across Commodities, 129

Allocation within the Context of a Single-commodity
Portfolio, 130
Allocation within the Context of a Multi-commodity
Portfolio, 130
Equal-Dollar Risk Capital Allocation, 13 1
xiv
CONTENTS
Optimal Capital Allocation: Enter vodern Portfolio Theory, 13 1

Using the Optimal f as a Basis for Allocation, 137
Linkage Between Risk Capital and Available Capital, 138
Determining the Number of Contracts to be Traded, 139
The Role of Options in Dealing with Fractional Contracts, 141
Pyramiding, 144
Conclusion, 150
9 The Role of Mechanical Dading Systems
151
The Design of Mechanical Trading Systems, 15 1

The Role of Mechanical Trading Systems, 154
Fixed-Parameter Mechanical Systems, 157
Possible Solutions to the Problems of Mechanical Systems, 167
Conclusion, 169
10 Back to the Basics
171
Avoiding Four-Star Blunders, 171

The Emotional Aftermath of Loss, 173
Maintaining Emotional Balance, 175
Putting It All Together, 179
Appendix A Iurho Pascal 4.0 Program to Compute
the Risk of Ruin
181
Appendix B BASIC Program to Compute the Risk of Ruin
Appendix C Correlation Data for 24 Commodities
Appendix D Dollar Risk Tables for 24 Commodities
184
186
211
Appendix E Analysis of Opening Prices for 24 Commodities
236
Appendix F Deriving Optimal Portfolio Weights: A Mathematical

Statement of the Problem
261
Index
263
MONEY MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES FOR FUTURES
TRADERS
1
Understanding the Money
Management Process
In a sense, every successful trader employs money management principles in the course of futures trading, even if only unconsciously. The
goal of this book is to facilitate a more conscious and rigorous adoption
of these principles in everyday trading. This chapter outlines the money
management process in terms of market selection, exposure control,
trade-specific risk assessment, and the allocation of capital across competing opportunities. In doing so, it gives the reader a broad overview
of the book.
A signal to buy or sell a commodity may be generated by a technical
or chart-based study of historical data. Fundamental analysis, or a study
of demand and supply forces influencing the price of a commodity, could
also be used to generate trading signals. Important as signal generation
is, it is not the focus of this book. The focus of this book is on the
decision-making process that follows a signal.
STEPS IN THE MONEY MANAGEMENT PROCESS
First, the trader must decide whether or not to proceed with the signal.
This is a particularly serious problem when two or more commodities are vying for limited funds in the account. Next, for every signal
1
UNDERSTANDING THE MONEY MANAGEMENT PROCESS
accepted, the trader must decide on the fraction of the trading capital
that he or she is willing to risk. The goal is to maximize profits while
protecting the bankroll against undue loss and overexposure, to ensure
participation in future major moves. An obvious choice is to risk a fixed
dollar amount every time. More simply, the trader might elect to trade
an equal number of contracts of every commodity traded. However, the
resulting allocation of capital is likely to be suboptimal.
For each signal pursued, the trader must determine the price that unequivocally confirms that the trade is not measuring up to expectations.
This price is known as the stop-loss price, or simply the stop price. The
dollar value of the difference between the entry price and the stop price
defines the maximum permissible risk per contract. The risk capital allocated to the trade divided by the maximum permissible risk per contract
determines the number of contracts to be traded. Money management
encompasses the following steps:
1. Ranking available opportunities against an objective yardstick of
desirability
2. Deciding on the fraction of capital to be exposed to trading at
any given time
3. Allocating risk capital across opportunities
4. Assessing the permissible level of loss for each opportunity accepted for trading
5. Deciding on the number of contracts of a commodity to be traded,
using the information from steps 3 and 4
The following paragraphs outline the salient features of each of these
steps.
RANKING OF AVAILABLE OPPORTUNITIES
There are over 50 different futures contracts currently traded, making it
difficult to concentrate on all commodities. Superimpose the practical
constraint of limited funds, and selection assumes special significance.
Ranking of competing opportunities against an objective yardstick of
desirability seeks to alleviate the problem of virtually unlimited opportunities competing for limited funds.
The desirability of a trade is measured in terms of (a) its expected
profits, (b) the risk associated with earning those profits, and (c) the
CONTROLLING OVERALL EXPOSURE
investment required to initiate the trade. The higher the expected profit
for a given level of risk, the more desirable the trade. Similarly, the
lower the investment needed to initiate a trade, the more desirable the
trade. In Chapter 3, we discuss chart-based approaches to estimating risk
and reward. Chapter 5 discusses alternative approaches to commodity
selection.
Having evaluated competing opportunities against an objective yardstick of desirability, the next step is to decide upon a cutoff point or
benchmark level so as to short-list potential trades. Opportunities that
fail to measure up to this cutoff point will not qualify for further consideration.
CONTROLLING OVERALL EXPOSURE

Overall exposure refers to the fraction of total capital that is risked
across all trading opportunities. Risking 100 percent of the balance in
the account could be ruinous if every single trade ends up a loser. At
the other extreme, risking only 1 percent of capital mitigates the risk of
bankruptcy, but the resulting profits are likely to be inconsequential.
The fraction of capital to be exposed to trading is dependent upon the
returns expected to accrue from a portfolio of commodities. In general,
the higher the expected returns, the greater the recommended level of
exposure. The optimal exposure fraction would maximize the overall
expected return on a portfolio of commodities. In order to facilitate the
analysis, data on completed trade returns may be used as a proxy for
expected returns. This analysis is discussed at length in Chapter 7.
Another relevant factor is the correlation between commodity returns.
TWO commodities are said to be positively correlated if a change in one
is accompanied by a similar change in the other. Conversely, two commodities are negatively correlated if a change in one is accompanied by
an opposite change in the other. The strength of the correlation depends
on the magnitude of the relative changes in the two commodities.
In general, the greater the positive correlation across commodities in
a portfolio, the lower the theoretically safe overall exposure level. This
safeguards against multiple losses on positively correlated commodities. By the same logic, the greater the negative correlation between
commodities in a portfolio, the higher the recommended overall optimal
exposure. Chapter 4 discusses the concept *of correlations and their role
in reducing overall portfolio risk.
The overall exposure could be a fixed fraction of available funds.
Alternatively, the exposure fraction could fluctuate in line with changes
in trading account balance. For example, an aggressive trader might
want to increase overall exposure consequent upon a decrease in account
balance. A defensive trader might disagree, choosing to increase overall
exposure only after witnessing an increase in account balance. These
issues are discussed in Chapter 7.
ALLOCATING RISK CAPITAL
Once the trader has decided the total amount of capital to be risked to
trading, the next step is to allocate this amount across competing trades.
The easiest solution is to allocate an equal amount of risk capital to
each commodity traded. This simplifying approach is particularly helpful when the trader is unable to estimate the reward and risk potential of
a trade. However, the implicit assumption here is that all trades represent
equally good investment opportunities. A trader who is uncomfortable
with this assumption might pursue an allocation procedure that (a) identifies trade potential differences and (b) translates these differences into
corresponding differences in exposure or risk capital allocation.
Differences in trade potential are measured in terms of (a) the probability of success and (b) the reward/risk ratio for the trade, arrived at
by dividing the expected profit by the maximum permissible loss, or
the payoff ratio, arrived at by dividing the average dollar profit earned
on completed trades by the average dollar loss incurred. The higher the
probability of success, and the higher the payoff ratio, the greater is
the fraction that could justifiably be exposed to the trade in question.
Arriving at optimal exposure is discussed in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 discusses the rules for increasing exposure during a trades life, a technique
commonly referred to as pyramiding.
ASSESSING THE MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE LOSS ON A TRADE
Risk in trading futures stems from the lack of perfect foresight. Unanticipated adverse price swings are endemic to trading; controlling the
THE RISK EQUATION
consequences of such adverse swings is the hallmark of a successful

speculator. Inability or unwillingness to control losses can lead to ruin,
as explained in Chapter 2.
Before initiating a trade, a trader should decide on the price action
which would conclusively indicate that he or she is on the wrong side of
the market. A trader who trades off a mechanical system would calculate
the protective stop-loss price dictated by the system. This is explained
in Chapter 9. If the trader is strictly a chartist, relying on chart patterns
to make trading decisions, he or she must determine in advance the
precise point at which the trade is not going the desired way, using the
techniques outlined in Chapter 3.
It is always tempting to ignore risk by concentrating exclusively on
reward, but a trader should not succumb to this temptation. There are no
guarantees in futures trading, and a trading strategy based on hope rather
than realism is apt to fail. Chapter 6 discusses alternative strategies for
controlling unrealized losses.
THE RISK EQUATION
Trade-specific risk is the product of the permissible dollar risk per contract multiplied by the number of contracts of the commodity to be
traded. Overall trade exposure is the aggregation of trade-specific risk
across all commodities traded concurrently. Overall exposure must be
balanced by the traders ability to lose and willingness to accept a loss.
Essentially, each trader faces the following identity:
Overall trade exposure =
Willingness to assume risk

backed by the ability to lose
The ability to lose is a function of capital available for trading: the

greater the risk capital, the greater the ability to lose. However, the
willingness to assume risk is influenced by the traders comfort level for
absorbing the pain associated with losses. An extremely risk-averse
person may be unwilling to assume any risk, even though holding the
requisite funds. At the other extreme, a risk lover may be willing to
assume risks well beyond the available means.
For the purposes of discussion in this book, we will assume that a
traders willingness to assume risk is backed by the funds in the account.
Our trader expects not to lose on a trade, but he or she is willing to
accept a small loss, should one become inevitable.
DECIDING THE NUMBER OF CONTRACTS TO BE TRADED:

BALANCING THE RISK EQUATION
Since the traders ability to lose and willingness to assume risk is determined largely by the availability of capital and the traders attitudes
toward risk, this side of the risk equation is unique to the trader who
alone can define the overall exposure level with which he or she is truly
comfortable. Having made this determination, he or she must balance
this desired exposure level with the overall exposure associated with the
trade or trades under consideration.
Assume for a moment that the overall risk exposure outweighs the
traders threshold level. Since exposure is the product of (a) the dollar
risk per contract and (b) the number of contracts traded, a downward
adjustment is necessary in either or both variables. However, manipulating the dollar risk per contract to an artificially low figure simply to suit
ones pocketbook or threshold of pain is ill-advised, and tinkering with
ones own estimate of what constitutes the permissible risk on a trade
is an exercise in self-deception, which can lead to needless losses. The
dollar risk per contract is a predefined constant. The trader, therefore,
must necessarily adjust the number of contracts to be traded so as to
bring the total risk in line with his or her ability and willingness to assume risk. If the capital risked to a trade is $1000, and the permissible
risk per contract is $500, the trader would want to trade two contracts,
margin considerations permitting. If the permissible risk per contract is
$1000, the trader would want to trade only one contract.
.
CONSEQUENCES OF TRADING AN UNBALANCED RISK
EQUATION
An unbalanced risk equation arises when the dollar risk assessment for
a trade is not equal to the traders ability and willingness to assume
risk. If the risk assessed on a trade is greater than that permitted by the
traders resources, we have a case of over-trading. Conversely, if the risk
assessed on a trade is less than that permitted by the traders resources,
he or she is said to be under-trading.
Overtrading is particularly dangerous and should be avoided, as it
threatens to rob a trader of precious trading capital. Overtrading typically
stems from a traders overconfidence about an impending move. When he
is convinced that he is going to be proved right by subsequent events, no
risk seems too big for his bankroll! However, this is a case of emotions
CONCLUSION
winning over reason. Here speculation or reasonable risk taking can

quickly degenerate into gambling, with disastrous consequences.
Undertrading is symptomatic of extreme caution. While it does not
threaten to ruin a trader financially, it does put a damper on performance. When a trader fails to extend himself as much as he should,
his performance falls short of optimal levels. This can and should be
avoided.
CONCLUSION
Although futures trading is rightly believed to be a risky endeavor, a
defensive trader can, through a series of conscious decisions, ensure
that the risks do not overwhelm him or her. First, a trader must rank
competing opportunities according to their respective return potential,
thereby determining which opportunities to trade and which ones to
pass up. Next, the trader must decide on the fraction of the trading
capital he or she is willing to risk to trading and how he or she wishes
to allocate this amount across competing opportunities. Before entering
into a trade, a trader must decide on the latitude he or she is willing
to allow the market before admitting to be on the wrong side of the
trade. This specifies the permissible dollar risk per contract. Finally,
the risk capital allocated to a trade divided by the permissible dollar
risk per contract defines the number of contracts to be traded, margin
considerations permitting.
It ought to be remembered at all times that the futures market offers no
guarantees. Consequently, never overexpose the bankroll to what might
appear to be a sure thing trade. Before going ahead with a trade,
the trader must assess the consequences of its going amiss. Will the
loss resulting from a realization of the worst-case scenario in any way
cripple the trader financially or affect his or her mental equilibrium? If
the answer is in the affirmative, the trader must lighten up the exposure,
either by reducing the number of contracts to be traded or by simply
letting the trade pass by if the risk on a single contract is far too high
for his or her resources.
Futures trading is a game where the winner is the one who can best
control his or her losses. Mistakes of judgment are inevitable in trading;
a successful trader simply prevents an error of judgment from turning
into a devastating blunder.
INCORRECT ACTION
It is often said that the best way to avoid ruin is to have experienced it at
least once. Hating experienced devastation, the trader knows firsthand
what causes ruin and how to avoid similar debacles in future. However, this experience can be frightfully expensive, both financially and
emotionally. In the absence of firsthand experience, the next best way
to avoid ruin is to develop a keen awareness of what causes ruin. This
chapter outlines the causes of ruin and quantifies the interrelationships
between these causes into an overall probability of ruin.
Failure in the futures markets may be explained in terms of either
(a) inaction or (b) incorrect action. Inaction or lack of action may be
defined as either failure to enter a new trade or to exit out of an existing
trade. Incorrect action results from entering into or liquidating a position
either prematurely or after the move is all but over. The reasons for
inaction and incorrect action are discussed here.
impossible to accept the switch at face value. It is so much easier to do

nothing, believing that the reversal is a minor correction to the existing
trend rather than an actual change in the trend.
Second, the nature of the instrument traded may cause trader inaction. For example, purchasing an option on a futures contract is
quite different from trading the underlying futures contract and could
evoke markedly different responses. The purchaser of an option is under no obligation to close out the position, even if the market goes
against the option buyer. Consequently, he or she is likely to be lulled
into a false sense of complacency, figuring that a panic sale of the
option is unwarranted, especially if the option premium has eroded
dramatically.
Third, a trader may be numbed into inaction by fear of possible losses.
This is especially true for a trader who has suffered a series of consecutive losses in the marketplace, losing self-confidence in the process.
Such a trader can start second-guessing himself and the signals generated by his system, preferring to do nothing rather than risk sustaining
yet another loss.
The fourth reason for not acting is an unwillingness to accept an error
of judgment. A trader who already has a position may do everything
possible to convince himself that the current price action does not merit
liquidation of the trade. Not wanting to be confused by facts, the trader
would ignore them in the hope that sooner or later the market will prove
him right!
Finally, a trader may fail to act in a timely fashion simply because he
has not done his homework to stay abreast of the markets. Obviously, the
amount of homework a trader must do is directly related to the number
of commodities followed. Inaction due to negligence most commonly
occurs when a trader does not devote enough time and attention to each
commodity he tracks.
INACTION
INCORRECT
First, the behavior of the market could lull a trader into inaction. If
the market is in a sideways or congestion pattern over several weeks,
then a trader might well miss the move as soon as the market breaks
out of its congestion. Alternatively, if the market has been moving very
sharply in a particular direction and suddenly changes course, it is almost
Timing is important in any investment endeavor, but it is particularly

crucial in the futures markets because of the daily adjustments in account balances to reflect current prices. A slight error in timing can
result in serious financial trouble for the futures trader. Incorrect action
2
The Dynamics of Ruin
ACTION
10
THE DYNAMICS OF RUIN
stemming from imprecise timing will be discussed under the following

broad categories: (a) premature entry, (b) delayed entry, (c) premature
exit, and (d) delayed exit.
Premature Entry
As the name suggests, premature entry results from initiating a new trade
before getting a clear signal. Premature entry problems are typically the
result of unsuccessfully trying to pick the top or bottom of a strongly
trending market. Outguessing the market and trying to stay one step ahead
of it can prove to be a painfully expensive experience. It is much safer
to stay in step with the market, reacting to market moves as expeditiously as possible, rather than trying to forecast possible market behavior.
Delayed Entry or Chasing the Market
This is the practice of initiating a trade long after the current trend has
established itself. Admittedly, it is very difficult to spot a shift in the
trend just after it occurs. It is so much easier to jump on board after the
commodity in question has made an appreciably big move. However,
the trouble with this is that a very strong move in a given direction is
almost certain to be followed by some kind of pullback. A delayed entry
into the market almost assures the trader of suffering through the pullback.
A conservative trader who believes in controlling risk will wait patiently for a pullback before plunging into a roaring bull or bear market.
If there is no pullback, the move is completely missed, resulting in an
opportunity forgone. However, the conservative trader attaches a greater
premium to actual dollars lost than to profit opportunities forgone.
Premature Exit
A new trader, or even an experienced trader shaken by a string of recent

losses, might want to cash in an unrealized profit prematurely. Although
understandable, this does not make for good trading. Premature exiting
out of a trade is the natural reaction of someone who is short on confidence. Working under the assumption that some profits are better than
no profits, a trader might be tempted to cash in a small profit now rather
than agonize over a possibly bigger, but much more uncertain, profit in
the future.
ASSESSING THE MAGNITUDE OF LOSS
11
While it does make sense to lock in a part of unrealized profits and not
expose everything to the vagaries of the marketplace, taking profits in a
hurry is certainly not the most appropriate technique. It is good policy
to continue with a trade until there is a definite signal to liquidate it.
The futures market entails healthy risk taking on the part of speculators,
and anyone uncomfortable with this fact ought not to trade.
Yet another reason for premature exiting out of a trade is setting
arbitrary targets based on a percentage of return on investment. For
example, a trader might decide to exit out of a trade when unrealized
profits on the trade amount to 100 percent of the initial investment. The
100 percent return on investment is a good benchmark, but it may lead
to a premature exit, since the market could move well beyond the point
that yields the trader a 100 percent return on investment. Alternatively,
the market could shift course before it meets the traders target; in which
case, he or she may well be faced with a delayed exit problem.
Premature liquidation of a trade at the first sign of a loss is very often
a characteristic of a nervous trader. The market has a disconcerting habit
of deviating at times from what seems to be a well-established trend.
For example, it often happens that if a market closes sharply higher
on a given day, it may well open lower on the following day. After
meandering downwards in the initial hours of trading, during which
time all nervous longs have been successfully gobbled up, the market
will merrily waltz off to new highs!
Delayed Exit
This includes a delayed exit out of a profitable trade or a delayed exit

out of a losing trade. In either case, the delay is normally the result
of hope or greed overruling a carefully thought-out plan of action. The
successful trader is one who (a) can recognize when a trade is going
against him and (b) has the courage to act based on such recognition.
Being indecisive or relying on luck to bail out of a tight spot will most
certainly result in greater than necessary losses.
ASSESSING THE MAGNITUDE OF LOSS
The discussion so far has centered around the reasons for losing, without
addressing their dollar consequences. The dollar consequence of a loss
12
depends on the size of the bet or the fraction of capital exposed to trading. The greater the exposure, the greater the scope for profits, should
prices unfold as expected, or losses, should the trade turn sour. An illustration will help dramatize the double-edged nature of the leverage
sword.
It is August 1987. A trader with $100,000 in his account is convinced
that the stock market is overvalued and is due for a major correction.
He decides to use all the money in his account to short-sell futures contracts on the Standard and Poors (S&P) 500 index, currently trading
at 341.30. Given an initial margin requirement of $10,000 per contract, our trader decides to short 10 contracts of the December S&P
500 index on August 25, 1987, at 341.30. On October 19, 1987, in
the wake of Black Monday, our trader covers his short positions at
201.30 for a profit of $70,000 per contract, or $700,000 on 10 contracts! This story has a wonderful ending, illustrating the power of
leverage.
Now assume that our trader was correct in his assessment of an overvalued stock market but was slightly off on timing his entry. Specifically,
let us assume that the S&P 500 index rallied 21 points to 362.30, crashing subsequently as anticipated. The unexpected rally would result in
an unrealized loss of $10,500 per contract or $105,000 over 10 contracts. Given the twin features of daily adjustment of equity and the
need to sustain the account at the maintenance margin level of $5,000
per contract, our trader would receive a margin call to replenish his account back to the initial level of $100,000. Assuming he cannot meet
his margin call, he is forced out of his short position for a loss of
$105,000, which exceeds the initial balance in his account. He ruefully watches the collapse of the S&P index as a ruined, helpless bystander! Leverage can be hurtful: in the extreme case, it can precipitate
ruin.
THE RISK OF RUIN
13
risk of ruin is a function of the following:

1.
2.
The probability of success

The payoff ratio, or the ratio of the average trade win to the
average trade loss
3. The fraction of capital exposed to trading
Whereas the probability of success and the payoff ratio are trading
system-dependent, the fraction of capital exposed is determined by
money management considerations.
Let us illustrate the concept of risk of ruin with the help of a simple
example. Assume that we have $1 available for trading and that this
entire amount is risked to trading. Further, let us assume that the average
win, $1, equals the average loss, leading to a payoff ratio of 1. Finally,
let us assume that past trading results indicate that we have 3 winners
for every 5 trades, or a probability of success of 0.60. If the first trade
is a loser, we end up losing our entire stake of $1 and cannot trade any
more. Therefore, the probability of ruin at the end of the first trade is
2/5, or 0.40.
If the first trade were to result in a win, we would move to the next
trade with an increased capital of $2. It is impossible to be ruined at the
end of the second trade, given that the loss per trade is constrained to $1.
We would now have to lose the next two consecutive trades in order to
be ruined by the end of the third trade. The probability of this occurring
is the product of the probability of winning on the first trade times the
probability of losing on each of the next two trades. This works out to
be 0.096 (0.60 x 0.40 x 0.40).
Therefore, the risk of ruin on or before the end of three trades may
be expressed as the sum of the following:
1.
2.
The probability of ruin at the end of the first trade

The probability of ruin at the end of the third trade
The overall probability of these two possible routes to ruin by the end
of the third trade works out to be 0.496, arrived at as follows:
THE RISK OF RUIN
A trader is said to be ruined if his equity is depleted to the point where
he is no longer able to trade. The risk of ruin is a probability estimate
ranging between 0 and 1. A probability estimate of 0 suggests that ruin
is impossible, whereas an estimate of 1 implies that ruin is ensured. The
0.40 + 0.096 = 0.496

Extending this logic a little further, there are two possible routes to
ruin by the end of the fifth trade. First, if the first two trades are wins, the
next three trades would have to be losers to ensure ruin. Alternatively,
a more circuitous route to ruin would involve winning the first trade.
14
losing the second, winning the third, and finally losing the fourth and
the fifth. The two routes are mutually exclusive, in that the occurrence
of one precludes the other.
The probability of ruin by the end of five trades may therefore be
computed as the sum of the following probabilities:
1. Ruin at the end of the first trade
2. Ruin at the end of the third trade, namely one win followed by
two consecutive losses
3. One of two possible routes to ruin at the end of the fifth trade,
namely (a) two wins followed by three consecutive losses, or
(b) one win followed by a loss, a win, and finally two successive
losses
Therefore, the probability of ruin by the end of the fifth trade works out
to be 0.54208, arrived at as follows:
0.40 + 0.096 + 2 x (0.02304) = 0.54208
Notice how the probability of ruin increases as the trading horizon

expands. However, the probability is increasing at a decreasing rate, suggesting a leveling off in the risk of ruin as the number of trades increases.
In mathematical computations, the number of trades, ~1, is assumed
to be very large so as to ensure an accurate estimate of the risk of ruin.
Since the calculations get to be more tedious as y1 increases, it would
be desirable to work with a formula that calculates the risk of ruin for a
given probability of success. In its most elementary form, the formula for
computing risk of ruin makes two simplifying assumptions: (a) the payoff ratio is 1, and (b) the entire capital in the account is risked to trading.
Under these assumptions, William Feller states that a gamblers risk
of ruin, R, is
R = (4/PY - w Plk
WPP - 1
where the gambler has k units of capital and his or her opponent has
(a - k) units of capital. The probability of success is given by p, and the
complementary probability of failure is given by q , where q = (I - p).
As applied to futures trading, we can assume that the probability of
winning, p, exceeds the probability of losing, q, leading to a fraction
1 William Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications,
Volume 1 (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1950).
THE RISK OF RUIN
15
that is smaller than 1. Moreover, we can assume that the traders

opponent is the market as a whole, and that the overall market capitalization, a, is a very large number as compared to k. For practical
purposes, therefore, the term (q/ p) tends to zero, and the probability
of ruin is reduced to (q / P)~.
Notice that the risk of ruin in the above formula is a function of (a) the
probability of success and (b) the number of units of capital available
for trading. The greater the probability of success, the lower the risk
of ruin. Similarly, the lower the fraction of capital that is exposed to
trading, the smaller the risk of ruin for a given probability of success.
For example, when the probability of success is 0.50 and an amount
of $1 is risked out of an available $10, implying an exposure of 10
percent at any time, the risk of ruin for a payoff ratio of 1 works out
to be (o.50/o.50)0, or 1. Therefore, ruin is ensured with a system
that has a 0.50 probability of success and promises a payoff ratio of 1.
When the probability of success increases marginally to 0.55, with the
same payoff ratio and exposure fraction, the probability of ruin drops
dramatically to (0.45/0.55) or 0.134! Therefore, it certainly does
pay to invest in improving the odds of success for any given trading
system.
When the average win does not equal the average loss, the risk-of-ruin
calculations become more complicated. When the payoff ratio is 2, the
risk of ruin can be reduced to a precise formula, as shown by Norman
T. J. Bailey.2
Should the probability of losing equal or exceed twice the probability
of winning, that is, if q 2 2p, the risk of ruin, R, is certain or 1.
Stated differently, if the probability of winning is less than one-half the
probability of losing and the payoff ratio is 2, the risk of ruin is certain
or 1. For example, if the probability of winning is less than or equal to
0.33, the risk of ruin is 1 for a payoff ratio of 2.
If the probability of losing is less than twice the probability of winning, that is, if q < 2p, the risk of ruin, R, for a payoff ratio equal to
2 is defined as
(q/p)
R = [(0.25+;)DI-0.5)k
2 Norman T. J. Bailey, The Elements of Stochastic Processes with ApplicaYork: John Wiley & Sons, 1964).
tions to the Natural Sciences (New
16
where
= probability of loss
= probability of winning
k = number of units of equal dollar amounts of capital avail-
able for trading

The proportion of capital risked to trading is a function of the number
of units of available trading capital. If the entire equity in the account,
k, were to be risked to trading, then the exposure would be 100 percent.
However, if k is 2 units, of which 1 is risked, the exposure is 50 percent.
In general, if 1 unit of capital is risked out of an available k units in
the account, (100/k) percent is the percentage of capital at risk. The
smaller the percentage of capital at risk, the smaller is the risk of ruin
for a given probability of success and payoff ratio.
Using the above equation for a payoff ratio of 2, when the probability
of winning is 0.60, and there are 2 units of capital, leading to a 50
percent exposure, the risk of ruin, R, is 0.209. With the same probability
of success and payoff ratio, an increase in the number of total capital
units to 5 (a reduction in the exposure level from 50 percent to 20
percent) leads to a reduction in the risk of ruin from 0.209 to 0.020!
This highlights the importance of the fraction of capital exposed to
trading in controlling the risk of ruin.
When the payoff ration exceeds 2, that is, when the average win is
greater than twice the average loss, the differential equations associated
with the risk of ruin calculations do not lend themselves to a precise or
closed-form solution. Due to this mathematical difficulty, the next best
alternative is to simulate the probability of ruin.
SIMULATING THE RISK OF RUIN
In this section, we simulate the risk of ruin as a function of three inputs:
(a) the probability of success,p, (b) the percentage of capital, k, risked
to active trading, given by (lOO/ k) percent, and (c) the payoff ratio. For
the purposes of the simulation, the probability of success ranges from
0.05 to 0.90 in increments of 0.05. Similarly, the payoff ratio ranges
from 1 to 10 in increments of 1.
The simulation is based on the premise that a trader risks an amount
of $1 in each round of trading. This represents (lOO/ k) percent of his
17
initial capital of $k. For the simulation, the initial capital, k, ranges
between $1, $2, $3, $4, $5 and $10, leading to risk exposure levels of
lOO%, 50%, 33%, 25%, 20%, and lo%, respectively,
The logic of the Simulation Process
A fraction between 0 and 1 is selected at random by a random number

generator. If the fraction lies between 0 and (1 - p), the trade is said to
result in a loss of $1. Alternatively, if the fraction is greater than (1 - p)
but less than 1, the trade is said to result in a win of $W, which is added
to the capital at the beginning of that round.
Trading continues in a given round until such time as either (a) the
entire capital accumulated in that round of trading is lost or (b) the initial
capital increases 100 times to lOOk, at which stage the risk of ruin is
presumed to be negligible.
Exiting a trade for either reason marks the end of that round. The
process is repeated 100,000 times, so as to arrive at the most likely
estimate of the risk of ruin for a given set of parameters. To simplify
the simulation analysis, we assume that there is no withdrawal of profits
from the account. The risk of ruin is defined by the fraction of times a
trader loses the entire trading capital over the course of 100,000 trials.
The Turbo Pascal program to simulate the risk of ruin is outlined in
Appendix A. Appendix B gives a BASIC program for the same problem.
Both programs are designed to run on a personal computer.
The Simulation Results and Their Significance
The results of the simulation are presented in Table 2.1. As expected,

the risk of ruin is (a) directly related to the proportion of capital allocated
to trading and (b) inversely related to the probability of success and the
size of the payoff ratio. The risk of ruin is 1 for a payoff ratio of 2,
regardless of capital exposure, up to a probability of success of 0.30.
This supports Baileys assertion that for a payoff ratio of 2, the risk of
ruin is 1 as long as the probability of losing is twice as great as the
probability of winning.
The risk of ruin drops as the probability of success increases, the
magnitude of the drop depending on the fraction of capital at risk. The
risk of ruin rapidly falls to zero when only 10 percent of available capital is exposed. Table 2.1 shows that for a probability of success of 0.35, a
18
TABLE
Probability pf Ruin Tables
2.1
Table 2.1
19
continued
Available Capital = $1; Capital Risked = $1 or 100%
Available Capital = $3; Capital Risked = $1 or 33.33%
Probability of
Probability of
Success
Success
0.05
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.10
0.15
0.20
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.25
0.30
0.35
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.951
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.990
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.887
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
1.000
1.000
0.989
0.819
0.825
0.714
0.618
0.534
0.881
0.778
0.691
0.615
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.667
0.537
0.430
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
Payoff Ratio
5
6
10
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.979
0.886
0.804
0.736
0.671
1.000
0.946
0.860
0.998
0.923
0.844
0.991
0.905
0.832
0.978
0.894
0.822
0.794
0.713
0.999
0.926
0.834
0.756
0.687
0.788
0.720
0.663
0.775
0.715
0.659
0.766
0.708
0.655
0.761
0.705
0.653
0.647
0.579
0.621
0.565
0.611
0.558
0.541
0.478
0.518
0.463
0.508
0.453
0.505
0.453
0.609
0.554
0.504
0.453
0.602
0.551
0.499
0.453
0.601
0.551
0.499
0.453
0.599
0.550
0.498
0.453
0.457
0.388
0.322
0.419
0.363
0.406
0.356
0.300
0.402
0.349
0.300
0.402
0.349
0.300
0.335
0.251
0.266
0.205
0.252
0.201
0.252
0.198
0.252
0.198
0.400
0.349
0.300
0.249
0.400
0.349
0.300
0.249
0.400
0.347
0.300
0.249
0.175
0.110
0.153
0.101
0.252
0.201
0.151
0.101
0.402
0.349
0.300
0.250
0.151
0.101
0.150
0.101
0.150
0.101
0.198
0.150
0.101
0.198
0.150
0.100
0.198
0.150
0.100
0.198
0.150
0.100
0.306
Payoff
2
10
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.991
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.699
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.796
0.581
1.000
1.000
0.951
0.692
0.518
1.000
1.000
0.852
0.635
0.485
1.000
1.000
0.782
0.599
0.467
1.000
0.990
0.744
0.576
0.455
1.000
0.942
0.714
0.560
0.441
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.862
0.559
0.680
0.474
0.332
0.501
0.365
0.269
0.428
0.324
0.243
0.395
0.303
0.232
0.374
0.292
0.226
0.367
0.284
0.220
0.357
0.281
0.219
0.352
0.278
0.219
0.45
0.50
0.55
1.000
0.990
0.551
.0.364
0.236
0.151
0.230 0.195 0.179

0.161 0.139 0.133
0.110 0.100 0.096
0.173
0.127
0.092
0.171
0.127
0.092
0.168
0.126
0.092
0.168
0.126
0.092
0.168
0.126
0.092
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.297
0.155
0.079
0.095
0.058
0.035
0.072
0.047
0.029
0.068
0.044
0.028
0.064
0.044
0.028
0.064
0.042
0.028
0.064
0.042
0.027
0.063
0.042
0.027
0.063
0.042
0.027
0.063
0.042
0.025
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.037
0.016
0.006
0.001
0.019
0.008
0.004
0.001
0.017
0.008
0.004
0.001
0.016
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.016
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.016
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.016
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.016
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.016
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.016
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
Probability of
Success
Probability of
Success
0.05
1.000
0.10
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.991
0.773
0.606
0.789
0.631
0.511
0.479
0.378
0.295
0.416
0.337
0.269
0.229
0.174
0.130
0.212
0.166
0.125
0.093
0.064
0.042
0.023
0.010
0.090
0.063
0.040
0.023
0.010
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.672
0.443
0.289
0.185
0.112
0.063
0.032
0.012
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.906
0.678
0.506
0.382
0.289
0.208
0.151
0.106
0.071
0.044
0.023
0.010
Payoff Ratio
5
6
10
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.966
1.000
1.000
0.897
1.000
1.000
0.850
1.000
0.990
0.819
1.000
0.962
0.798
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.858
0.695
0.572
0.781
0.645
0.541
0.737
0.615
0.523
0.714
0.601
0.511
0.689
0.590
0.503
0.680
0.581
0.500
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.470
0.392
0.321
0.451
0.377
0.312
0.440
0.368
0.306
0.433
0.366
0.305
0.428
0.363
0.304
0.426
0.363
0.302
0.260
0.208
0.161
0.125
0.253
0.205
0.161
0.125
0.251
0.203
0.161
0.123
0.251
0.203
0.161
0.123
0.251
0.203
0.161
0.122
0.251
0.203
0.159
0.122
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.090
0.063
0.040
0.023
0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.088

0.063 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.063
0.040 0.040 0.040 0.039 0.039
0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.022
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
Ratio
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
Payoff
Ratio
10
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.991
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.620
1.000
1.000
0.736
0.487
1.000
0.936
0.612
0.422
1.000
0.805
0.546
0.383
1.000
0.727
0.503
0.358
0.990
0.673
0.477
0.346
0.926
0.638
0.459
0.337
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.820
0.458
0.259
0.599
0.366
0.229
0.142
0.399
0.264
0.174
0.111
0.327
0.222
0.152
0.102
0.290
0.201
0.142
0.097
0.271
0.194
0.135
0.094
0.260
0.187
0.133
0.092
0.254
0.185
0.132
0.092
0.250
0.180
0.130
0.092
0.990
0.447
0.195
0.147
0.082
0.043
0.086
0.052
0.030
0.072
0.045
0.027
0.067
0.044
0.027
0.064
0.043
0.025
0.063
0.042
0.025
0.063
0.042
0.025
0.062
0.041
0.025
0.062
0.041
0.025
0.083
0.036
0.013
0.023
0.011
0.005
0.016
0.009
0.004
0.016
0.008
0.004
0.015
0.008
0.004
0.015
0.008
0.004
0.015
0.008
0.004
0.015
0.008
0.004
0.015
0.008
0.004
0.015
0.008
0.004
0.004
0.001
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
o.oc2
0.001
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.001
0,001
0.000
20
Table 2.1
continued

Prohabilitv of
Success
1
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.30
0.35
0.40
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.45
0.50
0.55
1.000
0.990
0.368
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.130
0.046
0.015
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.004
0.001
0.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.779
0.376
0.183
0.090
0.044
0.020
0.008
0.004
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.989
0.526
0.287
0.159
0.087
0.047
0.025
0.013
0.006
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.554
0.317
0.187
0.113
0.065
0.038
0.021
0.011
0.005
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
Payoff Ratio
5
6
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.683
1.000
0.921
0.543
0.402
0.247
0.153
0.336
0.213
0.138
0.094
0.058
0.034
0.088
0.053
0.033
0.019
0.010
0.020
0.010
0.005
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.005
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
0.763
0.471
0.300
0.197
0.128
10
1.000
1.000
0.990
1.000
0.908
0.573
1.000
0.668
0.425
0.279
0.185
0.123
0.083
0.053
0.033
0.083
0.051
0.033
0.019
0.010
0.005
0.019
0.010
0.005
0.003
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.611
0.398
0.267
0.179
0.378
0.257
0.176
0.121
0.079
0.050
0.119
0.079
0.050
0.032
0.019
0.010
0.031
0.018
0.010
0.005
0.005
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
CONCLUSION
payoff ratio of 2, and a capital exposure level of 10 percent, the risk of

ruin is 0.608. The risk of ruin drops to 0.033 when the probability of
success increases marginally to 0.45.
Working with estimates of the probability of success and the payoff
ratio, the trader can use the simulation results in one of two ways. First,
the trader can assess the risk of ruin for a given exposure level. Assume
that the probability of success is 0.60 and the payoff ratio is 2. Assume
further that the trader wishes to risk 50 percent of capital to open trades at
any given time. Table 2.1 shows that the associated risk of ruin is 0.208.
Second, he or she can use the table to determine the exposure level
that will translate into a prespecified risk of ruin. Continuing with our
earlier example, assume our trader is not comfortable with a risk-of-ruin
estimate of 0.208. Assume instead that he or she is comfortable with
a risk of ruin equal to one-half that estimate, or 0.104. Working with
the same probability of success and payoff ratio as before, Table 2.1
suggests that the trader should risk only 33.33 percent of his capital
instead of the contemplated 50. This would give our trader a more
acceptable risk-of-ruin estimate of 0.095.
0.000

Probability of
Success
n_.-n5
1.000
0.10
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
CONCLUSION
Payoff Ratio
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.132
0.017
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.608
0.143
0.033
0.008
0.002
0.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.990
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.467
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.579
1.000
1.000
0.990
0.277
0.082
0.025
0.102
0.036
0.013
0.004
0.008
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.990
0.303
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.162
0.060
0.023
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
0.849
0.297
0.113
0.045
0.018
0.008
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.220
0.090
0.039
0.016
0.007
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
0.449
0.178
0.078
0.034
0.015
0.007
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.371
0.159
0.069
0.033
0.014
0.006
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
10
1.000
0.822
0.325
0.144
0.067
0.031
0.014
0.006
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Losses are endemic to futures trading, and there is no reason to get

despondent over them. It would be more appropriate to recognize the
reasons behind the loss, with a view to preventing its recurrence. Is the
loss due to any lapse on the part of the trader, or is it due to market
conditions not particularly suited to his or her trading system or style of
trading?
A lapse on the part of the trader may be due to inaction or incorrect
action. If this is true, it is imperative that the trader understand exactly
the nature of the error committed and take steps not to repeat it. Inaction
or lack of action may result from (a) the behavior of the market, (b) the
nature of the instrument traded, or (c) lack of discipline or inadequate
homework on the part of the trader. Incorrect action may consist of
(a) premature or delayer entry into a trade or (b) premature or delayed
exit out of a trade. The magnitude of loss as a result of incorrect action
depends upon the traders exposure. A trader must ensure that losses do
not overwhelm him to the extent that he cannot trade any further.
22
Ruin is defined as the inability to trade as a result of losses wiping

out available capital. One obvious determinant of the risk of ruin is the
probability of trading success: the higher the probability of success, the
lower the risk of ruin. Similarly, the higher the ratio of the average dollar
win to the average dollar loss-known as the payoff ratio- the lower
the risk of ruin. Both these factors are trading system-dependent.
Yet another crucial component influencing the risk of ruin is the proportion of capital risked to trading. This is a money management consideration. If a trader risks everything he or she has to a single trade,
and the trade does not materialize as expected, there is a high probability of being ruined. Alternatively, if the amount risked on a bad trade
represents only a small proportion of a traders capital, therisk of ruin
is mitigated.
All three factors interact to determine the risk of ruin. Table 2.1 gives
the risk of ruin for a given probability of success, payoff ratio, and
exposure fraction. Assume that the trader is aware of the probability of
trading success and the payoff ratio for the trades he has effected. If
the trader wishes to fix the risk of ruin at a certain level, he or she can
estimate the proportion of capital to be risked to trading at any given
time. This procedure allows the trader to control his or her risk of ruin.
3
Estimating Risk and Reward
This chapter describes the estimation of reward and permissible risk on

a trade, which gives the trader an idea of the potential payoffs associated
with that trade. Technical trading is based on an analysis of historical
price, volume, and open interest information. Signals could be generated
either by (a) a visual examination of chart patterns or (b) a system of
rules that essentially mechanizes the trading process. In this chapter
we restrict ourselves to a discussion of the visual approach to signal
generation.
THE IMPORTANCE OF DEFINING RISK

Regardless of the technique adopted, the practice of predefining the
maximum permissible risk on a trade is important, since it helps the
trader think through a series of important related questions:
1.
2.
3.
How significant is the risk in relation to available capital?

Does the potential reward justify the risk?
In the context of questions 1 and 2 and of other trading opportunities available concurrently, what proportion of capital, if any,
should be risked to the commodity in question?
ESTIMATING RISK AND REWARD
24
THE IMPORTANCE OF ESTIMATING REWARD

Reward estimates are particularly useful in capital allocation decisions,
when they are synthesized with margin requirements and permissible risk
to determine the overall desirability of a trade. The higher the estimated
reward for a given margin investment, the higher the potential return on
investment. Similarly, the higher the estimated reward for a permissible
dollar risk, the higher the reward/risk ratio.
ESTIMATING RISK AND REWARD ON COMMONLY

OBSERVED PATTERNS
Mechanical systems are generally trend-following in nature, reacting to
shifts in the underlying trend instead of trying to predict where the market is headed. Therefore, they do not lend themselves easily to reward
estimation. Accordingly, in this chapter we shall restrict ourselves to a
chart-based approach to risk and reward estimation. The patterns outlined
by Edwards and Magee form the basis for our discussion. The measuring
objectives and risk estimates for each pattern are based on the authors
premise that the market goes right on repeating the same old movements
in much the same old routine.2 While the measuring objectives are
good guides and have solid historical foundations to back them, they are
by no means infallible. The actual reward may under- or overshoot the
expected target.
With this qualifier, we begin an analysis of the most commonly observed reversal and continuation (or consolidation) patterns, illustrating
how risk and reward can be estimated in each case. First, we will cover
four major reversal patterns:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Head-and-shoulders formation
Double or triple tops and bottoms
Saucers or rounded tops and bottoms
V-formations, spikes, and island tops and bottoms
1 Robert D. Edwards and John Magee, Technical Analysis of Stock Trends,

5th ed. (Boston: John Magee Inc., 1981).
2 Edwards and Magee, Technical Analysis p. 1.
HEAD-AND-SHOULDERS
FORMATION
25
Next, we will focus on the three most commonly observed continuation

or consolidation patterns:
1.
Symmetrical and right-angle triangles

2. Wedges
3. Flags
HEAD-AND-SHOULDERS FORMATION
Perhaps the most reliable of all reversal patterns, this formation can occur either as a head-and-shoulders top, signifying a market top, or as
an inverted head-and-shoulders, signifying a market bottom. We shall
concentrate on a head-and-shoulders top formation, with the understanding that the principles regarding risk and reward estimation are equally
applicable to a head-and-shoulders bottom.
A theoretical head-and-shoulders top formation is described in Figure
3.1. The first clue of weakness in the uptrend is provided by prices reversing
at 1 from their previous highs to form a left shoulder. A second rally at 2
causes prices to surpass their earlier highs established at 1, forming a head
at 3. Ideally, the volume on the second rally to the head should be lower
than the volume on the first rally to the left shoulder. A reaction from this
rally takes prices lower, to a level near 2, but in any event to a level below
the top of the left shoulder at 1. This is denoted by 4.
A third rally ensues, on decidedly lower volume than that accompanying the preceding two rallies, which helped form the left shoulder
and the head. This rally fails to reach the height of the head before yet
another pullback occurs, setting off a right shoulder formation. If the
third rally takes prices above the head at 3, we have what is known as
a broadening top formation rather than a head-and-shoulders reversal.
Therefore, a chartist ought not to assume that a head-and-shoulders formation is in place simply because he observes what appears to be a left
shoulder and a head. This is particularly important, since broadening
top formations do not typically obey the same measuring objectives as
do head-and-shoulders reversals.
Minimum
Measuring
Objective
If the third rally fizzles out before reaching the head, and if prices
on the third pullback close below an imaginary line connecting points
26
HEAD-AND-SHOULDERS FORMATION
27
objective has been met. Accordingly, at this point the trader might
want to lighten the position if he or she is trading multiple contracts.
Head
Estimated Risk
The trend line connecting the head and the right shoulder is called a
fail-safe line. Depending on the shape of the formation, either the
neckline or the fail-safe line could be farther from the entry point. A
protective stop-loss order should be placed just beyond the farther of
the two trendlines, allowing for a minor retracement of prices without
getting needlessly stopped out.
Two Examples of Head-and-Shoulders Formations
Minimum
measuring
objective
Figure 3.1
Theoretical head-and-shoulders pattern.
2 and 4, known as the neckline, on heavy volume and increasing open

interest, a head-and-shoulders top is in place. If prices close below the
neckline, they can be expected to fall from the point of penetration by a
distance equal to that from the head to the neckline. This is a minimum
measuring objective.
While it is possible that prices might continue to head downward, it is
equally likely that a pullback might occur once the minimum measuring
Figure 3.2~ gives an example of a head-and-shoulders bottom formation

in July 1991 silver. Here we, have a downward-sloping neckline, with
the distance from the head to the neckline approximately equal to 60
cents. Measured from a breakout at 418 cents, this gives a minimum
measuring objective of 478 cents. The fail-safe line (termed fail-safe
line 1 in Figure 3.2~) connecting the bottom of the head and the right
shoulder (right shoulder 1) recommends a sell-stop at 399 cents. At the
breakout of 418 cents, we have the possibility of earning 60 cents while
assuming a 19-cent risk. This yields a reward/risk ratio of 3.16. The
breakout does occur on April 18, but the trader is promptly stopped out
the same day on a slump to 398 cents.
After the sharp plunge on April 18, prices stabilize around 390 cents,
forming yet another right shoulder (right shoulder 2) between April 19
and May 6. Extending the earlier neckline, we have a new breakout point
of 412 cents. The new fail-safe line (termed fail-safe line 2 in Figure
3.2~) recommends setting a sell-stop of 397 cents. At the breakout of 412
cents, we now have the possibility of earning 60 cents while assuming a
U-cent risk, for a reward/risk ratio of 4.00. In subsequent action, July
silver rallies to 464 cents on July 7, almost meeting the target of the
head-and-shoulders bottom.
In Figure 3.2b, we have an example, in the September 1991 S&P
500 Index futures, of a possible head-and-shoulders top formation that
did not unfold as expected. The head was formed on April 17 at 396.20,
500
450
400
350
300
10000
Dee 90
Jan 91
Feb
Mar
Jun
Jul
Aug
(4
Figure 3.2a
Head-and-shoulders formations: (a) bottom in July 1991 silver.
100
375
350
325
300
10000
Dee 90
Jan 91
Feb
Mar
May
Jun
Jul
Au<
(4
Figure 3.2b
Index.
Head-and-shoulders formations:
(b) possible top in September 1991 S&P 500
30
with a possible left shoulder formed at 387.75 on April 4 and the right
shoulder formed on May 9 at 387.80. The head-and-shoulders top was
set off on May 14 on a close below the neckline. However, prices broke
through the fail-safe line connecting the head and the right shoulder on
May 28, stopping out the short trade and negating the hypothesis of a
head-and-shoulders top.
DOUBLE TOPS AND BOTTOMS
A double top is formed by a pair of peaks at approximately the same
price level. Further, prices must close below the low established between
the two tops before a double top formation is activated. The retreat
from the first peak to the valley is marked by light volume. Volume
picks up on the ascent to the second peak but falls short of the volume
accompanying the earlier ascent. Finally, we see a pickup in volume as
prices decline for a second time. A double bottom is simply a double top
turned upside down, with the foregoing rules, appropriately modified,
equally applicable.
As a rule, a double top formation is an indication of bearishness, especially if the right half of the double top is lower than the left half. Similarly, a double bottom formation is bullish, particularly if the right half
of the double bottom is higher than the left half. The market unsuccessfully attempted to test the previous peak (trough), signalling bearishness
(bullishness).
Minimum Measuring Objective
In the case of a double top, it is reasonable to expect that the decline

will continue at least as far below the imaginary support line connecting
the two tops as the distance from the higher of the twin peaks to the
support line. Therefore, the greater the distance from peak to valley,
the greater the potential for the impending reversal. Similarly, in the
case of a double bottom, it is safe to assume that the upswing will
continue at least as far up from the imaginary resistance line connecting
the two bottoms as the height from the lower of the double bottoms
to the resistance line. Once this minimum objective has been met, the
trader might want to set a tight protective stop to lock in a significant
portion of the unrealized profits.
DOUBLE TOPS AND BOTTOMS
31
Estimated Risk
The imaginary line drawn as a tangent to the valley connecting two tops
serves as a reliable support level. Similarly, the tangent to the peak connecting two bottoms serves as a reliable resistance level. Accordingly, a
trader might want to set a stop-loss order just above the support level,
in case of a double top, or just below the resistance level, in case of
a double bottom. The goal is to avoid falling victim to minor retracements, while at the same time guarding against unanticipated shifts in
the underlying trend.
If the closing price of the day that sets off the double top or bottom
formation substantially overshoots the hypothetical support or resistance
level, the potential reward on the trade might barely exceed the estimated
risk. In such a situation, a trader might want to wait for a pullback before
initiating the trade, in order to attain a better reward/risk ratio.
Two Examples of a Double Top Formation
Consider the December 1990 soybean oil chart in Figure 3.3. We have
a top at 25.46 cents formed on July 2, with yet another top formed
on August 23 at 25.55. The valley high on July 23 was 23.39 cents,
representing a distance of 2.16 cents from the peak of 25.55 on August
23. This distance of 2.16 cents measured from the valley high of 23.39
cents, represents the minimum measuring objective of 21.23 cents for
the double top. The double top is set off on a close below 23.39 cents.
This is accomplished on October 1 at 22.99. The buy stop for the trade
is set at 23.51, just above the high on that day, for a risk of 0.52 cents.
The difference between the entry price, 22.99 cents, and the target
price, 21.23 cents, gives a reward estimate of 1.76 cents for an associated risk of 0.52 cents. A reward/risk ratio of 3.38 suggests that this is
a highly desirable trade. After the minimum reward target was met on
November 6, prices continued to drift lower to 19.78 cents on November
20, giving the trader a bonus of 1.45 cents.
Although the comments for each pattern discussed here are illustrated
with the help of daily price charts, they are equally applicable to weekly
charts. Consider, for example, the weekly Standard & Poors 500 (S&P
500) Index futures presented in Figure 3.4. We observe a double top
formation between August 10 and October 5, 1987, labeled A and B
in the figure. Notice that the left half of the double top, A, is higher than
I
I
hJ
19.5
10000
1,111
May 90
Jun
Figure 3.3
Jul
Au9
Sep
Ott
Nov
0
Dee
24
21
7
Jan 91
Double top formation in December 1990 soybean oil.
375
325
275
225
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J
88
89
90
87
Figure 3.4
Double top and triple bottom formation in weekly S&P 500 Index futures.
34
the right half, B. The failure to test the high of 339.45, achieved by
A on August 24, 1987, is the first clue that the market has lost upside
momentum. A bearish close for the week of October 5, just below the
valley connecting the twin peaks, confirms the double top formation.
The minimum measuring objective is given by the distance from peak
A to valley, approximately 20 index points. Measured from the entry
price of 312.20 on October 5, we have a reward target of 292.20. This
objective was surpassed during the week of October 12, when the index
closed at 282.25. Accordingly, the buy stop could be lowered to 292.20,
locking in the minimum anticipated reward. The meltdown that ensued
on October 19, Black Monday, was a major, albeit unexpected, bonus!
Triple Tops and Bottoms
A triple top or bottom works along the same lines as a double top or
bottom, the only difference being that we have three tops or bottoms
instead of two. The three highs or lows need not be equally spaced, nor
are there any specific guidelines as regards the time that ought to elapse
between them. Volume is typically lower on the second rally or dip and
even lower on the third. Triple tops are particularly powerful as indicators
of impending bearishness if each successive top is lower than the preceding top. Similarly, triple bottoms are powerful indicators of impending
bullishness if each successive bottom is higher than the preceding one.
In Figure 3.4, we see a classic triple bottom formation developing in
the weekly S&P 500 Index futures between May and November 1988,
marked C, D, and E. Notice how E is higher than D, and D higher than C,
suggesting strength in the stock market. This is substantiated by the speed
with which the market rallied from 280 to 360 index points, once the triple
bottom was established at E and resistance was surmounted at 280.
SAUCERS AND ROUNDED TOPS AND BOTTOMS
A saucer top or bottom is formed when prices seem to be stuck in a

very narrow trading range over an extended period of time. Volume
should gradually ebb to an extreme low at the peak of a saucer top or
at the trough of a saucer bottom if the pattern is to be trusted. As the
market seems to lack direction, a prudent trader would do well to stand
V-FORMATIONS,
SPIKES,
AND
ISLAND
REVERSALS
35
aside. As soon as a breakout occurs, the trader might want to enter a

position. Saucers are not too commonly observed. Moreover, they are
difficult to trade, because they develop at an agonizingly slow pace over
an extended period of time.
Minimum Measuring Objective and Permissible Risk
There are no precise measuring objectives for saucer tops and bottoms.
However, clues may be found in the size of the previous trend and in the
magnitude of retracement from previous support and resistance levels.
The length of time over which the saucer develops is also important.
Typically, the longer it takes to complete the rounding process, the more
significant the subsequent move is likely to be. The risk for the trade
is evaluated by measuring the distance between the entry price and the
stop-loss price, set just below (above) the saucer bottom (top).
An Example of a Saucer Bottom
Consider the October 1991 sugar futures chart in Figure 3.5. We have a
saucer bottom developing between the beginning of April and the first
week of June 1991, as prices hover around 7.50 cents. The breakout
past 8.00 cents finally occurs in mid-June, at which time a long position
could be established with a sell stop just below the life of contract lows
at 7.45 cents. After two months of lethargic action, a rally finally ignited
in early July, with prices testing 9.50 cents.
V-FORMATIONS,
SPIKES,
AND
ISLAND
REVERSALS
As the name suggests, a V-formation represents a quick turnaround

in the trend from bearish to bullish, just as an inverted V-formation
signals a sharp reversal in the trend from bullish to bearish. As Figure
3.6 illustrates, a V-formation could be sharply defined a; a spike, as in
Figure 3.6a, or as an island reversal, as in Figure 3.6b. Alternatively,
the formation may not be so sharply defined, taking time to develop
over a number of trading sessions, as in Figure 3.6~.
The chief prerequisite for a V-formation is that the trend preceding
it is very steep with few corrections along the way. The turn is characterized by a reversal day, a key reversal day, or an island reversal day
on very heavy volume, as the V-formation causes prices to break through
L-..
I-7
V-FORMATIONS,
3F
SPIKES,
AND
ISLAND
REVERSALS
37
,>
,r
Theoretical V-formations and island reversals: (a) spike

Figure 3.6
formation; (b) island reversal; (c) gradual V-formation.
a steep trendline. A reversal day downward is defined as a day when

prices reach new highs, only to settle lower than the previous day. Similarly, a reversal day upward is one where prices touch new lows, only
to settle higher than the previous day. A key reversal day is one where
prices establish new life-of-contract highs (lows), only to settle lower
(or higher) than the previous day.
An island reversal, as is evident from Figure 3.6b, is so called because
it is flanked by two gaps: an exhaustion gap to its left and a breakaway
gap to its right. A gap occurs when there is no overlap in prices from
one trading session to the next.
The measuring objective for V-formations may be defined by reference

to the previous trend. At a minimum, a V-formation should retrace
anywhere between 38 percent and 62 percent of the move preceding
the formation, with 50 percent commonly used as a minimum reward
target. Once the minimum target is accomplished, it is quite likely
that a congestion pattern will develop as traders begin to realize their
profits.
38
Estimated Risk
In the case of a spike or a gradual V-formation, a reasonable place to

set a protective stop would be just below the V-formation, for the start
of an uptrend, or just above the inverted V-formation, for the start of a
downtrend. The logic is that once a peak or trough defined by a V-formation
is violated, the pattern no longer serves as a valid reversal signal.
In the case of an island reversal, a reasonable place to set a stop would
be just above the low of the island day, in the case of an anticipated
downtrend, or just below the high of the island day, in the case of an
anticipated uptrend. The rationale is that once prices close the breakaway
gap that created the island formation, the pattern is no longer a legitimate
island and the trader must look for reversal clues afresh.
Examples of V-formations, Spikes, and Island Reversals
Figure 3.7 gives an example of V-formations in the March 1990 Treasury bond futures contract. A reasonable buy stop would be at 101
for a sell signal triggered by the inverted V-formation in July 1989,
labeled A. Similarly, a reasonable sell stop would be just below 95
for the buy signal generated by the gradual V-formation, labeled B.
In both cases, the reversal signals given by the V-formations are accurate.
However, if we continue further with the March 1990 Treasury bond
chart, we come across another case of a bearish spike at C. A trader
who decided to short Treasury bonds at 99-28 on December 15 with
a protective buy stop at 100-07 would be stopped out the next day as
the market touched 100-10. So much for the infallibility of spike days
as reversal patterns! We have yet another bearish spike developing on
December 20, denoted by D in the figure. Our trader might want to take
yet another stab at shorting Treasury bonds at 100-05 with a buy stop at
100-21. The risk is 16 ticks or $500 a contract-a risk well assumed,
as future events would demonstrate.
In Figure 3.8, we have two examples of an island reversal in July
1990 platinum futures. In November 1989, we have an island top. A
short position could be initiated on November 27 at $547.1, with a
protective stop just above $550.0, the low of the island top. This is
denoted by point A in the figure. In January 1990, we have an island
bottom, denoted by point B. A trader might want to buy platinum futures
b.
SYMMETRICAL AND RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLES
3
6
t
!
41
the following day at $499.9, with a stop just below $489.0, the high of
the island reversal day. Notice that the island bottom is formed over a
two-day period, disproving the notion that islands must necessarily be
formed over a single trading session.
SYMMETRICAL AND RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLES
A symmetrical triangle is formed by a series of price reversals, each
of which is smaller than its predecessor. For a legitimate symmetrical triangle formation, we need to observe four reversals of the minor trend: two at the top and two at the bottom. Each minor top is
lower than the top formed by the preceding rally, and each minor bottom is higher than the preceding bottom. Consequently, we have a
downward-sloping trendline connecting the minor tops and an upwardsloping trendline connecting the minor bottoms. The two lines intersect at the apex of the triangle. Owing to its shape, this pattern is
also referred to as a coil. Decreasing volume characterizes the formation of a triangle, as if to affirm that the market is not clear about its
future course.
Normally, a triangle represents a continuation pattern. In exceptional
circumstances, it could represent a reversal pattern. While a continuation
breakout in the direction of the existing trend is most likely, a reversal
against the trend is possible. Consequently, avoid outguessing the market by initiating a trade in the direction of the trend until price action
confirms a continuation of the trend by penetrating through the boundary
line encompassing the triangle. Ideally, such a penetration should occur
on heavy volume.
A right-angle triangle is formed when one of the boundary lines connecting the two minor peaks or valleys is flat or almost horizontal, while
the other line slants towards it. If the top of the triangle is horizontal
and the bottom converges upward to form an apex with the horizontal
top, we have an ascending right-angle triangle, suggesting bullishness in
the market. If the bottom is horizontal and the top of the triangle slants
down to meet it at the apex, the triangle is a descending right-angle
triangle, suggesting bearishness in the market.
Right-angle triangles are similar to symmetrical triangles but are simpler to trade, in that they do not keep the trader guessing about their
intentions as do symmetrical triangles. Prices can be expected to ascend
42
out of an ascending right-angle triangle, just as they can be expected to

descend out of a descending right-angle triangle.
The distance prices may be expected to move once a breakout occurs

from a triangle is a function of the size of the triangle pattern. For a
symmetrical triangle, the maximum vertical distance between the two
converging boundary lines represents the distance prices should move
once they break out of the triangle.
The farther out prices drift into the apex of the triangle without bursting through the boundaries, the less powerful the triangle formation. The
minimum measuring objective just stated will ensue with the highest
probability if prices break out decisively at a point before three-quarters
of the horizontal distance from the left-hand corner of the triangle to the
apex.
The same measuring rule is applicable in the case of a right-angle
triangle. However, an alternative method of arriving at measuring objectives is possible, and perhaps more convenient, in the case of rightangle triangles. Assuming we have an ascending right-angle triangle,
draw a line sloping upward parallel to the bottom boundary from the top
of the first rally that initiated the pattern. This line slopes upward to the
right, forming an upward-sloping parallelogram. At a minimum, prices
may be expected to climb until they reach the uppermost corner of the
parallelogram.
In the case of a descending right-angle triangle, draw a line parallel to the top boundary from the bottom of the first dip. This line
slopes downward to the right, forming a downward-sloping parallelogram. Prices may be expected to drop until they reach the lowermost
corner of the parallelogram.
Estimated Risk
A logical place to set a protective stop-loss order would be just above the
apex of the triangle for a breakout on the downside. Conversely, for a
breakout on the upside, a protective stop-loss order may be set just below
the apex of the triangle. The dollar value of the difference between the
entry price and the stop price represents the permissible risk per contract.
W E D G E S
43
An Example of a Triangle Formation
In Figure 3.8, we have an example of a symmetrical and a right-angle

triangle formation in the July 1990 platinum futures, marked C and
D, respectively. In both cases, the breakout is to the downside, and in
both cases the minimum measuring objective is attained and surpassed.
permissible risk per contract.
WEDGES
A wedge is yet another continuation pattern in which price fluctuations

are confined within a pair of converging lines. What distinguishes a
wedge from a triangle is that both boundary lines of a wedge slope up
or down together, without being strictly parallel. In the case of a triangle,
it may be recalled that if one boundary line were upward-sloping, the
other would necessarily be flat or downward-sloping.
In the case of a rising wedge, both boundary lines slope upward
from left to right, but for the two lines to converge the lower line must
necessarily be steeper than the upper line. In the case of a falling wedge,
the two boundary lines slant downward from left to right, but the upper
boundary line is steeper than the lower line.
A wedge normally takes between two and four weeks to form, during
which time volume is gradually diminishing. Typically, a rising wedge is
a bearish sign, particularly if it develops in a falling market. Conversely,
a falling wedge is bullish, particularly if it develops in a rising market.
Once prices break out of a wedge, the expectation is that, at a minimum,

they will retrace the distance to the point that initiated the wedge. In
a falling wedge, the up move may be expected to take prices back
to at least the uppermost point in the wedge. Similarly, in a rising
wedge, the down move may be expected to take out the low point that
first started the wedge formation. Care must be taken to ensure that a
breakout from a wedge occurs on heavy volume. This is particularly
important in the case of a price breakout on the upside out of a falling
wedge.
44
Estimated Risk
In the case of a rising wedge, a logical place to set a stop would be

just above the highest point scaled prior to the downside breakout. The
rationale is that if prices take out this high point, then the breakout is not
genuine. Similarly, in the case of a falling wedge, a logical place to set
a stop would be just below the lowest point touched prior to the upside
breakout. Once again, if prices take out this point, then the wedge is
negated.
An Example of a Wedge
Figure 3.9 gives an example of a rising wedge in a falling September

1991 British pound futures market. The wedge was set off on May 17
when the pound settled at $1.68 16. On this date, the pound could have
been short-sold with a buy stop just above the high point of the wedge,
namely $1.7270, for a risk of $0.0454 per pound. The objective of this
move is a retracement to the low of $1.6346 established on April 29.
Accordingly, the estimated reward is $0.0470 per pound, representing
the difference between the entry price of $1.68 16 and the target price
of $1.6346. Given a permissible risk of $0.0454 per pound, we have a
reward/risk ratio of 1.03.
Notice that the pound did not perform according to script over the next
seven trading sessions, coming close to stopping out the trader on May
28, when it touched $1.7230. However, on May 29, the pound resumed
its journey downwards, meeting and surpassing the objective of the rising
wedge. A trader who had the courage to live through the trying period
immediately following the short sale would have been amply rewarded,
as the pound went on to make a new low at $1.5896 on June 18.
FLAGS
A flag is a consolidation action whose chart, during an uptrend, has the
shape of a flag: a compact parallelogram of price fluctuations, either
horizontal or sloping against the trend during the course of an almost
vertical move. In a downtrend, the formation is turned upside down.
It is almost as though prices are taking a break before resuming their
45
46
journey. Whereas the flag formation is characterized by low volume, the

breakout from the flag is characterized by high volume. Seldom does
a flag formation last more than five trading sessions; the trend resumes
thereafter.
In order to define the magnitude of the expected move, we need to

measure the length of the flagpole immediately preceding the flag
formation. To do this, we must first go back to the beginning of the
immediately preceding move, be it a breakout from a previous consolidation or a reversal pattern. Having measured the distance from this
breakout to the point at which the flag started to form, we then measure the same distance from the point at which prices penetrate the flag,
moving in the direction of the breakout. This represents the minimum
measuring objective for the flag formation.
Estimated Risk
In the case of a flag in a bull market, a logical place to set a protective

stop-loss order would be just below the lowest point of the flag formation. If prices were to retrace to this point, then we have a case of a
false breakout. Similarly, in the case of a flag in a bear market, a logical
place to set a protective stop-loss order would be just above the highest
point of the flag formation. The risk for the trade is measured by the
dollar value of the difference between the entry and stop-loss prices.
An Example of a Flag Formation
In Figure 3.10, we have two examples of bear flags in the September

1991 wheat futures chart, denoted by A and B. Each of the flags represents a low-risk opportunity to short the market or to add to existing
short positions. As is evident, each of the flags was a reliable indicator
of the subsequent move, meeting the minimum measuring objective.
REWARD ESTIMATION IN
OF MEASURING RULES
THE
ABSENCE
Determining the maximum permissible risk on a trade is relatively

straightforward, inasmuch as chart patterns have a way of signaling
47
48
the most reasonable place to set a stop-loss order. However, we do not

always enjoy the same facility in termsof estimating the likely reward
on a trade. This is especially true when a commodity is charting virgin
territory, making new contract highs or lows. In this case, there is no
prior support or resistance level to fall back on as a reference point.
Consider, for example, the February 1990 crude oil futures chart given
in Figure 3.11. Notice the resistance around $20 a barrel between October and December 1989. Once prices break through this resistance level
and make new contract highs, the trader is left with no means to estimate
where prices are headed, primarily because prices are not obeying the
dictates of any of the chart patterns discussed above.
One solution is to refer to a longer-term price chart, such as a weekly
chart, to study longer-term support or resistance levels. Sometimes even
longer-term charts are of little help, as prices touch record highs or record
lows. A case in point is cocoa, which in 1991 fell below a 15year low
of $1200 a metric ton, leaving a trader guessing as to how much farther
it would fall.
In such a situation, it would be worthwhile to analyze price action
in terms of waves and retracements thereof. This information, coupled
with Fibonacci ratios, could be used to estimate the magnitude of the
subsequent wave. For example, Fibonacci theory says that a 38 percent
retracement of an earlier move projects to a continuation wave 1.38
times the magnitude of the earlier move. Similarly, a 62 percent retracement of an earlier wave projects to a new wave 1.62 times the
original wave. Prechter3 provides a more detailed discussion on wave
theory.
8
8
N
Revising Risk Estimates
A risk estimate, once established, ought to be respected and never expanded. A trader who expanded the initial stop to accommodate adverse
price action would be under no pressure to pull out of a bad trade. This
could be a very costly lesson in how not to manage risk!
3 Robert Prechter, The Elliot Wave Principle, 5th ed. (Gainesville, GA: New
Classics Library, 1985).
rn
50
However, the rigidity of the initial risk estimates does not imply that
the initial stop-loss price ought never to be moved in response to favorable price movements. On the contrary, if prices move as anticipated, the
original stop-loss price should be moved in the direction of the move,
locking in all or a part of the unrealized profits. Let us illustrate this
with the help of a hypothetical example.
Assume for a moment that gold futures are trading at $400 an ounce.
A trader who is bullish on gold anticipates prices will test $415 an ounce
in the near future, with a possible correction to $395 on the way up.
She figures that she will be wrong if gold futures close below $395 an
ounce. Accordingly, she buys a contract of gold futures at $400 an ounce
with a sell stop at $395. The estimated reward and risk on this trade are
graphically displayed in Figure 3.12.
The estimated reward/risk ratio on the trade works out to be 3:l to
begin with. Assume that subsequent price action confirms the traders
expectations, with a rally to $410. If the earlier stop-loss price of $395
is left untouched, the payoff ratio now works out to be a lopsided 1:3!
This is displayed in the adjacent block in Figure 3.12.
Although the initial risk assessment was appropriate when gold was
trading at $400 an ounce, it needs updating based on the new price of
Target price 415
Target price 4 1 5
Current pIb 410
410-
...................
:::::::::::::::::::
...................
...................
...................
...................
...................
...................
...................
...................
_ :::::::::::::::::::
Entry price
405 -
405-
400 -
400 -
Stop price 395
Stop price
Estimated reward:
Estimated risk:
415-400 = 1 5
400-395=
5
Reward/ risk ratio:
3:l
Figure 3.12
$410. Regardless of the precise location of the new stop price, it should
be higher than the original stop price of $395, locking in a part of the
favorable price move. If the scenario of rising gold prices were not to
materialize, the trader should have no qualms about liquidating the trade
at the predefined stop-loss price of $395. She ought not to move the stop
downwards to, say, $390 simply to persist with the trade.
SYNTHESIZING RISK AND REWARD
The objective of estimating reward and risk is to synthesize these two
numbers into a ratio of expected reward per unit of risk assumed. The
ratio of estimated reward to the permissible loss on a trade is defined
as the reward/risk ratio. The higher this ratio, the more attractive the
opportunity, disregarding margin considerations.
A reward/risk ratio less than 1 implies that the expected reward is
lower than the expected risk, making the risk not worth assuming. Table
3.1 provides a checklist to help a trader assess the desirability of a
trade.
Table 3.1
Commodity/Contract
1
395
I
415-410=
410-395=
The dynamic nature of risk and reward.
5
15
1:3
51
SYNTHESIZING RISK AND REWARD
Risk and Reward Estimation Sheet

Current Price
.(a) Where is the market headed? What is the probable

price?
(b) Estimated reward:
if long: target price - current price
if short: current price - target price
2.(a) At what price must I pull out if the market does not go
in the anticipated direction?
(b) Permissible risk:
if long: current price - sell stop price
if short: buy stop price - current price
3. What is the reward/risk ratio for the trade?
Estimated reward/permissable
risk
52
CONCLUSION
Risk and reward estimates are two important ingredients of any trade. As
such, it would be shortsighted to neglect either or both of these estimates
before plunging into a trade. Risk and reward could be viewed as weights
resting on adjacent scales of the same weighing machine. If there is an
imbalance and the risk outweighs the reward, the trade is not worth
pursuing.
Obsession with the expected reward on a trade to the total exclusion
of the permissible risk stems from greed. More often than not this is a
road to disaster, as instant riches are more of an exception than the rule.
The key to success is to survive, to forge ahead slowly but surely, and
to look upon each trade as a small step in a long, at times frustrating,
journey.
4
Limiting Risk
through Diversification
In Chapter 2, we observed that reducing exposure, or the proportion of

capital risked to trading, was an effective means of reducing the risk
of ruin. This chapter stresses diversification as yet another tool for risk
reduction.
The concept of diversification is based on the premise that a traders
forecasting skills are fallible. Therefore, it is safer to bet on several dissimilar commodities simultaneously than to bet exclusively on a single
commodity. The underlying rationale is that a prudent trader is not interested in maximizing returns per se but in maximizing returns for a
given level of risk. This insightful fact was originally pointed out by
Harry Markowitz. t
The key to trading success is to survive rather than be overwhelmed by
the vicissitudes of the markets, even if this entails forgoing the chance of
striking it exceedingly rich in a hurry. In addition to providing for dips in
equity during the life of a trade, a trader also should be able to withstand
a string of losses across a series of successive bad trades. There might be
a temptation to shrug this away as a remote possibility. However, a trader
who equates a remote possibility with a zero probability is unprepared both
financially and emotionally to deal with this contingency should it arise.
Harry Markowitz, Portjblio Selection: Eficient Diversijication of Investmenus (New York: John Wiley, 1959).
53
LIMITING RISK THROUGH DIVERSIFICATION
54
When a trading system starts generating a series of bad signals, the

typical response is to abandon the system in favor of another system. In
the extreme case, the trader might want to give up on trading in general,
if the losses suffered have cut deeply into available trading capital. It
would be much wiser to recognize up front that the best trading systems
will generate losing trades from time to time and to provide accordingly
for the worst-case scenario. Here is where diversification can help.
Let us, for purposes of illustration, consider the hypothetical trading
results for a commodity over a one-year period, shown in Table 4.1.
Here we have a reasonably good trading system, given that the dollar
Table 4.1
Trade #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Results for a Commodity across 20 Trades

Change in Equity
Profit (+)/Loss (-)
Cum. Value of Losing Trades

-500
-800
-900
-500
-300
-100
1-200
+300
+1000
-600
-500
-300
-400
+200
+2000
-200
+500
-500
+1000
-700
+2500
+500
+800
-600
-1100
-1400
-1800
MEASURING THE RETURN ON A FUTURES TRADE
55
value of winning trades ($9000) more than twice outweighs the dollar
value of losing trades ($4100). The total number of profitable trades
exactly equals the total number of losing trades, leading to a 50 percent
probability of success. Nevertheless, there is no denying the fact that the
system does suffer from runs of bad trades, and the cumulative effect
of these runs is quite substantial. Unless the trader can withstand losses
of this magnitude, he is unlikely to survive long enough to reap profits
from the system.
A trader might convince himself that the string of losses will be
financed by profits already generated by the system. However, this could
turn out to be wishful thinking. There is no guarantee that the system
will get off to a good start, helping build the requisite profit cushion.
This is why it is essential to trade a diversified portfolio.
Assuming that a trader is simultaneously trading a group of unrelated
commodities, it is unlikely that all the commodities will go through
their lean spells at the same time. On the contrary, it is likely that the
losses incurred on one or more of the commodities traded will be offset
by profits earned concurrently on the other commodities. This, in a
nutshell, is the rationale behind diversification.
In order to understand the concept of diversification, we must understand the risk of trading commodities (a) individually and (b) jointly as
a portfolio. In Chapter 3, the risk on a trade was defined as the maximum dollar loss that a trader was willing to sustain on the trade. In this
chapter, we define statistical risk in terms of the volatility of returns on
futures trades. A logical starting point for the discussion on risk is a
clear understanding of how returns are calculated on futures trades.
-200
-500
-700
Summary of Results
#
W i n n i n g t r a d e s 10
10
Losing trades
$
9000
4100
Returns could be categorized as either (a) realized returns on completed

trades or (b) anticipated returns on trades to be initiated. Realized returns are also termed historical returns, just as anticipated returns are
commonly referred to as expected returns. In this section, we discuss
the derivation of both historical and expected returns.
Measuring Historical Returns
The historical or realized return on a futures trade is arrived at by summing the present value of all cash flows on a trade and dividing this sum
LIMITING
56
RISK
THROUGH
DIVERSIFICATION
by the initial margin investment. This ratio gives the return over the life
of the trade, also known as the holding period return.
Technically, the cash flows on a futures trade would have to be computed on a daily basis, since prices are marked to market each day, and
the difference, either positive or negative, is adjusted against the traders
account balance. If the equity on the trade falls below the maintenance
margin level, the trader is required to deposit additional monies to bring
the equity back to the initial margin level. This is known as a variation
margin call. If the trade registers an unrealized profit, the trader is free
to withdraw these profits or to use them for another trade.
However, in the interests of simplification, we assume that unrealized profits are inaccessible to the trader until the trade is liquidated.
Therefore, the pertinent cash flows are the following:
1. The initial margin investment
2. Variation margin calls, if any, during the life of the trade
3. The profit or loss realized on the trade, given by the difference
between the entry and liquidation prices
4. The release of initial and variation margins on trade liquidation
The initial margin represents a cash outflow on inception of the trade.
Whereas cash flows (3) and (4) arise on liquidation of the trade, cash
flow (2) can occur at any time during the life of the trade.
Since there is a mismatch in the timing of the various cash flows,
we need to discount all cash flows back to the trade initiation date.
Discounting future cash flows at a prespecified discount rate, i, gives the
present value of these cash flows. The discount rate, i, is the opportunity
cost of capital and is equal to the traders cost of borrowing less any
interest earned on idle funds in the account.
Care should be taken to align the rate, i, with the length of the trading
interval. If the trading interval is measured in days, then i should be
expressed as a rate per day. If the trading interval is measured in weeks,
then i should be expressed as a rate per week.
The rate of return, r, for a purchase or a long trade initiated at time
t and liquidated at time 1, with an intervening variation margin call at
time v, is calculated as follows:
-IM -
r=
VM
(Pl - Pr> + (ZM + VM)
(1 + i)- + (1 + i)l-r
iM
(1 + i)l-l
where
57
ZM = the initial margin requirement per contract

VM = the variation margin called upon at time v
Ft = the dollar equivalent of the entry price

PI = the dollar equivalent of the liquidation price
All cash flows are calculated on a per-contract basis. Using the foregoing
notation, the rate of return, r, for a short sale initiated at time t and
liquidated at time I is given as follows:
-IM -
r=
VII4
(1 + i)v-f
_ Ur - Pt> + UM + VW
(1 + i)lMf
(1 + i)ler
IM
For a profitable long trade, the liquidation price, Pl, would be greater
than the entry price, Pt. Conversely, for a profitable short trade, the
liquidation price, PI, would be lower than the entry price, Pt. Hence
we have a positive sign for the price difference term for a long trade
and a negative sign for the same term for a short trade. The variation
margin is a cash outflow, hence the negative sign up front. This money
reverts back to the trader along with the initial margin when the trade
is liquidated, representing a cash inflow.
The rate, Y, represents the holding period return for (I - t) days. When
this is multiplied by 365/(1 - t), we have an annualized return for the
trade. Therefore, the annualized rate of return, R, is
Rzzrx365
l-t
This facilitates comparison across trades of unequal duration.

Suppose a trader has bought a contract of the Deutsche mark at
$0.5500 on August 1. The initial margin is $2500. On August 5, she
is required to put up a further $1000 as variation margin as the mark
drifts lower to $0.5400. On August 15, she liquidates her long position at $0.5600, for a profit of 100 ticks or $1250. Assuming that the
annualized interest rate on Treasury bills is 6 percent, we have a daily
interest rate, i, of 0.0164 percent or 0.000164. Using this information,
the return, Y, and the annualized return, R, on the trade works out
1
to be
58
1250
1000
-2500 - (1.000164)s + (1.000164)15
Y=
2500
3500
+ (1.000164)5
= -2500 - 999.18 + 1246.93 + 3491.40

2500
= + 1239.15
2500
= 0.4957 or 49.57%
R = 49.57% x z
= 1206.10%
Measuring Expected Returns
The expected return on a trade is defined as the expected profit divided

by the initial margin investment required to initiate the trade. The expected profit represents the difference between the entry price and the
anticipated price on liquidation of the trade. Since there is no guarantee that a particular price forecast will prevail, it is customary to work
with a set of alternative price forecasts, assigning a probability weight
to each forecast. The weighted sum of the anticipated profits across all
price forecasts gives the expected profit on the trade.
The anticipated profit resulting from each price forecast, divided by
the required investment, gives the anticipated return on investment for
that price forecast. The overall expected return is the summation across
all outcomes of the product of (a) the anticipated return for each outcome and (b) the associated probability of occurrence of each outcome.
Assume that a trader is bullish on gold and is considering buying a
contract of gold futures at the current price of $385 an ounce. The trader
reckons that there is a 0.50 probability that prices will advance to $390
an ounce; a 0.20 probability of prices touching $395 an ounce; and a
0.30 probability that prices will fall to $380 an ounce. The margin for
a contract of gold is $2000 a contract. The expected return is calculated
in Table 4.2.
MEASURING RISK ON INDIVIDUAL COMMODITIES
Table
4.2
Expected Return on Long Gold Trade
Profit
Probability Price ($/contract) Return
0.30
0.50
0.20
59
380
390
395
-500
+500
+1000
Probability x
Return
-0.25
+0.25
+0.50
-0.075
+0.125
+0.100
Overall Expected Return =
+0.150
or 15%
MEASURING RISK ON INDIVIDUAL COMMODITIES
Statistical risk is measured in terms of the variability of either (a) historic

returns realized on completed trades or (b) expected returns on trades
to be initiated-the profit in respect of which is merely anticipated, not
realized. Whereas the risk on completed trades is measured in terms of
the volatility of historic returns, the projected risk on a trade not yet
initiated is measured in terms of the volatility of expected returns.
Measuring the Volatility of Historic Returns
The volatility or variance of historic returns is given by the sum of

the squared deviations of completed trade returns around the arithmetic
mean or average return, divided by the total number of trades in the
sample less 1. Therefore, the formula for the variance of historic returns
is
n
Returni - Mean retum)2
Z(
Variance of historic returns = =
n-1
where n is the number of trades in the sample period.
The historic return on a trade is calculated according to the foregoing
formula. The mean return is defined as the sum of the returns across
all trades over the sample period, divided by the number of trades, n,
considered in the sample.
The greater the volatility of returns about the mean or average return,
the riskier the trade, as a trader can never be quite sure of the ultimate
60
outcome. The lower the volatility of returns, the smaller the dispersion
of returns around the arithmetic mean or average return, reducing the
degree of risk.
To illustrate the concept of risk, Table 4.3 gives details of the historic
returns earned on 10 completed trades for two commodities, gold (X)
and silver (Y).
Whereas the average return for gold is slightly higher than that for
silver, there is a much greater dispersion around the mean return in case
of gold, leading to a much higher level of variance. Therefore, investing
in gold is riskier than investing in silver.
The period over which historical volatility is to be calculated depends
upon the number of trades generated by a given trading system. As a
general rule, it would be desirable to work with at least 30 returns. The
length of the sample period needs to be adjusted accordingly.
Measuring the Volatility of Expected Returns
This measure of risk is used for calculating the dispersion of anticipated

returns on trades not yet initiated. The variance of expected returns is
defined as the summation across all possible outcomes of the product of
the following:
1.
2.
The squared deviations of individual anticipated returns around

the overall expected return
The probability of occurrence of each outcome
The formula for the variance of expected returns is therefore:

Variance of =
expected returns
Anticipated _
Overall
return
expected return
Continuing with our earlier example of the expected return on gold,

the variance of such expected returns may be calculated as shown in
Table 4.4.
The variance of expected returns works out to be 7.75%. Since assigning probabilities to forecasts of alternative price outcomes is difficult,
calculating the variance of expected returns can be cumbersome. In order to simplify computations, the variance of historic returns is often
used as a proxy for the variance of expected returns. The assumption
is that expected returns will follow a variance pattern identical to that
observed over a sample of historic returns.
LIMITING
62
Table 4.4
RISK
DIVERSIFICATION
Variance of Expected peturn on Long Gold Trade
Return Probability Return Expected Return

0.30
0.50
0.20
THROUGH
-0.25
+0.25
+0.50
-0.40
+0.10
+0.35
(Return Expected Return)2

x Probability
0.0480
0.0050
0.0245
Variance = 0.0775 or 7.75%
MEASURING RISK ACROSS COMMODITIES TRADED

JOINTLY: THE CONCEPT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN
COMMODITIES
The risk of trading two commodities jointly is given by the covariance
of their returns. As the name suggests, the covariance between two
variables measures their joint variability. Referring to the example of
gold and silver given in Table 4.3, we observe that an increase in the
return on gold is matched by an increase in the return on silver and
vice versa. This leads to a positive covariance term between these two
commodities.
The covariance between returns on gold and silver is measured as the
sum of the product of their joint excess returns over their mean returns
divided by the number of trades in the sample less 1. The formula for
the covariance between the historic returns on X and Y is given as
Covariance between the historic returns Xi and Yi on commodities
X and Y
n
Retum x, _ Mean return Retum y, _ Mean return

I
I
on Y
on X
I(
x(
i=l
n - l
where n is the number of trades in the sample period.

The formula for the covariance between the expected returns on X
and Y is similar to that for the covariance across historic returns. The
exception is that each of the i observations is assigned a weight equal
to its individual probability of occurrence, Pi. Therefore, the formula
MEASURING RISK ACROSS COMMODITIES TRADED JOINTLY
63
for the covariance between the expected returns on X and Y reads as

follows:
Covariance between the expected returns Xi and Yi on commodities
X and Y
n
Return
I(
i=l
x. - Exp
I
Return
Return
on X
Y.
1_
Exp
Return
on Y
tpi>
I(
If there are two commodities under review, there is one covariance
between the returns on them. If there are three commodities, X, Y,
and Z, under review, there are three covariances to contend with: one
between X and Y, the second between X and Z, and the third between Y
and Z. If there are four commodities under review, there are six distinct
covariances between the returns on them. In general, if there are K
commodities under review, there are [K(K - 1)]/2 distinct covariance
terms between the returns on them.
In the foregoing example, the covariance between the returns on gold
and silver works out to be 8680.55, suggesting a high degree of positive
correlation between the two commodities. The correlation coefficient
between two variables is calculated by dividing the covariance between
them by the product of their individual standard deviations. The standard
deviation of returns is the square root of the variance. The correlation
coefficient assumes a value between + 1 and - 1. In the above example
of gold and silver, the correlation works out to be +0.95, as shown as
follows:
Correlation betwen = Covariance between returns on gold and silver
gold and silver
(Std. dev. gold)(Std. dev. silver)
8680.55
= 123.52 x 73.67
= +0.95
?tvo commodities are said to exhibit perfect positive correlation if
a change in the return of one is accompanied by an equal and similar
change in the return of the other. Two commodities are said to exhibit
Perfect negative correlation if a change in the return of one is accompanied by an equal and opposite change in the return of the other. Finally,
6~0 commodities are said to exhibit zero correlation if the return of one
LIMITING
64
RISK
Perfect Positive
Correlation
THROUGH
DIVERSIFICATION
Perfect Negative
Correlation
Portfolio
ofX+Y
Figure 4.1
Positive and negative correlations.
is unaffected by a change in the others return. The concept of correlation

is graphically illustrated in Figure 4.1.
In actual practice, examples of perfectly positively or negatively correlated commodities are rarely found. Ideally, the degree of association
between two commodities is measured in terms of the correlation between their returns. For ease of exposition, however, it is assumed that
prices parallel returns and that correlations based on prices serve as a
good proxy for correlations based on returns.
WHY
DIVERSIFICATION
WORKS
risk or variability of such returns is much greater, given the higher

probability of error in forecasting the movement of a single commodity.
Given the lower variability of returns of a diversified portfolio, it makes
sense to trade a diversified portfolio, especially if the expected return in
trading a single commodity is no greater than the expected return from
trading a diversified portfolio.
We can illustrate this idea by means of a simple example involving two
perfectly negatively correlated commodities, X and Y. The distribution
of expected returns is given in Table 4.5. Consider an investor who
wishes to trade a futures contract of one or both of these commodities.
If he invests his entire capital in either X or Y, he has a 0.50 chance of
losing 50 percent and a 0.50 chance of making 100 percent. This results
in an expected return of 25 percent and a variance of 5625 for both X
and Y individually.
What will our investor earn, should he decide to split his investment
equally between both X and Y? The probability of earning any given
return jointly on X and Y is the product of the individual probabilities of
achieving this return. For example, the joint probability that the return
on both X and Y will be -50 percent is the product of the probabilities
of achieving this return separately for X and Y. This is the product of
0.50 for X and 0.50 for Y, or 0.25. Similarly, there is a 0.25 chance of
making + 100 percent on both X and Y simultaneously. Moreover, there
Table 4.5
Negatively
WHY DIVERSIFICATION WORKS

Diversification is worthwhile only if (a) the expected returns associated
with diversification are comparable to the expected returns associated
with the strategy of concentrating resources in one commodity and (b)
the total risk of investing in two or more commodities is less than the risk
associated with investing in any single commodity. Both these conditions
are best satisfied when there is perfect negative correlation between the
returns on two commodities. However, diversification will work even if
there is less than perfect negative correlation between two commodities.
The returns associated with the strategy of concentrating all resources
in a single commodity could be higher than the returns associated with
diversification, especially if prices unfold as anticipated. However, the
65
Expected Returns on Perfectly

Correlated Commodities
X
Return
Probability
.50
-25
W)
-50
+25
+100
Overall
Expected
Y
Prob. x
Return
(%)
50
+50
Return
Variance
of Exp. Returns
Return
Probabilitv
Prob. x
Return
W)
+100
.50
+50
25
-50
.50
-25
r%)
for X = 25%
for Y = 25%
for X = 5625
for Y = 5625
66
is a 0.25 chance that X will lose 50 percent and Y will earn 100 percent,
and another 0.25 chance that X will make 100 percent and Y will lose
50 percent. In both these cases, the expected return works out to be 25
percent, as
.50 x (-50%) + .50 x (+lOO%) = 25%
Therefore, the probability of earning 25 percent on the portfolio of X
and Y is the sum of the individual probabilities of the two mutually
exclusive alternatives resulting in this outcome, namely 0.25 + 0.25, or
0.50.
Using this information, we come up with the probability distribution
of returns for a portfolio which includes X and Y in equal proportions.
The results are outlined in Table 4.6. Notice that the expected return
of the portfolio of X and Y at 25 percent is the same as the expected
return on either X or Y separately. However, the variance of the portfolio at 2812.5 is one-half of the earlier variance. The creation of the
portfolio reduces the variability or dispersion of joint returns, primarily
by reducing the probability of large losses and large gains. Assuming
that our investor is risk-averse, he is happier as the variance of returns
is reduced for a given level of expected return.
In the foregoing example, we have shown how diversification can
help an investor when the returns on two commodities are perfectly
negatively correlated. In practice, it is difficult to find perfectly negatively correlated returns. However, as long as the return distributions on
two commodities are even mildly negatively correlated, the trader could
stand to gain from the risk reduction properties of diversification. For
Joint Returns on a
Table 4.6
Portfolio of 50% X and 50% Y
Return
(%I
-50
+25
+100
Probability
Probability x
Return
.25
.50
.25
Wo)
-12.5
+12.5
+25
25%
Overall Expected Return for the Portfolio =
Variance of the portfolio = 2812.5
SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS ACROSS COMMODITIES
67
example, a portfolio comprising a long position in each of the negatively

correlated crude oil and U.S. Treasury bonds is less risky than a long
position in two contracts of either crude oil or Treasury bonds.
AGGREGATION: THE FLIP SIDE TO DIVERSIFICATION
If a trader were to assume similar positions (either long or short) concurrently in two positively correlated commodities, the resulting portfolio
risk would outweigh the risk of trading each commodity separately.
Trading the same side of two or more positively correlated commodities concurrently is known as aggregation. Just as diversification helps
reduce portfolio risk, aggregation increases it. An example would help
to clarify this.
Given the high positive correlation between Deutsche marks and Swiss
francs, a portfolio comprising a long position in both the Deutsche mark
and the Swiss franc is more risky than investing in either the Deutsche
mark or the Swiss franc exclusively. If the traders forecast is proved
wrong, he or she will be wrong on both the mark and the franc, suffering
a loss on both long positions.
The first step to limiting the risk associated with concurrent exposure to positively correlated commodities is to categorize commodities
according to the degree of correlation between them. This is done in
Appendix C. Next, the trader must devise a set of rules which will prevent him or her from trading the same side of two or more positively
correlated commodities simultaneously.
CHECKING FOR SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS
ACROSS COMMODITIES
Appendix C gives information on price correlations between pairs of
24 commodities between July 1983 and June 1988. Correlations have
been worked out using the Dunn & Hargitt commodity futures prices
database. The correlations are arranged commodity by commodity in descending order, beginning with the highest number and working down
to the lowest number. For example, in the case of the S&P 500 stock
index futures, correlations begin with a high of 0.999 (with the NYSE
68
LIMITING
RISK
THROUGH
DIVERSIFICATION
index) and gradually work their way dqwn to a low of -0.862 (with
corn).
As a rule of thumb, it is recommended that all commodity pairs with
correlations that are (a) in excess of +0.80 or less than -0.80 and (b)
statistically significant be classified as highly correlated commodities.
Checking the Statistical Significance of Correlations
The most common test of significance checks whether a sample correlation coefficient could have come from a population with a correlation
coefficient of 0. The null hypothesis, Ho, posits that the correlation coefficient, C, is 0. The alternative hypothesis, Ht , says that the population
correlation coefficient is significantly different from 0. Since Hr simply
says that the correlation is significantly different from 0 without saying
anything about the direction of the correlation, we use a two-tailed test
of rejection of the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is tested as a
t-test with (n - 2) degrees of freedom, where y1 is the number of paired
observations in the sample. Ideally, we would like to see at least 32
paired observations in our sample to ensure validity of the results. The
value of t is defined as follows:
The value of t thus calculated is compared with the theoretical or

tabulated value of t at a prespecified level of significance, typically 1
percent or 5 percent. A 1 percent level of significance implies that the
theoretical t value encompasses 99 percent of the distribution under the
bell-shaped curve. The theoretical or tabulated t value at a 1 percent
level of significance for a two-tailed test with 250 degrees of freedom
is 52.58. Similarly, a 5 percent level of significance implies that the
theoretical t value encompasses 95 percent of the distribution under the
bell-shaped curve. The corresponding tabulated t value at a 5 percent
level of significance for a two-tailed test with 250 degrees of freedom
is k1.96.
If the calculated t value lies beyond the theoretical or tabulated value,
there is reason to believe that the correlation is nonzero. Therefore, if
the calculated t value exceeds +2.58 (+ 1.96), or falls below -2.58
(- 1.96), the null hypothesis of zero correlation is rejected at the 1
percent (5 percent) level. However, if the calculated value falls between
TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE OF CORRELATIONS
69
-t 2.58 (- 1.96), the null hypothesis of zero correlation cannot be

rejected at the 1 percent (5 percent) level.
Continuing with our gold-silver example, the correlation between the
two was found to be +0.95 across 10 sample returns. Is this statistically
significant at a 1 percent level of significance? Using the foregoing
formula,
t=
0.95
J(1 - 0.9025)/(10 - 2)
= 8.605
With eight degrees of freedom, the theoretical or table value of t at a

1 percent level of significance is 3.355. Since the calculated t value is
well in excess of 3.355, we can conclude that our sample correlation
between gold and silver is significantly different from zero.
In some cases the correlation numbers are meaningful and can be
justified. For example, any change in stock prices is likely to have
its impact felt equally on both the S&P 500 and the New York Stock
Exchange (NYSE) futures index. Similarly, the Deutsche mark and the
Swiss franc are likely to be evenly affected by any news influencing the
foreign exchange markets.
However, some of the correlations are not meaningful, and too much
weight should not be attached to them, notwithstanding the fact that
they have a correlation in excess of 0.80 and the correlation is statistically significant. If two seemingly unrelated commodities have been
trending in the same direction over any length of time, we would have
a case of positively correlated commodities. Similarly, if two unrelated
commodities have been trending in opposite directions for a long time,
we would have a case of negative correlation. This is where statistics
could be misleading. In the following section, we outline a procedure
to guard against spurious correlations.
A NONSTATISTICAL
CORRELATIONS
TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE
OF
A good way of judging whether a correlation is genuine or otherwise is

to rework the correlations over smaller subsample periods. For example,
the period 1983-1988 may be broken down into subperiods, such as
1983-84, 1985-86, and 1987-88, and correlations obtained for each of
these subperiods, to check for consistency of the results. Appendix C

presents correlations over each of the three subperiods.
If the numbers are fairly consistent over each of the subperiods, we
can conclude that the correlations are genuine. Alternatively, if the numbers differ substantially over time, we have reason to doubt the results.
This process is likely to filter away any chance relationships, because
there is little likelihood of a chance relationship persisting with a high
correlation score across time.
Table 4.7 illustrates this by first reporting all positive correlations
in excess of t-O.80 for the entire 1983-88 period and then reporting
the corresponding numbers for the 1983-84, 1985-86, and 1987-88
subperiods.
Table 4.7 reveals the tenuous nature of some of the correlations. For
example, the correlation between soybean oil and Kansas wheat is 0.876
between 1987 and 1988, whereas it is only 0.410 between 1983 and
1984. Similarly, the correlation between corn and crude oil ranges from
a low of -0.423 in 1987-88 to a high of 0.735 between 1983 and
1984. Perhaps more revealing is the correlation between the S&P 500
and the Japanese yen, ranging from a low of -0.644 to a high of 0.949!
Obviously it would not make sense to attach too much significance to
high positive or negative correlation numbers in any one period, unless
the strength of the correlations persists across time.
If the high correlations do not persist over time, these commodities
ought not to be thought of as being interrelated for purposes of diversification. Therefore, a trader should not have any qualms about buying
(or selling) corn and crude oil simultaneously. Only those commodities
that display a consistently high degree of positive correlation should be
treated as being alike and ought not to be bought (or sold) simultaneously.
MATRIX
Table 4.7
Positive Correlations in
Excess of 0.80 during 1983-88 Period
70
FOR
TRADING
RELATED
COMMODITIES
The matrix in Figure 4.2 summarizes graphically the impact of holding positions concurrently in two or more related commodities. If two
commodities are positively correlated and a trader were to hold similar
positions (either long or short) in each of them concurrently, the resulting
aggregation would result in the creation of a high-risk portfolio.
Correlation between commodities

Commodity pair
S&P 500/NYSE indices
D. Mark/Swiss Franc
T-Bonds/T-Notes
Eurodollar/F-Bills
D. Mark/Yen
Swiss Franc/Yen
Chgo. WheatlKans.
Wheat
T-Bills/T-Notes
Eurodollar/T-Notes
T-Bills/T-Bonds
Eurodollarfi-Bonds
British Pound/Swiss Franc
Corn/Kansas Wheat
British Pound/D. Mark
Corn/Soybean oil
Soybean oil/Kansas Wheat
S&P 500iYen
S&P 500/D. Mark
Gold/Swiss Franc
NYSE/Yen
British PoundNen
Gold/British Pound
NYSE/D. Mark
Corn/Chicago Wheat
Crude oil/Kansas Wheat
Gold/D. Mark
S&P 5OO/Swiss Franc
Soybean oil/Chicago Wheat
NYSE/T-Bonds
NYSElSwiss Franc
Corn/Soybeans
NYSE/T-Notes
S&P 500/T-Bonds
NYSE/T-Bills
Soybeans/SoymeaI
S&P 500/T-Notes
Corn/Crude oil
S&P 500/T-Bills
1983-88
0.999
0.998
0.996
0.989
0.983
0.981
0.964
0.955
0.953
0.942
0.937
0.901
0.891
0.889
0.886
0.868
0.864
0.857
0.855
0.855
0.854
0.853
0.846
0.844
0.843
0.841
0.840
0.837
0.832
0.828
0.826
0.825
0.818
0.816
0.811
0.811
0.808
0.804
1983-84
0.991
0.966
0.996
0.976
0.642
0.613
0.817
0.879
0.937
0.876
0.933
0.973
0.440
0.947
0.573
0.410
-0.363
-0.195
0.916
-0.350
0.479
0.943
-0.170
0.426
0.423
0.893
-0.045
0.420
0.748
-0.022
0.925
0.733
0.747
0.533
0.919
0.731
0.735
0.530
1985-86
1.000
0.997
0.993
0.995
0.981
0.983
0.954
0.953
0.946
0.928
0.919
0.809
0.825
0.800
0.871
0.804
0.949
0.933
0.879
0.945
0.779
0.565
0.928
0.769
0.818
0.875
0.922
0.727
0.976
0.917.
0.875
0.970
0.975
0.892
-0.443
0.971
0.645
0.894
1987-88
0.997
0.991
0.996
0.909
0.933
0.925
0.950
0.822
0.945
0.842
0.948
0.913
0.803
0.928
0.848
0.876
-0.644
-0.766
0.627
-0.676
0.974
0.596
-0.796
0.692
-0.671
0.561
-0.741
0.838
0.044
-0.776
0.912
0.061
-0.004
-0.257
0.886
0.010
-0.423
-0.286
72
PositiQns in X and Y
Similar
(long, long
or
short, short)
Opposing
(long, short
or
short, long)
high risk
low risk
low risk
high risk
Correlation
between
X and Y
Figure 4.2
Matrix for trading related commodities
Typically, a trend-following system would have us gravitate towards

the higher-risk strategies, given the strong correlation between certain commodities. For example, an uptrend in soybeans is likely to
be accompanied by an uptrend in soymeal and soybean oil. A trendfollowing system would recommend the simultaneous. purchase of soybeans, soymeal, and soybean oil. This simultaneous purchase ignores
the overall riskiness of the portfolio should some bearish news hit the
soybean market. It is here that the diversification skills of a trader are
tested. He or she must select the most promising commodity out of two
or more positively correlated commodities, ignoring all others in the
group.
SYNERGISTIC TRADING
Synergistic trading is the practice of assuming positions concurrently

in two or more positively or negatively correlated commodities in the
hope that a specified scenario will unfold. Often the positions are
held in direct violation of diversification theory. For example, the unfolding of a scenario might require that a trader assume similar positions
SPREAD TRADING
73
in two or more positively correlated commodities. Alternatively, opposing positions could be assumed in two or more negatively correlated
commodities. If the scenario were to materialize as anticipated, each of
the trades could result in a profit. However, if the scenario were not to
materialize, the domino effect could be devastating, underscoring the
inherent danger of this strategy.
For example, believing that lower inflation is likely to lead to lower
interest rates and lower silver prices, a trader might want to buy a contract of Eurodollar futures and sell a contract of silver futures. This
portfolio could result in profits on both positions if the scenario were
to materialize. However, if inflation were to pick up instead of abating,
leading to higher silver prices and lower Eurodollar prices, losses would
be incurred on both positions, because of the strong negative correlation
between silver and Eurodollars.
SPREAD TRADING
One way of reducing risk is to hold opposing positions in two positively correlated commodities. This is commonly termed spread trading.
The objective of spread trading is to profit from differences in the relative speeds of adjustment of two positively correlated commodities. For
example, a trader who is convinced of an impending upward move in
the currencies and who believes that the yen will move up faster than
the Deutsche mark, might want to buy one contract of the yen and simultaneously short-sell one contract of the Deutsche mark for the same
contract period.
In technical parlance, this is called an intercommodity spread. A
spread trade such as this helps to reduce risk inasmuch as it reduces
the impact of a forecast error. To continue our example, if our trader
is wrong about the strength of the yen relative to the mark, he or she
could incur a loss on the long yen position. However, assuming that
the mark falls, a portion of the loss on the yen will be cushioned by
the profits earned on the short Deutsche mark position. The net profit
or loss picture will be determined by the relative speeds of adjustment
of the yen against the Deutsche mark.
In the unlikely event that two positively correlated commodities were
to move in opposite directions, the trader could be left with a loss on
74
both legs of the spread. To continue with our example, if the yen were
to fall as the mark rallied, the trader would be left with a loss on both
the long yen and the short mark positions. In this exceptional case, a
spread trade could actually turn out to be riskier than an outright position
trade, negating the premise that spread trades are theoretically less risky
than outright positions. After all, it is this theoretical premise that is
responsible for lower margins on spread trades as compared to outright
position trades.
LIMITATIONS OF DIVERSIFICATION
Diversification can help to reduce the risk associated with trading, but
it cannot eliminate risk completely. Even if a trader were to increase the
number of commodities in the portfolio indefinitely, he or she would
still have to contend with some risk. This is illustrated graphically in
Figure 4.3.
Notice that the gains from diversification in terms of reduced portfolio
risk are very apparent as the number of commodities increases from 1 to
5. However, the gains quickly taper off, as portfolio risk can no longer
be diversified away. This is represented by the risk line becoming parallel
Portfolio
risk
10
20
40
60
80
100
Number of commodities
Figure 4.3
diversification.
Graph illustrating the benefits and limitations of
CONCLUSION
7.5
to the horizontal axis. There is a certain level of risk inherent in trading

commodities, and this minimum level of risk cannot be eliminated even
if the number of commodities were to be increased indefinitely.
CONCLUSION
Whereas volatility in the futures markets opens up opportunities for

enormous financial gains, it also adds to the dangers of trading. Traders
who tend to get carried away by the prospects of large gains sometimes
deliberately overlook the fact that leverage is a double-edged sword.
This leads to unhealthy trading habits.
Typically, diversification is one of the first casualties, as traders tend
to place all their eggs in one basket, hoping to maximize leverage for
their investment dollars. If there were such a thing as perfect foresight,
it would make sense to bet everything on a given trade. However, in
the absence of perfect foresight, concentrating all ones money on a
single trade or on the same side of two or more positively correlated
commodities could prove to be disastrous.
Diversification helps reduce risk, as measured by the variability of
overall trading returns. Ideally, this is accomplished by assuming similar positions across two unrelated or negatively correlated commodities.
Diversification could also be accomplished by assuming opposing positions in two positively correlated commodities, a practice known as
spread trading.
Finally, a trader might assume that the unfolding of a certain scenario
will affect related commodities in a certain fashion. Accordingly, he
or she would hold similar positions in two positively correlated commodities and opposing positions in two or more negatively correlated
commodities. This is known as synergistic trading. Synergistic trading
is a risky strategy, because nonrealization of the forecast scenario could
lead to losses on all positions.
THE COMMODITY SELECTION PROCESS
77
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE VERSUS INDEPENDENT

OPPORTUNITIES
5
Commodity Selection
The case for commodity selection is best presented by J. Welles Wilder,

Jr. Wilder observes that most technical systems are trend-following
systems; however, most commodities are in a good trending mode (high
directional movement) only about 30 percent of the time. If the trader
follows the same commodities or stocks all of the time, then his system
has to be good enough to make more money 30 percent of the time
than it will give back 70 percent of the time. Compare that approach
to trading only the top five or six commodities on the CSI [Commodity
Selection Index] scale. This is the underlying concept.. .*
Currently, there are over 50 futures contracts being traded on the exchanges in the United States. The premise behind the selection process
is that not all 50 contracts offer trading opportunities that are equally
attractive. The goal is to enable the trader to identify the most promising
opportunities, allowing him or her to concentrate on these trades instead
of chasing every opportunity that presents itself. By ranking commodities on a desirability scale, commodity selection creates a short list of
opportunities, thereby helping to allocate limited resources more effectively.
J. Welles Wilder, Jr., New Concepts in Technical Trading Systems (Greensboro, NC: Trend Research, 1978).
* Wilder, New Concepts, p. 115.
Opportunities across commodities can be categorized as being either

mutually exclusive or independent. Two opportunities are mutually exclusive if the selection of one precludes the selection of the other. Two
opportunities are said to be independent if the selection of one has no
impact on the selection of the other.
Accordingly, if two commodities are highly positively correlated, as,
for example, the Deutsche mark and the Swiss franc, a trader would want
to trade either the mark or the franc. Diversification theory dictates that
one should not hold identical positions in both currencies simultaneously. Hence, selection of one currency precludes selection of the other,
rendering an objective evaluation of both opportunities that much more
important. In the case of mutually exclusive commodities, the aim is to
trade the commodity that offers the greatest reward potential for a given
level of risk and investment.
In the case of independent opportunities, as, for example, gold and
corn, the trader is free to trade both simultaneously, provided they are
both short-listed on a desirability scale. However, if resources do not
permit trading both commodities concurrently, the trader would select
the commodity that ranks higher on his or her desirability scale.
Although selection is especially important when tracking two or more
commodities simultaneously, it can also be justified when only one commodity is traded. By comparing the potential of a trade against a prespecified benchmark or cutoff rate, a trader can decide whether he or
she wishes to pursue or forgo a given signal.
THE COMMODITY SELECTION PROCESS
Commodity selection is the process of evaluating alternative opportunities that may emerge at any given time. The objective is to rank each of
the opportunities in order of desirability. Of primary importance, therefore, is the creation of a yardstick that facilitates objective comparison of
competing opportunities across an attribute or attributes of desirability.
Having created the yardstick, the next step is to specify a benchmark
measure below which opportunities fail to qualify for consideration. The
78
COMMODITY
SELECTION
decision regarding a cutoff level is a subjective one, depending on the

traders attitudes towards risk and the funds available for trading. The
more risk-averse the trader, the more selective he or she is, and this
is reflected in a higher cutoff level. Similarly, the smaller the size of
the account, the more restricted the alternatives available to the trader,
leading to a higher cutoff level. In this chapter, we shall restrict ourselves
to a discussion of the construction of objective measures of assessing
trade desirability.
Typically, the desirability of a trade is measured in terms of (a) its
expected profitability, (b) the risk associated with earning those profits, and (c) the investment required to initiate the trade. The higher the
expected profit, the more desirable a trade. The lower the investment
required to initiate the trade, the higher the expected return on investment, and the greater its desirability. Finally, the lower the risk associated
with earning a projected return on investment, the more desirable the
trade.
A commodity selection yardstick is designed to synthesize all of these
attributes of desirability in order to arrive at an objective measure for
comparing opportunities. We now present four plausible approaches to
commodity selection:
1.
The Sharpe ratio approach, which measures the return on investment per unit risk
2. Wilders commodity selection index
3. The price movement index
4. The adjusted payoff ratio index
THE SHARPE RATIO

In a study of mutual fund performance, William Sharpe3 emphasized
that risk-adjusted returns, rather than returns per se, were a reliable measure of comparative performance. Accordingly, he studied the returns
on individual mutual funds in excess of the risk-free rate as a ratio of
the riskiness of such returns, measured by their standard deviation. This
3 William Sharpe, Mutual Fund Performance, Journal of Business (January 1966), pp. 119-138.
THE SHARPE RATIO
79
ratio has since come to be known as the Sharpe ratio. The Sharpe ratio
is computed as follows:
Sharpe ratio =
Return - Risk-free Interest Rate

Standard Deviation of Return
The higher the Sharpe ratio, the greater the excess return per unit of
risk, enhancing the desirability of the investment under review.
The Sharpe ratio may be defined in terms of the expected return on a
trade and the associated standard deviation. Alternatively, a trader who
is working with a mechanical system, which is incapable of estimating future returns, might want to use the average historic return as the
best estimator of the future expected return. In this case, the relevant
measure of risk is the standard deviation of historic returns. The formulas for calculating historic and expected trade returns and their standard
deviations are given in Chapter 4.
Care should be taken to annualize trade returns so as to facilitate
comparison across trades. This is accomplished by multiplying the raw
retumby a factor of 365/n, where n is the estimated or observed life
of the trade in question. Deducting the annualized risk-free interest rate
from the annualized trade return gives an estimate of the incremental or
excess return from futures trading. A negative excess return implies that
the trader would be better off not trading. The risk-free rate is given by
the prevailing interest rate on Treasury bills. This is the rate the trader
could have earned had he or she invested the capital in Treasury bills
rather than trading the market.
Assume that a trader is evaluating opportunities in crude oil, Deutsche
marks, and world sugar, with the expected trade returns, the risk-free
return, and standard deviation of expected returns as given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
Calculating
Shape Ratios across Three Commodities
Expected Risk-free
Return
Return
Commodity
Crude Oil
D. mark
Sugar
Excess
Returns
Standard Deviation
Sharpe
Ratio
(2)
(3)
(4)-V)-(3)
(5)
(6)=(4)/(5)
0.46
0.36
0.26
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.80
0.50
0.30
0.50
0.60
0.67
COMMODITY SELECTION
80
Notice that whereas the expected excess return on crude oil is the
highest at 0.40, the corresponding Sharpe ratio is the lowest at 0.50.

The converse is true for sugar. This is because the variability of returns
on crude oil is more than twice that for sugar, rendering crude oil a much
riskier proposition as compared to sugar. Since the Sharpe ratio measures
return per unit of risk rather than return per se, sugar outperforms crude
oil.
A benchmark Sharpe ratio could be set separately for each commodity,
based on past data for the commodity in question. Alternatively, an
overall benchmark Sharpe ratio could be set across all commodities.
Consequently, comparisons of the Sharpe ratio may be effected across
time for a given commodity, or across commodities at a given time.
WILDERS COMMODITY SELECTION INDEX
Wilders commodity selection index is particularly suited for use alongside conventional mechanical trading systems, which signal the beginning of a trend but are silent as regards the magnitude of the projected
move. Wilder analyzes price action in terms of its (a) directional movement and (b) volatility, observing that volatility is always accompanied
by movement, but movement is not always accompanied by volatility.4
The commodity selection index for a given commodity is based on
(a) Wilders average directional movement index rating, (b) volatility as
measured by the 14-day average true range, (c) the margin requirement
in dollars, and (d) the commission in dollars. The higher the average
directional movement index rating for a commodity and the greater its
volatility, the higher is its selection index value. Similarly, the lower the
margin required for a commodity, the higher the selection index value.
Let us begin with a discussion of Wilders average directional movement
index rating.
Directional Movement
Wilder defines directional movement (DM) as the largest portion of the

current days trading range that lies outside the preceding days range. In
4 Wilder, New Concepts, p. 11 I
WILDERS
COMMODITY SELECTION INDEX
81
the case of an up move today, this would represent positive directional

movement, representing the difference between todays high and yesterdays high. Conversely, for a move downwards, we would have negative
directional movement, representing the difference between todays low
and yesterdays low.
In the case of an outside range day, where the current days range
includes and surpasses yesterdays range, we have simultaneous occurrence of both positive and negative directional movement. Here, Wilder
defines the directional movement to be the greater of positive and negative movements. In the case of an inside day, where the range for
the current day is contained within the range for the preceding day, the
directional movement is assumed to be zero.
When prices are locked limit-up, the directional movement is positive
and represents the difference between the locked-limit price and yesterdays high. Similarly, when prices are locked limit-down, the directional
movement is negative, representing the difference between yesterdays
low and the locked-limit price. Negative directional movement is simply
a description of downward movement: it is not considered as a negative
number but rather an absolute value for calculation purposes.
The Directional Indicator
Next, Wilder divides the directional movement number for any given
day by the true range for that day to arrive at the directional indicator
(DI) for that day. The true range is a positive number and represents the
largest of (a) the difference between the current days high and low,
(b) the difference between todays high and yesterdays close, and
(c) the difference between yesterdays close and todays low.
Summing the positive directional movement over the past 14 days
and dividing by the true range over the same period, we arrive at a
positive directional indicator over the past 14 days. Similarly, summing
the absolute value of the negative directional movement over the past
14 days and dividing by the true range over the same period, we arrive
at a negative directional indicator over the past 14 days.
The Average Directional Movement index Rating
The
net directional movement is the difference between the 14-day posi
tive and negative directional indicators. This difference, when divided
COMMODITY
82
SELECTION
by the sum of the 14-day positive and negative directional indicators,

gives the directional movement index (DX).
Therefore,
+DIt4 - -DIt4
DX =
+DIt4 + -DIt4
The average directional movement index (ADX) is the 14-day average
of the directional movement index. The average directional movement
index rating (ADXR) is the average of the ADX value today and the
ADX value 14 days ago. Therefore,
ADXR =
ADX today + ADX 14 days ago
Mathematically, the commodity selection index (CSI) may be defined

as:
CSI = ADXR x ATR14 x
1
x 100
150 + c
where ADXR = average directional movement index rating

ATRId = 14-day average true range
v = dollar value of a unit move in ATR
JM= square root of the margin requirement in dollars
C = per-trade commission in dollars
An example will help clarify the formula. Assume once again that
a trader is evaluating opportunities in crude oil, Deutsche marks, and
sugar. Details of the average directional movement index rating (ADXR),
the 14-day average true range (ATR), the dollar value (V) of a unit move
in the average true range, and the margin investment (M) are given in
Table 5.2. Assume further that the commission for each of the three
commodities is $50.
Notice that the Deutsche mark has the highest index value, primarily
because of its high directional index movement rating and moderate
margin requirement. Crude oil, on the other hand, has a low directional
index movement rating and a high margin requirement, both of which
have an adverse impact upon its selection index. Sugar has a low margin
THE PRICE MOVEMENT INDEX

Calculating the Commodity
Selection Index across Commodities
Table 5.2
Commodity
Crude Oil
D . mark
Sugar
ADXR
ATR
CSI
40
80
60
1.50
75.00
0.50
$/ATR
1000
12.50
1120
5000
2500
1000
424.26
750.00
531.26
requirement but suffers from low volatility, moderating the value of its
selection index.
THE PRICE MOVEMENT INDEX
The price movement index is an adaptation of Wilders commodity selection index, designed to simplify the arithmetic of the calculations.
Whereas Wilders index segregates price movement according to its directional and volatility components, the price movement index does not
attempt such a breakdown. The price movement index is based on the
premise that once a price move has begun, it can be expected to continue
for some time to come. The greater the dollar value of a price move for
a given margin investment, the more appealing the trade.
As is the case with Wilders commodity selection index, the price
movement index is most useful when precise estimation of reward is
infeasible. This is particularly true of mechanical trading systems, which
signal precise entry points without giving a clue as to the potential
magnitude of the move.
As the name suggests, the price movement index measures the dollar
value of price movement for a commodity over a historical time period.
This number is divided by the initial margin investment required for
that commodity, multiplying the answer by 100 percent to express it as
a percentage. Mathematically, the price movement index for commodity
X may be defined as
Index for X = Dollar value of price move over y1 sessions x 1oo
Margin investment for commodity X
where n is a predefined number of trading sessions, expressed in days
or weeks, over which price movement is measured.
COMMODITY
84
SELECTION
Calculating the Price
Table 5.3
Movement Index Across Commodities
Commodity
Crude oil
D. mark
Sugar
$ Value
Price Move $ Value of Price
Move
( t i c k s )of 1 tick
250
150
60
10
12.5
11.2
Margin
Investment
Price Movement
Index W)
5000
2500
1000
50
75
67.2
2500
1875
672
Price movement represents the difference between the maximum and

minimum prices recorded by the commodity in question over the past
IZ trading sessions. If n were 14, calculate the difference between the
maximum (or highest high) and minimum (or lowest low) prices for the
commodity over the past 14 days.
For example, if the maximum price registered by the Deutsche mark
were $0.5800 and the minimum price were $0.5500, the difference
would be 300 ticks. Given that each tick in the Deutsche mark futures is worth $12.50, the dollar value of 300 ticks is $3750. Assuming
an initial margin investment of $2500, the price movement index works
out to be 150 percent. If this happens to fall short of the traders cutoff
level, he would not pursue the mark trade. Alternatively, if it surpasses
his cutoff level, he would be interested in trading the mark.
Assume once again that a trader is evaluating opportunities in crude
oil, Deutsche marks, and sugar, with the respective n-day historical price
movements and margin investments as given in Table 5.3.
If the trader did not wish to trade any commodity with a price movement index less than 60, he would ignore crude oil. Notice that the rankings given by Wilders commodity selection index match those given by
the price movement index. Although this is coincidental, it could be
argued that the similarity in the construction of the two indices could
account for a similarity in the two sets of rankings.
THE ADJUSTED PAYOFF RATIO INDEX
The payoff or reward/risk ratio is arrived at by dividing the potential dollar reward by the permissible dollar risk on a trade under consideration.
THE ADJUSTED PAYOFF RATIO INDEX
85
Therefore, if the potential reward on a trade is $1000 and the permissible

risk is $250, the payoff ratio is 4. The higher the payoff ratio, the more
promising the trade.
Notice that the payoff ratio says nothing about the investment required
for initiating a trade, thereby limiting its usefulness as a yardstick for
comparison. Given that investment requirements are dissimilar across
commodities, it would be necessary to factor such differences into the
payoff ratio.
One way of doing this is to divide the payoff ratio by the relative investment required for a given commodity. This is known as the adjusted
payoff ratio. Therefore, the adjusted payoff ratio for commodity X is
Adjusted payoff
Payoff ratio for X
ratio for X
= Relative investment for X
The relative investment for a given commodity is arrived at by dividing
the investment required for that commodity by the maximum investment
across all commodities:
Relative investment
Investment required for commodity X
for X
= Maximum investment across all commodities
Let us assume that the margin for a Standard & Poors 500 index futures contract, say $25,000, represents the maximum investment across
all commodities. If the investment required for a contract of gold futures is $1250, the relative investment in gold represents $1250/$25,000,
which is 0.05 or 5 percent of the maximum investment.
The relative investment ratio ranges between 0 and 1; the lower the
relative investment, the higher the adjusted payoff ratio. In turn, the
higher the adjusted payoff ratio, the more attractive the trade. For example, assuming the payoff ratio for the proposed gold trade is 3, the
adjusted payoff ratio works out to be 3/0.05 or 60. If, on the other hand,
the investment needed for a contract of gold were $20,000, the relative
investment would be $20,000/$25,000
or 0.80. In this case, the adjusted
Payoff ratio would work out to 3/O. 80 or 3.75, significantly lower than
the earlier adjusted payoff ratio of 60.
An example would help clarify the process. Assume that a trader is
evaluating opportunities in crude oil, Deutsche marks, and sugar with the
respective payoff ratios and investments as given in Table 5.4. Assume
further that the maximum investment across all commodities is $25,000.
Therefore, the relative investment for a given commodity is arrived
COMMODITY SELECTION
86
Calculating the Adjusted

Payoff Ratio across Commodities
Table 5.4
Commodity
Crude oil
D. mark
Payoff
ratio
Margin
Relative
Investment
Investment
Adjusted
Payoff ratio
5
3
2
5000
2500
1000
0.20
0.10
0.04
25
30
50
Sugar
at by dividing the investment required for the commodity by

$25,000.
Notice that the payoff ratio is the highest for crude oil, more than twice
as large the payoff ratio for sugar. However, the investment needed for
a contract of crude oil at $5000 is five times as large as the investment
of $1000 for sugar. Consequently, the adjusted payoff ratio for sugar
is higher than that for crude oil, implying that sugar is relatively more
attractive. If, as a matter of policy, trades with an adjusted payoff ratio
of less than 30 were disregarded, the crude oil trade would not qualify
for consideration.
CONCLUSION
The selection process is based on the premise that all trading opportunities are not equally desirable. Whereas some trades may justifiably
be forgone, others might present a compelling case for a greater than
average allocation. These decisions can only be made if the trader has
an objective yardstick for measuring the desirability of trades.
Four alternative approaches to commodity selection have been suggested. It is conceivable that the trade rankings could vary across different approaches. However, as long as the trader uses a particular approach
consistently to evaluate all opportunities, the differences in rankings are
largely academic.
The selection techniques outlined above allow the trader to sift through
a maze of opportunities, arriving at a short list of those trades that satisfy
his criteria of desirability. Now that the trader has a clear idea of the
commodities he wishes to trade, the next step is to allocate risk capital
across them. This is the subject matter of our discussion in Chapter 8.
6
Managing Unrealized Profits and
losses
The goal of risk management is conservation of capital. This implies

getting out of a trade without (a) giving up too much of the unrealized
profits earned or (b) incurring too much of an unrealized loss. The purpose
of this chapter is to define how much is too much. An unrealized profit
or loss arises during the life of a trade, reflecting the difference between
the current price and the entry price. As soon as the trade is liquidated,
the unrealized profit or loss is converted into a realized profit or loss.
An equity reduction or drawdown results from a reduction in the
unrealized profit or an increase in the unrealized loss on a trade. When
confronted with an equity drawdown on a trade in progress, a trader
must choose between two conflicting courses of action: (a) liquidating
the trade with a view to conserving capital or (b) continuing with it in
the hope of making good on the drawdown.
Liquidating a profitable trade at the slightest sign of a drawdown will
Prevent further evaporation of unrealized profits. However, by exiting the
trade, the trader is forgoing the opportunity to earn any additional profits
on the trade. Similarly, an unrealized loss might possibly be recouped
by continuing with the trade, instead of being converted into a realized
loss upon liquidation. However, if the trade continues to deteriorate, the
unrealized loss could multiply.
The aim is to be mindful of equity drawdowns while simultaneously
mmimizing the probability of erroneously short-circuiting a trade. Ob^-
88.
THE VISUAL APPROACH TO SETTING STOPS
MANAGING UNREALIZED PROFITS AND LOSSES
loss is relatively more painful. A stop-loss price closer to the entry

price minimizes the size of the loss, but there is a greater likelihood that
random price action will force a trader out of his position needlessly.
In this chapter, we discuss five approaches to setting stop-loss orders:
viously, a trader does not have the luxury of hindsight to help decide
whether an exit is timely or premature. While there are no cut-and-dried
formulas to resolve the problem, we will present a series of plausible
solutions. We begin by discussing the treatment of unrealized losses.
Subsequently, we focus on unrealized profits.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
DRAWING THE LINE ON UNREALIZED LOSSES
Consider the life cycles of two trades, represented by Figures 6. la and

6.lb. In Figure 6.la, the trade starts out with an unrealized loss, only
to recover and end on a profitable note. In Figure 6.1 b, the trade starts
out as a loser and never recovers.
The trader must decide upon an unrealized loss level beyond which
it is highly unlikely that a losing trade will turn around. This cutoff
price, or stop-loss price, defines the maximum permissible dollar risk
per contract. Setting a stop-loss order shows that a trader has thought
through the risk on a trade and made a determination of the price at which
he wishes to dissociate himself from the trade. Ideally, this determination
will be made before the trade is initiated, so as to avoid needless secondguessing when it comes time to act.
If the stop-loss price is too far from the entry price, it is less likely
that a trader will be forced out of his position when he would rather
continue with it. However, if his stop is hit, the magnitude of the dollar
A visual approach to setting stops

Volatility stops
Time stops
Dollar-value stops
Probability stops, based on an analysis of the unrealized loss
patterns on completed profitable trades
THE VISUAL APPROACH TO SETTING STOPS
One way of deciding on a stop-loss point for a trade is to be mindful of

clues offered by the commodity price chart in question. As discussed in
Chapter 3, a chart pattern that signals a reversal formation will also let
the trader know precisely when the pattern is no longer valid.
Another commonly used technique is to set a buy stop to liquidate a
short sale just above an area of price resistance. Similarly, a sell stop to
liquidate a long trade could be set below an area of price support. Prices
are said to encounter resistance if they cannot overcome a previous high.
By the same token, prices are said to find support if they have difficulty
falling below a previous low. Support or resistance is that much stronger
if prices fail to take out a previous high or low on repeated tries.
Consider, for example, the price chart for the British pound June 1990
futures contract given in Figure 6.2a. Notice the contract high of $1.6826
established on February 19. Subsequently, the pound retreated to a low
of $1.5700 in March, before staging a gradual recovery. On May 15, the
pound closed sharply lower, after making a higher high. Anticipating a
double top formation, a trader might be tempted to short the pound on
the close on May 15 at $1.6630, with a buy stop at $1.6830, just above
the high of February 19.
AS is evident from Figure 6.2b, our trader was stopped out on May 17
when the pound broke past the earlier high. The breakout on the upside
negated the double top hypothesis, proving once again that anticipating a
Pattern before it is set off can be expensive. Be that as it may, liquidating
the trade with a small loss saved the trader from a much bigger loss had
Time
(4
Figure 6.1
89
The profit life cycles of two potentially losing trades.

ii
92
he or she continued with the trade: the June futures rallied to $1.6996
on May 30!
Chart patterns offer a simple yet effective, tool for setting stop-loss
orders. However, the reader must be cautioned against placing a stoploss order exactly at or very close to the support or resistance point.
This is because support and resistance prices are quite apparent, and a
large number of stop-loss orders could possibly be set off at these levels.
Consequently, one might be needlessly stopped out of a good trade.
Critics of this approach discount it as being subjective and open to
the chartists interpretation. However, it is worth noting that speculation entails forecasting, and in principle all forecasting is subjective.
Subjectivity can hurt only when it creates a smoke screen around the
trader, making an objective assessment of market reality difficult. As
long as the trader has the discipline to abide by his stop-loss price, the
methodology used for setting stops is of little consequence.
VOLATILITY STOPS
The volatility stop acknowledges the fact that there is a great deal of
randomness in price behavior, notwithstanding the fact that the market
may be trending in a particular direction. Essentially, volatility stops
seek to distinguish between inconsequential or random fluctuations and
a fundamental shift in the trend. In this section, we discuss some of the
more commonly used techniques that seek to make this distinction.
Ideally, a trader would want to know the future volatility of a commodity so as to distinguish accurately between random and nonrandom price
movements. However, since it is impossible to know the future volatility, this number must be estimated. Historic volatility is often used as
an estimate of the future, especially when the future is not expected to
vary significantly from the past.
However, if significant changes in market conditions are anticipated,
the trader might be uncomfortable using historic volatility. One commonly used alternative is to derive the theoretical futures volatility from
the price currently quoted on an associated option, assuming that the
option is fairly valued. This estimate of volatility is also known as
the implied volatility, since it is the value implicit in the current option premium. In this section, we discuss both approaches to computing
volatility.
VOLATILITY
STOPS
Using Standard Deviations to Measure Historical Volatility
Historical volatility, in a strictly statistical sense, is a one-standarddeviation price change, expressed in percentage terms, over a calendar year. The assumption is that the percent changes in a commoditys
prices, as opposed to absolute dollar changes, are normally distributed.
The assumption of normality implies that the percentage price change
distribution is bell-shaped, with the current price representing the mean
of the distribution at the center of the bell. A normal distribution is symmetrical around the mean, enabling us to arrive at probability estimates
of the future price of the commodity.
For example, if cocoa is currently trading at $1000 a metric ton and the
historic volatility is 25 percent, cocoa could be trading anywhere between
$750 and $1250 ($1000 * 1 x 25 percent x $1000) a year from today
approximately 68 percent of the time. More broadly, cocoa could be trading
between $250 and $1750 ($1000 * 3 x 25 percent x $1000) one year
from now approximately 99 percent of the time.
In order to compute the historic volatility, the trader must decide on how
far back in time he wishes to go. He or she would want to go as far back as
is necessary to get an accurate picture of future market conditions. Accordingly, the period might vary from two weeks to, say, 12 months. Typically,
daily close price changes are used for computing volatility estimates.
Since a traders horizon is likely to be shorter than one year, the
annualized volatility estimate must be modified to acknowledge this
fact. Assume that there are 250 trading days in a year and that a trader
wishes to estimate the volatility over the next it days. In order to do
this, the trader would divide the annualized volatility estimate by the
squareroot of 250/n.
Continuing with our cocoa example, assume that the trader were interested in estimating the volatility over the next week or five trading
days. In this case, IZ is 5, and the volatility discount factor would be
computed as follows:
Discount Factor =
0.25 = 0.03536 or 3.536%
Volatility over next 5 days = 707
The dollar equivalent of this one-standard-deviation percentage price
change over the next five days is simply the product of the current
94
MANAGING
UNREALIZED
PROFITS
AND
LOSSES
price of cocoa times the percentage. Therefore, the dollar value of the
volatility expected over the next five days is
$1000 x 0.03536 = $35.36
Consequently, there is a 68 percent chance that prices could fluctuate
between $1035.36 and $964.64 ($1000 ? 1 x $35.36) over the next five
days. There is a 99 percent chance that prices could fluctuate between
$1106.08 and $893.92 ($1000 2 3 x $35.36) within the same period.
The definition of price used in the foregoing calculations needs to
be clarified for certain interest rate futures, as for example Eurodollars
and Treasury bills, which are quoted as a percentage of a base value
of 100. The interest rate on Treasury bills is arrived at by deducting
the currently quoted price from 100. Therefore, if Treasury bills futures
were currently quoted at 94.45, the corresponding interest rate would
be 5.55 percent (100 - 94.45). Volatility calculations will be carried out
using this value of the interest rate rather than on the futures price of 94.45.
Using The True Range as a Measure of Historical Volatility
A nontechnical measure of historical volatility is given by the range of

prices during the course of a trading interval, typically a day or a week.
The range of prices represents the difference between the high and the
low for a given trading interval. Should the range of the current day lie
beyond the range of the previous day (a phenomenon referred to as a
gap day) the current days range must include the distance between
todays range and yesterdays close. This is commonly referred to as the
true range. The true range for a gap-down day is the difference between
the previous days settlement price and todays low. Similarly, the true
range for a gap-up day is the difference between todays high and the
previous days settlement price.
A percentile distribution of daily and weekly true ranges in ticks is
given for 24 commodities in Appendix D. A tick is the smallest increment by which prices can move in a given futures market. Appendix
D also translates a tick value stop into the equivalent dollar exposure
resulting from trading one through 10 contracts of the commodity. A tick
value corresponding to 10 percent signifies that only 10 percent of all
observations in our sample had a range equal to or less than this number.
In other words, the true range exceeded this number for 90 percent of
the observations studied. Similarly, a value corresponding to 90 percent
VOLATILITY STOPS
95
implies that the range exceeded this value only 10 percent of the time.
Therefore, a stop equal to the 10 percent range value is far more likely
to be hit by random price action than is a stop equal to the 90 percent
value.
Reference to Appendix D for British pound data shows that 90 percent
of all observations between 1980 and 1988 had a daily true range equal
to or less than 117 ticks. Therefore, a trader who was long the pound,
might want to set a protective sell stop 117 ticks below the previous days
close. The chances of being incorrectly stopped out of the long trade are
1 in 10. Similarly, a trader who had short-sold the pound might want
to set a buy stop 117 ticks above the preceding days close. The dollar
value of this stop is $1462.50, or $1463 as rounded off in Appendix D,
per contract.
Instead of concentrating on the true range for a day or a week, a trader
might be more comfortable working with the average true range over
the past IZ trading sessions, where y1 is any number found to be most
effective through back-testing. The belief is that the range for the past
n periods is a more reliable indicator of volatility as compared to the
range for the immediately preceding trading session. An example would
be to calculate the average range over the past 15 trading sessions and
to use this estimate for setting stop prices.
A slightly modified approach recommends working with a fraction
or multiple of the volatility estimate. For example, a trader might want
to set his stop equal to 150 percent of the average true range for the
past u trading sessions. The supposition is that the fraction or multiple
enhances the effectiveness of the stop.
Implied
Volatility
The implied volatility of a futures contract is the volatility derived from

the price of an associated option. Implied volatility estimates are particularly useful in turbulent markets, when historical volatility measures
are inaccurate reflectors of the future. The theoretical price of an option
is given by an options pricing model, as, for example, the Black-Scholes
model. The theoretical price of an option on a futures contract is determined by the following five data items:
1. The current futures price
2. The strike or exercise price of the option
3. The time to expiration
96
4.
5.
DOLLAR-VALUE
The prevailing risk-free interest rate, and

The volatility of the underlying futures contract.
MONEY
MANAGEMENT
STOPS
97
it stagnates within this time frame, the trader would be well advised to
look for alternative opportunities.
Clearly, there should be a mechanism to safeguard against undue
losses in the interim period while the trade is left to prove itself. The
prove-it-or-lose-it stop, therefore, is best used in conjunction with
another stop designed to prevent losses from getting out of control.
Assuming that options are fairly valued, we can say that the current option price matches its theoretical value given by the options pricing model.
Using the current price of the option as a given and plugging in values
for items 1 to 4 in the theoretical options pricing model, we can solve
backwards for item 5, the volatility of the futures contract. This is the implied volatility, or the volatility implicit in the current price of the option.
The implied volatility estimate is expressed as a percentage and represents a one-standard-deviation price change over a calendar year. The
trader can use the procedure just outlined for historical volatility computations, to derive the likely variability in prices over an interval of
time shorter than a year.
DOLLAR-VALUE MONEY MANAGEMENT STOPS

Some traders prefer to set stops in terms of the dollar amount they
are willing to risk on a trade. Often, this dollar risk is arrived at as
a percentage of available trading capital or the initial margin required
for the commodity. If the permissible risk is expressed as a percentage
of capital, this would entail using the same money management stop
across all commodities. This may not be appropriate if the volatility of
the markets traded is vastly different. For example, a $500 stop would
allow for an adverse move of 10 cents in corn, whereas it would only
allow for a l-index-point adverse move in the S&P 500 index futures.
The stop for corn is reasonable, inasmuch as it allows for normally
expected random fluctuations. However, the stop for the S&P 500 is
simply too tight. This is the problem with money management stops
fixed as a percentage of capital. In order to overcome this problem,
the money management stop is often set as a percentage of the initial
margin for the commodity. The logic is that the higher the volatility,
the greater the required margin for the commodity. This translates into
a larger dollar stop for the more volatile commodities.
The dollar amount of the money management stop is translated into
a stop-loss price using the following formula:
Stop-loss price =
Entry price t Tick value of permissible dollar loss
TIME STOPS
Instead of working with a volatility stop, a trader might want to base
stops on price action over a fixed interval of time. A trader who has
bought a commodity would want to set a sell stop below the low of the
past n trading sessions, where y1 is the number found most effective in
back-testing over a historical time period. A trader who has short-sold
the commodity would set a buy stop above the high of the past y1 trading
sessions. For example, a lo-day rule would specify that a sell-stop be
set just under the low of the preceding 10 days and that a buy stop
would be set just above the high of the preceding 10 days. The logic is
that if a commodity has not traded beyond a certain price over the past
IZ days, there is little likelihood it will do so now, barring a change in
the trend. The value of II may be determined by a visual examination
of price charts or through back-testing of data.
Bruce Babcock, Jr. presents a slight variation for setting time stops,
which he terms a prove-it-or-lose-it stop. This stop recommends
liquidation of a trade that is not profitable after a certain number of
days, n, to be prespecified by the trader. The idea is that if a trade is
going to be profitable, it should prove itself over the first y1 days. If
where
Tick value of permissible dollar loss = Permissible dollar loss
$ value of a tick
Assume that the margin for soybeans is $1000 and that the trader
Wishes to risk a maximum of 50 percent of the initial margin, or $500
per contract. This translates into a stop-loss price 40 ticks or 10 cents
Bruce Babcock, Jr., The Dow Jones-Irwin Guide to Trading Systems

(Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1989).
i
ANALYZING
98
from the entry price, given that each soybean tick is worth $ cent per
bushel. For two contracts, the dollar risk under this rule translates into
$1000; for five contracts, the risk is $2500; for 10 contracts, the risk
escalates to $5000.
Appendix D defines the dollar equivalent of a specified risk exposure
in ticks for up to 10 contracts of each of 24 commodities. A percentile
distribution of daily and weekly true ranges in ticks helps the trader
place the money management stop in perspective. For example, the
daily analysis for soybeans reveals that 60 percent of the days had a true
range less than or equal to 42 ticks. Therefore, there is approximately
a 40 percent chance of the daily true range exceeding a 40-tick money
management stop.
1
/
ANALYZING UNREALIZED LOSS PATTERNS ON PROFITABLE

TRADES
A trader could undertake an analysis of the maximum unrealized loss

or equity drawdown suffered during the course of each profitable trade
completed over a historical time period, with a view to identifying distinctive patterns. If a pattern does exist, it could be used to formulate
appropriate drawdown cutoff rules for future trades. This approach assumes that the larger the unrealized loss, the lower the likelihood of the
trade ending on a profitable note. A hypothetical analysis of unrealized
losses incurred on all profitable trades over a given time period may
look as shown in Table 6.1.
Armed with this information, the trader can estimate a cutoff value,
beyond which it is highly unlikely that the unrealized loss will be recouped and the trade will end profitably. In the example given in Table
6.1, it is a good idea to pull out of a trade when unrealized losses equal or
Table 6.1
$ Value of
Unrealized Loss
100
200
500
1000
1500
UNREALIZED
LOSS
PATTERNS
99
exceed $501. This is because only 10 percent of all profitable trades

suffer an unrealized loss of greater than $500, mitigating the odds of
prematurely pulling out of a profitable trade.
Instead of discussing the hypothetical, let us evaluate the unrealized
loss patterns for Swiss francs, the Standard & Poors (S&P) 500 Index
futures, and Eurodollars, using a dual-moving-average crossover rule. A
buy signal is generated when the shorter of two moving averages exceeds
the longer one; a sell signal is generated when the shorter moving average
falls below the longer moving average. Four sets of daily moving average
crossover rules have been selected randomly for the analysis.
The time period considered is January 1983 to December 1986,
divided into two equal subperiods: January 1983 to December 1984
and January 1985 to December 1986. Optimal drawdown cutoff rules
have been arrived at by analyzing drawdown patterns over the 1983-84
subperiod. These drawdown cutoff rules are then applied to data for
1985-86, and a comparison effected against the conventional no-stop
moving-average rule for the same period.
The optimal unrealized loss cutoff levels for each of the three commodities, across all four crossover rules, using daily data for January
1983 to December 1984, are summarized in Table 6.2. The optimal loss
drawdown cutoff is set at a level equal to the maximum unrealized loss
registered on 90 percent of all winning trades.
Once stopped out of a trade, the system stays neutral until a reversal
signal is generated. Therefore, the total number of trades generated for
each commodity remains unaffected by the stop rule, although the split
between winners and losers does change.
The results are summarized in Tables 6.3 to 6.5. Notice from the tables
that in the no-stop case, as the unrealized loss drawdown increases, the
Table 6 . 2
Optimal Unrealized Loss Stop on Winning Trades
Unrealized Loss Patterns on Profitable Trades

# of Profitable
Trades
Cumulative # of
Profitable Trades
Cumulative
%
4
3
2
0
1
4
7
9
9
10
40%
70%
90%
90%
100%
Crossover rule
6- & 27-day
9- & 3 3 - d a y
12- & 39-day
15- & 45-day
!
Eurodollars
Swiss
francs
S&P 500
ticks
ticks
ticks
15
24
30
40
375
600
750
1000
19
52
51
46
475
1300
1275
1150
81
63
80
72
1013
788
1000
900
Table 6.4
Analysis of Unrealized Loss Drawdowns on Swiss
Francs during 1985-86 using stops based on 1983-84 data
Analysis of Unreal>ized Loss Drawdowns on

Table 6.3
Eurodollars during 1985-86 using stops based on 1983-84 data
Without Stops
Winners
6- & 27-day
Losers
Winners
12-
&
5
2
1
1
3
without stops:
using 1 !&tick stop:
0
3
5
11
19
4
2
0
0
?J
0
5
2
9
16
2
3
0
0
r;
0
20
1
1
22
$2,600)
63,600)
O-30
31-60
61-120
> 121
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
Profit/(Loss)
without stops:
using 24tick stop:
0
5
11
1
17
Losers
4
2
1
1
-6
0
0
5
7
i-5
$1,188
($1,613)
4
2
0
0
6
0
0
13
1
14
3
2
1
0
0
1
4
7
12
($10,713)
($ 8,987)
3
0
0
0
T
0
14
1
0
2
0
4
6
$5,012
$6,700
5
2
0
0
-7
0
9
0
0
P
2
1
1
4
s
$ 7,863
$13,838
5
2
0
2
7
0
0
-5
without stops:
using 81 -tick stop:
($900)
($175)
without stops:
using 30-tick stop:
Total Trades
$2,250
$4,025
6
3
0
0
3
0
2
9
0
ii
without stops:
using 40 tick stop:
0
2
1
5
3
($1,300)
$1,575
O-48
49-144
145-240
> 241
5
5
0
0
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
5
1
0
0
6
0
8
0
0
3
0
ii
12- & 39-day Crossover
Profit/(Loss)
5
1
0
0
--z
Profit/(Loss) without stops:

Profit/(Loss) using 63-tick stop:
0
2
4
5
11
6
3
0
0
3
O-46
47-92
93-184
> 185
15- & 45day Crossover

O-8
9-24
25-40
>40
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
Profit/(Loss)
Winners

2
3
1
0
-z
39-day Crossover
O-8
9-24
25-40
>40
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
ProfitI(Loss)
Losers
Using Drawdown Stops
(j- & 27-day Crossover
9- & 33day Crossover

o-7
8-21
22-28
>28
Total Trades
Profiti(Loss)
Profit/(Loss)
Winners
Losers
Crossover
O-8
9-16
17-24
>24
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
ProfitI(Loss)
Without Stops
Using Drawdown Stops
15-
& 45-day Crossover
CM3
44-129
130-258
s 259
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
Profit/(Loss)
-
T-6
without stops:
using BO-tick stop:
without stops:
5
2
1
0
B
using 72-tick stop:
BULL AND BEAR TRAPS

Analysis of Unrealized Loss Drawdowns on S&P 500
Index Futures during 1985-86 using stops based on 1983-84 data
Table 6.5
Without Stops

o-35
36-105
106-175
>175
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
Profit/(Loss)
Losers
7
2
0
0
3
0
5
6
2
-i7
without stops:
using 19-tick (0.95 index point) stop:

O-40
41-82
83-165
> 165
TotaT-frades
ProfitJLoss)
ProfitJLoss)
Winners
Using Drawdown
8
0
0
0
3
0
1
2
without stops:
using 52-tick (2.60 index points) stop:
Winners
Stops
Losers
3
0
0
0
3
$
800
$ 4,500
19
0
0
0
19
8
0
0
0
s
$ 6,400
$30,525
0
8
0
0
3
9
0
0
0
-3
($7,800)
$21,225
0
9
0
0
s
IT!- & 39-day Crossover

O-40
41-81
82-161
> 161
9
1
0
0
i-5
0
1
1
6
75
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss) without stops:
Profit/(Loss) using 51 -tick ( 2.55 index points) stop:
IS- & 45day
Crossover
O-46
47-94
95-188
> 188
Total Trades
Profit/(Loss)
Profit/(Loss)
4
1
0
0
i
0
1
3
6
lo
without stops:
using 46-tick (2.30 index points) stop:
4
0
0
0
-z
($18,250)
$16,600
11
0
0
0
11
103
number of profitable trades declines sharply, both in absolute numbers

and as a percentage of total trades. In other words, the larger the loss
drawdown, the smaller is the probability of the trade ending up a winner.
Consequently, as the unrealized loss increases, losing trades outnumber
winning trades. Significantly, this conclusion holds consistently across
each of the three commodities and four crossover rules, supporting the
belief that unrealized loss cutoff rules could help short-circuit losing
trades without prematurely liquidating profitable trades.
In general, using drawdown stops based on 1983-84 data tends to
stem the drawdown on losing trades. This is true for all commodities
and crossover rules. Gap openings through the stipulated stop price at
times result in unrealized losses exceeding the level stipulated by our optimal drawdown cutoff rule. This is particularly true of the Swiss franc.
There is a significant increase in profits in case of the S&P 500 Index
futures as a result of using stops. In the case of the Swiss franc and
Eurodollars, the increase in profits is most noticeable in case of the
slow-reacting, longer-term moving-average crossover rules.
As a note of caution, it must be pointed out that optimal drawdown
cutoff rules are likely to be sensitive to changes in market conditions. A
significant shift in market conditions could result in a dramatic change
in the unrealized loss pattern on both winning and losing trades. In view
of this, the optimal drawdown cutoff rule for a given period should be
based on the results of a drawdown analysis for profitable trades effected
in the immediately preceding period.
6t.U AND BEAR TRAPS
we now digress into a discussion of bull and bear traps and how not
to fall prey to them. Bull and bear traps typically result from chasing
a market that is perceived to be extremely bullish or bearish, as the
case may be. Bullish expectations are reinforced by a sharply higher
or gap-up opening, just as bearish expectations are supported by a
Sharply lower or gap-down opening. The trader enters the market at
the opening price, hoping that the market will continue to move in the
direction signaled by the opening price.
A bull trap occurs as a result of prices retreating from a sharply
higher or gap-up opening. The pullback occurs during the same trading
session that witnessed the strong opening, belying hints of a major rally.
AVOIDING BULL AND BEAR TRAPS

Trader is long
on the open
on day 3.
Day
-1
Day
Figure 6.4
A hypothetical example of a bull trap.
Consequently, an unsuspecting bull who bought the commodity at the

opening price is left with an unrealized loss. The fact that prices might
actually settle marginally higher than the preceding session offers little
consolation to our harried trader, who has already fallen victim to a bull
trap. Figure 6.3 illustrates the working of a bull trap.
A bear trap occurs as a result of prices recovering from a sharply lower
or gap-down opening. The retracement occurs during the same trading
session that witnessed the depressed opening, confounding expectations
of an outright collapse. The retracement results in an unrealized loss for
a gullible bear who sold the commodity at the gap-down opening price
or shortly thereafter. Figure 6.4 illustrates a bear trap.
A hypothetical example of a bear trap.
bear trap develops as a result of entering the market at or soon after the
.opening on any given day, a stop-loss order should be set with reference
to the opening price. In the following section, we analyze the location
of the opening price in relation to the high and low ends of the daily (or
weekly) trading range over a historical time period.
Analyzing Historical Opening Price Behavior
AVOIDING BULL AND BEAR TRAPS

The trauma arising out of bull and bear traps is not inevitable and should
be avoided by means of an appropriate stop-loss order. Since a bull or
Note: Notch to the left is opening price.

Notch to the right is settlement price.
Note: Notch to the left is opening price.

Notch to the right is settlement price.
Figure 6.3
Trader is short
on the open
on day 3.
I
a
It is common knowledge that when prices are trending upwards, the

opening price for any given period lies near the low end of the days
mnge and the settlement price lies above the opening price. Similarly,
when prices are trending downwards, the opening price for any given
Period lies near the high end of the days range and the settlement
price lies below the opening price. As a result, we observe a narrow
spread between the opening price and the days low when prices are
trending upwards. Conversely, we observe a narrow spread between the
106
daily high and the opening price when prices are trending downwards.
In some cases, we find the opening price to be exactly equal to the high
of a down day or the low of an up day, leading to a zero spread.
For purposes of this analysis, an up period, either day or week, is
defined as a trading period at the end of which the settlement price is
higher than the opening price. Similarly, a down period is defined as
a trading period at the end of which the settlement price is lower than
the opening price.
Using this definition of up and down periods, we analyze the percentile distribution of the spread between the opening price and the high
(low) for down (up) periods. Appendix E tabulates the findings separately for both up and down periods for 24 commodities and gives a
percentage distribution of the spread. The results are based on data from
January 1980 through June 1988.
Consider, for example, the 10 percent value of 2 ticks for up days in
the British pound. This suggests that 10 percent of all up days in our
sample have an opening price within 2 ticks of the days low. Similarly,
the 90 percent value of 32 ticks for down days implies that in 90 percent
of the down days surveyed in our sample, the opening price is within
32 ticks of the days high.
USING OPENING PRICE BEHAVIOR INFORMATION TO SET
PROTECTIVE STOPS
The information given in Appendix E can be used by a trader who (a) has
a definite opinion about the future direction of the market, (b) observes
a gap opening in the direction he believes the market is headed, and
(c) wishes to participate in the move without getting snared in a costly
bull or bear trap. A bullish trader who enters a long position at a gapup opening on a given day would want to set a stop-loss order II ticks
below the opening price of that day. A bearish trader who enters a short
position at a gap-down opening on a given day, would want to set a
stop-loss order n ticks above the opening price of that day.
The value of II is based on the information given in Appendix E and
corresponds to the percentile value of the spread between the open and
the high (or the low) the trader is most comfortable with. A conservative
approach would be to set the stop-loss order based on the 90 percent
value of the distance in ticks between the open and the high price for an
SURVIVING LOCKED-LIMIT MARKETS
107
anticipated move downwards, or between the open and the low price,
for an anticipated move upwards.
Suppose a trader is bearish on the Deutsche mark futures. Assume
further that the Deutsche mark futures contract has a gap-down opening
at $0.5980 just as our trader wishes to initiate a short position. In order
to avoid falling into a bear trap, he would be advised to set a protective
buy stop 17 ticks above the opening price, or at $0.5997. This is because
our analysis reveals that the opening price lies within 17 ticks of the
days high in 90 percent of the down days for the Deutsche mark. The
likelihood of getting stopped out of the trade erroneously is 10 percent.
This implies that there is a 1 in 10 chance of the daily high being farther
than 17 ticks from the opening price, with the day still ending up as a
down day.
SURVIVING LOCKED-LIMIT MARKETS
A market is said to be locked-limit when trading is suspended consequent upon prices moving the exchange-stipulated daily limit. This
section discusses strategies aimed at surviving a market that is lockedlimit against the trader. Prices have moved against the trader, perhaps
even through the stop-loss price. However, since trading is suspended,
the position cannot be liquidated. What is particularly worrisome is the
uncertainty surrounding the exit price, since there is no telling when
normal trading will resume.
When caught in a market that is trading locked-limit, the primary
concern is to contain the loss as best as is possible. In this section, we
examine some of the alternatives available to help a trader cope with a
locked-limit market.
Using Options to Create Synthetic Futures
In certain futures markets, options on futures are not affected by limit

moves in the underlying futures. In such a case, the trader is free to use
options to create a synthetic futures position that neutralizes the traders
existing futures position. For example, if she is long pork belly futures
and the market is locked-limit against her, she might want to create
a synthetic short futures position by simultaneously buying a put option and selling a call option for the same strike or exercise price on pork
108
belly futures. Similarly, if she is short gork belly futures, and is caught
in a limit-up market, she might create a synthetic long futures position
by buying a call option and selling a put option for the same strike or
exercise price on pork belly futures.
Since the synthetic futures position offsets the original futures position, the trader need not fret over her inability to exit the futures market.
She has locked in a loss, as any loss suffered in subsequent locked-limit
sessions in the futures market will be offset by an equal profit in the
options market.
Using Options to Create a Hedge Against the Underlying Futures
If the trader is of the opinion that the locked-limit move represents a

temporary aberration rather than a shift in the underlying trend, he might
want to use options to protect or hedge rather than to liquidate his futures position. For example, if a trader is short pork belly futures, he
might want to hedge himself by buying call options. Alternatively, if
he is long pork belly futures, and believes that the limit move against
him is a temporary setback, he might want to hedge himself by buying
put options. When the market resumes its journey upwards after the temporary detour, the hedge may be liquidated by selling the option in question.
The protection offered by the hedge depends on the nature of the
hedge. An in-the-money option has intrinsic value, which makes it a
better hedge than an at-the-money option. In turn, an at-the-money option, with a strike or exercise price exactly equal to the current futures
price, provides a better hedge than an out-of-the-money option with no
intrinsic value. This is because an in-the-money option replicates the
underlying futures contract more closely than an at-the-money option
and much more so than an out-of-the-money option.
Whereas hedging a futures position with options does help ease the
pain of loss, the magnitude of relief depends on the nature of the hedge.
If the hedge is not perfect, or delta neutral in options parlance, the
trader is still exposed to adverse futures price action and his loss might
continue to grow.
Switching Out of a Locked-Limit Market
A switch is a two-step strategy that is available when at least one contract

month in a given commodity has no trading limit. The rules as to when
MANAGING
UNREALIZED PROFITS
109
a switch is available vary from commodity to commodity and from

exchange to exchange.
For example, during the month of July, July soybeans have no limit,
whereas all other contract months have price limits. Accordingly, if a
trader is long January 1992 soybeans and the market for January soybeans opens locked-limit down sometime in July 1991, the trader might
wish to exit the January position through the following set of orders:
1. A spread order to buy a contract of July soybeans at the market,
simultaneously selling a contract of January soybeans
2. A second order to sell a contract of July soybeans at the market,
entered when order 1 is filled
Whereas the first order switches the trader from long January soybeans
to long July soybeans, the second order offsets the July position. This
is a circuitous but effective way of liquidating the January position. It
may be noted that as long as one contract month is trading, the spread is
usually available. However, owing to the extreme volatility of a market
that is trading at locked-limit levels, the spreads tend to be extremely
volatile. Care must be taken to ensure that the switch is carried out in
the order here described.
Exchange for the Physical Commodity
As the name suggests, this strategy involves liquidating a locked-limit

futures position by initiating an offsetting trade in the cash market. The
cash market is not affected by the suspension of trading in the futures
market, making the exchange a viable strategy. Notice that this strategy
involves a single transaction and is therefore easier to implement than
some of the multistep strategies just outlined.
MANAGING
UNREALIZED PROFITS
Since losing trades typically outnumber winning trades, a trader has

ample opportunity to master the art of controlling losses. As profitable
trades are fewer in number, expertise in managing unrealized profits
is that much harder to develop. The objective is to continue with a
Profitable trade as long as it promises even greater profits, while at the
same time not exposing all the profits already earned on the trade.
110
When a trade is initiated, a protective> stop-loss order should be placed

to prevent unrealized losses from getting out of control. If prices move
as anticipated, the protective stop-loss price should be updated so as
to reflect the favorable price action, reducing exposure on the trade.
At some stage, this process of updating stop-loss prices will result in
a break-even trade. It is only after a break-even trade is assured that
a profit conservation stop will take effect. In this section, we discuss
strategies for setting profit conservation stops.
limit Orders to Exit a Position
Often, an exit price is set so as to achieve a given profit target. For

example, if a trader is long a commodity, he would set his exit price
somewhere above the current market price. Similarly, if he were short,
he would set his exit price somewhere below the current market price.
These orders are termed limit orders. Once a limit order based on a profit
target is hit, a trader ends up observing the rally, as a helpless spectator,
instead of participating in it! Alternatively, if the profit target is not hit,
the trader might feel pressured to continue with the trade, hoping to
achieve his elusive profit target. This could be dangerous, especially if
the trader is adamant about his view of the market and decides to wait
it out to prove himself right.
Instead of using profit targets to exit the market, it would be more
advisable to use stops as a means of protecting unrealized profits. This
section offers two different approaches for setting unrealized profit conservation stops using
1. Chart-based support and resistance levels
2. Volatility-based trailing stops
Using Price Charts to Manage Unrealized Profits
Price charts provide a simple but effective means of setting profit conservation stops. A trader who anticipates a continuation of the current
trend must decide how much of a retracement the market is capable of
making without in any way disturbing the current trend. An example
will help clarify this approach.
Consider the Deutsche mark futures price chart for the March 1990
contract given in Figure 6.5. Notice the loo-tick gap between the high
of $0.5172 on September 22 and the low of $0.5272 on September 25.
112
This was the markets response to the weekend meeting of the leaders
of seven industrialized nations. Consequently, a trader who was long
the Deutsche mark coming into September 25 started the week with a
windfall profit of over 100 ticks or $1250. Fearing that the market would
fill the gap it had just created, he or she might want to set a sell stop
just below $0.5272, the low of September 25, locking in the additional
windfall profit of 100 ticks.
However, if the trader were not keen on getting stopped out, he or
she would allow for a greater price retracement, setting a looser stop
anywhere between $0.5 172 and $0.5272. The unfolding of subsequent
price action confirms that a trader would have been stopped out if the
sell stop were set just below $0.5272. On the other hand, if the stop
were set at or below $0.5200, the long position would be untouched by
the retracement .
Using Volatility-Based Trailing Stops
The trader might want to set his or her profit conservation stop II ticks
below the peak unrealized profit level registered on the trade. The number II could be based on the volatility for a single trading period, either
a day or a week, or it could be the average volatility over a number of
trading periods. If the trader so desires, he could work off some multiple
or fraction of the volatility he proposes to use.
If the trader is not confident about the future course of the market, he
might wish to lock in most of his profits. Consequently, he might want
to set a tight volatility stop. Alternatively, if he is reasonably confident
about the future trend, he might wish to work with a loose trailing stop,
locking in only a fraction of his unrealized profits.
CONCLUSION
Setting no stops, although an easy way out, is not a viable alternative to
setting reasonable stops to safeguard against unrealized losses. However,
the definition of a reasonable stop is not etched in stone, and it is
very much dependent on prevailing market conditions and the trading
technique adopted by the trader.
A stop-loss order is designed to control the maximum amount that
can be lost on a trade. Stop-loss orders may be set by reference to price
CONCLUSION
113
charts or by reference to historical price action, typified by time and

volatility stops. Alternatively, the trader might wish to set dollar value
stops based on a predetermined amount he is willing to lose on a trade.
Finally, the trader might analyze the unrealized loss pattern on completed
profitable trades, using a given system to arrive at probability stops.
As and when the market moves in favor of the traders position, the
initial stop-loss price should be moved to lock in a part of the unrealized
profits. A profit conservation stop replaces the initial stop-loss price. The
amount of profits to be locked in depends upon an analysis of price charts
or an analysis of historical price volatility of the commodity in question.
FIXED
FRACTION
EXPOSURE
115
the original bankroll, thus necessitating no further calculations. However, the equal-dollar-exposure strategy is surpassed by other strategies
that offer greater potential for growth of the bankroll for the same level
of risk.
7
Managing the Bankroll:
Controlling Exposure
The fraction of available funds exposed to potential trading loss is termed

risk capital. The higher this fraction, the higher the exposure and the
greater the risk of loss. This chapter presents several approaches to determining the dollar amount to be risked to trading. Although the magnitude of this fraction depends upon the approach adopted, the following
factors are relevant regardless of approach: (a) the size of the bankroll,
(b) the probability of success, and (c) the payoff ratio- the ratio of the
average win to the average loss.
Each approach is judged against the following yardsticks: (a) its reward potential, both in dollar terms and in terms of the time it takes
to achieve a given target; (b) the associated risk of ruin; and (c) the
practicality of the strategy. The optimal strategy is one that offers the
greatest reward potential for a given level of risk and lends itself to easy
implementation.
EQUAL DOLLAR EXPOSURE PER TRADE
True to its name, the equal-dollar-exposure approach recommends that
a fixed dollar amount be risked per trade. The greatest appeal of this
system is its simplicity. The dollar amount is independent of changes in
114
FIXED FRACTION EXPOSURE

A fixed-proportional-exposure system recommends that a trader always
risk a fixed proportion of the current bankroll. Should the traders
bankroll decrease, the bet size decreases proportionately; as the bankroll
increases, the trader bets more. The fixed-fraction system in its most
simplistic sense is based strictly on the probability of trading success.
The implicit assumption is that the average win is exactly equal to the
average loss, leading to a payoff ratio of 1.
The probability of success is given by the ratio of the number of
profitable trades to the total number of trades signaled by a trading
system over a given time period. For example, if a system has generated
10 trades over the past year and six of these trades were profitable, the
probability of success of that system is 0.60. The fixed fraction, f, of
the current bankroll is given by the formula
f = [P - (1 - P)]
where p is the probability of winning using a given trading system, and
1 -p is the complementary probability of losing. If, for example, the
trading system is found historically to generate 5.5 percent winners on
average, then the formula would recommend risking [0.55 - (1 - 0.55)]
or 10 percent of available capital.
With a slightly higher success rate of 60 percent, the formula would
suggest an allocation of [0.60 - (1 - 0.60)] or 20 percent. Intuitively, it
makes sense to risk a larger fraction of trading capital when confidence
in signals generated by a given trading system runs high. If a system is
l&t very reliable, it is only prudent to be wary about risking money on
the basis of such a system.
This method of allocation presupposes that the probability of success
br any given trading system is at least 5 1 percent. If a system cannot sat&this benchmark criterion, then a trader ought not to rely on it in trading
h futures markets. With a success rate of 50 percent, the probability of
116
MANAGING THE BANKROLL: CONTROLLING EXPOSURE
winning is exactly offset by the probability of losing, reducing the proportion of capital to be risked to [O.SO - (1 - 0.50)] or 0.
Assume that the initizl capital is equal to $20,000, and our trader
uses a system which has a 55 percent probability of success. Hence, the
trader decides to risk 10 percent of $20,000, or $2000, toward active
trading. Assume further that every successful trade results in a profit
exactly equal to the initial amount invested. For ease of illustration, let
us also assume that every unsuccessful trade results in a loss equal to
the initial amount invested.
Therefore, an investment of $2000 could result in a profit of $2000
or a loss of $2000. If the first trade turns out to be successful, the total
trading capital will grow to 110 percent of the initial amount, or $22,000
($20,000 x 1.10). The next time around, therefore, the trader should
consider risking 10 percent of $22,000, or $2200, toward active trading. If the second trade happens to be a winner as well and results in a
100 percent return on investment, the balance will now grow to $24,200
($22,000 x 1.10). The trader now can risk $2420 toward the third trade.
However, if the first trade results in a loss, the trader now has only $18,000
($20,000 x .90) available, and the amount that can be allocated toward
the second trade will now shrink to 10 percent of $18,000, or $1800. If
the second trade again results in a loss, the trader is now left with $16,200
($18,000 x .90), or $1620, toward the third trade.
Notice that this system gradually increases or decreases the amount
applied to active trading, depending on the results of prior trades. The
system is particularly good at controlling the risk of ruin. Even if a
trader continues to suffer a series of consecutive losses, the fixed-fraction
system ensures that there is something left over for yet another trade.
Introducing Payoffs into the Formula
The implicit assumption in the discussion so far is that the dollar value
of a profitable trade on average equals the dollar value of a losing trade.
However, this is hardly ever true in futures trading. The principle of cutting losses in a hurry and letting profits ride, if faithfully followed, should
result in the average profitable trade outweighing the average losing trade.
In other words, the payoff ratio, which compares the average dollar
profit to the average dollar loss, is likely to be greater than 1. A payoff
ratio of 2, for example, would mean that the dollar value of an average
winning trade is twice as large as the dollar value of an average losing
FIXED FRACTION EXPOSURE
117
trade. The greater the payoff ratio, the more desirable the trading system.
A successful trader could have just under 50 percent of trades as winners
and come out ahead simply because the average winner is more than
twice the average loser. Clearly, a method of exposure determination
with no regard to the payoff ratio would be inaccurate at best.
In order to rectify this anomaly, Thorp modified the fixed-fraction
formula to account for the average payoff ratio, A, in addition to the
average probability of success, p. The formula was originally developed
by Kelly and is therefore sometimes referred to as the Kelly system.*
Thorp also refers to the formula as the optimal geometric growth portfolio strategy, because it maximizes the long-term rate of growth of
ones bankroll. The optimal fraction, f, of capital to be risked to trading
may be defined as
f = [(A + l)pl - 1
A
The numerator of this fraction is the expected profit on a one-dollar

trade that is anticipated to yield either of two outcomes: (a) a profit of
$A with a probability p, or (b) a loss of $1 with a probability of (1 - p).
The expected profit on this trade is the net amount likely to be earned,
arrived at as follows:
A(P) - (I(1 - ~1) = A(P) + P - 1
= [(A + l)p] - 1
The probability-based fixed-fraction allocation formula, discussed earlier, is a special case of the current formula where the payoff ratio is
assumed to be 1. To verify this, let us substitute a value of 1 for the
payoff ratio, A, in the Kelly formula. Then
f = [(l + l)Pl - 1
2p - 1
= - = [p - (1 - p)]
1
1
Recall that in terms of the strict probability-based approach discussed
Previously, we had advised against trading a system that has a probability
of success less than 0.5 1. However, with the introduction of the payoff
Edward 0. Thorp, The Mathematics of Gambling (Van Nuys, CA: Gambling Times Press, 1984).
J. L. Kelly, A Nkw Interpretation of Information Rate, Bell System
Technical Journal, Vol. 35, July 1956, pp. 917-926.
F-
118
ratio into the equation, this is no longer true. The more generalized approach is not only more accurate but also more representative of reality.
For example, if the probability of success is 0.33, and the payoff ratio
is 5, the trader should risk 20 percent of trading capital toward a given
trade, as given by
f = [(5
1)0.331
5
- 1
2-1
z-z5
51420.
The above discussion is based on the probability of success and the

payoff ratio over a historical time period. The average probability of
success is simply the ratio of the number of winning trades to the total
number of trades over a historical time period. Similarly, the average
payoff ratio is the ratio of the dollars earned on average across all winning trades to the dollars lost on average across all losing trades over a
historical time period.
The major shortcoming of the Kelly approach just discussed is that
it assumes that performance measures based on historical results are
reliable predictors of the future. In real-life trading it is unlikely that the
payoff ratio on a trade or its probability of success will coincide with
the historical average. Chapter 9 provides empirical evidence in support
of the instability of performance measures across time. In view of this,
we need an approach that recognizes that each trade is unique. Average
performance measures derived from a historical analysis of completed
trades will not yield the optimal exposure fraction.
THE OPTIMAL FIXED FRACTION
USING THE MODIFIED KELLY SYSTEM
The modified approach relies on the original Kelly formula but uses
trade-specific performance measures instead of historical averages to
arrive at the optimal f. The modified Kelly system assumes that the
probability of success and the payoff ratio are likely to vary across
trades. Consequently, it reckons the optimal f for a trade based on the
performance measures unique to that trade.
Ziemba simulates the performance of several betting systems and
finds the modified Kelly system has the highest growth for a given level
of risk. Ziemba concludes that the other strategies either bet too little,
ARRlVlNG AT TRADE-SPECIFIC OPTIMAL EXPOSURE
119
and hence have too little growth, or bet too much and have high risk
including many tapouts.
ARRIVING AT TRADE-SPECIFIC OPTIMAL EXPOSURE
Trade-specific optimal exposure may be calculated using either (a) projetted risk and reward estimates or (b) historic return data. The projectedrisk-and-reward approach arrives at the optimal fraction, f, by calculating
the payoff ratio and estimating the probability of success associated with
a trade. The historic-return approach uses an iterative technique to arrive
at the optimal value of 5
The Projected-Risk-and-Reward Approach
The projected-risk-and-reward approach assumes that the trader knows
the likely reward and the permissible risk on a trade before its initiation.
Based on past experience, the trader can estimate the probability of
success. Assume, for example, that a trader is considering buying a
contract of soybeans and is willing to risk 8 cents in the hope of earning
20 cents on the trade. Based on past performance, the probability of
success is expected to be 0.45. Using this information, we calculate the
payoff ratio, A, on the trade as follows:
Expected win
Petissible loss
20
8
Payoff ratio, A =
= 2.50
Next, calculate the expected value of the payoff ratio as under:

Expected Value =
of Payoff ratio
= (0.45 * 2.50) - (0.55 * 1)
= 1.125 - 0.550
= 0.575
3 William T. Ziemba, A Betting Simulation: The Mathematics of Gambling

and Investment, Gambling Times, June 1987.
120
121
ARRIVING AT TRADE-SPECIFIC OPTIMAL EXPOSURE
Table 7.1
Calculating the Weighted
Holding-Period Return on Five Trades of X
Using this information, the optimal exposure fraction, f, for the soybean
trade in question works out to be
[(2.50 + 1)0.45 - l]
0.575
= 2500 =0.23 or 23%
f=
2.50
Trade
Holding-Period Return
Hence the trader could risk 23 percent of the current bankroll on the
soybean trade.
= 1 + f(+0.71428)
= 1 + f(-1.00000)
The Historic-Returns Approach
= 1 + f(+l.l4286)
= 1 + f(-0.28571)
= 1 + f(+O.85714)
The historic-returns approach uses an iterative approach to arrive at a

value off that would have maximized the terminal wealth of a trader
for a given set of historical trade returns. This is the optimal fraction of
funds to be risked. As is true of all historical analyses, this approach
makes the assumption that the fraction that was optimal over the recent
past will continue to be optimal for the next trade. In the absence of
precise risk and reward estimates, we have to live with this assumption.
This method has been developed by Vince4. Consider a sample of
completed trades that includes at least one losing trade. The raw historical returns for each trade within the sample are divided by the return on
the biggest losing trade. Next, the negative of this ratio is multiplied by
a factor, f, and added to 1 to arrive at a weighted holding-period return.
As a result, the weighted holding-period return (HPR) is defined as
(-Return on trade i)
Return on worst losing trade
For example, let us consider the following sequence of trade returns

for a commodity X:
+0.25
4 Ralph Vince, Portfolio Management Formulas (New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1990).
+0.40 - 0 . 1 0
+0.30
The worst losing trade yields a return of -0.35. Each return is divided
by this value, and the resulting holding period returns are given in Table
7.1. Using the information in that table, we calculate the TWR for f
values equal to 0.10, 0.25, 0.35, 0.40, and 0.45, as shown in Table
7.2. Since the TWR is maximized when f = 0.40, this is the optimal
fraction, f*, of funds to be allocated to the next trade in X.
The terminal wealth relative (TWR) is the product of the weighted

holding-period returns generated for a commodity across all trades over
the sample period. Therefore, the terminal wealth relative (TWR) across
n returns is
TWR = [(HPRt) x (HPR2) x (HPR3) x ... x (HPRn)]
By testing a number of values off between 0.01 and 1, we arrive at the
value off that maximizes the TWR. This value represents the optimal
fraction of funds to be allocated to the commodity in the next round of
trading.
- 0 . 3 5
Table 7.2
Calculating the TWR for X for Different Values of f

Holding-Period Return (HPR)
Trade
f = 0.10
f = 0.25
f = 0.35
f = 0.40
f = 0.45
1
2
3
1.07143
0.90000
1.11428
0.97143
1.08571
1.17857
0.75000
1.28571
0.92857
1.21429
1.25000
0.65000
1.40000
0.90000
1.30000
1.28571
0.60000
1.45714
0.88572
1.34286
1.32143
0.55000
1.51429
0.87143
1.38571
1.13325
1.28144
1.33087
1.33697
1.32899
TbVR
122
MARTINGALE VERSUS ANTI-MARTINGALE STRATEGIES
allows him or her to recover all prior losses. In fact, a win always sets
the trader ahead by one betting unit.
However, because the bet size increases rapidly during a sequence
of losses, it is quite likely that the trader will run out of capital before
recovering the losses ! More importantly, in order to prevent heavily
capitalized gamblers from implementing this strategy successfully, most
casinos impose limits on the size of permissible bets. Similar restrictions
are imposed by exchanges on the size of positions that may be assumed
by speculators.
MARTINGALE VERSUS ANTI-MARTINGALE

BETTING STRATEGIES
The discussion so far has concentrated exclusively on the projected

performance of a trade in determining the optimal exposure fraction.
Changes in available capital are considered, but only indirectly. For
example, a 10 percent optimal exposure fraction on available capital of $10,000 would entail risking $1000. If the capital in the account grew to $12,000, a 10 percent exposure would now amount to
$1200, an increase of $200. However, if the capital were to shrink
to $7500, a 10 percent exposure would amount to $750, a decrease
of $250.
Critics of performance-based approaches would like to see a more
direct linkage between the exposure fraction and changes in available
capital. An aggressive trader, it is argued, might use adversity as a spur
to even greater risks. After all, such a trader is interested in recouping
losses in the shortest possible time. A risk-averse trader, when faced
with similar misfortune, might be inclined to scale down the exposure.
Assuming a trader were interested in a more direct linkage between the
exposure fraction and changes in available capital, what are the options
available and what are their relative merits?
This section examines two strategies that incorporate the outcome of
closed-out trades and consequential changes in the bankroll into the calculation of the exposure fraction. The exposure fraction either increases
or decreases, depending on the traders risk threshold. A strategy that
doubles the size of the bet after a loss is termed a Martingale strategy.
The word Martingale is derived from a village named Martigues in the
Provence district of southern France, whose residents were noted for
their bizarre behavior. An example of such behavior was doubling up
on losing bets. Consequently, the doubling up system was dubbed as
gambling a la Martigals, or in the Martigues manner. Conversely,
a strategy that doubles bet size after each win is referred to as an antiMartingale strategy.
The Anti-Martingale Strategy
As the name suggests, the anti-Martingale strategy recommends a starting bet of one unit; the bet doubles after each win and reverts to one
unit after each loss. Since the increased bet size is financed by winnings
in the market, the traders capital is secure. The shortcoming of this
approach is that since there is no way of predicting the outcome of a
trade, the largest bet might well be placed on a losing trade immediately
following a successful trade.
Evaluation of the Alternative Strategies
The Martingale Strategy
The Martingale strategy proposes that a trader bet one unit to begin
with, double the bet on each loss, and revert to one unit after each win.
The attraction of this technique is that when the trader finally does win, it
123
Bruce Babcock provides a comparative study of the two strategies,

using a neutral strategy as a benchmark for comparison. The neutral
strategy recommends trading an equal number of contracts at all times
regardless of wins or losses. The Martingale strategy turns in the largest
percentage of winning streaks, regardless of trading system used. However, the high risk of the strategy, given by the magnitude of the worst
k, makes it unsuitable for commodities trading. Moreover, the capital
required to carry a trader through periods of adversity makes the strategy
impractical.
The anti-Martingale strategy incurs lower risk while affording the
highest profit potential. The average profits under the neutral strategy
W the lowest, with the worst loss being no greater than under the antiMartingale strategy. Clearly, the strategy of working with a constant
.number of contracts was overshadowed by the anti-Martingale strategy.
5 Bruce Babcock, Jr., The Dow Jones-Irwin Guide to Trading Systems

(Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1989).
124
In Babcocks study the anti-Martingale strategy increased performance

appreciably, without any appreciable increase in total risk. This should
inspire small, one-contract traders to build steadily on their wins. Babcocks findings confirm that a trader may double exposure after a win,
but doubling up after a loss in the hope of recouping the loss could
prove to be a risky and financially draining strategy.
As a word of caution, it should be pointed out that the advantage of the
anti-Martingale strategy is contingent upon using a winning systemthat is, a system with a positive mathematical expectation of reward.
As Babcock rightly concludes, In the long run, no trade management
strategy can turn a losing system into a winner.+j
TRADE-SPECIFIC VERSUS AGGREGATE EXPOSURE
than 1. This is clearly unacceptable, since risking an amount in excess

of ones bankroll is practically infeasible! Here is where the simple aggregation technique breaks down, necessitating an alternative approach
to defining F.
The approach presented here is an iterative procedure similar to the
Vince technique previously discussed for the one-commodity case. This
approach assumes that the mix of traded commodities analyzed will be
identical to the mix to be traded in the next period. It further assumes
stability of the correlations between returns. Finally, it assumes that the
sample of joint returns will include at least one losing trade with a
negative return.
Calculating
TRADE-SPECIFIC VERSUS AGGREGATE EXPOSURE

The discussion so far has revolved around the optimal exposure fraction
for a trade. Assuming that multiple commodities are traded simultaneously, what should the optimal exposure, F, be across all trades? An
obvious answer is to sum the optimal exposure fractions, f, across the individual commodities traded. However, the simple aggregation approach
suffers on two counts.
First, it assumes zero correlation between commodity returns. This
may not always be true and could lead to inaccurate answers. For example, if the returns on two commodities are positively correlated, the
aggregate optimal exposure across both commodities would be lower
than the optimal exposure on the commodities individually. Conversely,
if the returns are negatively correlated, the aggregate optimal exposure
would be higher than the sum of the optimal exposure on the individual
commodities.
For ease of analysis, we could assume that (a) positively correlated
commodities will not be traded concurrently and (b) negative correlations between commodities may be ignored. Since strong negative correlations between commodities are uncommon, the theoretical invalidity
of assumption (b) is not as worrisome as it appears.
The more serious problem with the simple aggregation technique
is that it does not guard against an aggregate exposure fraction greater
Babcock, Guide to Trading Systems, p. 25.
125
Joint
Returns
across
Commodities
The joint return for trade, i, across a set of commodities is the geometric average of the individual commodity returns for that trade. The
geometric average gives equal weight to each trade, regardless of the
magnitude of the trade return. Therefore, it is not unduly affected by
extreme values. The geometric average return, Ri, for trade i across 12
commodities is worked out as follows:
Ri =
[(I + Ril) X (1 + Ri2) X (1 + Ri3) X ..* X (1 + Ri,)]l - 1
where Rij
= realized return on trade i for commodity j.
Assume that a trader has traded three commodities, A, B, and C, over

the past year. Assume further that over this period seven trades were executed for A, four for B, and two for C. The returns on the individual
trades and the joint returns across commodities were as shown in Table
7.3. Notice that the number of joint returns equals the maximum number
of trades for any single commodity in the portfolio. In our example, we
have seven joint returns to accommodate the maximum number of trades
for commodity A. For trades 5, 6, and 7, the joint returns are essentially
the returns on commodity A, since there are no matching trades for B and C.
The negative return on the worst losing trade is -0.25. Each joint
mhtrn is divided by this value. The negative of this ratio is multiplied by
a factor, F, and added to 1 to arrive at an aggregate weighted holdingperiod return (HPR) for a trade i. Therefore,
-Return on trade i
Return on worst losing trade
126
Table 7.3
Computing Joint Returns

across a Portfolio ofCommodities
Return
Trade
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Realized
on
Geometric
-0.20
0.25
-0.50
0.75
0.35
-0.25
0.10
-0.35
0.15
0.75
-0.10
0.50
-0.25
Joint
Weighted
Trade
F = 0.30
F = 0.35
F = 0.40
F = 0.45
0.921
1.025
0.935
1.255
1.350
0.750
1.100
0.905
0.889
1.035
0.909
1.357
1.490
0.650
1.140
0.874
1.040
0.896
1.408
1.560
0.600
1.160
0.858
1.045
0.883
1.459
1.630
0.550
1.180
1.2337
1.2496
1.2531
1.2450
1.2219
Trade
1 + F(-s)= 1 + F(-0.316)
1 + F(-$gg) = 1 + F(+o.loo)
1 + F(-s)= 1 + F(-0.260)
+F(+1.020)
1 + F(-gg)= 1 + F(+1.400)
1 +F(-$g)= 1 +F(-1.000)
1 + F(-L$g)= 1 + f(+o.400)
1.030
0.922
1.306
1.420
0.700
1.120
is defined as
I
Calculating the Aggregate

1 +F(-gg)=l
F = 0.25
- 1 = -0.079
- 1 =
0.025
= -0.065
= 0.255
= 0.350
= -0.250
= 0.100
In the foregoing example, the weighted holding-period return for each

of the 7 trades may be calculated as shown in Table 7.4.
The terminal wealth relative (TWR) is the product of the weighted
joint holding-period returns generated across trades over a given time
period, using a predefined F value. Therefore, the TWR across y1 trades
Table 7.4
Calculating the Aggregate TWR for Different Values of F
Table 7.5
Holding-Period Return (HPR)

Return
on A, B and C
[(0.80)(0.65)(1.50)]"3
[(1.25)(1.15)(0.75)]"3
[(0.50)(1.75)1"2 - 1
[(1.75)(0.90)1"2 - 1
127
CONCLUSION
TWR = [(HPRl) x (HPR2) x (HPR3) x . . . x (HPR,)]

where HPRi represents the joint return for trade i.
By testing a number of values of F between 0.01 and 1, we can arrive
at the value of F that maximizes TWR. This value, F*, represents the
optimal fraction of funds to be risked across all commodities during
the next round of trading. Continuing with our example, we calculate
the TWR for F values equal to 0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, and 0.45, as
shown in Table 7.5. Since the TWR is maximized when F = 0.35, this
is the optimal fraction, F*, of funds to be allocated to the next round
of trading. More accurately, the TWR is maximized at 1.2539 when
F = 0.34, suggesting that 34 percent of the available capital should be
risked to trading.
CONCLUSION
The allocation of capital across commodities is at the heart of any trading
program. If a trader were to risk the entire bankroll to active trading,
chances are that all the trades could go against the trader, who could end
Up losing everything in the account. In view of this, it is recommended
1:: that a trad er risk only a fraction of his or her total capital to active
trading. This fraction is a function of the probability of trading success
s*
I i, and the payoff ratio. The fraction of available capital exposed to active
&L. trading is termed risk capital.
128
The exposure fraction could be a fixed proportion of the traders current bankroll, or it could vary as a function of changes in the bankroll.
A loss results in a depletion of capital, and a trader might want to recoup
this loss by increasing exposure. This is referred to as the Martingale
strategy. The converse strategy of reducing the size of the bet consequent upon a loss is referred to as the anti-Martingale strategy. The
anti-Martingale strategy is a more practical and conservative approach
to trading than the Martingale strategy.
8
Managing the Bankroll:
Allocating Capital
The previous chapter concentrated on exposure determination for a single

commodity as well as across multiple commodities. In this chapter, we
present various approaches to risk capital allocation across commodities.
Following this discussion, we turn to strategies designed to increase the
risk capital allocated to a trade during its life. This is commonly referred
to as pyramiding.
ALLOCATING RISK CAPITAL ACROSS COMMODITIES
If all opportunities are assumed to be equally attractive in terms of
both their risk and their reward potential, a trader would be best off
trading an equal number of contracts of each of the commodities under
consideration. For example, a trader might want to trade one contract
or, if he or she is better capitalized or more of a risk seeker, more than
one contract of each commodity, always keeping the number constant
across all commodities traded.
The equal-number-of-contracts technique is particularly easy to implement when a trader is unclear about both the risk and the reward potential
associated with a trade. Whereas the simplicity of this technique is its
chief virtue, it does not necessarily result in optimal performance. The
allocation techniques discussed here assume that (a) some opportunities
m more promising than others in terms of higher reward potential or
.y0 lower risk and (b) there exists a mechanism to identify these differences.
129
i.
130
MANAGING THE BANKROLL: ALLOCATING CAPITAL
We begin with a discussion of risk capital allocation within the context of a single-commodity portfolio. In subsequent sections, we discuss
allocation techniques when more than one commodity is traded simultaneously.
ALLOCATION WITHIN THE CONTEXT
OF A SINGLE-COMMODITY PORTFOLIO
When a portfolio is comprised of a single commodity, the optimal exposure fraction, f, for that commodity may be used as the basis for the
risk capital allocated to it. Multiplying the optimal fraction, f, by the
current bankroll gives the risk capital allocation for the commodity in
question. Therefore,
Risk capital allocation = f X Current bankroll
for a commodity
For example, if the current bankroll were $10,000, and the optimal
f for a commodity were 14 percent, the risk capital allocation would
be $1400. However, if the trader wished to set a cap on the maximum
amount he or she were willing to risk to a particular trade, such a cap
would override the percentage recommended by the optimal j For example, if the maximum exposure on a single commodity were restricted
to 5 percent, this restriction would override the optimal f allocation of
14 percent.
ALLOCATION WITHIN THE CONTEXT
OF A MULTI-COMMODITY PORTFOLIO
Risk capital allocation is especially important when more than one
commodity is traded simultaneously. This section discusses three alternative techniques for allocating risk capital across a portfolio of
commodities:
1.
2.
3.
Equal-dollar risk capital allocation

Optimal allocation following modern portfolio theory
Individual trade allocation based on the optimal f for each commodity.
MODERN PORTFOLIO THEORY
131
EQUAL-DOLLAR RISK CAPITAL ALLOCATION

Once the aggregate exposure fraction, F, has been determined, the equaldollar approach recommends an equal allocation of risk capital across
each commodity traded. The exact allocation is a function of (a) the
aggregrate exposure and (b) the number of commodities realistically
expected to be traded concurrently. This technique is based on the assumption that a trader can quantify the dollar risk for a given trade but is
unsure about the associated reward potential. The approach also assumes
the existence of negligible correlation between commodity returns.
The dollar allocation for each commodity is arrived at by dividing
the total risk capital allocation by the number of commodities expected
to be traded concurrently. Assume, for example, that the aggregate
risk capital fraction, F, is 20 percent of $25,000, or $5000, and the
trader expects to trade a maximum of five commodities concurrently.
The risk capital allocation for each commodity would be $1000. However, if the trader expects to trade only two commodities simultaneously,
the risk capital allocation works out to be $2500 for each commodity.
Therefore,
Aggregrate exposure across commodities
Risk capital
per commodity =
number of commodities traded
Like the equal-number-of-contracts approach, the equal-dollar risk
capital allocation approach is easy to implement. However, it would be
naive to expect it to yield optimal allocations, because reward potentials
and correlations between commodity returns are disregarded.
OPTIMAL CAPITAL ALLO CA TI ON :

ENTER MODERN PORTFOLIO THEORY
XI. The optimal-allocation strategy recommends differential capital alloca-::- tion and is based on the premise that no two opportunities share the
risk and reward characteristics. Modem portfolio theory is based
on the premise that there is a definite relationship between reward and
sk. The higher the risk, the greater the reward required to induce an
Ulvestor to assume such risk.
I,,,
132
MODERN PORTFOLIO THEORY
133
In this section, we construct an optimal futures portfolio that lies

on the efficient frontier. This is a portfolio that minimizes the variance
of portfolio returns while achieving the target return specified by the
trader. The problem seeks to minimize overall portfolio variance while
satisfying the following constraints:
Return
or
1.
2.
3.
Variance of Return
or Risk
Relationship between reward and risk: tracing the

Figure 8.1
efficient frontier.
Harry Markowitz was the first to formalize the relationship between

risk and reward. Markowitz argued that investors, given a choice,
would like to invest in a portfolio of stocks that offered a return higher
than that yielded by their current portfolio but was no more risky. Alternatively, they would like to invest in a portfolio of stocks that would
lower the overall risk of investing while holding reward constant. Risk
is measured in terms of the variability of portfolio returns. The higher
the variability, the greater the risk associated with investing.
The theoretical relationship between reward and risk is graphically
demonstrated in Figure 8.1. The curve connecting the various reward
and risk coordinates is termed the efficient frontier. A portfolio that
lies below the efficient frontier is an inefficient portfolio inasmuch as it
is outperformed by corresponding portfolios on the efficient frontier.
For example, consider the case of portfolio Z in Figure 8.1, which lies
vertically below portfolio X and laterally to the right of Y. Portfolio Z
is outperformed by both X and Y, insofar as X offers a higher return for
the same risk and Y offers a lower risk for the same return. Therefore,
the investor would be better off investing in either X or Y, depending on
whether he or she wishes to improve portfolio return or to reduce portfolio risk. This, in turn, is a function of the investors risk preference.
Harry Markowitz: Portfolio Selection: Eficient Divers$cation of Investments (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1959).
The expected return on the portfolio must be equal to a prespecified target.

The portfolio weights across all trades must sum to 1, signifying
that the sum of the allocations across trades cannot exceed the
overall risk capital allocation.
The individual portfolio weights must equal or exceed 0.
Appendix F defines this as a problem in constrained optimization, to

be solved using standard quadratic programming techniques. The solution to the optimization problem is defined in terms of a set of optimal
weights, wi, representing the fraction of risk capital to be exposed to
trading commodity i .
Inputs for the Optimization Technique
The inputs for the optimization technique are (a) the expected returns
on individual trades, (b) the variance of individual trade returns and the
covariances between returns on all possible pairs of commodities in the
opportunity set, and (c) the overall portfolio return target. Each of these
inputs is discussed in detail here.
The Rate of Return on Individual Trades and the Portfolio
discussed in Chapter 4, the rate of return, r, on a futures trade is

measured as the sum of the present values of all cash flows generated
during the life of the trade, divided by the initial margin investment.
Ideally, the portfolio selection model requires that we work with the
r expected returns on trades under consideration. In order to implement the
:$ model, therefore, the trader would need to know the estimated reward on
?$ the trade. This could be computed using the reward estimation techniques
-*&
discussed in Chapter 3. Additionally, the trader would need to estimate
&:,approximate time it would take to reach the target price. Since every
e is expected to be profitable at the outset, the variation margin term
ould be ignored in the return calculations.
AS
134
If the trader uses a mechanical system that is silent as regards the

estimated reward on a trade, the return cannot be forecast. In such a case,
the trader could use the historical average realized return on completed
trades for a commodity as a proxy for expected returns on future trades.
The historic average is the arithmetic average of returns on completed
trades.
The arithmetic average return, X, on IZ trades with a return Xi on
trade i is the sum of the n returns divided by it and is given by the
following formula:
x = (Xl +
x2
x3
+ . . . + X,)/n
The greater the number of trades in the sample, the more robust the
average. Ideally, the arithmetic average should be computed based on a
sample of at least 30 realized returns.
The weighted portfolio expected return is calculated by multiplying
each commoditys expected return by the corresponding fraction of risk
capital allocated to that trade. The overall portfolio return is fixed at a
prespecified target, T, to be decided by the trader. The overall portfolio
target should be realistic and be in line with the returns expected on the
individual commodities. If the return target is set at an unrealistically
high level, the optimization program will yield an infeasible solution.
Variance and Covariance of Returns
The riskiness of commodity returns is measured by the variance of such

returns about their mean. The covariance between returns seeks to capture interdependencies between pairs of commodity returns. The existence of negative covariances between commodity returns could lead to
an overall portfolio variance lower than the sum of the variances on the
individual commodities. Similarly, the existence of positive covariances
between commodity returns could lead to an overall portfolio variance
higher than the sum of the variances on the individual commodities.
To recapitulate, the variance, sx2, of n historical returns for commodity X, with an arithmetic average return x, is calculated as follows:
sx2
= CiCxi
-x)2
n-1
The covariance, sxy , between it historical returns for X and Y, with
arithmetic average returns x and r, respectively, is
MODERN
SXY
PORTFOLIO
THEORY
135
Ci(Xi - X)(yi - Q
n-l
If there are K commodities under consideration, there will be K vari.~ ante terms and [K(K - 1)]/2 covariance terms to be estimated. For
example, if there are 3 commodities under review, X , Y , and Z, we
need the covariance between returns for (a) X and Y, (b) X and Z,
and (c) Y and Z. Typically, the variance-covariance matrix is estimated
using historical data on a pair of commodities. The assumption is that
the past is a good reflector of the future. Given the disparate nature
of trade lives, we could well observe an unequal number of trades for
two or more commodities over a fixed historical time period, making it
impossible to calculate the resulting covariances between their returns.
To remedy this problem, historical price data is often used as a proxy
for trade returns.
Assuming portfolio returns are normally distributed, a distance of
-t 1.96 standard deviations around the mean portfolio return captures apt proximately 95 percent of the fluctuations in returns. The lower the specified portfolio variance, the tighter the spread around the mean portfolio
: return. The assumption of normality of portfolio returns has been empirically validated by Lukac and Brorsen. 2 Their study revealed that whereas
portfolio returns are normally distributed, returns on individual commodities tend to be positively skewed, underscoring the fact that most trading
systems are designed to cut losses quickly and let profits ride.
i-
limitations of the Optimal-Allocation Approach
; The optimal-allocation approach discussed above is based on a compar:$ ison of competing opportunities and is reminiscent of stock portfolio
,$:, construction. Implicit in this approach is the assumption that there will
$p no addition to or deletion from the opportunities currently under re& view. This is well suited to stock investing, where the investment hnriZcin is fairly long-term and the opportunity set is not subject to frequent
changes.
Changes in the opportunity set would result in corresponding changes
in the relative weights assigned to individual opportunities. Such changes
_____
2 Louis F? Lukac and R. Wade Brorsen, A Comprehensive Test of Futures

t Disequilibrium, The Financial Review, Vol. 25, No. 4 (November
pp. 593-622.
136
Table 8.2
could result in premature liquidation of trades and would detract from

the efficacy of the optimal-allocation exercise. As a result, the optimalallocation approach would be useful to a position trader with a longerterm perspective. However, it could prove inconvenient for a trader
with an extremely short-term view of the markets, who sees the menu
of opportunities changing almost every trading day.
A more serious handicap is that the optimal fraction of risk capital
allocated to a trade could lie anywhere between 0 and 1. A fraction of
0 implies no position in the commodity, whereas a fraction of 1 implies
that the the entire risk capital is allocated to a single trade. If such a
concentration of resources were unacceptable, the trader might want to
set a cap on the funds to be allocated to a single commodity. However,
such a cap would have to be imposed by the trader as a sequel to the
results obtained from the optimization program, as the program does not
allow for caps to be superimposed on the individual weights.
Consider Table 8.1, which presents the historical returns on two commodities, A and B. Using historical average returns as estimators of
Historical Returns on A and B
Trade
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
Arithmetic Average Return:
Variance of Returns:
Standard Deviation:
Covariance of Returns:
Correlation between A and B:
% Return on A
100
-45
40
-25
-35
50
-10
50
75
50
25
2494
49.94
% Return on B
50
-20
-10
55
100
-60
50
-45
-50
130
20
4394
66.29
-819.44
-0.2475
137
Tracing the Efficient Frontier for Portfolios of A and B
portfolio
% weight in
% weight in
Number
A-
Return
Variance
1
2
3
4
5
6
61.20
78.60
81.00
84.20
88.80
95.60
38.80
21.40
23.06
23.93
24.05
24.21
24.44
24.78
1206.67
1466.64
1543.02
19.00
15.80
I I .20
4.40
Portfolio
1660.14
1859.11
2219.33
future expected returns, we could construct an optimal portfolio of A and

B that would minimize variance for a specified target level of portfolio
returns. To illustrate the dynamics of this process, Table 8.2 traces the
efficient frontier for portfolios of A and B, giving the optimal weights
for different levels of portfolio variance and the return associated with
each variance level.
Notice that a rise in the portfolio return is accompanied by a corresponding rise in portfolio variance. The trader must specify the portfolio
return he or she seeks to achieve. For example, if the trader wishes to
earn an overall portfolio return of 23 percent, the optimal portfolio is 1,
with weights of 6 1.20 percent and 38.80 percent for A and B respectively. The variance for this optimal portfolio is 1206.67. If the target
return is set slightly higher, at 24 percent, the optimal portfolio is 3,
with weights of 81 .OO percent and 19.00 percent for A and B respectively. The variance for this portfolio is higher at 1543.02. If the target
Mn-n were set greater than 25 percent, the optimization program would
yield an infeasible solution. This is because the highest return that could
be earned by allocating 100 percent of risk capital to the higher return
asset, A, would be just 25 percent.
An Illustration of Optimal Portfolio Construction
Table 8.1
USING THE OPTIMAL f AS A BASIS FOR ALLOCATION
*,i USING THE OPTIMAL f AS A BASIS FOR ALLOCATION

.!
This approach uses the optimal exposure fraction, f, for a commodity as

the basis for the capital allocated to it. For simplicity, the approach assumes that (a) the trader will not trade positively correlated commodities
~ncurrently and (b) negative correlations between commodities may be
138
ignored. Consequently, each opportunity is judged independently rather

than as part of a portfolio of concurr&tly traded commodities.
Multiplying the optimal fraction, f , for a commodity by the current
bankroll gives the risk capital allocation for that commodity. The trader
might want to set a cap on the maximum percentage of total capital he or
she is willing to risk on any given trade. If such a cap were in existence,
it would override the percentage recommended by the optimalf. If, for
example, the maximum exposure on a single commodity were restricted
to 5 percent, this restriction would override an optimal f allocation
greater than 5 percent.
The trader must ensure that the total exposure across all commodities
at any time does not exceed the overall optimal exposure fraction, F.
The problem of overshooting is most likely to arise (a) when positions
are assumed in all or a majority of the commodities traded or (b) if one
commodity receives a disproportionately large allocation. Complying
with the aggregate exposure fraction on an overall basis might necessitate
forgoing some opportunities. This is a judgment call the trader must
make, not merely to contain the risk of ruin but also to ensure that he
or she stays within the confines of the available capital. This brings us
to the related issue of the relationship between risk capital and funds
available for trading. The following section discusses the linkage.
LINKAGE BETWEEN RISK CAPITAL AND AVAILABLE CAPITAL

Assume that the aggregate exposure fraction across all commodities is
given by F. The reciprocal of F, given by l/F, represents the multiple
of funds available for each dollar at risk. For example, if F is 10 percent
or 0.10, we have l/0.10, or $10, backing every $1 of capital risked to
a trade.
Although this multiple is based on the overall relationship between
risk capital and the current bankroll, it could be used to determine the
proportion of the bankroll to be set aside for individual trades. Assume
that the aggregate risk exposure fraction, F, is 10 percent across all
commodities. Assume further that the trader wishes to allocate 4 percent
of the risk capital to commodity A, and 2 percent to commodity B. The
trader does not wish to pursue any other opportunities at the moment.
Given a multiple of l/O. 10 or 10, commodity A qualifies for an allocation
i?
DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF CONTRACTS TO BE TRADED 139
of4 percent X 10, or 40 percent, of the funds in the account. Commodity

.I B qualifies for a capital allocation of 2 percent X 10, or 20 percent.
This will result in a 60 percent utilization of available capital, leaving
40 percent available for future opportunities.
DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF CONTRACTS
TO BE TRADED
The number of contracts of a commodity to be traded is a function
of (a) the risk capital allocation, in relation to the permissible risk per
contract, and (b) the funds allocated to a commodity, in relation to the
initial margin required per contract.
The available capital allocated to the commodity, divided by the initial
margin requirement per contract, gives a margin-based estimate of the
number of contracts to be traded. Similarly, the risk capital allocated
to a commodity, divided by the permissible risk per contract, gives a
risk-based estimate of the number of contracts to be traded. Therefore,
Margin-based estimate of
the number of contracts to = Available capital allocation
Initial margin per contract
be traded
Risk-based estimate of the
Risk capital allocation
number of contracts to be =
Permissible
risk per contract
traded
When the risk-based estimate differs from the margin-based estimate, the trader has a conflict. To resolve this conflict, select the
approach that yields the lower of the two estimates, so as to comply
with both risk and margin constraints. An example will help illus_% hate the potential conflict between the two approaches, and its reso. ,. lution. Assume that the aggregate exposure fraction, F, recommends
$;a risk capital allocation of 10 percent of total capital of $100,000,
$?? or $10,000. Assume further that a trader wishes to trade three com+ modities A, B, and C concurrently, with risk capital allocations of 6
X,
percent, 3 percent, and 1 percent, respectively.
Table 8.3 defines the permissible risk per contract of each of the
-he commodities along with their initial margin requirements. It also
calculates the number of contracts to be traded, based on both the risk
ad margin criteria.
140
Table 8.3
Commodity
A
B
C
Determining the Number of Contracts to be Traded

Capital
Allocation
Risk
Total
Per
Contract
Risk
Margin
6,000 60,000
3,000 30,000
1,000
20,000
500
2,500
1,000
2,000
20,000
10,000
Risk/
Margin
Number of
Contracts by
Risk Margin
0.05
0.20
6
6
3
12
0.10
0.5
0.5
Notice that in the case of commodity A, the margin constraint prescribes three contracts, whereas the risk constraint recommends six contracts. The margin constraint prevails over the risk constraint, since the
trader simply does not have the margin needed to trade six contracts. In
the case of commodity B, the risk constraint recommends six contracts,
whereas the margin constraint recommends 12 contracts. In this case
the capital allocation is adequate to meet the margin required for 12
contracts; however, the risk capital allocation falls short. Therefore, the
risk constraint prevails over the margin constraint. Finally, in the case
of commodity C, both risk and margin approaches are unanimous in
recommending 0.5 contracts, avoiding the choice problems which arose
in cases A and B.
A closer look at the data in Table 8.3 reveals an interesting relationship
between the aggregate exposure fraction, F, and the ratio of permissible
risk to the initial margin required for each of the three commodities.
The aggregate exposure fraction, 10 percent in our example, represents
a ratio of overall risk exposure to total capital available for trading.
Whereas the ratio of permissible risk/margin is lower, at 5 percent, than
the aggregate exposure fraction for A, it is higher for B at 20 percent,
and is exactly equal for C.
Consequently, if the permissible risk/margin ratio for a given commodity is greater than the aggregate exposure fraction, F, the permissible risk rather than the margin requirement determines the number of
contracts to be traded. Similarly, if the permissible risk/margin ratio for
a commodity is lower than the aggregate exposure fraction, F, it is the
margin requirement rather than the permissible risk, that determines the
number of contracts traded. If the permissible risk/margin ratio for a
commodity is exactly equal to the aggregate exposure fraction, F, then
both risk and margin constraints yield identical results.
OPTIONS
IN DEALING WITH FRACTIONAL CONTRACTS
141
THE ROLE OF OPTIONS IN DEALING WITH

FRACTIONAL CONTRACTS
If the allocation strategy just outlined recommends fractional contracts,
a conservative rule would be to ignore fractions and to work with the
smallest whole number of contracts. For example, if 2.4 contracts of a
commodity were recommended, the conservative trader would initiate a
position in two rather than three contracts of the commodity. By doing
so, the trader ensures that he or she stays within the risk and total capital
allocation constraints.
However, this strategy fails when the recommended optimal solution
recommends less than one contract, as, for example, commodity C (0.5
contracts) in the preceding illustration. Since the trader is advised against
rounding off to the next higher whole number, he or she would have to
forgo the trade. This problem is likely to arise in the case of commodities
with large margin requirements, as, for example, the Standard & Poors
(S&P) 500 Index futures. A trader who is keen on pursuing opportunities
in the S&P 500 futures without compromising on risk control must look
for alternatives to outright futures positions. Options on futures contracts
offer one such alternative.
A trader would buy a call option if the underlying futures price were
expected to increase. Conversely, the trader would buy a put option
if he or she expected the underlying futures price to decrease. Buying
an options contract enables the options buyer to replicate futures price
action while limiting the risk of loss to the initial premium payment.
The extent to which the options premium mirrors movement in the underlying futures price depends on the proximity of the strike or exercise
price of the option to the current futures price. The delta of an option
measures its responsiveness to shifts in futures prices. A delta close to
I suggests high responsiveness of the option premium to changes in the
underlying futures price, whereas a delta close to 0 suggests minimal
msponsiveness.
The intrinsic value inherent in an in-the-money option makes it mirror
1futures price changes more closely, giving it a delta closer to 1. An outof-the-money option with no intrinsic value has a delta closer to 0,
;: whereas an at-the-money option with a strike price approximately equal
f~ to the current futures price has a delta close to 0.50.
:A The delta of a futures contract is, by definition 1, leading to the
$86. following delta equivalence relationship between futures and options.
142
OPTIONS
IN
DEALING
COMPARING D.MARK FUTURES & OPTIONS

(IN-THE-MONEY 12189 53 CALL)
WITH
FRACTIONAL
CONTRACTS
COMPARING D.MARK FUTURES 8, OPTIONS

(AT-THE-MONEY 12189 54 CALL)
5700 -
5700,
5650 --
5650
5600 --
5600
5550 --
5550
y 5500
-3.00 I
5
it?
i 2 . 0 0 n. s
5
5 5450 I
IL 5400
5350
5300
11124
11/17
5250J
12108
12101
p
1.00 $
: :
ill10
11/17
8 12/89 ITM 53 Call
11124
a,,
12101
, ,
I I 0.00
12108
4 12/89 ATM 54 Call
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.2a
Comparing Deutschemark futures and options: (a) inthe-money December 1989, 53 call.

(OUT-OF-THE-MONEY 12189 56 CALL)
5700,
5650
Number
of futures X
contracts
Delta
of each =
contract
Number
of options X
contracts
Delta
of each
option
or
Number
of futures X 1
contracts
Number
of options X
contracts
Delta
of each
option
An allocation of 0.50 futures contracts is equivalent to one option

with a delta of 0.50. Therefore, a trader who wishes to trade 0.50 futures
contracts might want to buy one at-the-money option with a delta of 0.50
or two out-of-the-money options with a delta of 0.25 each. The trader
who uses options to replicate futures must realize that the replication
is largely a function of the option strike price and the associated delta
value.
Figures 8.2~ through 8.2d outline the relationship between futures
prices and options premiums for in-, at-, out-, and deep-out-of-themoney calls on the Deutsche mark futures expiring in December 1989.
rC r
5600
5550
8 5500
5450
o o
5350
t
1
.
2.50
g
f
z
1 . 5 0 ns
tt
5300
11
f
0.50 o
5250 J)
11117
11124
(0.50)
12101
::
,, ;
v;
\::;
z _r
z;!-4
12108
8 12189 OTM 56 Call

(a
$&FIGURE 8.2b & c

Comparing Deutschemark futures and options: (b)
t-the-money December 1989, 54 call; (c) out-of-the-money December
989, 56 call.
THE
MANAGING
144
BANKROLL:
ALLOCATING CAPITA L

( DEEP-OUT-OF-THE-MONkY 12189 57 CALL)
5700,
I
-- 3.50
5600
-- 2.50 f
z
E
--1.50 ns
5550
g 5500
f 5450
z 5400
5350
tt
: :
11110
-- 0.50 b
: :
11117
: : :
11124
I412/69OTM57Call
: : :
12101
: '(0.50)
12106
(d)
FIGURE 8.2d
(d)
145
low is emerging. Convinced that the bottom cannot be much farther

away, the trader might be tempted to buy more at the lower price.
The practice of adding to a losing position is essentially a case of
good money chasing after bad. Since that practice cannot be condoned no
matter how compelling the reasons, this section will confine itself strictly
w a discussion of adding to profitable positions. Critical to successful
pyramiding is an appreciation of the concept of the effective exposure
on a trade.
Cr
5300
525OJ
pyf?AMlDlNG
Comparing Deutschemark futures and options:

deep-out-of-the-money December 1989, 57 call.
Notice that the strong rally in the mark is best mirrored by the sharp rise
in premiums on the in-the-money 53 calls (Figure 8.2~); it has hardly
any impact on the deep-out-of-the-money 57 calls (Figure 8.26).
PYRAMIDING
Pyramiding is the act of increasing exposure by adding to the number

of contracts during the life of a trade. It needs to be distinguished from
the strategy of adjusting trade exposure consequent upon the outcome
of closed-out trades. Pyramiding is typically undertaken with a view to
concentrating resources on a winning position, However, pyramids are
also used at times to average out or dilute the entry price on a losing
trade.
This practice of averaging prices has a parallel in stock investing,
where it is referred to as scaled down buying. A notable example Of
averaging down is when a commodity is trading at or near its historic
lows. A trader might buy the commodity, only to discover that a new
The Concept of Effective Exposure
The effective exposure on a trade measures the dollar amount at risk

during the life of a trade. It is a function of (a) the entry price, (b)
the current stop price, and (c) the number of contracts traded of the
commodity in question. The effective exposure on a trade depends on
whether or not the trade has registered an assured or locked-in unrealized
profit.
As long as a trade has not generated an unrealized profit, the effective
exposure is positive and represents the difference between the entry price
and the protective stop price. A trade protected by a break-even stop
has zero effective exposure. Once the stop is moved beyond the breakeven level, the trade has a locked-in, or assured, unrealized profit. This
is.when the effective trade exposure turns negative, implying that the
traders funds are no longer at risk.
For example, if gold has been purchased at $400 an ounce and the
CUrrent price is $420 an ounce, the unrealized profit on the trade is $20.
A trader who now sets a sell stop at $415 is effectively assured of a
$15 profit on the trade, assuming that prices do not gap through the stop
price.
_.
~,,,.$ffective
Exposure in the Absence of Assured Unrealized Profits
negative assured unrealized profit, or an assured unrealized loss, rep=nts the maximum permissible loss on the trade. For simplicity, we
1 assume that prices do not gap through our stop price. Consequently,
aximum possible loss on the trade is equal to the maximum permisloss. For example, continuing with our example of the gold trade,
Id were purchased at $400 per ounce and the initial stop were set
80, this would imply a maximum permissible loss of $20 per ounce.
ALLOCATING CAPITA L
147
Once again, assuming that prices will not gap below the stop price of
$380 an ounce, this is also the maximum possible loss on the trade.
As long as the assured unrealized profit on a trade is negative, the
effective exposure on the trade measures the maximum amount that can
be lost on the trade. On a short position, until such time as the stop
price exceeds or is exactly equal to the entry price, the exposure per
contract is given by the difference between the current stop price and
the entry price. Similarly, on a long position, until such time as the stop
price is less than or equal to the entry price, the exposure per contract
is given by the difference between the entry price and the current stop
price. The effective exposure is the product of the exposure per contract
and the number of contracts traded.
To recapitulate, when assured unrealized profits are negative, the effective exposure on a trade is defined as follows:
Effective exposure = Current _ Entry X Number of
on short trade
istop price price 1 contracts
X Number of
Effective exposure = Entry _ Current
price
stop
price
on long trade
1 contracts
(
The effective exposure is a positive number, signifying that this amount
of capital is in danger of being lost.
G: where p is the fraction of assured profits reinvested, ranging between 0

iz and 1.
4 The net exposure on a trade with positive assured unrealized profits is
.z; tfie sum of (a) the effective exposure on the trade and (b) the additional
:,c exposure resulting from a reinvestment of all or a part of assured un,s; &ized profits. Whereas (a) is a negative quantity, (b) could be either
,I zero or positive. Hence,
146
MANAGING THE BANK ROLL:
Net Exposure with Positive Assured Unrealized Profits
When the current stop price is moved past the entry price, the assured
unrealized profit on the trade turns positive, leading to a negative effective exposure on the trade. Now the trader is playing with the markets
money. The negative exposure measures the locked-in profit on the trade.
The trader might now wish to expose a part or all of the lockedin profits by adding to the number of contracts traded. The fraction p,
ranging between 0 and 1, determines the proportion of assured unrealized
profits to be reinvested into the trade. A value of p = 1 implies that
100 percent of the value of assured unrealized profits is to be reinvested
into the trade. A value of p = 0 implies that the assured unrealized
profits are not to be reinvested into the trade.
The formula for the additional dollar exposure on a trade with positive
assured unrealized profits may therefore be written as
Additional = p x Assured profits X Number of
contracts
exposure
Net exposure = Effective exposure + Additional exposure

; The net exposure on a trade with positive assured unrealized profits could
be either zero or negative.
When p = 0, the trader does not wish to allocate any further amount
from assured unrealized profits toward the trade. Consequently, there is
no change in the number of contracts traded, leading to a negative net
exposure exactly equal to the value of assured unrealized profits. When
p= 1 , t h e net exposure on the trade is 0 because the trader has chosen
to increase exposure by an amount exactly equal to the value of assured unrealized profits, leading to a possible loss that could completely
wipe out the assured profits earned on the trade. When @ is somewhere
between 0 and 1, the net exposure on the trade is negative, suggest@g that the assured unrealized profits on a trade exceed the proposed
supplementary allocation to the trade from such profits.
Should p exceed 1, the initial risk capital allocation is supplemented
by an amount exceeding the assured unrealized profit on the trade. Since
there is no compelling logic supporting an increase in risk capital alfocation in excess of the level of assured unrealized profits earned, we
shall not pursue this alternative further.
Table 8.4 illustrates the concept of net exposure. Assume that one
;contract of soybeans futures has been sold at 600 cents a bushel, with
8 protective buy stop at 610 cents. Assume further that prices rise to
.7$@s cents before retreating gradually to 565 cents. The net exposure is
:$jsitive until such time as the protective buy stop price exceeds the sale
@@ice of 600 cents. Once the protective buy stop falls below the entry
-g&X of 600 cents, the assured unrealized profits turn positive, leading
$!? a negative net exposure.
F@ Note that the unrealized trade profits are consistently higher than the
ured unrealized profits on the trade. Assuming that the fraction of
ured profits plowed back into the trade is 0, 0.50, or 1 respectively,
effective exposure in each case is as shown in the table.
148
MANAGING
PYRAMIDING
THE BANKROLL: ALLOCATING CAPIT AL
149
;.:
The Net Exposure on
Table 8.4
a Short Trade with Differing p Values
Current Buy Stop Unrealized A;;Iw:

Profits
Price
Price
605
600
595
590
580
575
565
610
610
605
600
587
580
570
- 5
0
+ 5
+10
+20
+25
+35
-10
-10
-5
0
+13
+20
+30
Note: All figures are in cents/bushel on a one-contract
Table 8.5
,.
Net Exposure when:

p = 0 p = 0.50 p = 1.00
+10
t-10
+5
0
-13
-20
-30
+10
+I0
+ 5
0
-6.5
-10
-15
+10
+10
+ 5
0
0
0
0
basis.
Effects of Price Fluctuations on Incremental Exposure
(a) At the current price of 575 cents
Position
stop
Price
Short 1 @ 600
Short 2 more @ 5 7 5
580
580
To continue with our soybeans example, let us assume that prices have
fallen to 575 cents, and our trader, who has sold 1 contract at 600 cents,
now moves the stop to 580 cents, locking in an assured profit of 20 cents.
Assume further that the trader decides to risk 50% of assured profits,
or 10 cents, by selling an additional number, x, of futures contracts at
575 cents, with a protective stop at 580 on the entire position. Using
the formula just obtained, the value of x works out to be 2, as follows:
0.50x20
x =
5
= 2
Whereof Assured
Profit (Loss)
1 X 25 = 25
2 x o = 0
1 x 20 = 20
2 x (5) = (IO)
Net Profit
25
iIn
(b) At the current price of 580 cents

Action
Entry Price
Realized Profit
Liquidate 1 original short

Liquidate 2 new shorts
600
575
1 x 20 = 20
2 x (5) = (IO)
Net profit
Incremental Contract Determination
In practice, the trader must decide the value of p he or she is most comfortable with, risking assured unrealized profits accordingly. The value
of p could vary from trade to trade.. The fraction, p, when multiplied
by the assured unrealized profits, gives the incremental exposure. on
the trade. This incremental exposure, when divided by the permissible
risk per contract, gives the number of additional contracts to be traded,
margin requirements permitting. The formula for determining the additional number of contracts to be traded consequent upon plowing back
a fraction of assured unrealized profits is given as follows:
Increase in =
number of contracts
(p x Assured unrealized profits) x Number of contracts
Permissible loss per contract
Unrealized
Profit (Loss)
10
(c) At the current price of 565 cents

Position
stop
Price
Short 1 @ 600
Short 2 more @ 575
570
570
Net Profit
Unrealized
Whereof Assured
Profit (Loss)
Profit (Loss)
1 x 35 = 35
2x10=20
1 x 30 = 30
2x 5=10
55
40
Adding two short positions at 575 cents with a stop at 580 cents ensures a
worst-case profit of 10 cents on the overall position, which is equal to 50
percent of the assured profits earned on the trade thus far. The positions
are tabulated in Table 8.5~ for ease of comprehension. If prices were
to move up to the protective stop level of 580 cents, our trader would
be left with a realized profit of 10 cents as explained in Table 8.5b.
However, if prices were to slide to, say, 565 cents, and our stop were
,bwered to 570 cents, the assured profit on the trade would amount to
40 cents, as shown in Table 8.5~.
shape of the Pyramid
The number of contracts to be added to a position and the consequen<$tl shape of the pyramid is a function of (a) the assured profits on the
Strade and (b) the proportion, p, of profits to be reinvested into additional
:
150
MANAGING THE BANKROLL: ALLOCATING CAPITA L
contracts. A conventional pyramid is formed by adding a decreasing

number of contracts to an existing position. Adding an increasing number
of contracts to an existing position creates an inverted pyramid.
The profit-compounding effects of an inverted pyramid are greater
than those of the conventional pyramid. However, the leveraging cuts
both ways, inasmuch as the impact of an adverse price move will be
more severe in case of an inverted pyramid, given the preponderance of
recently acquired contracts as a proportion of total exposure.
CONCLUSION
The most straightforward approach to allocation is the equal-numberof-contracts approach, wherein an equal number of contracts of each
commodity is traded. This approach makes eminent sense when a trader
is not clear about both the risk and reward potential on a trade. A
trader who is unclear about the reward potential of competing trades
might want to allocate risk capital equally across all commodities traded.
Finally, if the trader is clear as regards both the estimated risk and the
estimated reward on a trade, he or she might want to allocate risk capital
unequally, allowing for risk and return differences between commodities.
This could be done using a portfolio optimization routine or using the
optimal allocation fraction, f, for a given trade.
The initial risk exposure on a trade is subject to change during the
life of the trade, depending on price movement and changes, if any,
in the number of contracts traded. Such an increase in the number of
contracts during the life of a trade is known as pyramiding. The number
of contracts to be added is a function of (a) the assured profits on the
trade and (b) the proportion, p, of assured profits to be reinvested into
the trade.
TThe Role of Mechanical Trading

.! Systems
Ji
2, A mechanical trading system is a set of rules defining entry into and exit
;,out
~;a_
of a trade. There are two kinds of mechanical systems- (a) predictive
and (b) reactive.
.. Yi Predictive systems use historical data to predict future price action.
1; For example, a system that analyzes the cyclical nature of markets might
:$ try to predict the timing and magnitude of the next major price cycle.
-+ A reactive system uses historical data to react to price trend shifts.
.$Instead of predicting a trend change, a reactive system would wait for a
!$ehange to develop, generating a signal to initiate a trade shortly there+after. The success of any reactive system is gauged by the speed and
:ac:curacy with which it reacts to a reversal in the underlying trend.
1 In this chapter, we will restrict ourselves to a study of the more com&only used mechanical trading systems of the reactive kind. We discuss
the design of mechanical trading systems and the implications of such
sign for trading and money management. Finally, we offer recommentions for improving the effectiveness of fixed-parameter mechanical
HE DESIGN OF MECHANICAL TRADING SYSTEMS

a rule, mechanical systems are based on fixed parameters defined in
s of either time or price fluctuations. For example, a system may
151
152
THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL TRADING SYSTEMS
use historical price data over a fixed time period to generate its signals.
Alternatively, it may use price breakout by a fixed dollar amount or percentage to generate signals. In this section, we briefly review the logic
behind three commonly used mechanical systems: (a) a moving-average
crossover system, which is a trend-following system; (b) Lanes stochastics oscillator, which measures overbought/oversold market conditions;
and (c) a price reversal or breakout system.
The Moving-Average Crossover System
A moving-average crossover system is designed to capture trends soon

after they develop. It is based on the crossover of two or more historical
moving averages. The underlying logic is that one of the moving averages is more responsive to price changes than the others, signaling a
shift in the trend when it crosses the longer-term, less responsive moving
average(s).
For purposes of illustration, consider a dual moving-average crossover
system, where moving averages are calculated over the immediately
preceding four days and nine days. The four-day moving average is more
responsive to price changes than the nine-day moving average, because it
is based on prices over the immediately preceding four days. Therefore,
in an uptrend, the four-day average exceeds the nine-day average. As
soon as the four-day moving average exceeds or crosses above the nineday moving average, the system generates a buy signal. Conversely,
should the four-day moving average fall below the nine-day moving
average, suggesting a pullback in prices, the system generates a sell
signal. Therefore, the system always recommends a position, alternating
between a buy and a sell.
The Stochastics Oscillator
Oscillator-based systems acknowledge the fact that markets are often in a

sideways, trendless mode, bouncing within a trading range. Accordingly,
the oscillator is designed to signal a purchase in an oversold market and
a sale in an overbought market. The stochastics oscillator, developed
by George C. Lane, is one of the more popular oscillators. It is based
George C. Lane, Using Stochastics, Cycles, and R.S.I. to the Moment of
Decision (Watseka, IL: Investment Educators, 1986).
* THE DESIGN OF MECHANICAL TRADING SYSTEMS

, y
.c:
153
:; on the premise that as prices trend upward, the closing price tends to lie
,.+* .closer to the high end of the trading range for the period. Conversely,
;I. as prices trend downward, the closing price tends to be near the lower
, :; end of the trading range for the period.
^
Once again, the stochastics oscillator is based on price history over
: a fixed time period, II, as, for example, the past nine trading sessions.
Ihe highest high of the preceding n periods defines the upper limit, or
ceiling, of the trading range, just as the lowest low over the same period
defines the lower limit, or floor. The difference between the highest high
, and the lowest low of the preceding n sessions defines the trading range
within which prices are expected to move. A close near the ceiling is
indicative of an overbought market, just as a close near the floor is
indicative of an oversold market.
The stochastics oscillator generates sell signals based on a crossover
of two indicators, K and D. To arrive at the raw K value for a nine-day
stochastic requires the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
Subtract the lowest low of the past nine days from the most recent
closing price.
Subtract the lowest low of the past nine days from the highest
high of the past nine days.
Divide the result from step 1 by the result from step 2 and multiply
by 100 percent to arrive at the raw K value.
Prices are considered to be overbought if the raw K value is above 75

percent, and are oversold if the value is below 25 percent. A three-day
average of the raw K value gives a raw D value.
One commonly used approach to safeguard against choppy signals
arising from the raw scores is to smooth the K and D values, using a
:: he-day average as follows:
jIvc., /.
Smoothed K = 5 previous smoothed K + f new raw K
;;;!I
$ Smoothed D = $ previous smoothed D + f new smoothed K
The K line is a faster moving average than the D line. Consequently,
a buy signal is generated when K crosses D to the upside, provided
the crossover occurs when K is less than 25 percent. A sell signal is
generated when K crosses and falls below D, provided the crossover
occurs when K is greater than 75 percent. Since not all crossovers are
equally valid as signal generators, the stochastics oscillator, unlike the
1
154
THE ROLE OF MECHANICAL TRADING SYSTEM S

Table 9.1
moving-average crossover system, does not automatically reverse from

a buy to a sell or vice versa.
Fixed Price Reversal or Breakout Systems
Instead of studying historical prices over a fixed interval of time, some

systems choose to generate signals based on a fixed, predetermined reversal in prices. The logic is that once prices break out of a trading
range, they are apt to continue in the direction of the breakout. The desired price reversal target could be an absolute amount or a percentage
of current prices.
For example, in the case of gold futures, a reversal point could be set a
fixed dollar amount, say $5 per ounce, from the most recent close price.
Alternatively, the reversal point could be a fixed percentage retracement,
say 1 SO percent, from the most recent close price. The belief is that
we have a reversal of trend if prices reverse by an amount equal to or
greater than a prespecified value. Accordingly, the system generates a
signal to liquidate an existing trade and reverse positions.
The primary function of mechanical trading systems is to help a trader

with precise entry and exit points. In doing so, mechanical trading systems facilitate the setting of stops, enabling a trader to predefine the
dollar risk per contract traded. Additionally, a mechanical trading system facilitates back-testing of data, allowing a trader to gain invaluable
insight into the systems efficacy. This information can help the trader
allocate capital more effectively. Both these functions are addressed in
this section.
Setting Predefined Stop-loss Orders
Using a mechanical system allows a trader to know the dollar amount at

risk going into a trade, since it can make the trader aware of the stop price
at which the trade must be liquidated. The lack of fuzziness regarding
the exit point gives mechanical systems a definite edge over judgmental
systems. Consider a two- and four-day dual moving-average crossover system that recommends buying gold based on the price history in Table 9.1.
Since the two-day average is greater than the four-day average, the system
155
Price History for Gold
Day
Close Price
Two-Day
Moving Average
Four-Day
Moving Average
1
2
3
4
5
350
352
353
354
351.0
352.5
353.5
352.25
Stop Price, x
recommends holding a long position in the commodity. The reversal

stop price, X, for the upcoming fifth day may be calculated as the price
where the two moving averages will cross over to give a sell signal. This
is the price at which the two-day moving average equals the four-day
moving average. Therefore,
x + 354
x + 354 + 353 + 352
2
=
4
0.50x + 177 = 0.25x + 264.75
0.25x = 8 7 . 7 5
x = 351
The trader could place an open order to sell two contracts of gold at $351
on a close-only basis: one contract to cover the existing long position
and the second to initiate a new short sale. The traders risk on the trade
is given by the difference between the current price, $354, and the sell
stop price, $35 1, namely $3 per ounce or $300 a contract. The open
Order is valid until such time it is executed or is canceled or replaced by
.I the trader. The close-only stop signifies that the order will be executed
*, Conly if gold trades at or below $351 during the final minutes of trading
:- on any day.
;:i,: . Calculating the stop price may be tedious for the more advanced trad& mg systems, especially where there is more than one unknown variable
a$: in the formula. However, it should be possible to compute reversal stops
:@ With the help of suitable simplifying assumptions.
Generating Performance Measures Based on Back-Testing
Mechanical trading systems are amenable to back-testing, permitting an

bjective assessment of historical performance. Simulation permits a
156
FIXED-PARAMETER
trader to observe the effects of a change in one or more system parameters.

The underlying rules themselves might be modified and the effects of
such modifications back-tested. These what-if questions would most
likely be unanswered in the absence of mechanization. Back-testing over
a historical time period yields performance measures that greatly help in
making a determination of the proportion of capital to be risked to trading.
The most useful performance measures are (a) the probability of success of a system and (b) its payoff ratio. The probability of success is
the ratio of the number of winning trades to the total number of trades
over a given time period. The payoff ratio measures the average dollar
profit on winning trades to the average dollar loss on losing trades over
the same period. The higher the probability of success and the higher the
payoff ratio, the more effective the trading system. Both these measures
are synthesized into one aggregate measure, known as the profitability
index of a system.
The Profitability Index
The profitability index of a system is defined as the product of the odds

of success and the payoff ratio. Therefore,
Profitability index = ~ X Payoff ratio
(1 PP)
p = probability of success
where
(1 - p) = the complementary probability of failure
When p = 0.50, the ratio p/(1 - p) is 1. Therefore, the profitability
index of such a system is determined exclusively by its payoff ratio.
The higher the payoff ratio, the higher the profitability index. When the
probability of success, p, is greater than 0.50, the ratio p/(1 - p) is
greater than 1. The higher the probability of success, the higher the odds
of success and the resulting profitability index for a given payoff ratio.
A profitability index of 2 signals a good system. An index greater than
3 would be exceptional.
The implicit assumption in our discussion thus far is that the profitability index of a system based on back-testing of historical data is indicative of future performance. This may not always be true, especially
if the mechanical system is based on constant or fixed parameters. In the
ensuing discussion, we discuss (a) the problems associated with fixed
parameter systems, (b) the implications of these problems for trading
and money management, and (c) possible solutions.
FIXED-PARAMETER
,s,. j+
:L,.:
,f
*c
\,
MECHANICAL
MECHANICAL
SYSTEMS
157
SYSTEMS
Fixed-parameter mechanical systems hold one of two key parameters

constant: (a) the time period over which historical data is analyzed, in the
case of trend-following or oscillator-based systems, or (b) the magnitude
of the price reversal, in the case of price breakout systems. The implicit
assumption is that prices will continue to conform to a fixed set of rules
that have best captured market behavior over a historical time period.
While prices do have a tendency to trend every so often, these trends
do not seem to recur with definite regularity. Moreover, the magnitude of
the price move in a trend varies over time, and no two trends are exact
replications. Although the existence of trends cannot be denied, there
is an annoying randomness as regards their magnitude and periodicity.
This randomness is the Achilles heel of mechanical systems based on
fixed, market-invariant parameters, since it is virtually impossible for
such systems to capture trends in a timely fashion consistently.
Therefore, the much-touted virtue of consistency in the use of a mechanical rule need not necessarily lead to consistent results. What is
needed is a system that responds quickly to changes in market conditions, and this is where a fixed-parameter system falls short. Instead of
modifying its parameters to adapt to changes in market conditions, a
fixed-parameter system implicitly expects market conditions to adapt to
its invariant logic. This could be a cause for concern.
Analyzing the Performance of a Fixed-Parameter System
Instead of speculating on the consequences of fixed-parameter systems,

it would be instructive to analyze the historical performance of one such
system. We select for our study the ubiquitous dual moving-average
,ccTOssover system. A total of 31 dual moving-average crossover rules are
, analyzed over four equal two-year periods from 1979 to 1987, across
fl: four commodities: gold, Japanese yen, Treasury bonds, and soybeans.
:I.1
The shorter moving average is based on historical data for the past 3
to 15 days in increments of 3 days. The longer moving average is based
On historical data for the past 9 to 45 days in increments of 6 days. A
total of 31 combinations has been studied. An amount of $50 has been
deducted from the profits of each trade to allow for brokerage fees and
unfavorable order executions, commonly known as slippage.
Table 9.2 summarizes the average profit and standard deviation of prof1its across all 3 1 rules for each of four two-year subperiods. Table 9.3
158
FIXED-PARAMETER
Summary of Performance of 31 Moving-Average

Table 9.2
Crossover Rules by Time Peribd and Commodity
1981-83
1983-85
1985-87
Average
1979-87
$19,595
-$10,430
$93,150
-$2,798
$11,606
-$23,410
$28,070
-$7,421
$6,557
-$16,230
$7,150
-$1,207
$3,904
-$11,050
$7,550
$11,714
$29,576
--$23,410
$93,150
12 & 27
0.34
9 &15
-4.15
9 &15
-0.88
128~27
-3.23
2.52
$9,897
$10,117
-$12,912
$30,087
$1,553
$6,930
--$18,694
$11,581
$7,949
$4,473
-$4,125
$15,875
$9,783
$8,769
-$5,775
$37,025
$7,295
$8,485
- $18,694
$37,025
3&9
1.02
12 &15
4.46
6 & 33
0.56
3 &15
0.89
1.16
$12,816
$5,509
-$5,050
$22,425
$10,044
$2,872
$2,800
$16,400
$3,937
$3,905
-$4,650
$12,950
$15,961
$6,675
$2,212
$28,787
$10,690
$6,614
-$5,050
$28,787
9 &27
9.43
6&9
0.28
9 &27
0.99
3 & 27
0.42
0.62
$9,800
$8,297
-$4,662
$28,512
$11,009
$9,029
-$7,475
$25,275
-$568
$7,146
-$9,750
$14,250
-$5,836
$2,513
-$9,762
$862
$3,601
$10,050
-$9,762
$28,512
3 & 45
0.85
15 84 21
0.82
6&15
-12.58
12 &15
-0.43
2.79
1979-81
Gold:
Aver Profit
Std Dev
Min $ Profit
Max $ Profit
Max $ Rule
(days)
Coeff of Var
Treasury bonds:
Aver Profit
Std Dev
Min $ Profit
Max $ Profit
Max $ Rule
(days)
Coeff of Var
Japanese yen:
Aver Profit
Std Dev
Min $ Profit
Max $ Profit
Max $ Rule
(days)
Coeff of Var
Soybeans:
Aver Profit
Std Dev
Min $ Profit
Max $ Profit
Max $ Rule
(days)
Coeff of Var
$58,283
MECHANICAL
SYSTEMS
159
summarizes the average profit and standard deviation of profits for each
of the 31 rules across the entire period, 1979-87.
Variability of profits across the different rules is measured by the coefficient of variation. The coefficient of variation is arrived at by dividing
the standard deviation of profits across different rules by the average
profit. A low positive coefficient of variation is desirable, inasmuch as
it suggests low variability of average profits.
The Japanese yen has the lowest average coefficient of variation,
followed by Treasury bonds, suggesting a healthy consistency of performance. Gold and soybeans have average coefficients of variation in
excess of 2, indicating wide swings in the performance of the dual
moving-average crossover rules.
The optimal profit and the rule generating it for each commodity
are summarized in Table 9.4 for each of the four time periods. The
optimal profit for a commodity represents the maximum profit earned
in each time period across the 3 1 rules studied. Notice that none of
the rules consistently excels across all commodities. Moreover, a rule
that is optimal in one period for a given commodity is not necessarily
optimal across other time periods. For example, in the case of gold the
12- and 27-day average crossover rule was optimal during 1979-8 1.
However, the rule came close to being the worst performer in 1981-83
and 1983-85 before becoming a star performer once again during 198%
87! Similar findings, albeit not as dramatic, hold for each of the other
three commodities surveyed.
A Statistical Test of Performance Differences
TO examine more closely the differences in performance of a trading

*: rule across time periods, we employ a two-way analysis of variance
,j / @NOVA) test. The model states that differences in performance could
.I be a function of either (a) differences across trading rules or (b) in+ herent differences in market conditions across time periods. Differences
., in performance not explained by either trading rule or time period are
<,
k,*+ I attributed to a random error term.
.G The statistic used to check for significant differences across a test
z: variable X is the F statistic, computed as follows:
);:,
:&:
F(DFr , DF2) =
Sums of squares for X / DFl

Sums of squares for error term / DF2
Summary of 31 Moving-Average Crossover Rules

by Commodity: Average Performance between 1979 and 1987
Table 9.3
Parameters
Aver
sd
Coeff
of Var Aver $
sd
Soybeans
Yen
T. bonds
Gold
Coeff
of Var Aver $
sd
Coeff
of Var Aver $
sd
Coeff
of Var
3
3
3
3
&
&
&
&
9 days
15 days
21 days
27 days
3 & 33 days
3 & 39 days
3 & 45 days
-$4,405
$10,208
$17,155
$15,495
$12,648
$8,773
$6,663
$5,53g -1.26 $9,930 $17,571

$13,128 1.28 $14,352 $15,775
$38,201 2.22 $8,379
$9,864
$43,864 2.83 $9,283
$3,727
$32,800 2.59 $12,714
$8,682
$30,101 3.43 $9,505
$7,192
$25,528 3.83 $lO,O27 $11,440
1.77
1.10
1.18
0.40
0.68
0.75
1.14
$12,603
$4,051
$14,191 $10,541
$13,091 $10,278
$14,328 $10,135
$13,328
$6,550
$9,153
$3,698
$10,666
$3,533
0.32 -$.%894
$5t732
0.74 -$I,481
$9,899
0.78 $3,200
$6,450
o.71
$31144
$gt145
0.49 $5,363 $12,226
0.40 $5,869 $15,452
0.33 $9,469 $17,160
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
9 days
15 days
21 days
27 days
33 days
39 days
45 days
$7,955
$16,370
$15,520
$16,860
$9,613
$10,253
$9,708
$18,752
$28,197
$36,644
$41,428
$29,547
$28,545
$27,905
2.68
$7,422
$9,691
$12,909
$13,653
$14,047
$10,897
$8,166
1.21
0.84
0.54
0.33
0.39
0.52
0.32
-$444
$6,267 -I;.;;
$3,131
$8,494
.
$5,256
$5,345
1.02
s6r700
$g1664
1.44
$4,956 $12,104
2.44
$3,425
$8,006
2.34
$5,406 $12,218
2.26
9
9
9
9
9
&
&
&
&
&
21
27
33
39
45
0.60
0.54
0.35
0.74
0.69
0.59
$7,569
$4,400
$2,706
$2,419
days
days
days
days
days
$12,145
$14,245
$11,198
$4,208
$9,053
12 & 21
15 days $15,020
$13,910
12 & 27 days $18,075
2.36 $6,936 $18,597

1.72 $4,461
$7,934
2.36 $5,042
$2,288
2.46 $9,770
$8,496
3.07 $13,139
$6,811
2.78 $13,524 $10,055
2.87 $9,830
$7,277
$28,508
@W-M6 2.35
$36,883 3.29
3.29
$34,380
$25,118 2.77
8.17
$6,989
$6,930
$7,926
$8,698
$6,130
$22,958
$43,270
$51,105
$4,098
$3,370
$1,033
1.53
3.11
1.78
0.45
0.87
0.52
0.74
0.74
$9,010
$8,189
$6,936
$4,487
$5,507
$5,630
$2,613
$3,858
$6,532
1.05 $9,053
0.55 $12,766
0.94 $14,728
$5,457
$6,907
$5,202
$3,590
$7,907
$3,219
0.45
0.91
0.52
$8,081
$6,694
$5,785
$io,%g
$9,741
$9,747
$7,940
2.35 $10,228
$4,391 0.43
$4,844
1.18 $13,097
$9,191 0.70
2.83
$11,838 11.46 $11,047
$7,004 0.63
12&33days
$9,380 $36,280 3.87 $8,883 $3,161 0.35 $10,453 $5,604 0.53
12 & 45
39 days $12,088
$9,368 $28,482
$30,546 3.26 $4,926
$8,426
$6,435
0.76
$6,941
$6,036 0.87
2.35
$4,783
0.97
$9,191
$9,069 0.99
15
15
15
15
&
&
&
&
27
21
33
39
45
days $15,998
$9,540
days
$8,918
days $13,368
days $14,103
$39,114
$48,695
$40,501
$30,577
$27,039
4.10 -$5,714
$3,961 $11,042
3.04 $8,939
$5,617
4.54 $6,348
$5,513
2.29 $4,448
$5,298
1.92
$4,443
-1.93 $10,134
1.42 $11,066
0.62
$6,684
0.83
$4,828
1.00 $6,578
$10,820
$7,836
$6,074
$4,835
$6,573
1.07
0.71
0.91
1.00
1.00
-1.47
-6.28
2.01
2,91
2.28
2.63
1.81
$10,272
$7,670
$10,454
$9,922
$9,185
$11,898
1.36
1.74
3.86
4.10
2.23
2.05
$6,394
$4,324
-$444 $10,060
$1,419 $14,005
$3,163 $12,111
$4,119
$5,813
$3,956
$7,488
$11,296
$14,290
0.67
-22.66
9.87
3.83
2.85
1.91
$557
$4,113
$3,450
$2,313
$2,106
$16,617
$15,598
$11,665
$10,799
$11,148
29.83
3.79
3.38
4.67
5.29
162
THE
Table 9.4
ROLE
OF
MECHANICAL
Optimal Profit ($)

1979-81
and
TRADING
SYSTEMS
Optimal Rule Analysis
1981-83
1983-85
1985-87
Gold:
Optimal Profit
Optimal Rule
93150
12 & 27
28070
9&15
7150
9&15
7550
12&27
Treasury bonds:
Optimal Profit
Optimal Rule
30087
3849
11581
12 &I5
15875
6 & 33
37025
3 84 15
Japanese yen:
Optimal Profit
Optimal Rule
22425
9 &27
16400
6&9
12950
9 &27
28787
3 & 27
Soybeans:
Optimal Profit
Optimal Rule
28512
3 & 45
25275
15 & 21
14250
6 &15
862
12 &I5
or,
F(DFl , DF2) =
Mean square across X

Mean square of error term
where DFi represents the degrees of freedom for X, the numerator, and
DF2 represents the degrees of freedom for the unexplained error term,
the denominator. The degrees of freedom are equal to the number of
parameters estimated in the analysis less 1.
In our study, we have a matrix of 31 x 4 observations, with a row
for each of the 31 rules studied and a column for each of the 4 time
periods surveyed. Each cell of the 31 X 4 matrix represents the profit
earned by a trading rule for a given time period. Since we have a total
of 124 data cells, there are 123 degrees ( 124 - 1) of freedom. There are
3 degrees of freedom for the 4 time periods, and 30 degrees of freedom
for the 31 moving-average crossover rules analyzed, leaving 90 degrees
of freedom (123 - 30 - 3) for the unexplained error term.
Table 9.5 checks for differences in average profits generated by each
of the 31 trading rules across four time periods. The calculated F value
for the observed data is compared with the corresponding theoretical F
value derived from the F tables at a level of significance of 1 percent,
If the calculated F value exceeds the tabulated F value, the hypothesis
of equality of profits over the different subperiods is rejected. A 1 percent
163
164
level of significance implies that the theoretical value of F is likely to

lead to an erroneous rejection of the null hypothesis in 1 percent of the
cases, a highly remote possibility.
Interestingly, the calculated F value across time is greater than the
tabulated value at the 1 percent level of significance for all four commodities. The calculated F value across rules is less than the tabulated
value at a 1 percent level of significance across all four commodities.
Therefore, we can conclude that differences in profits are significantly
affected by changes in market conditions across time, rather than by
parameter differences in the construction of the rules themselves.
Table 9.6 extends the above analysis of variance to check for differences in the average probability of success across time for each of the
31 trading rules. Again, we have a 31 X 4 data matrix, with each cell
now representing the probability of success for a trading rule during a
given time period. Once again, we find the difference in the probability
of success across all four commodities to be significantly affected by
changes in market conditions across time. This is in line with the results
of the analysis of profit differences given in Table 9.5. Rule differences
account for significant changes in the probability of success only in case
of the Japanese yen.
Table 9.7 checks for differences in the average payoff ratio across time
for each of the 3 1 rules. Each cell of the 31 x 4 matrix now represents
the payoff ratio for a trading rule during a given time period. The results
of the analysis reveal that differences in the payoff ratio are influenced
primarily by changes in market conditions across time, except for the
yen. Rule differences account for significant changes in the payoff ratio
in the case of the yen and Treasury bonds.
Implications for Trading and Money Management
To the extent the dual moving-average crossover system is a typical example of conventional fixed-parameter systems, the results are fairly representative of what could be expected of similar fixed-parameter systems.
The implications for trading and money management are discussed here.
Swings in performance could result in corresponding swings in the
probability of success and the payoff ratio for a given mechanical rule
across different time periods. As a result, the profitability index of a
system is suspect. Further, risk capital allocations based on historic
performance measures are likely to be inaccurate. Most significantlY,
wide swings in performance could also have a deleterious effect on the
I
165
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS
167
precision of system-generated entry signals or exit stops. These are genuine difficulties, which merit attention and suitable resolution. In the
following section, we offer possible solutions.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS

OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
The most obvious solution to the problems raised in the preceding section
would be to rid a mechanical system of its inflexibility. A good starting
point would be to think of more effective alternatives to rules that have
been defined in terms of fixed parameters such as a prespecified number,
rr, of completed trading sessions to evaluate market behavior or a fixed
dollar or percentage price value for assessing a valid breakout.
Toward Flexible-Parameter Systems
A flexible-parameter system, as the name suggests, would adjust its

parameters in line with market action. For example, in a choppy market
devoid of direction, the system would call for a loosening of trigger
points to enter into or exit out of a position. Conversely, in a directional
market, such triggers would be tightened.
Unlike a fixed-parameter system, a flexible-parameter system does not
expect the market to abide by the logic of its rules; instead, it adapts
its rules to accommodate shifts in market conditions. Efforts to develop
such systems would be extremely helpful from the standpoint of both
trading and money management. .Although the construction flexiblebarameter systems is beyond the purview of this book, it would suffice
?ti note that such systems can be designed. Neural networks are one such
example. They learn by example and adapt to changing market condi.$ons rather than expecting the market to adapt to a set of predefined,
Falterable rules.
:#sing Most Recent Results as Predictors of the Future
Assuming a trader is unable to inject flexibility into a mechanical system,

b or she would have to make the most of it ai a fixed-parameter system.
1 One possible solution is to use the performance parameters generated
)Y a fixe d- parameter system over the most recent past. The definition
1,
166
169
of recent past depends on the trading ;horizon of the trader. A trader

using a system based on weekly data would consider a longer history
in defining the recent past than would a trader using a system based
on daily data. Similarly, a trader who relies on a system that generates
multiple signals per day would have a different understanding of the
term recent past from that of a trader using a system based on daily data.
The assumption here is that the most recent past is the best estimator
of the future. This is true as long as there is no reason to suspect a
fundamental shift in market behavior. However, if recent market action
belies the assumption of stability, past performance can no longer be
used as a reflector of the future. In such a case, it would be necessary to
determine and use those parameters that are optimal in an environment
after the change occurred. This is accomplished through a procedure
known as curve fitting or optimizing.
parameters were to malfunction, this would hurt the overall performance

of the system. Consequently, the fewer the number of system parameters
to be optimized, the more robust the results of the optimization are likely
to be. This is a compelling argument in favor of simplifying the logic
;g?, of a mechanical system.
;$j~~~
The implicit assumption in any curve fitting exercise is that a set of
#; parameters found to be optimal over a given time period will continue to
@ perform optimally in the future. However, if conditions are fundamentally
$ different from those considered in the sample period, this would render
;;,. invalid the results from an earlier back-testing. In this case, it would be
{ incumbent upon the analyst to repeat the optimization exercise, using price
: history after the change as a basis for the new analysis.
One way around the problem of changing market conditions is to use as
long a historical database as possible. This allows the analyst to examine the
performance of the system over varying market conditions. For example,
a moving-average crossover system might work wonderfully in trending
markets only to get whipsawed in sideways markets. Ideally, therefore, the
optimization study should be carried out over a sample period that covers
both trending and sideways markets. Generally, the sample.period should
be no less than five years. In terms of completed trades, the back-testing
should cover at least 30 trades.
Once the optimal parameters have been established, the next step would
be to conduct an out-of-sample or forward test of these parameters. An outof-sample or forward test is conducted using a period of time that is beyond
. the original sample period. For example, if the optimal parameters were arrived at by analyzing data over the 1980 to 1985 time period, a forward test
would check the efficacy of these optimal parameters over a subsequent pe:$ riod, say 1986 to 1990. This process enables the analyst to judge the robustzms, or lack thereof, of the optimal parameters. If the optimal parameters
9:R are found to be equally effective over the periods 1980 to 1985 and over
,<t 1986 to 1990, there is reason to be confident about the future effectiveness
$ of these parameters.
:yv;.
1 6 8
The Role of Curve Fitting or Optimizing a System
The process of curve fitting or finding the optimal parameters for a

system entails back-testing the system over a historical time period using
a variety of different parameters. Ideally, the time period selected for
analysis should be representative of current market conditions. This is
to ensure that the optimality of parameters is not unique to the period
under review. One way of checking that this is indeed so is to retest
the mechanical rule over yet another sample period. If the parameters
originally found to be optimal are truly optimal, they should continue
to turn in superior results over the new sample period.
For example, a trader might want to back-test a dual moving-average
crossover system using all feasible combinations of short and long moving averages. The trader would then scan the results to select the combination that yields the highest profitability index. Next, he or she would
rerun the test over yet another sample period to check for consistency
of the results. If a certain combination does yield superior performance
over the two sample periods, the trader can be reasonably sure of its
optimality. The following subsection summarizes the rules for optimization.
Rules for Optimization
The greater the number of variables in a system, the more complex the
system is from an optimization standpoint. If even one of the optimized
,.$,
CONCLUSION
Mechanical trading systems are objective inasmuch as they are not
BWayed by emotions when they recommend entry into or exit out of
S market. However, a mechanical system may also introduce a certain
170
amount of rigidity, especially if the system expects the market to adjust

to a given set of rules instead of adapting its rules to adjust to current
market conditions.
This could lead to imprecision in the timing of signals generated by
the system. Consequently, fixed-parameter systems are subject to major
shifts in trading performance; what is optimal in one time period need
not necessarily be optimal in another period. Accompanying the shifts
in trading performance are related shifts in performance measures, such
as the probability of success and the payoff ratio. These measures are
useful for determining the proportion of capital to be risked to trading.
One solution would be to rid the system of its inflexibility by adapting
the rules to adjust quickly and effectively to changes in market conditions. In the absence of a flexible system, it would be appropriate to use
the most recent past performance as being indicative of the future. The
assumption is that market conditions that prevailed in the recent past
will not change dramatically in the immediate future. If such a change
is evident, do not regard past performance as being reflective of the
future. Instead, find out what parameters perform best for a given rule
under the new environment, using data for the period since the change
occurred.
10
Back to the Basics
Judicious market selection and capital allocation separate the outstanding trader from the marginally successful trader. However, it is failure
to control losses, coupled with a knack for letting emotions overrule
Iogic, that often makes the difference between success and failure at
futures trading. Although these issues are hard to quantify, they cannot
he ignored or taken for granted. This chapter outlines the key issues
responsible for poor performance, in the hope that reiterating them will
help keep the reader from falling prey to them.
AVOIDING FOUR-STAR BLUNDERS
Success in the futures markets is measured in terms of the growth of ones
account balance. A trader is not expected to play God and call market
turns correctly at all times. Therefore, she should not berate herself
for errors of judgment. Even the most successful traders commit errors
pf judgment every so often. What distinguishes them from their less
+ccessful colleagues is their ability (a) to recognize an error promptly
@rd (b) to take necessary corrective action to prevent the error from
bet oming a financial disaster. Therefore, the key to avoiding ruin is
&ply to make sure that one can live with the financial consequences
Of ones errors.
An error of judgment results from inaction or incorrect action on the
hers part. Such an error could either (a) stymie growth of a traders
mount balance or (b) lead to a reduction in the account balance.
171
EMOTIONAL AFTERMATH OF LOSS
BACK TO THE BASICS
172
Let us assume for a moment that errors could be ranked on a scale,

with one star being awarded to the least significant of errors and four
stars reserved for the most serious blunders.
173
short-selling 10 contracts of gold at $370 an ounce would result in

a $30,000 loss instead of the $3000 alluded to above. The magnitude
of such a loss might well snuff out a promising trading career. Four-star
bhmders can and must be avoided at all costs.
pie,
One-Star Errors
There is a commonly held misconception that a profitable trade precludes

the possibility of an error of judgment. The truth is that a trader can get
out of a profitable trade prematurely, just as he or she can exit the trade
after giving back most of the profits earned. As the final profit figure
is a mere fraction of what could have been earned, there is cause for
concern. This error of judgment is termed a one-star error. A one-star
error is the least damaging of errors, because there is some growth in
the traders account balance notwithstanding the error.
Two-Star Errors
A two-star error results from completely ignoring what turns out to be a

highly profitable trade. A two-star error tops a one-star error inasmuch
as there is absolutely no growth in the account balance. A major move
has just whizzed by, and the trader has missed the move. In a period
when major rallies are few and far between, the missed opportunity
might prove to be quite expensive.
Three-Star Errors
When a trader observes a gradual shrinking of equity, but refuses to

liquidate a losing trade, he or she commits a three-star error. Clearly,
this error is more serious than the earlier errors, given the reduction in
the account balance. A three-star error of judgment typically arises as
a result of not using stop-loss orders, or setting such loose stops as to
negate their very purpose.
For example, if a trader were to short-sell a contract of gold at $370
an ounce, omit to enter a buy stop order, and finally pull out of the trade
when gold touched $400, the resulting loss of $3000 per contract would
qualify as a three-star error.
Four-Star
Blunders
A four-star blunder is simply a magnified version of a three-star error?

caused by overexposure to a single commodity. In the preceding exam-
Consequences of Four-Star Blunders
! A four-star blunder must be avoided simply because it is difficult, if not

impossible, to redress the financial consequences of such errors. This is
; because the percentage profit needed to recoup the loss increases as a
geometric function of the loss. For example, a trader who sustained a
ii; loss equal to 33 percent of the account balance would need a 50 percent
?I,
:.<, gain to recoup the loss. If the loss were to increase to 50 percent of the
-; account value, the gain needed to offset this loss would jump to 100
i percent of the account balance after the loss. In this example, as the
-;, loss sustained increases 50 percent, the profits needed to recoup the loss
:$ increase 100 percent. In general, the percentage profits needed to recoup
8 a percentage loss, L, are given by the following formula:
i
Percentage profit needed to =
1 _ 1
recoup a loss
1-L
,.(:, In the limit case, when losses equal 90 percent of the value of the
:f account, the profit needed to recoup this loss equals 900 percent of the
i: balance in the account!
$/ Although four-star blunders are serious, their seriousness is magnified
$ when the market is moving in a narrow trading range, devoid of major
,& trends. If there are strong trends in one or more markets in any given
Et%, period and the trader has caught the trend, four-star errors of judgment
%?ern to pale in the shadow of the profits generated by the strong trends.
:However, in nontrending markets, when lucrative opportunities are few
and far between, even a two-star error of judgment suddenly seems very
significant.
;THE EMOTIONAL AFTERMATH OF LOSS
Losses are always painful, but the emotional repercussions are often
,mOre difficult to redress than the financial consequences. By focusing all
& attention on an errant trade, the trader is quite possibly overlooking
174
BACK TO THE BASICS
other emerging opportunities. When this cost of forgone opportunities is

factored in, the total cost of unexpected adversity can be very substantial
indeed.
When confronted with unexpected adversity, a trader is likely to be
gripped by a mix of emotions: panic, hopelessness, or a dogged determination to get even. The consequences of each of these reactions are
discussed below.
Trading More Frequently
First, the trading horizon may shrink drastically. If a trader were a position trader trading off daily price charts, he may now convince himself
that the daily charts are not responsive enough to market fluctuations.
Accordingly, he might step down to the intraday charts. In so doing, the
trader hopes that he can react more quickly to market turns, increasing
his probability of success.
JAINTAINING
EMOTIONAL BALANCE
175
*rious losses will start doubting himself and his approach to trading.
very soon, he may decide to close his account and salvage the balance.
&lective
Acceptance of System Signals
bl%e trader might decide to stay on but trade hesitantly, perhaps secondIguessing the trading system or being selective in accepting the signals
n,it generates. This could be potentially disastrous, as the trader might go
(head with losing trades, ignoring the profitable ones!
System Switching
A despondent trader might decide to forsake a system and experiment

with alternative systems, hoping eventually to find the Perfect System.
,Through anxiety, such a trader forgets that no system is perfect under
all market conditions. Lack of discipline and second-guessing of signals
m the likely consequences of system switching.
Trading More Extensively
Looking for instant gratification, the trader may also decide to trade a
greater number of commodities in order to recoup his earlier losses. He
figures that if he trades more extensively, the number of profitable trades
will increase, enabling him to recoup his losses faster.
Taking Riskier Positions
When in trouble, a trader might decide to trade the most volatile commodities, hoping to score big profits in a hurry, rationalizing that there
is, after all, a positive correlation between risk and reward: the higher
the risk, the higher the expected reward. For example, a trader who has
hitherto shunned the highly volatile Standard & Poors 500 Index futures
might be tempted to jump into that market to recoup earlier losses in a
hurry.
Despair-Induced Paralysis
Instead of trading more fervently or assuming positions in more volatile

commodities, a trader might swing to the other extreme of not trading at
all. Although a string of losses hurts a traders finances, the associated
loss of confidence is much harder to restore. A trader who has suffered
AINTAINING
EMOTIONAL BALANCE
e, a serious adversity might push a trader into an emotional

stering some of the behavior patterns just outlined. As a genle, the greater the unexpected adversity, the deeper the scar on
trading psyche: the higher the self-doubt and the greater the loss of
fidence. The most effective way of maintaining emotional balance
er clear of errors of judgment with serious financial repercusAnother solution is to reiterate some basic market truisms and to
rce them with the help of statistics. That is the purpose of this
tion.
to-Back Trades Are Unrelated
a trader will be heard to remark that he does not care to trade a

commodity because of the nasty setbacks he has suffered in
t. This is a good example of emotional trading, for in reality
does not play favorites, just as the market does not take any
s! If only a trader could treat back-to-back trades as discrete,
ndent events, the outcome of an earlier trade would in no way
BACK TO THE BASICS
176
influence the traders future responses. This is easier said than done,
given that traders are human and have to contend with their emotional
selves at all times. However, proving statistical independence between
trade outcomes might help dissolve this mental block.
Trade outcomes may be analyzed using the one sample runs test given
by Sidney Siegel. A run is defined as a succession of identical outcomes
that is followed and preceded by different outcomes or by no outcomes
at all. Denoting a win by a +, and a loss by a -, the outcomes may
look as follows:
+ + + - - - - + - + - - + + - - - + + - +
Here we have a total of 10 wins and 11 losses. The first three wins (+)
constitute a run. Similarly, the next four losses (-) constitute yet another
run. The following win is another run by itself, as is the subsequent
losing trade. The total number of runs, r , is 11 in our example. Our null
hypothesis (Ho) is that trade outcomes occurred in a random sequence.
The alternative hypothesis (HI) is that there was a pattern to the trade
outcomes-that is, the outcomes were nonrandom. The dollar value
of the profits and losses is irrelevant for this test of randomness of
occurrences. We use the following formula to calculate the z, statistic
for the observed sequence of trades:
z _r-(zYi2
+1)
jm
where
IZ 1 = the number of winning trades

It2
MAINTAINING
EMOTIONAL BALANCE
177
Ihe theoretical or tabulated z value at the 1 percent level of significance

for a two-tailed test is k2.58. Similarly, a 5 percent level of significance implies that the theoretical z value encompasses 95 percent of the
distribution under the bell-shaped curve. The corresponding tabulated z
value for a two-tailed test is * 1.96.
If the calculated z value lies beyond the theoretical or tabulated value,
there is reason to believe that the sequence of trade outcomes is significantly different from a random distribution. Accordingly, if the calculated z value exceeds +2.58(+1.96) or falls below -2.58 (-1.96), the
null hypothesis of randomness is rejected at the 1 percent (5 percent)
ilevel. However, if the calculated z value lies between 22.58 (-+1.96),
the null hypothesis of randomness cannot be rejected at 1 percent (5
). At least 30 trades are needed to ensure the validity of the test
s=1.,.P For purposes of illustration, we have analyzed the outcomes of trades
;y:,
., generated by a three- and nine-day dual moving-average crossover sys@ Bern for three commodities over a two-year period, January 1987 to De+ ember 1988. The commodities studied are Eurodollars, Swiss francs,
$7;
.$ and the Standard & Poors (S&P) 500 Index. The results &-e presented
$. . In Table 10.1. They reveal that wins and losses occur randomly across
.$
.$,A d three commodities at the 1 percent level of significance.
!, i
! Looking for Trades with Positive Profit Expectation
8
&FUticularly worrisome is the phenomenon of withdrawing into ones

$ahell,
becoming gun-shy as it were, consequent upon a series of bad
I,<.
.;g;
Table 10.1
Testing for Randomness
= the number of losing trades
r = the number of runs observed in the sample

Compare the calculated z value with the tabulated z value given for a
prespecified level of significance, typically 1 percent or 5 percent. Since
H1 does not predict the direction of the deviation from randomness, a
two-tailed test of rejection is used.
A 1 percent level of significance implies that the theoretical z value
encompasses 99 percent of the distribution under the bell-shaped curve.
1 Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1956).
levalueat
1 %
k2.58
+0.30
k2.58
+0.35
52.58
BACK TO THE BASICS
178
trades. Even if there is money in the, traders account, and his logical
self senses a good trade emerging, his heart tends to pull him away from
taking the plunge. In the process, the trader will most likely let many
worthwhile opportunities slip by-an irrational move, given that these
opportunities would have enabled the trader to recoup most or all of the
earlier losses.
At the other end of the emotional scale, a trader might be tempted to
trade, simply because she feels obliged to trade each day. A compulsive
trader is as much a victim of emotional distress as is the gun-shy trader
who cannot seem to execute when the system so demands. A compulsive
trader is driven by the urge to trade and is mesmerized by unfolding price
action. She feels she must trade every day, simply to justify her existence
as a trader.
Perhaps the best way to overcome gun-shy behavior or the tendency
to overtrade is to make an objective assessment of the expected profit
of each trade. The expected profit on a trade is a function of (a) the
probability of success, (b) the anticipated profit, and (c) the permissible
loss. The formula for calculating the expected profit is
Expected profit = p(W) - (1 - p)L
where
= the probability of winning
(1 - p) = the associated probability of losing

W = the dollar value of the anticipated win
L = the dollar value of the permissible loss
The greater the expected profit, the more desirable the trade. By the
same token, if the expected profit is not large enough to recover the
commissions charged to execute the trade, one would do well to refrain
from the trade.
The only exception to this rule is when a trader is considering trading
two negatively correlated markets concurrently. In such a case, it is conceivable that the optimal risk capital allocation across a portfolio of two
negatively correlated commodities could exceed the sum of the optimal
allocations for each commodity individually. This is notwithstanding the
fact that one of the commodities has a negative expectation and would
not qualify for consideration on its own merits.
The above formula presupposes that a trader has a clear idea of (a) the
estimated reward on the trade, (b) the risk he or she is willing to assume
uTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
179
1earn that reward, and (c) the odds of success. As a rule, system traders
e not clear about the estimated reward on a trade. However, they are
ware of the probability of success and the payoff ratio associated with
le system over the most recent past. Using this historical information
; a proxy for the future, they can calculate the expected trade profit,
;ing a given system, as follows:
Expected profit = [p(A + 1) - l]
here
= the historical probability of success
A = the historical payoff ratio or the ratio of the dollars won

on average for a $1 loss
Once again, a system turning in a negative expected profit or an
petted profit that barely recovers commissions should be avoided.
LJTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Dotball coach Bear Bryant posted this sign outside his teams lockers:
Iause something to happen. He believed that if a player did not cause
mething to happen, the other team would run all over him. Bryant did
ake something happen: He won more college football games than any
her coach. For other team read futures markets, and the analogy is
ually applicable to futures trading. Yes, a trader can make something
Mhwhile happen in the futures markets, if he or she chooses to.
First, a trader must develop a game plan that is fanatical about condling losses. Second, he or she must practice discipline to adhere to
it game plan, constantly recalling that success is measured not by the
mber of times he or she called the market correctly but in terms of
: growth in the account balance. Errors of judgment are inevitable,
t their consequences can and must be controlled. If the trader does
t take charge of losses, the losses will eventually force him or her out
the game. Controlling loss is easier said than done, but it is skill in
s area that will determine whether the trader ends up as a winner or
Yet another statistic.
Finally, the trader must learn to let logic rather than emotions dictate
~8
or her trading decisions, constantly recalling that back-to-back trades
: independent events: There are no permanently bad markets. Just
180
BACK TO THt BASICS
as withdrawing from trading after a series of reverses does not help,

compulsive overtrading in an attempt to recoup losses can hurt. One
way to overcome gun-shy behavior or overtrading is to calculate the
expected profit on each trade: If the number is a significant positive, go
ahead with the trade; if the expected profit is barely enough to recover
commissions, pass the trade.
Futures trading is one activity where performance is easy to measure
and the report card is always in at the end of each trading day. In an
activity where performance speaks far louder than words, it is hoped
that this book will help the reader speak more eloquently than before!
rbo Pascal 4.0 Program to

ompute the Risk of Ruin
roaram
ruin :
i ---;I----{CA+,T=31 Instruction to PasMat.)
StringBO = String Laoi;

Var
r
:
Name: StringBO;
Infile, Outfile: Text;
C22, NSet, NSetL, Index: LongInt;
BoundLower, BoundUpper, Cap, Capital, Del,
Probability, ProbabilityWin, ProbabilityLose,
TradeWin, TradeLose: Extended;
Hour, Minute, Set, SecLOO, Year, Month, Day,
DayOfWeek: Word;
Begin
Write(l Input file name: I);
ReadLn(Name);
Assign(Infile, Name);
Reset(Infile);
Write(lOutput file name: I);
181
182
PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE RISK OF RI
ReadLn(Name)
Assign(Outfi le, Name);
Rewrite(Outf ile);
Randomize;
WriteLn;
Repeat
GetTime(Hour, Minute, Set, SeclJlO);
GetDate(Year, Month, Day, DayOfWeek);
ReadLn(Infile, Name);
WriteLn(Outfile, Name);
ReadLn(Infile, Capital, TradeWin, TradeLose,
NSetL);
WriteLn(Outfile);
WriteLn(Outfile,
Probability of Ruin')
'Probability of Win
Del := 0.05;
ProbabilityWin := 0.00;
BoundLower := 0.0;
Boundupper := LOO * Capital;
For Index := 0 t0 27 a0
Begin
ProbabilityWin := ProbabilityWin + Del;
NSet := 0;
c22 := 0;
Repeat
Cap := Capital;
Inc(NSet);
If (NSet / 20 = NSet Div 20) then
Write(^M, 'Iteration Number I,
(NSet + (Index * NSetL)): 2,
(Id * NSetL): 1);
Repeat
Probability := Random;
{random betweeen 0 and 1}
If (Probability <= ProbabilityWin)
Cap := Cap + TradeWin
else
Begin
Cap := Cap + TradeLose;
If (Cap <= Cl) then
Inc(C22)
End
RAM TO COMPl JTE THE RISK OF RUIN
183
Until ((Cap >= BoundUpper)

or (Cap <= BoundLower))
Until (NSet >= NSetL);
ProbabilityLose := C22 / NSet;
WriteLn(Outfile, 1
'I
ProbabilityWin: 20: 8,
I
'I ProbabilityLose: ~JI: 8)
End;
WriteLn;
WriteLn;
WriteLn(Outfile);
WriteLn(lStarting at I, Hour: 2, I:!, Minute: 2,
Set: 2, I on 1, Month: 2, l/l,
Day, l/t, Year);
WriteLn(Outfile, 'Starting at I, Hour: 2, ':I,
Minute: 2, ':I, Set: 2, I on 1, Month: 2,
'/I, Day, 111, Year);
GetTime(Hour, Minute, Set, SecZllO);
GetDate(Year, Month, Day, DayOfWeek);
WriteLn(l Ending at I, Hour: 2, ':I3 Minute: 2,
I .* I I Set: 2, 1 on I, Month: 2, l/l,
Day, l/l, Year);
WriteLn;
WriteLn(Outfile, I Ending at I, Hour: 2, I:!,
Minute: 2, I:', Set: 2, I on I, Month: 2,
1/1, Day, I/', Year);
WriteLn(Outfile)
Until Eof(Infile);
Close(Infile);
Close(Outfile);
End.
1-l
-
BASIC PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE RISK OF RUIN
B
BASIC Program to Compute the
Risk of Ruin
OOl, REM THIS BASIC PROGRAM IS DESIGNED TO CALCULATE

THE RISK OF RUIN
002 REM INPUTS: PROB. OF SUCCESS, PAYOFF RATIO,
UNITS OF CAPITAL
007 OPEN "RUIN.OUT" FOR OUTPUT AS I
020 PRINT " INPUT CAPITAL: ";
020 INPUT CAPITAL
030 PRINT " INPUT TRADEW: ";
040 INPUT TRADEW
050 PRINT " INPUT TRADEL: ";
060 INPUT TRADEL
070 PRINT " INPUT SETL: ";
080 INPUT SETL
081 NSETL = SETL
082 CLS:PRINT
083 CLS:PRINT #L,
SETL "
"CAPITAL
TRADEW
TRADEL
085 PRINT
SETL "
"CAPITAL
TRADEW
TRADEL
0=lb PRINT #I,
092 PRINT CAPITAL,TRADEW,TRADEL,SETL
095 PRINT #lo, CAPITAL,TRADEW,TRADEL,SETL
LOO DEL = 0.05
110 PROW = 0
TIME FOR COMPUTATION "
120 PRINT " PROB(WIN) PROB(RUIN)
184
~5 PRINT #2,
" PROB(WIN) PROB(RUIN)
TIME FOR COMPUTATION "
530 FOR IPR = Z TO 28
140 PROBW = PROBW + DEL
150 BOUNDL = 0
j,b0 BOUNDU = LOO* CAPITAL
170 NSET = 0
2lJl c22 = 0
212 WIN$ = "W"
2l,2 LOSE$ = 'IL"
220 PROBL = l, - PROBW
230 CAP = CAPITAL
240 NSET = NSET + I,
,350 NTRADE = 0
260 X = RND
270 NTRADE = NTRADE + Z
280 PROB = X
290 IF( PROB <= PROBW ) THEN EVENT$ = WIN$
300 IF( PROB > PROBW ) THEN EVENT$ = LOSE$
320 IF( EVENT$ = WIN$ ) THEN CAP = CAP + TRADEW
320 IF( EVENT$ = LOSE$) THEN CAP = CAP + TRADEL
330 IF( EVENT$ = WIN$ ) THEN NWIN = NWIN + L
340 IF( EVENT$ = LOSE$) THEN NLOS = NLOS + 2
350 RUIN = 0
360 IF( CAP <= 0 ) THEN RUIN = L
370 IF( CAP <= 0 ) THEN NRUIN = NRUIN + I,
380 IF( EVENT = LOSE AND RUIN = Z ) THEN C22 = C
390 IF( CAP >= BOUNDU) THEN GO TO 420
400 IF( CAP <= BOUNDL) THEN GO TO 420
4lo0 GO TO 260
420 IF( NSET >= NSETL ) THEN GO TO 460
430 NWIN = 0
440 NLOS = 0
60 GO TO 230
460 PROBR = C22lNSET
:470 PRINT PROBW, PROBR, TIME$
,475 PRINT #I,, PROBW, PROBR, TIME$
440 NEXT IPR
'490
'I-.-.- -CLOSE l,
185
1 CORRELATION DATA FOR 24

Correlation
COMMODITIES
187
Taible for British Pound

Correlation Coefficient
1983-88
F Swiss franc
Correlation Data for 24

Commodities
i Sugar (world)
This Appendix presents correlation data for 24 commodities between

1983 and 1988. To ensure that correlations are not spurious, the sample
period has been subdivided into three equal subperiods, 1983 to 1984,
1985 to 1986, and 1987 to 1988. A positive correlation over 0.80 in
each of the three subperiods would suggest that the commodities are
positively correlated. Similarly, a negative correlation below -0.80 in
each of the three subperiods would suggest that the commodities are
negatively correlated.
The trader should be wary of trading the same side of two positively
correlated commodities. He or she should select the commodity that
offers the highest reward potential. Alternatively, the trader might want
to trade opposite sides of two positively correlated commodities; for
example, either the Deutsche mark or the Swiss franc, but not both
simultaneously. The trader could also spread the Deutsche mark and the
Swiss franc, buying one and selling the other.
Using the same logic, it pays to be on the same side of two negatively
correlated commodities. The rationale is that if one commodity fares
poorly, the other will make up for the poor performance of the first.
1 Deutsche mark
F Japanese yen
1 Gold (COMEX)
f Cww
i S&P 500 Stock Index
;, NYSE Composite Index
;: Treasury bonds
\ Treasury bills
'Treasury notes
[ Soymeal
[ Eurodollar
0.901
0.889
0.854
0.853
0.768
0.646
0.637
0.621
0.517
0.496
0.494
0.494
0.419
0.266
0.076
0.068
0.018
-0.042
-0.359
-0.374
-0.435
-0.449
-0.508
1983-84
0.973
0.947
0.479
0.943
0.824
0.823
-0.046
-0.024
0.206
0.099
0.208
0.854
0.166
-0.229
-0.111
0.851
0.732
-0.418
0.327
0.297
0.830
0.133
0.811
1985-86
0.809
0.800
0.779
0.565
0.134
0.710
0.754
0.753
0.786
0.798
0.801
0.588
0.777
-0.559
-0.825
-0:564
-0.754
0.117
-0.680
-0.732
-0.618
-0.803
-0.609
1987-88
0.913
0.928
0.974
0.596
0.829
0.686
-0.641
-0.673
-0.507
-0.176
-0.534
0.881
-0.423
0.600
0.498
0.011
0.882
-0.229
0.715
0.830
0.853
0.859
-0.542
188
CORRELATION
DATA
FOR
24
COMMODITIES
CORRELATION DATA FOR 24 COMMODITIES

Correlation Table for Crude Oil
Correlation Table for Corn

Wheat (Kansas City)

Soybean oil
Wheat (Chicago)
Soybeans
Crude oil
Silver (COMEX)
Soymeal
Oats
Live cattle
Sugar (world)
Hogs
Copper
Gold (COMEX)
British pound
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
Treasury bonds
S&P 500 Stock Index
Eurodollar
Treasury notes
NYSE Composite Index
Treasury bills
189
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.891
0.886
0.844
0.826
0.808
0.673
0.436
0.391
0.094
0.072
-0.116
-0.233
-0.383
-0.435
-0.726
-0.743
-0.780
-0.853
-0.862
-0.866
-0.869
-0.869
-0.897
0.440
0.573
0.426
0.925
0.735
0.658
0.865
0.266
-0.126
0.577
-0.103
0.611
0.773
0.830
0.846
0.830
0.643
-0.153
-0.283
-0.106
-0.156
-0.281
-0.138
0.825
0.871
0.769
0.875
0.645
0.596
-0.494
0.422
0.369
-0.541
-0.472
0.421
-0.862
-0.618
-0.895
-0.876
-0.849
-0.760
-0.749
-0.839
-0.804
-0.741
-0.853
0.803
0.848
0.692
0.912
-0.423
0.145
0.837
0.407
0.704
0.602
0.063
0.614
0.503
0.853
0.719
0.726
0.866
-0.477
-0.523
-0.440
-0.514
-0.548
-0.229
Wheat (Kansas City)

Corn
Soybean oil
Wheat (Chicago)
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Oats
Soymeal
Live cattle
Hogs
Sugar (world)
Copper
Gold (COMEX)
British pound
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
S&P 500 Stock Index
Japanese yen
Eurodollar
Treasury bills
Treasury notes
Treasury bonds
1983-88
1983-84
0.843
0.808
0.794
0.767
0.631
0.593
0.435
0.194
0.168
-0.133
-0.141
-0.287
-0.380
-0.508
-0.736
-0.748
-0.777
-0.787
-0.809
-0.822
-0.851
-0.902
-0.914
0.423
0.735
0.261
0.468
0.862
0.632
-0.135
0.643
-0.287
-0.325
0.660
0.824
0.877
0.811
0.769
0.784
-0.113
-0.098
0.341
-0.110
-0.181
-0.042
-0.025
1985-86
0.818
0.645
0.755
0.686
0.824
0.474
0.519
-0.729
0.533
-0.361
-0.703
-0.031
-0.661
-0.609
-0.824
-0:836
-0.910
-0.912
-0.880
-0.780
-0.792
-0.896
-0.917
1987-88
-0.671
-0.423
-0.619
-0.697
0.547
-0.487
-0.319
-0.313
-0.465
0.537
-0.769
-0.503
0.077
-0.542
-0.633
-0.664
0.611
0.608
-0.637
-0.204
-0.274
-0.179
-0.195
CORRELATION DATA FOR 24 COMMODIT I E S
190
Correlation Table for Copper (Standard)

Correlation Table for Deutsche Mark
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
Sugar (world)
Soymeal
Oats
Live cattle
S&P 500 Stock Index
Treasury bills
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Eurodollar
Soybeans
Silver (COMEX)
Wheat (Chicago)
Wheat (Kansas City)
Soybean oil
Hogs
Corn
Crude oil
191
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-G
0.768
0.694
0.669
0.658
0.641
0.483
0.464
0.383
0.375
0.352
0.328
0.251
0.190
0.169
0.165
0.135
0.100
-0.025
-0.059
-0.127
-0.202
-0.233
-0.287
0.824
0.906
0.806
0.800
0.254
0.775
0.638
-0.233
-0.217
0.030
0.049
0.120
0.274
0.261
0.201
0.521
0.937
0.531
0.355
0.019
-0.346
0.611
0.824
0.134
-0.188
-0.132
-0.092
-0.110
0.208
0.248
-0.123
-0.043
-0.037
-0.030
-0.180
-0.034
-0.059
-0.193
0.268
0.224
0.313
0.250
0.118
-0.483
0.421
-0.031
0.829
0.678
0.905
0.898
0.819
0.652
0.769
0.707
0.276
-0.622
-0.663
-0.183
-0.497
-0.520
-0.424
0.651
-0.049
0.657
0.714
0.717
-0.481
0.614
-0.503
Swiss franc
Japanese yen
British pound
S&P 500 Stock Index
Gold (COMEX)
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Copper
Eurodollar
Sugar (world)
live cattle
Soymeal
Hogs
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Wheat (Kansas City)
Soybean oil
Corn
Crude oil
1983-88
1983-84
0.998
0.983
0.889
0.857
0.846
0.841
0.748
0.734
0.724
0.658
0.651
0.446
0.205
0.205
0.099
-0.003
-0.222
-0.307
-0.596
-0.643
-0.691
-0.743
-0.748
0.966
0.642
0.947
-0.195
-0.170
0.893
0.048
0.053
-0.013
0.800
0.035
0.679
-0.101
0.749
-0.270
-0.089
0.785
0.686
0.297
0.222
0.192
0.830
0.784
1985-86
0.997
0.981
0.800
0.933
0.928
0.875
0.938
0.964
0.933
-0.092
0.922
0.748
-0.455
0.734
0.414
-0.530
-0.726
-0.800
-0.730
-0.862
-0.932
-0.876
-0.836
1987-88
0.991
0.933
0.928
-0.766
-0.796
0.561
-0.363
-0.388
-0.041
0.898
-0.303
0.762
0.420
0.779
-0.447
0.599
-0.132
0.739
0.737
0.799
0.787
0.726
-0.664
192
CORRELATI ON
DATA FOR 24 COMMODIT I E S
Correlation Table for Treasury Bonds
Correlation
Table
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Eurodollar
S&P 500 Stock Index
Japanese yen
Deutsche mark
Swiss franc
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Sugar (world)
Copper
Hogs
Live cattle
Soymeal
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Corn
Soybean oil
Wheat (Kansas City)
Crude oil
193

for
Eurodollar
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.996
0.942
0.937
0.832
0.818
0.776
0.748
0.736
0.517
0.373
0.206
0.190
0.064
-0.234
-0.235
-0.520
-0.597
-0.655
-0.808
-0.853
-0.870
-0.891
-0.914
0.996
0.876
0.933
0.748
0.747
-0.295
0.048
0.205
0.206
0.215
0.580
0.274
-0.634
-0.175
0.271
-0.091
0.290
-0.027
0.117
-0.153
-0.486
0.209
-0.025
0.993
0.928
0.919
0.976
0.975
0.950
0.938
0.929
0.786
0.738
0.775
-0.034
0.383
-0.527
0.735
-0.588
-0.849
-0.669
-0.734
-0.760
-0.864
-0.871
-0.917
0.996
0.842
0.948
0.044
-0.004
-0.451
-0.363
-0.394
-0.507
-0.826
-0.032
-0.497
-0.078
-0.284
-0.617
-0.544
-0.636
-0.411
-0.282
-0.477
-0.316
-0.406
-0.195
Gsury bills
Treasury notes
Treasury bonds
S&P 500 Stock Index
Japanese yen
Deutsche mark
Swiss franc
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Copper
Sugar (world)
Hogs
Live cattle
Soymeal
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Soybean oil
Crude oil
Corn
Wheat (Kansas City)
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.989
0.953
0.937
0.777
0.762
0.692
0.651
0.641
0.419
0.266
0.165
0.057
0.014
-0.236
-0.353
-0.547
-0.661
-0.718
-0.804
-0.821
-0.822
-0.866
-0.883
0.976
0.937
0.933
0.589
0.589
-0.157
0.035
0.195
0.166
0.158
0.201
0.480
-0.503
-0.002
0.292
0.034
0.198
0.057
0.060
-0.327
-0.110
-0.106
0.148
0.995
0.946
0.919
0.887
0.890
0.907
0.922
0.928
0.777
0.839
-0.193
0.617
0.478
-0.501
0.554
-0.534
-0.700
-0.761
-0.795
-0.829
-0.780
-0.839
-0.898
0.909
0.945
0.948
0.000
-0.041
-0.364
-0.303
-0.332
-0.423
-0.753
-0.424
-0.042
-0.051
-0.263
-0.524
-0.484
-0.611
-0.319
-0.262
-0.238
-0.204
-0.440
-0.370
194
1 CORRELATION DATA FOR 24 COMMODITIES

Correlation Table for Japanese Yen
Correlation Table for Gold (COMEX)

Swiss franc
British pound
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
Copper
Sugar (world)
S&P 500 Stock Index
Soymeal
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Oats
Treasury bills
Live cattle
Silver (COMEX)
Eurodollar
Hogs
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Wheat (Kansas City)
Soybean oil
Crude oil
Corn
195
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.855
0.853
0.841
0.769
0.694
0.618
0.606
0.584
0.554
0.373
0.353
0.351
0.342
0.320
0.293
0.266
0.108
0.105
-0.269
-0.280
-0.373
-0.380
-0.383
0.916
0.943
0.893
0.367
0.906
0.835
-0.014
0.006
0.796
0.215
0.208
-0.139
0.086
-0.287
0.952
0.158
-0.437
0.701
0.440
0.367
0.166
0.877
0.773
0.879
0.565
0.875
0.835
-0.188
0.492
0.745
0.740
0.522
0.738
0.791
-0.289
0.841
-0.333
-0.440
0.839
0.439
-0.734
-0.644
-0.766
-0.765
-0.661
-0.862
0.627
0.596
0.561
0.553
0.678
0.138
-0.244
-0.299
0.656
-0.826
-0.845
0.622
-0.513
0.094
0.641
-0.753
-0.004
0.409
0.306
0.421
0.339
0.077
0.503
1983-88
1,Deutsche mark
by Swiss franc
1, S&P 500 Stock Index
i NYSE Composite Index
f British pound
1 Treasury bonds
L Gold (COMEX)
; Treasury bills
Treasury notes
1,Eurodollar
B Copper(world)
/Sugar
0.983
0.981
0.864
0.855
0.854
0.776
0.769
0.764
0.763
0.692
0.641
0.367
it Live cattle
0.210
0.145
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.642
0.613
-0.363
-0.350
0.479
-0.295
0.367
-0.157
-0.279
-0.157
00.254
.069
0.981
0.983
0.949
0.945
0.779
0.950
0.835
0.917
0.963
0.907
-0.110 0.758
0.933
0.925
-0.644
-0.676
0.974
-0.451
0.553
-0.138
-0.477 -0.364
0.728 0.819
0.265
-0.438
0.630
0.488
ISoymeaIHogs
6 Oats
0.129
-0.072
0.375
0.182
0.756 0.483
-0.573
-0.237 0.835
0.521
[~;;;;~;MEX,
iI Wheat (Chicago)
iWheat (Kansas City)
ESoybean oil
fCorn
FCrude oil
1
-0.366 -0.335
-0.635
-0.682
-0.707
--0.780
0.809
0.493 0.150
-0.047
-0.015
0.373
0.643
0.341
-0.794 -0.753
-0.756
-0.881
-0.921
-0.849
-0.880
-0.021 0.884
0.773
0.871
0.890
0.866
-0.637
196
C O R R E L A T I ON
DATA FOR 24 COMMODIT I E S

Correlation Table for Live Hogs
Correlation Table for Live Cattle

1983-88
Oats
Copper
Wheat (Kansas City)
Soymeal
Gold (COMEX)
Wheat (Chicago)
Soybeans
British pound
Hogs
Silver (COMEX)
Japanese yen
Soybean oil
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Crude oil
Sugar (world)
Corn
S&P 500 Stock Index
Treasury bills
Treasury bonds
Eurodollar
Treasury notes
0.572
0.375
0.338
0.321
0.320
0.316
0.303
0.266
0.230
0.216
0.210
0.210
0.208
0.205
0.168
0.098
0.094
0.050
0.028
-0.186
-0.234
-0.236
-0.245
1983-84
1 9 8 5 - 8 6
0.015
-0.217
-0.402
-0.289
-0.287
-0.410
-0.199
-0.229
0.531
-0.413
0.488
-0.030
-0.101
-0.101
-0.287
-0.480
-0.126
-0.292
-0.292
0.029
-0.175
-0.002
-0.151
0.543
-0.043
0.647
-0.135
-0.333
0.671
0.383
-0.559
0.139
0.508
-0.438
0.422
-0.454
-0.455
0.533
-0.396
0.369
-0.526
-0.530
-0.525
-0.527
-0.501
-0.513
197
1987-88
0.192
0.276
0.678
0.461
0.094
0.563
0.676
0.600
0.038
0.020
0.630
0.643
0.393
0.420
-0.465
0.450
0.704
-0.175
-0.183
-0.213
-0.284
-0.263
-0.300
Live cattle
S&P 500 Stock Index
Japanese yen
Gold (COMEX)
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Oats
Eurodollar
Soybeans
British pound
Soymeal
Silver (COMEX)
Soybean oil
Corn
Crude oil
*Wheat (Kansas City)
Wheat (Chicago)
Copper
Sugar (world)
1983-88
0.230
0.151
0.149
0.145
0.108
0.101
0.099
0.064
0.059
0.029
0.027
0.014
-0.026
-0.042
-0.051
-0.061
-0.063
-0.116
-0.133
-0.186
-0.196
-0.202
-0.239
1983-84
0.531
-0.546
-0.549
0.265
-0.437
-0.345
-0.270
-0.634
-0.624
-0.417
0.145
-0.503
-0.195
-0.418
-0.429
-0.495
0.280
-0.103
-0.325
-0.377
-0.176
-0.346
-0.660
1985-86
0.139
0.432
0.425
0.483
0.439
0.437
0.414
0.383
0.395
0.446
0.046
0.478
-0.186
0.117
0.237
-0.438
-0.288
-0.472
-0.361
-0.437
-0.371
-0.483
0.036
1987-88
0.038
0.473
0.476
-0.237
-0.004
-0.423
-0.447
-0.078
-0.085
-0.152
-0.478
-0.051
0.022
-0.229
-0.099
0.552
-0.165
0.063
0.537
-0.339
-0.382
-0.481
-0.445
198

Correlation Table for Treasury Notes
C ORRELATION
Correlation Table for NYSE Composite Index
1983-88
Treasury bonds
Treasury bills
Eurodollar
S&P 500 Stock Index
Japanese yen
Deutsche mark
Swiss franc
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Copper
Sugar (world)
Hogs
Live cattle
Soymeal
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Corn
Soybean oil
Wheat (Kansas City)
Crude oil
0.996
0.955
0.953
0.825
0.81
0.763
0.734
0.722
0.494
0.353
0.169
0.168
0.059
-0.245
-0.273
-0.541
-0.621
-0.685
-0.817
-0.869
-0.877
-0.901
-0.902
1983-84
0.996
0.879
0.937
0.733
I
0.731
-0.279
0.053
0.206
0.208
0.208
0.261
0.565
-0.624
-0.151
0.265
-0.104
0.276
-0.033
0.091
-0.156
-0.488
0.196
-0.042
199
DATA FOR 24 COMMODITIES
gas-86
0.993
0.953
0.946
0.970
0.971
0.963
0.964
0.956
0.801
0.791
-0.059
0.759
0.395
-0.513
0.725
-0.577
-0.81
i
-0.723
-0.742
-0.804
-0.888
-0.878
-0.896
1987-88
0.996
0.822
0.945
0.061
0.010
-0.477
-0.388
-0.422
-0.534
-0.845
-0.520
-0.043
-0.085
-0.300
-0.645
-0.559
-0.644
-0.436
-0.292
-0.514
-0.337
-0.426
-0.179
.1983-88
s&P 500 Stock Index
Japanese yen
Deutsche mark
Treasury bonds
Swiss franc
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Eurodollar
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Copper
Sugar (world)
Hogs
Live cattle
Soymea I
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Crude oil
Soybean oil
Wheat (Kansas City)
Corn
1983-84
0.999
0.991
0.855
-0.350
0.846
-0.170
0.832
0.748
0.828
-0.022
0.825
0.733
0.816
0.533
0.777
0.589
0.621
-0.024
0.584
0.006
0.328
0.049
0.151
0.370
0.149
-0.549
0.028
-0.292
-0.162
0.050
-0.248
0.016
-0.419
0.092
-0.590 -0.164
-0.775
0.134
-0.787 -0.098
-0.805
-0.421
-0.822
0.273
-0.869 -0.281
1985-86
i 987-88
1 .ooo
0.945
0.928
0.976
0.917
0.970
0.892
0.887
0.753
0.740
-0.030
0.735
0.425
-0.530
0.710
-0.532
-0.855
-0.634
-0.734
-0.912
-0.834
-0.874
-0.741
0.997
-0.676
-0.796
0.044
-0.776
0.061
-0.257
0.000
-0.673
-0.299
-0.663
-0.753
0.476
-0.183
-0.612
-0.499
0.358
-0.592
-0.698
0.608
-0.679
-0.663
-0.548
200
CORRELATION
Correlation Table for Soybeans
Correlation Table for Oats

1983-88
Soybeans
Wheat (Kansas City)
Wheat (Chicago)
Live cattle
Silver (COMEX)
Soymeal
Soybean oil
Crude oil
Corn
Copper
Gold (COMEX)
Sugar (world)
British pound
Hogs
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
S&P 500 Stock Index
NYSE Composite index
Treasury bills
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Eurodollar
0.615
0.613
0.596
0.572
0.557
0.545
0.529
0.435
0.391
0.383
0.351
0.208
0.076
0.027
0.007
-0.003
-0.072
-0.219
-0.248
-0.500
-0.520
-0.541
-0.547
1983-84
0.467
0.469
0.409
0.015
-0.144
0.295
0.656
-0.135
0.266
-0.233
-0.139
-0.032
-0.111
0.145
-0.017
-0.089
0.182
0.038
0.016
0.095
-0.091
-0.104
0.034
201
1985-86
0.612
0.610
0.643
0.543
0.492
-0.465
0.648
0.519
0.422
-0.123
-0.289
-0.619
-0.825
0.046
-0.559
-0.530
-0.573
-0.528
-0.532
-0.572
-0.588
-0.577
-0.534
1983-88
1987-88
0.365
0.636
0.612
0.192
0.115
0.578
0.427
-0.319
0.407
0.707
0.622
0.371
0.498
-0.478
0.636
0.599
0.521
-0.456
-0.499
-0.307
-0.544
-0.559
-0.484
Corn
Soymeal
Silver (COMEX)
Soybean oil
Wheat (Kansas City)
Wheat (Chicago)
Oats
Crude oil
Sugar (world)
live cattle
Copper
Gold (COMEX)
British pound
Hogs
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
S&P 500 Stock Index
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Eurodollar
0.826
0.811
0.788
0.788
0.780
0.745
0.615
0.593
0.425
0.303
0.135
0.105
0.018
-0.026
-0.281
-0.307
-0.366
-0.572
-0.590
-0.655
-0.685
-0.712
-0.718
1983-84
0.925
0.919
0.627
0.703
0.565
0.544
0.467
0.632
0.597
-0.199
0.521
0.701
0.732
-0.195
0.746
0.686
0.493
-0.156
-0.164
-0.027
-0.033
0.037
0.057
1985-86
0.875
-0.443
0.471
0.884
0.719
0.698
0.612
0.474
-0.612
0.383
0.268
-0.734
-0.754
-0.186
-0.821
-0.800
-0.753
-0.642
-0.634
-0.669
-0.723
-0.787
-0.761
1987-88
0.912
0.886
-0.033
0.948
0.815
0.729
0.365
-0.487
0.683
0.676
0.651
0.409
0.882
0.022
0.706
0.739
0.884
-0.573
-0.592
-0.411
-0.436
-0.151
-0.319
CORRELATION
202
DATA FOR 24 COMMODIT I ES
Correlation Table for Swiss Franc

Correlation Table for Soymeal
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
S&P 500 Stock Index
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Copper
Eurodollar
Sugar (world)
Soymeal
Live cattle
Hogs
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Wheat (Kansas City)
Soybean oil
Corn
Crude oil
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
0.998
0.966
0.613
0.973
0.997
0.983
0.809
0.879
0.922
0.981
0.901
0.855
0.840
0.828
0.736
0.722
0.714
0.669
0.641
0.472
0.237
0.208
0.916
-0.045
-0.022
0.205
0.206
0.139
0.806
0.195
0.786
0.846
-0.101
0.101
-0.345
0.007
-0.017
-0.196
-0.281
0.804
0.746
0.324
0.292
-0.586
-0.628
-0.681
-0.726
-0.736
0.170
0.846
0.769
203
0.917
0.929
0.956
0.940
-0.132
0.928
0.733
0.715
-0.454
0.437
-0.559
-0.721
-0.821
-0.757
-0.877
-0.937
-0.895
-0.824
1987-G
0.991
0.925
0.913
0.627
-0.741
-0.776
-0.394
-0.422
-0.057
0.905
-0.332
0.720
0.763
0.393
-0.423
0.636
-0.051
0.706
0.720
0.785
0.753
0.719
-0.633
Soybeans
Sugar (world)
Silver (COMEX)
Gold (COMEX)
Oats
British pound
Copper
Corn
Wheat (Kansas City)
Wheat (Chicago)
Live cattle
Soybean oi I
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Crude oil
Japanese yen
Hogs
S&P 500 Stock Index
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Eurodollar
1983-88
1983-84
0.811
0.765
0.714
0.554
0.545
0.494
0.464
0.436
0.434
0.419
0.321
0.311
0.237
0.205
0.919
0.814
0.731
0.796
0.295
0.194
0.129
-0.051
-0.140
-0.162
-0.235
-0.273
-0.317
-0.353
0.854
0.638
0.865
0.544
0.517
-0.289
0.379
0.846
0.749
0.643
0.375
-0.429
0.050
0.050
0.271
0.265
0.242
0.292
1985-86
-0.443
0.780
-0.578
0.522
-0.465
0.588
0.248
-0.494
-0.462
-0.314
-0.135
-0.775
0.715
0.734
-0.729
0.756
0.237
0.710
0.710
0.735
0.725
0.576
0.554
1987-88
0.886
0.540
0.112
0.656
0.578
0.881
0.769
0.837
0.737
0.624
0.461
0.791
0.763
0.779
-0.313
0.835
-0.099
-0.576
-0.612
-0.617
-0.645
-0.292
-0.524
204
Correlation Table for Sugar (#l 1 World)
C ORRELATION

Correlation Table for Soybean Oil
Soymeal
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Silver (COMEX)
Copper
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Soybeans
Japanese yen
Oats
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
S&P 500 Stock Index
Wheat (Chicago)
Live cattle
Wheat (Kansas City)
Treasury bills
Corn
Eurodollar
Soybean oil
Crude oil
Hogs
205
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.765
0.646
0.618
0.486
0.483
0.472
0.446
0.425
0.367
0.208
0.206
0.168
0.161
0.151
0.110
0.098
0.074
0.073
0.072
0.057
-0.124
-0.141
-0.239
0.814
0.823
0.835
0.855
0.775
0.786
0.679
0.597
0.069
-0.032
0.580
0.565
0.353
0.370
0.487
-0.480
0.476
0.397
0.577
0.480
-0.048
0.660
-0.660
0.780
0.710
0.492
-0.660
0.208
0.733
0.748
-0.612
0.758
-0.619
0.775
0.759
0.735
0.735
-0.480
-0.396
-0.600
0.648
-0.541
0.617
-0.815
-0.703
0.036
0.540
0.686
0.138
-0.447
0.652
0.720
0.762
0.683
0.728
0.371
-0.032
-0.043
-0.753
-0.753
0.825
0.450
0.783
0.102
0.602
-0.042
0.818
-0.769
-0.445
Grn
Wheat (Kansas City)
Wheat (Chicago)
Crude oil
Soybeans
Silver (COMEX)
Oats
Soymeal
Live cattle
Hogs
Sugar (world)
Copper
Gold (COMEX)
British pound
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
S&P 500 Stock Index
NYSE Composite index
Eurodollar
Treasury bills
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.886
0.868
0.837
0.794
0.788
0.535
0.529
0.311
0.210
-0.063
-0.124
-0.127
-0.373
-0.449
-0.681
-0.691
-0.707
-0.795
-0.805
-0.821
-0.833
-0.870
-0.877
0.573
0.410
0.420
0.261
0.703
0.134
0.656
0.379
-0.030
0.280
-0.048
0.019
0.166
0.133
0.170
0.192
0.373
-0.398
-0.421
-0.327
-0.279
-0.486
-0.488
0.871
0.804
0.727
0.755
0.884
0.697
0.648
-0.775
0.422
-0.288
-0.815
0.118
-0.765
-0.803
-0.937
-0.932
-0.921
-0.840
-0.834
-0.829
-0.855
-0.864
-0.888
0.848
0.876
0.838
-0.619
0.948
-0.196
0.427
0.791
0.643
-0.165
0.818
0.717
0.339
0.859
0.753
0.787
0.890
-0.662
-0.679
-0.238
-0.078
-0.316
-0.337
206
CORRELATION

Correlation Table for Silver (COMEX)
Correlation Table for S&P 500 Stock Index

1983-88
Japanese yen
Deutsche mark
Swiss franc
Treasury bonds
Treasury notes
Treasury bills
Eurodollar
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Copper
Sugar (world)
Hogs
Live cattle
Soymeal
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Crude oil
Soybean oil
Wheat (Kansas City)
Corn
0.999
0.864
0.857
0.840
0.81%
0.811
0.804
0.762
0.637
0.606
0.352
0.161
0.151
0.050
-0.140
-0.219
-0.399
-0.572
-0.764
-0.777
-0.795
-0.80%
-0.862
1983-84
0.991
-0.363
-0.195
-0.045
0.747
0.731
0.530
0.589
-0.046
-0.014
0.030
0.353
-0.546
-0.292
0.050
0.03%
0.079
-0.156
0.150
-0.113
-0.39%
0.30%
-0.283
207
1985-86
1987-88
1 .ooo
0.949
0.933
0.922
0.975
0.971
0.894
0.890
0.754
0.745
-0.037
0.735
0.432
-0.526
0.710
-0.52%
-0.855
-0.642
-0.737
-0.910
-0.840
-0.876
-0.749
0.997
-0.644
-0.766
-0.741
-0.004
0.010
-0.286
-0.041
-0.641
-0.244
-0.622
-0.753
0.473
-0.175
-0.576
-0.456
0.393
-0.573
-0.685
0.611
-0.662
-0.640
-0.523
1983-88
Soybeans
Soymeal
Zorn
Jllheat (Kansas City)
Zrude oil
Nheat (Chicago)
Oats
Soybean oil
Sugar (world)
Gold (COMEX)
live cattle
lopper
3ritish pound
-logs
iwiss franc
Ieutsche mark
apanese yen
i&P 500 Stock Index
r(YSE Composite Index
keasury bonds
keasury notes
keasury bills
iurodollar
0.78%
0.714
0.673
0.659
0.631
0.613
0.557
0.535
0.486
0.293
0.216
0.100
0.06%
-0.061
-0.196
-0.222
-0.335
-0.399
-0.419
-0.597
-0.621
-0.659
-0.661
1983-84
0.627
0.731
0.65%
0.456
0.862
0.577
-0.144
0.134
0.855
0.952
-0.413
0.937
0.851
-0.495
0.804
0.785
0.150
0.079
0.092
0.290
0.276
0.117
0.19%
1985-86
0.471
-0.57%
0.596
0.771
0.824
0.692
0.492
0.697
-0.660
-0.440
0.50%
0.224
-0.564
-0.43%
-0.721
-0.726.
-0.794
-0.855
-0.855
-0.849
-0.811
-0.706
-0.700
1987-88
-0.033
0.112
0.145
-0.103
0.547
-0.226
0.115
-0.196
-0.447
0.641
0.020
-0.049
0.011
0.552
-0.051
-0.132
-0.021
0.393
0.35%
-0.636
-0.644
-0.55%
-0.611
CORRELATIO N
208
Correlation
DATA
FOR 24 COMMODIT I E S
Table for Treasury Bills

Correlation Table for Wheat (Chicago)
I
Eurodollar
Treasury notes
Treasury bonds
S&P 500 Stock Index
Japanese yen
Deutsche mark
Swiss franc
British pound
Gold (COMEX)
Copper
Sugar (world)
Hogs
Live cattle
Soymeal
Oats
Silver (COMEX)
Soybeans
Wheat (Chicago)
Soybean oil
Crude oil
Wheat (Kansas City)
Corn
983-88
0.989
0.955
0.942
0.816
0.804
0.764
0.724
0.714
0.496
0.342
0.251
0.073
0.029
-0.186
-0.317
-0.500
-0.659
-0.712
-0.818
-0.833
-0.851
-0.893
-0.897
1983-84
1985-86
1987-88
0.976
0.879
0.995
0.953
0.92%
0.892
0.894
0.909
0.876
0.533
0.530
-0.157
-0.013
0.139
0.099
0.086
0.120
0.397
-0.417
0.029
0.242
0.095
0.117
0.037
0.011
-0.279
-0.181
0.06%
-0.13%
0.917
0.933
0.940
0.79%
0.841
-0.180
0.64%
0.446
-0.525
0.576
-0.572
-0.706
-0.787
-0.805
-0.855
-0.792
-0.905
-0.853
209
0.822
0.842
-0.257
-0.286
-0.138
-0.041
-0.057
-0.176
-0.513
-0.183
0.102
-0.152
-0.213
-0.292
-0.307
-0.558
-0.151
-0.123
-0.078
-0.274
-0.183
-0.229
1983-88
Wheat (Kansas City)
Corn
Soybean oil
Crude oil
Soybeans
Silver (COMEX)
Oats
Soymeal
Live cattle
Sugar (world)
Copper
Hogs
Gold (COMEX)
British pound
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
lapanese yen
5&P 500 Stock Index
YYSE Composite Index
Eurodollar
rreasury bonds
rreasury notes
rreasury bills
0.964
0.844
0.837
0.767
0.745
0.613
0.596
0.419
0.316
0.110
-0.025
-0.196
-0.269
-0.359
-0.586
-0.596
-0.635
-0.764
-0.775
-0.804
-0.80%
-0.817
-0.81%
1983-84
1985-86
0.817
0.426
0.420
0.46%
0.544
0.577
0.409
0.517
-0.410
0.487
0.531
-0.176
0.440
0.327
0.324
0.297
-0.047
0.150
0.134
0.060
0.117
0.091
0.011
0.954
0.769
0.727
0.686
0.69%
0.692
0.643
-0.314
0.671
-0.480
0.313
-0.371
-0.644
-0.680
-0.757
-0.730
-0.756
-0.737
-0.734
-0.795
-0.734
-0.742
-0.805
i 987-88
0.950
0.692
0.83%
-0.697
0.729
-0.226
0.612
0.624
0.563
0.825
0.657
-0.382
0.306
0.715
0.720
0.737
0.773
-0.685
-0.69%
-0.262
-0.282
-0.292
-0.123
210

Correlation Table for Wheat (Kansas City)
Wheat (Chicago)
Corn
Soybean oil
Crude oil
Soybeans
Silver (COMEX)
Oats
Soymeal
Live cattle
Sugar (world)
Copper
Hogs
Gold (COMEX)
British pound
Swiss franc
Deutsche mark
Japanese yen
S&P 500 Stock Index
Eurodollar
Treasury bonds
Treasury bills
Treasury notes
1983-88
1983-84
1985-86
1987-G
0.964
0.891
0.868
0.843
0.780
0.659
0.613
0.434
0.338
0.074
-0.059
-0.186
-0.280
-0.374
-0.628
-0.643
-0.682
-0.808
-0.822
-0.883
-0.891
-0.893
-0.901
0.817
0.440
0.410
0.423
0.565
0.456
0.469
0.544
-0.402
0.476
0.355
-0.377
0.367
0.297
0.292
0.222
-0.015
0.308
0.273
0.148
0.209
0.068
0.196
0.954
0.825
0.804
0.818
0.719
0.771
0.610
-0.462
0.647
-0.600
0.250
-0.437
-0.766
-0.732
-0.877
-0.862
-0.881
-0.876
-0.874
-0.898
-0.871
-0.905
-0.878
0.950
0.803
0.876
-0.671
0.815
-0.103
0.636
0.737
0.678
0.783
0.714
-0.339
0.421
0.830
0.785
0.799
0.871
-0.640
-0.663
-0.370
-0.406
-0.183
-0.426
fo 2
lhis Appendix gives a percentile distribution of the daily/weekly true

range in ticks across 24 commodities. It also defines the dollar value of
1 prespecified exposure in ticks resulting from trading anywhere from
Dne to 10 contracts.
EFor example, a 52-tick exposure in the British pound is equivalent to
il dollar risk of $650 for one contract. The same exposure amounts to a
/ollar risk of $3250 on five contracts and to $6500 on 10 contracts. Our
ulalysis reveals that 40 percent of the daily true ranges for the pound
btween January 1980 and June 1988 have a tick value less than or equal
D 52 ticks. 90 percent of the daily true ranges for the pound have a tick
value of 117 ticks, or a risk exposure of $1463 on a one-contract basis.
For five contracts, a 117-tick exposure would amount to $7313. For 10
bntracts, the exposure would amount to $14,625.
1,The appendix could also be used to determine the number of contracts
10 be traded for a given aggregate dollar exposure and a permissible risk
h ticks per contract. For example, assume that a trader wishes to risk
bO0 to a British pound trade. The traders permissible risk is 80 ticks
kr contract, which covers 70 percent of the distribution of all daily
Fe ranges in our sample. This risk translates into $1000 per contract,
pawing
our trader to trade five contracts, for a total exposure of $5000.
,
211
DOLLAR RISK TABLES FOR 24 COMMODITI ES
212
! DOLLAR
RISK TABLES FOR 24 COMMODITIES
Dollar Risk Table for British Pound Futures
213
Dollar Risk Table for Corn Futures

,: Based on daily true ranges from January 1980 through June 1988
Based on daily true ranges from January 1980 through June 1988
Max
Percent
Tick
of Days
Range
10
32
40
45
52
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
70
80
90
Based
on
Percent
of Weeks
875
1750
2625
3500
4375
5250
6125
1000
1163
2000
2325
3000
3488
4000
4650
5000
5813
6000
6975
7000
8138
117
1463
2925
4388
5850
Max
Tick
Range
true
ranges
from
January
1980
7313
through
8775
June
10238
1350
1538
1750
2700
3075
3500
160
177
2000
2213
202
230
282
2525
2875
3525
4000
4425
5050
6000
6638
7575
8000 10000 12000 14000

8850
11063
13275
15488
10100
12625
15150
17675
5750
7050
8625
10575
11500
14100
price
of Days
11700
13163
fluctuation
4050
4613
5250
5400
6750
8100
9450
6150
7688
9225
10763
7000 8750 10500 12250
14375
17625
17250
21150
10
20
30
40
50
8750
10000
11625
14625
60
0
80
90
;,
10
$$$I$$$$$$
9200 10350 11500
1150 2300
3450
4600
5750
6900
8050
108
123
140
Minimum
7000 7875
8000
9000
9300 10463
Dollar Risk for 1 through 10 Contracts
20
30
contract.
10
Range
6
8
9
10
12
14
16
20
28

1
10
$
75
100
113
2
$
150
200
225
$
225
300
338
$
300
400
450
$
375
500
563
$
450
600
675
$
525
700
788
$
600
800
900
$
675
900
1013
$
750
1000
1125
125
150
175
250
300
350
375
450
525
500
600
700
625
750
875
750
900
1050
875
1050
1225
1000
1200
1400
1125
1350
1575
1250
1500
1750
200
250
350
400
500
700
600
750
1050
800
1000
1400
1000
1250
1750
1200
1500
2100
1400
1750
2450
1600
2000
2800
1800
2250
3150
2000
2500
3500
10
I Based on weekly true ranges from January 1980 through June 1988
92
70
80
90
1988
10
40
50
60
$$$$$$$$B$
3200 3600 4000
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
400
4000 4500 5000
500 1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4500 5063 5625
563 1125
1688
2250
2813
3375
3938
5200 5850 6500
650 1300
1950
2600
3250
3900
4550
6000 6750 7500
750 1500
2250
3000
3750
4500
5250
80
93
weekly
Max
Tick
20125
24675
10800
12300
12150
13838
13500
15375
14000
16000
15750
18000
17500
20000
17700
20200
23000
19913
22725
25875
22125
25250
28750
28200
31725
35250
of one tick, or $0.0002 per Pound, is equivalent to $12.50 per
j Percent
i ofWeeks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Max
Tick
Range

1
-$
17
21
213
263
425
525
638
788
850
1050
1063
1313
1275
1575
1488
1838
1700
2100
1913
2363
2125
2625
25
28
32
313
350
400
625
700
800
938
1050
1200
1250
1400
1600
1563
1750
2000
1875
2100
2400
2188
2450
2800
2500
2800
3200
2813
3150
3600
3125
3500
4000
36
42
51
450
525
638
900
1050
1275
1350
1575
1913
1800
2100
2550
2250
2625
3188
2700
3150
3825
3150
3675
4463
3600
4200
5100
4050
4725
5738
4500
5250
6375
65
813
1625
2438
3250
4063
4875
5688
6500
7313
8125
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.25 cents per bushel, is equivalent to $12.50 per
DOLLAR
214
RIS K
TABLES FOR 24 COMMODITIES
DOLLAR RISK TABLES FOR 24 COMMODITIES

Dollar Risk Table for Copper (Standard) Futures
Dollar Risk Table for Crude Oil Futures
Based on daily true ranges from January 1980 through june
Percent
of Days
Max
Tick

2
Range
10
20
30
40
50
Based
on
Percent
of Weeks
10
20
30
40
50
$
840
1080
140
280
420
560
700
18
21
25
180
360
540
720
900
210
250
290
420
500
580
630
750
870
840
1000
1160
1050
1250
1450
340
400
500
680
800
IOOO
1020
1200
1500
1360
1600
2000
1700
2000
2500
1740
2040
2400
3000
700
1400
2100
2800
3500
4200
50
70
90
14
29
34
40
60
70
80
weekly
true
Max
Tick
Range
38
48
60
67
77
ranges
from
January
1980
1260
1500
through
June
7
$
980
1260
1470
1750
2030
2380
2800
3500
4900
1120
1440
1680
2000
2320
2720
3200
4000
5600
10
1260
1620
1890
2250
2610
3060
3600
4500
6300
7
1400
1800
2100
2500
2900
3400
4000
5000
7000
$
380
480
600
670
770
$
760
960
1200
1340
1540
$
1140
1440
1800
2010
2310
$
1520
1920
2400
2680
3080
1900
2400
3000
3350
3850
6
$
10
$
2280
2880
3600
4020
4620
$
2660
3360
4200
4690
5390
$
3040
3840
4800
5360
6160
$
3420
4320
5400
6030
6930
$
3800
4800
6000
6700
7700
60
88
880
1760
2640
3520
4400
5280
6160
70
103
1030
3090
4120
5150
8800
10300
1280
3840
5120
6400
7210
8960
7920
9270
128
6180
7680
7040
8240
80
2060
2560
10240
11520
12800
90
171
1710
3420
5130
6840
8550
10260
11970
13680
15390
17100
Minimum
price
Percent
of Days
fluctuation of one tick, or $0.01 per barrel, is equivalent to $10.00
per contract.
Max
Tick
Range
113
225
20
30
40
12
15
18
150
188
225
300
375
450
50
60
70
22
26
32
42
275
325
400
550 825
650
975
800 1200
525
800
1050
1600
80
90
64
on
weekly
Percent
Max
Tick
ofWeeks
Range
1988
10
Based
1988

1
215
true
ranges
338
450
563
675
1575
2400
from
450
600
563
750
750
900
1100
1300
1600
938
1125
1375
1625
2100
3200
January
1980
2000
2625
4000
through
In
788
1050
1313
1575
900
1200
1500
1800
1013
1350
1688
2025
1125
1500
1950
2400
1925
2275
2800
2200
2600
3200
2475
2925
3600
1875
2250
2750
3250
4000
3150
4800
3675
5600
4200
6400
4725
7200
5250
8000
675
900
1125
1350
1650
June
1988

1
7
$
10
$.
10
20
28
35
350
438
700
875
1050
1313
1400
1750
1750
2188
2100
2625
2450
3063
2800
3500
3150
3938
3500
4375
30
40
50
42
50
56
525
625
700
1050
1250
1400
1575
1875
2100
2100
2500
2800
2625
3125
3500
3150
3750
4200
3675
4375
4900
4200
5000
5600
4725
5625
6300
5250
60
70
80
90
68
83
104
170
850
1038
1300
2125
1700
2075
2600
4250
2550
3113
3900
6375
3400
4150
5200
8500
4250
5188
6500
10625
5100
6225
7800
12750
5950
7263
9100
14875
6800
8300
10400
17000
7650
9338
11700
19125
6250
7000
8500
10375
13000
21250
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.05 cents per pound, is equivalent to $12.50 per
Contract.
216
DOLLAR RISK TABLES F O R 24
Dollar Risk Table for Treasury Bond Futures

Based on daily true ranges from January 1980 through June
Percent
Max
Tick
of Days
Range
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Dollar Risk Table for Deutsche Mark Futures

Based
198%

1
14
17
438
531
875
1063
1313
1594
1750
2125
218%
2656
2625
318%
3063
3719
20
23
625
719
1250
143%
1875
2156
2500
2875
3125
3594
3750
4313
4375
5031
26
30
813
93%
1625
1875
243%
2813
3250
3750
4063
468%
4875
5625
568%
6563
35
41
1094
1281
218%
2563
3281
3844
4375
5125
5469
6406
6563
768%
7656
8969
53
1656
3313
4969
6625
8281
993%
11594
Max
Tick
o f Weeks
Range
a
5
10
3500
4250
5000
393%
4781
5625
-7
4375
5313
6250
5750
6500
7500
6469
7313
8438
7188
8125
9375
8750
10250
13250
9844
11531
14906
10938
12813
10
2313
2875
3313
40
50
60
59
6%
76
1844
2125
2375
368%
4250
4750
70
80
90
84
96
117
2625
3000
3656
5250
6000
7313
3469
4313
4625
5750
5781
718%
693%
8625
8094
10063
9250
11500
10406
1293%
11563
14375
4969
5531
6375
6625
7375
8500
8281
9219
10625
993%
11063
12750
11594
12906
14875
13250
14750
17000
14906
16594
19125
16563
1843%
21250
7125
7875
9000
9500
10500
12000
11875
13125
15000
14250
15750
18000
16625
18375
21000
19000
21000
24000
21375
23625
27000
23750
26250
30000
14625
18281
2193%
25594
29250
32906
36563
10969
Days
Range
10
10
20
30
40
17
21
24
28
213
263
300
350
425
525
600
700
63%
78%
900
1050
850
1050
1200
1400
1063
1313
1500
1750
1275
1575
1800
2100
148%
183%
2100
2450
1700
2100
2400
2800
1913
2363
2700
3150
2125
2625
3000
3500
50
60
70
80
90
32
36
41
48
61
400
450
513
600
763
800
900
1025
1200
1525
1200
1350
153%
1800
228%
1600
1800
2050
2400
3050
2000
2250
2563
3000
3813
2400
2700
3075
3600
4575
2800
3150
358%
4200
533%
3200
3600
4100
4800
6100
3600
4050
4613
5400
6863
4000
4500
5125
6000
7625
10
Max
Tick
Percent
1156
143%
1656
Max
Tick
Based on weekly true ranges from January 1980 through June 198%
37
46
53
of
16563
10
20
30
on daily true ranges from January 1980 through June 198%
Percent
Based on weekly true ranges from January 1980 through June 198%
Percent
217
COMMODITIES
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $ of one percentage point, is equivalent

per contract.
to
$31.25
of
Weeks
Range
-5
10
20
30
40
47
57
66
76
58%
713
825
950
1175
1425
1650
1900
1763
213%
2475
2850
2350
2850
3300
3800
293%
3563
4125
4750
3525
4275
4950
5700
4113
498%
5775
6650
4700
5700
6600
7600
528%
6413
7425
8550
5875
7125
8250
9500
50
60
70
80
90
a2
90
107
132
160
1025
1125
133%
1650
2000
2050
2250
2675
3300
4000
3075
3375
4013
4950
6000
4100
4500
5350
6600
8000
5125
5625
668%
8250
10000
6150
6750
8025
9900
12000
7175
7875
9363
11550
14000
8200
9000
10700
13200
9225
10125
1203%
14850
10250
11250
13375
16500
16000
18000
20000
Minimum price
contract.
fluctuation
of one tick, or $0.0001 per mark, is equivalent to $12.50 per
218
Dollar Risk Table for Eurodollar Futures

Based on daily true ranges from December 1981 through June 1988
Percent
of Days
Max
Tick
Range
Dollar Risk Table for Gold (COMEX)
Based
10
20
5
7
$
125
175
30
40
50
60
9
10
12
14
225
250
300
350
70
80
90
17
21
29
425
525
725
$
250
350
450
500
600
700
850
1050
1450
$
375
525
675
750
$
500
700
900
1000
$
625
875
1125
1250
$
750
1050
1350
1500
$
875
1225
1575
1750
2100
2550
3150
4350
2100
2450
2975
3675
5075
900
1200
1500
1050
1400
1750
1275
1700
2125
1575
2100
2625
2175 2900 3625
1800
Percent
o f Davs
10
$
1000
1400
1800
$
1125
1575
2025
$
1250
1750
2250
2000
2400
2800
3400
4200
2250
2700
3150
3825
4725
2500
3000
3500
4250
5250
5800
6525
7250
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Percent
of Weeks
Max
Tick
Range
10
16
20
30
40
20
24
27
$
400
500
600
675
50
60
31
37
775
925
70
80
44
1100
2200
3300
4400
5500
6600
7700
57
1425
2850
4275
5700
7125
8550
9975
11400
12825
14250
90
77
1925
3850
5775
13475
15400
17325
19250

2
$
800
1000
$
1200
1500
$
1600
2000
$
2000
2500
$
2400
3000
$
2800
3500
1200 1800 2400 3000 3600

1350 2025 2700 3375 4050
1550 2325 3100 3875 4650
1850
2775
3700
4625
5550
4200
4725
5425
6475
7700
9625
11550
Max
Tick
Range

1
10
$$$$$$$$$$
24
240
480
720
960
1200
1440
1680
1920
2160
2400
32
40
48
320
400
480
580
640
800
960
1160
960
1200
1440
1740
1280
1600
1920
2320
1600
2000
2400
2900
1920
2400
2880
3480
2240
2800
3360
4060
2560
3200
3840
4640
2880
3600
4320
5220
3200
4000
4800
5800
3500
4300
5500
4200
5160
6600
4900
6020
5600
6880
6300
7740
7000
8600
7700 8800
10850
12400
9900
13950
11000
15500
10
58
70
86
110
700
860
1100
1400
1720
2200
2100
2580
3300
2800
3440
4400
155
1550
3100
4650
6200
7750
9300
Based on weekly true ranges from January 1980 through June 1988
Based on weekly true ranges from December 1981 through June 1988
Futures
on daily true ranges from January 1980 through June 1988

1
219
10
$
3200
$
3600
$
4000
4000
4800
5400
6200
4500
5400
6075
6975
5000
6000
6750
7750
7400
8800
a325
9250
9900 11000
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.01 of one percentage point, is equivalent to $25.00
per contract.
Percent
o f Weeks
!
!
1
:
:*
:,
r
ks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Max
Tick
Ranae
70
95
110
126
146
175
204
255
345

1
$
700
950
1100
$
1400
1900
2200
$
2100
2850
3300
$
2800
3800
4400
$
3500
4750
5500
$
4200
$
4900
$5600
$
6300
$
7000
1260
1460
1750
2520
2920
3500
3780
4380
5250
5040
5840
7000
6300
7300
8750
5700
6600
7560
8760
6650
7700
8820
10220
7600
8800
10080
11680
8550
9900
11340
13140
9500
11000
12600
2040
2550
4080
5100
6120
7650
8160
10200
10200
12750
10500
12240
15300
12250
14280
17856
14000
16320
20400
15750
18360
22950
3450
6900
10350
13800
17250
20700
24150
27600
31050
14600
17500
20400
25500
34500
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.10 per troy ounce, is equivalent to $10.00 per
220
DOLLAR
RISK
TABLES
FOR 24 COMMODITIES
Dollar Risk Table for Japanese Yen Futures
Dollar Risk Table for Live Cattle Futures
Max
Percent
of Days
$
10
20
14
18
22
30
40
50
60
25
29
35
70
80
90
Based
41
49
66
on
weekly
Percent
of
Weeks
175
225
275
313
350
450
550
625
525
675
825
938
700
900
1100
1250
363
438
513
613
725
875
1025
1225
1088
1313
1538
1838
825
1650
2475
true
ranges
from
$
875
1125
$
1050
$
570
660
$
760
880
2750
3125
3625
4375
30
40
50
26
29
32
260
290
320
780
870
960
1040
1160
1280
60
70
80
90
37
42
48
57
370
420
480
570
520
580
640
740
840
1110
1480
1260
1680
1440
1710
1920
2280
3938
4613
5513
3300
4125
4950
5775
6600
7425
through
June
2688
3225
20
30
40
53
63
74
663
788
925
1325
1575
1850
1988
2363
2775
2650
3150
3700
3975
4725
5550
50
60
70
85
99
113
1063
1238
1413
2125
2475
2825
3188
3713
4238
4250
4950
5650
3313
3938
4625
5313
80
90
134
172
1675
2150
3350
4300
5025
6450
6700
8600
fluctuation
$
380
440
3500
4100
4900
2150
$
190
220
3063
3588
4288
1613
19
22
2625
3075
3675
1075
10
20
2188
2563
3063
538
Range
1750
2250
1450
1750
2050
2450
of Days
1575
2025
2475
2813
3263
Tick
1400
1800
2200
2500
2900
Percent
1225
1575
1925
2188
2538
1980
10
5125
6125
8250
1988
Based
Range
price
1350
1650
1875
2175
43
Minimum
Max
1375
1563
1813
January
Max
Tick
10
contract.
Tick
Range
221
3763
4638
4300
5300
5513
6475
7438
8663
6300
7400
8500
6188
7063
8375
6375
7425
8475
10050
9888
11725
10750
12900
15050
9900
11300
13400
17200
4838
10
5375
6625
7875
5963
7088
8325
9250
9563 10625
11138
12713
15075
19350
12375
14125
16750
21500
of one tick, or $0.0001 per 100 yen, is equivalent to $12.50 per
on
Percent
of Weeks
weekly
true
960
1140
ranges
from
January
Max
Tick
Range
1980
$
950
1100
1300
1450
$
1140
1320
1560
1740
$
1330
1540
1820
2030
$
1520
1760
$
1710
1980
$
1900
2200
1600
1850
2100
2400
1920
2220
2520
2880
2240
2590
2940
3360
2080
2320
2560
2340
2610
2880
2600
2900
3200
2850
3420
3990
2960
3360
3840
4560
3330
3780
4320
5130
3700
4200
4800
5700
through
June
10
10
1988

1
8
4080
$
510
610
670
740
$
1020
$
1530
B
2040
$
2550
$
3060
$
3570
20
30
40
51
61
67
74
1220
1340
1480
1830
2010
2220
2440
2680
2960
3050
3350
3700
3660
4020
4440
4270
4690
5180
50
60
70
83
91
104
830
910
1040
2490
2730
3120
3320
3640
4160
4150
4550
5200
80
90
120
142
1200
1420
1660
1820
2080
2400
3600
4260
4800
5680
6000
7100
4980
5460
6240
7200
5810
6370
7280
8400
8520
9940
10
2840
4880
5360
5920
6640
7280
8320
9600
11360
4590
5490
6030
6660
7470
8190
9360
10800
12780
$
5100
6100
6700
7400
8300
9100
10400
12000
14200
contract.
DO1.LAR RISK TABLES FOR 24 COMMODITIES
222
DOLLAR RISK TABLES FOR 24
Based on daily true ranges from May 1982 through June 1988
Max
Tick
of Days
Range

1
$
10
20
22
2.5
30
40
50
28
32
35
60
70
80
39
44
50
90
58
Based
on
weekly
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1100
1250
1400
1600
1320
1500
1680
1920
1540
1760
1980
1750
1960
2240
2000
2240
2560
2250
2520
2880
350
390
440
700
780
880
1050
1170
1320
1400
1560
1760
1750
1950
2200
2100
2340
2640
2450
2730
3080
2800
3120
3520
3150
3510
3960
500
580
1000
1160
1500
1740
2000
2320
2500
2900
3000
3480
3500
4060
4000
4640
4500
5220
January
1980
through
June
880
1000
1120
1280
from
660
750
840
960
ranges
440
500
560
640
10
53
62
71
530
620
710
1060
1240
1420
1590
1860
2130
2120
2480
2840
2650
3100
3550
3180
3720
4260
79
88
95
790
880
950
1580
1760
1900
2370
2640
2850
3160
3520
3800
3950
4400
4750
4740
5280
5700
104
120
148
1040
1200
1480
2080
2400
2960
3120
3600
4440
4160
4800
5920
5200
6000
7400
6240
7200
8880
Days
$
281
20
11
344
563
688
2800
3200
3500
30
40
50
13
15
17
406
469
531
813
938
1063
3900
4400
5000
5800
60
70
20
23
625
719
80
90
26
34
813
1063
weekly
true
Percent
9
10
Based on
Range
1988
of
2200
2500
$
10
20
Max
Tick
Percent
220
250
280
320
true
Max
Percent
Tick
of Weeks Range
223
Dollar Risk Table for Treasury Notes Futures
Dollar Risk Table for Live Hog Futures
Percent
COMMODITIES
10
ofWeeks
4240
4770
5300
6200
7100
4340
4970
5530
4960
5680
6320
5580
6390
7110
6160
6650
7280
8400
7040
7600
8320
9600
7920
8550
9360
10800
10400
12000
10360
11840
13320
14800
7900
8800
9500
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.025 cents per pound, is equivalent to $10 00 per
contract.
$
2531
2813
1719
2031
2344
2250
2750
3250
3750
3094
3656
4219
3438
4063
4688
2125
2500
2875
2656
3125
3594
3188
3750
4313
3719
4375
5031
4250
5000
5750
3250
4250
4063
5313
4875
6375
5688
7438
6500
8500
4781
5625
6469
7313
9563
5313
6250
7188
8125
10625
$
1406
1031
1219
1406
1375
1625
1875
1250
1438
1594
1875
2156
1625
2125
2438
3188
May
1969
2406
2844
3281
$
1125
from
1688
2063
2438
2813
ranges
10
$
844
Max
Tick
1982
through
June
1988
Range
1
$
3710
2
$
10
20
30
40
50
60
25
30
35
40
46
51
781
938
1094
1250
1438
1594
1563
1875
2188
2500
2875
3188
70
80
90
58
66
78
1813
2063
2438
3625
4125
4875
10
4688
5625
6563
5469
6563
7656
6250
7188
7969
7500
8625
9563
8750
10063
11156
6250
7500
8750
10000
11500
12750
7031
8438
9844
11250
7813
9375
10938
12500
14375
15938
9063
10313
12188
10875
12375
14625
12688
14438
17063
14500
16500
19500
2344
2813
3281
3750
4313
4781
5438
3125
3750
4375
3906
4688
5469
5000
5750
6375
7250
8250
9750
6188
7313
7
$
12938
14344
16313
18563
21938
18125
20625
24375
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $ of one percentage point, is equivalent to $31.25
per contract.
DO1 .LAR RISK TABLES FOR 24 COMMODITIES
224
Dollar Risk Table for NYSE Composite Index Futures
Dollar Risk Table for Oats Futures

Based on daily true ranges from June 1983 through June 1988
Max
Percent
nf Davs
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Tick
Ranee
15
19
22
26
30
35
41
51
66

1
10
i-
2250
2625
2850
3300
3900
3325
3850
4550
5250
375
475
750
950
1125
1425
1500
1900
1875
2375
550
650
750
1100
1300
1500
1650
1950
2250
2200
2600
3000
2750
3250
3750
875
1025
1750
2050
1275
1650
2550
3300
2625
3075
3825
3500
4100
5100
4375
5125
6375
4500
5250
6150
7650
4950
6600
8250
9900
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Max
Tick
Range
40
47
54
61
1000
2000
1175
1350
1525
2350
2700
3050
69
80
94
1725
2000
2350
3450
4000
4700
120
155
3000
3875
6000
7750
5
3000
3525
4050
4575
5175
6000
7050
9000
11625

1
5
375
525
675
825
500
700
900
1100
625
875
1125
1375
750
1050
1350
1650
3750
4750
10
20
10
14
125
175
250
350
4400
5200
6000
4950
5850
6750
5500
6500
7500
30
40
50
18
22
24
225
275
300
450
550
600
6125
7175
8925
7000
8200
10200
7875
9225
11475
8750
10250
12750
60
70
80
375
425
525
750
850
1050
900
1125
1275
1575
1200
1500
1700
2100
1500
1875
2125
2625
1800
2250
2550
3150
11550
13200
14850
16500
90
30
34
42
52
650
1300
1950
2600
3250
3900
through
June
Based
10
4000
4700
5400
6100
7000 8000 9000 10000

5000
6000
7050 8225
9400 10575 11750
5875
6750 8100 9450 10800 12150 13500
7625
9150
10675
12200
13725
15250
6900
8625
8000
9400
10000
12000
15500
Max
Tick
Range
3375
4275

1
Percent
of Days
3000
3800
Based on weekly true ranges from June 1983 through June 1988
Percent
of Weeks
225
Percent
of Weeks
11750
15525
18000
21150
17250
20000
23500
40
50
60
70
15000
19375
18000
23250
27000
34875
30000
38750
80
90
24000
31000
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.05 index points, is equivalent to $25.00 per
contract.
weekly
true
Max
Tick
Range
ranges
32
42
52
60
from
January
1980
875
1225
1575
1925
2100
2625
2975
3675
4550
5
1000
1400
1800
2200
2400
3000
3400
4200
5200
5
1125
1575
2025
2475
2700
10
5
1250
1750
2250
2750
3375
3825
4725
3000
3750
4250
5250
5850
6500
10
1988

1
5
10
20
30
10350 12075 13800

12000 14000 16000
14100 16450 18800
21000
27125
on
400
525
650
800
1050
1300
1200
1575
1950
1600
2100
2600
2000
2625
3250
2400
3150
3900
750
825
2250
2475
2775
3225
3000
3300
3700
4300
3750
4125
4625
5375
4500
4950
5550
6450
3675
4650
4900
6200
6125
7750
9300
66
74
86
1075
1500
1650
1850
2150
98
124
1225
1550
2450
3100
925
7350
5
2800
3675
4550
5250
5775
6475
7525
8575
10850
3200
4200
5200
6000
4725
5850
6750
4000
5250
6500
7500
6600
7400
8600
7425
8325
9675
8250
9250
10750
11025
13950
12250
15500
9800
12400
3600
contract.
226

Dollar Risk Table for Swiss Franc Futures
Dollar Risk Table for Soybeans Futures
Percent
of Days
Max
Tick
Range

1
$
400
$
600
$
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
550
650
750
825
975
1125
1100
1300
1500
1375
1625
1875
1650
1950
2250
1925
2275
2625
2200
2600
3000
1275
1575
1875
2400
1700
2100
2500
3200
2125
2625
3125
4000
2550
3150
3750
4800
2975
3675
4375
5600
3450
4600
5750
6900
8050
10
20
16
22
$
200
275
30
40
26
30
325
375
50
60
70
34
42
50
425
525
625
80
64
800
850
1050
1250
1600
90
92
1150
2300
Based
on
Percent
of Weeks
weekly
Max
Tick
Range
true
ranges
from
January
1980
through
June
$
1075
$
1613
$
2150
$
2688
$
3225
$
3763
10
20
43
55
$
538
688
30
40
66
78
825
975
1375
1650
1950
2063
2475
2925
2750
3300
3900
3438
4125
4875
4125
4950
5850
4813
5775
6825
300
600
900
1200
2475
2925
3375
20
30
40
29
34
38
363
425
475
725
850
950
1088
1275
1425
3400
4200
5000
3825
4725
5625
4250
5250
6250
50
60
70
44
49
56
550
613
700
1100
1225
1400
6400
9200
7200
10350
8000
11500
80
90
66
82
825
1025
1650
2050
8
$
4300
5500
6600
7800
10
5
4838
6188
7425
8775
5
5375
6875
8250
9750
1100
2200
3300
4400
5500
6600
7700
9900
11000
1300
1550
2600
3900
5200
6500
7800
9100
10400
11700
13000
1913
3100
3825
4650
5738
6200
7650
90
198
2475
4950
7425
9900
12400
15300
19800
13950
17213
22275
15500
19125
24750
price
fluctuation of one tick, or 0.25 cents per bushel, is equivalent to $12.50 per
Minimum
contract.
12375
14850
17325
8800
88
10850
13388
24
104
9300
11475
10
60
70
80
7750
9563
5
2000
2750
3250
3750
50
124
153

1
Based
Max
Tick
Range
10
1988
Percent
of Days

1
227
on
Percent
of Weeks
weekly
Max
Tick
Range
true
ranges
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1450
1700
1900
1500
1813
2125
2375
1800
2175
2550
2850
1650
1838
2100
2200
2450
2800
2750
3063
3500
3300
3675
4200
2475
3075
3300
4100
4125
5125
4950
6150
through
June
from
January
1980
5
2100
2538
2975
lfl
2400
2900
2700
3263
3000
3625
3325
3850
4288
3400
3800
4400
4900
3825
4275
4950
4250
4750
5500
4900
5775
7175
5600
6600
8200
5513
6300
7425
6125
7000
8250
9225
10250
lfl
1988

1
5
10
64
82
92
103
116
128
800
1600
2400
1025
1150
1288
1450
1600
2050
2300
2575
2900
3200
3075
3450
3863
4350
4800
149
171
213
1863
2138
2663
3725
4275
5325
5588
6413
7988
5
3200
4100
4600
5150
5800
6400
7450
8550
10650
4000
5125
5750
6438
4800
6150
6900
7725
5600
7175
8050
9013
6400
8200
9200
10300
-5
7200
9225
10350
11588
8000
10250
11500
12875
7250
8000
9313
10688
8700
9600
11175
12825
10150
11200
13038
14963
11600
12800
14900
17100
13050
14400
16763
19238
14500
16000
18625
21375
13313
'15975
18638
21300
23963
26625
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.0001 per Swiss franc, is equivalent to $12.50 per
contract.
228
DOLLAR RISK TABLES FOR

Dollar Risk Table for Soymeal
24
COMMODITIES
Max
of
Days
Tick
Range
10
of Days
Range
$
960
$
1200
1500
$
10
11
123
20
30
40
15
18
21
168
202
235
336
403
470
504
605
706
50
60
70
25
30
39
280
336
437
80
90
57
100
$
240
300
$
360
450
$
480
600
$
600
750
$
720
900
$
840
1050
1200
B
1080
1350
30
40
50
60
18
180
22
25
30
220
250
300
360
440
500
600
540
660
750
900
720
880
1000
1200
900
1100
1250
1500
1080
1320
1500
1800
1260
1540
1750
2100
1440
1760
2000
2400
1620
1980
2250
2700
1800
2200
2500
3000
70
80
90
36
47
65
360
470
650
720
940
1300
1080
1410
1950
1440
1880
2600
1800
2350
3250
2160
2820
3900
2520
3290
4550
2880
3760
5200
3240
4230
5850
3600
4700
6500
through
June
Percent
of Weeks
Max
Tick
Range
true
ranges
from
January
1980
$
120
150
weekly
Max
Tick
12
15
on
Percent
10
20
Based
229
Dollar Risk Table for Sugar (#ll World) Futures
Futures
Percent
Based
1988

1
Percent
9
10
10
20
30
35
42
50
$
350
420
500
$
700
840
1000
$
1050
1260
1500
$
1400
1680
2000
$
1750
2100
2500
$
2100
2520
3000
$
2450
2940
3500
$
2800
3360
4000
$
3150
3780
4500
$
3500
4200
5000
40
50
60
70
58
67
80
98
580
670
800
980
1160
1340
1600
1960
1740
2010
2400
2940
2320
2680
3200
3920
2900
3350
4000
4900
3480
4020
4800
5880
4060
4690
5600
6860
4640
5360
6400
7840
5220
6030
7200
8820
5800
6700
8000
9800
80
90
120
152
1200
1520
2400
3040
3600
4560
4800
6080
6000
7600
7200
9120
8400
9600
10800
12000
12160
13680
15200
10640
on
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.10 per ton, is equivalent to $10.00 per contract.
of
Weeks
weekly
638
1120
true
246
370
$
493
$
739
560
840
672 1008
874 1310
941
1120
1344
1747
1277
2240
2554
4480
ranges
1915
3360
from
January
Max
Tick
Range
672
806
1980
616
840
1008
1176
1400
1680
2184
3192
5600
through
862
986
1344
1613
1008
1210
1411
1176
1411
1646
1680
2016
2621
3830
1960
2352
3058
1882
2240
2688
3494
4469
7840
5107
8960
6720
June
$
1109
1512
1814
2117
2520
3024
10
$
1232
1680
2016
2352
2800
3360
4368
6384
3931
5746
10080
11200
10
1988

1
896 1344
1053
1579
1210
1814
1434
1792
2106
2419
1792
2240
2632
3024
1389 2083
1658 2486
2083 3125
2778
3315
4166
10
32
358
717
20
30
40
50
40
47
54
448
526
605
60
70
80
62
74
93
133
694
829
1042
90
248
1075
1490 2979 4469 5958

2778
5555
8333
11110
.$
2150
2688
3158
2509
3136
3685
2867
3584
4211
3472
4144
3629
4166
4973
4234
4861
5802
4838
5555
6630
5208
7448
13888
6250
8938
16666
7291
10427
19443
8333
11917
22221
$
3226
4032
4738
5443
6250
7459
9374
13406
24998
$
3584
4480
5264
6048
6944
8288
10416
14896
27776
Contract.
DOLLAR
230
RISK TABLES FOR 24 COMMODITI ES
Dollar Risk Table for Soybean Oil Futures
Dollar Risk Table for S&P 500 Stock Index Futures
Percent
of Days
10
20
30
45
54
69
90
on
Percent
of Weeks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
28
33
38
70
80
90
weekly
5
108
138
168
5
216
276
336
5
324
414
504
5
432
552
672
198
228
270
324
396
456
540
648
594
684
810
792
912
1080
840
990
1140
1350
414
540
828
1080
972
1242
1620
1296
1656
2160
1620
2070
2700
true
ranges
from
January
Max
Tick
1980
5
5
540
690
through
6
5
648
5
756
828
1008
1188
966
1176
1386
1368
1620
1944
2484
1596
1890
2268
2898
3240
3780
June
5
864
1104
1344
5
972
1242
1512
1584
1824
2160
1782
2052
2430
2592
3312
4320
2916
3726
4860
10
5
1080
1380
1680
1980
2280
2700
3240
4140
5400
1988
50
61
300
366
72
81
95
110
130
158
600
900
1200
1500
432
486
570
732
864
972
1140
1098
1296
1458
1710
1464
1728
1944
2280
660
780
948
1320
1560
1896
1980
2340
2844
2616
3924
1308
1830
2160
2430
2850
1800
2196
2100
2562
2592
2916
3420
3024
3402
3990
2640
3120
3792
3300
3900
4740
3960
4680
5688
4620
5460
6636
5232
6540
7848
9156
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.01 cents per pound,

contract.
Percent
of Days
Max
Tick
RanpP
Dollai2
10
26
32
650
800
40
50
60
37
44
50
57
70
80
90
68
82
107
10
20
30
Risk for 1 through 10 Contracts
925
1100
1250
1425
1300
1600
1850
1950
2400
2775
2200
2500
2850
3300
3750
4275
1700
2050
2675
3400
4100
5350
5100
6150
8025
2600
3200
3700
4400
3250
4000
4625
5500
5000
5700
6800
6250
7125
8500
8200
10700
10250
13375
3900
4800
4550
5600
5200
6400
5850
7200
6500
8000
5550
6600
7500
6475
7700
8750
7400
8800
10000
8325
9250
9900 11000
11250
12500
8550
10200
12300
9975
11900
14350
11400
13600
16400
12825
15300
18450
14250
17000
20500
16050
18725
21400
24075
26750
Based on weekly true ranges from May 1982 through June 1988
Max
Range
218
Based on daily true ranges from May 1982 through June 1988
18
23
40
50
60
Based
Max
Tick
Range
231
5
2400
2928
3456
3888
4560
5280
6240
7584
10464
is equivalent
5
2700
3294
3888
4374
5130
5940
7020
8532
11772
Percent
ofweeks
Tick
Range
3000
3660
10
20
4320
4860
5700
6600
7800
9480
30
40
50
69
80
92
104
$
1725
2000
2300
2600
117
135
2925
3375
13080
90
10
to $6.06 per
60
70
80
157
205
252
$
$
5
5
6900 8625
3450
5175
4000
6000
8000
10000
4600
6900
9200
11500
5200 7800 10400 13000
10
10350
12075
$
13800
15525
5
17250
12000
13800
15600
14000
16100
18200
16000
18400
20800
18000
20700
23400
20000
23000
26000
5850 8775 11700 14625 17550 20475 23400 26325 29250

6750 10125 13500 16875 20250 23625 27000 30375 33750
7850 11775 15700 19625 23550 27475 31400 35325 39250
3925
5125 10250 15375 20500 25625 30750 35875 41000 46125 51250
6300 12600 18900 25200 31500 37800 44100 50400 56700 63000
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.05 index points, is equivalent to $25.00 per
contract.
1
232
Dollar Risk Table for Silver (COMEX)
Futures
Max
Tick
Range
10
20
65
90
$
325
450
30
40
50
117
150
180
585
750
900
60
70
220
290
1100
1450
2900
4350
5800
80
90
395
550
1975
2750
3950
5500
5925
8250
7900
11000
Based
on
Percent
of Weeks
weekly
Max
Tick
Range
true
10
$
975
1350
$
1300
1800
$
1625
2250
$
1950
2700
$
2275
3150
$
2600
3600
$
2925
4050
$
3250
4500
1170
1500
1800
2200
1755
2250
2700
3300
2340
3000
3600
4400
2925
3750
4500
5500
3510
4500
5400
6600
4095
5250
6300
7700
4680
5265
5850
6000
7200
8800
6750
8100
9900
7500
9000
11000
10150
11600
15800
13050
17775
14500
19750
22000
24750
27500
ranges
from
January
1980
7250
through
8700
June
13825
19250
175
235
310
$
875
B
1750
$
2625
$
3500
$
4375
1175
1550
2350
3100
3525
4650
4700
6200
5875
7750
399
1995
3990
5985
7980
50
60
70
80
460
575
750
970
2300
2875
3750
4850
4600
5750
7500
9700
6900
9200
11500
8625 11500 14375
11250 15000 18750
14550 19400 24250
90
1300
6500
13000
19500
26000
9975
32500
6
$
5250
Days
7
$
6125
10
$
8750
9400
12400
15960
10575
13950
17955
11750
15500
19950
13800
17250
22500
29100
16100 18400
20125 23000
26250 30000
33950 38800
20700
25875
23000
28750
33750
43650
37500
48500
39000
45500 52000
58500
65000
7050
8225
9300 10850
13965
$
7000
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.10 cents per troy ounce, is equivalent to $5.00 per
contract.
Range
3
$
6
$
7
$
10
20
30
40
50
60
6
8
10
12
14
18
150
200
250
300
350
450
300
400
500
600
700
900
450
600
750
900
1050
1350
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1800
750
1000
1250
1500
1750
2250
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2700
1050
1400
1750
2100
2450
3150
1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
3600
70
80
90
25
33
45
625
825
1125
1250
1650
2250
1875
2475
3375
2500
3300
4500
3125
4125
5625
3750
4950
6750
4375
5775
7875
5000
6600
9000
weekly
true
on
Percent
$
7875
11970
of
Based
1988

2
20
30
40
Max
Tick
Percent
$
650
900
10
9875 11850
13750 16500
233

1
COMMODITIES
Dollar Risk Table for Treasury Bills Futures
Percent
of Days
DOLLAR RISK TABLES FOR 24
ofWeeks
ranges
from
January
Max
Tick
1980
through
June
1350
1800
2250
2700
3150
4050
10
$
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4500
5625
7425
10125
6250
8250
11250
1988
Range
$
800
1050
$
1200
1575
$
1600
2100
$
2000
2625
2500
2900
3500
4700
6100
10
20
16
21
$
400
525
30
40
50
60
70
25
29
35
47
61
625
725
875
1175
1525
1250 1875
1450 2175
1750 2625
2350 3525
3050 4575
80
90
81
105
2025
2625
4050 6075
5250 7875
8100
10500
10
$
2800
3675
-$
3200
4200
$
3600
4725
$
4000
5250
3125
3625
4375
5875
7625
3750
4375
4350
5075
5250
6125
7050
8225
9150 10675
5000
5800
7000
9400
12200
5625
6525
7875
10575
13725
6250
7250
8750
11750
15250
10125
13125
12150
15750
16200
21000
18225
23625
20250
26250
$
2400
3150
14175
18375
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.01 of one percentage point, is equivalent to $25.00
per contract.
234
Dollar Risk Table for Wheat (Chicago) Futures
Dollar Risk Table for Wheat (Kansas City) Futures
Percent
of Days
Max
Tick
Range
10
20
12
14
30
40
50
16
18
21
175
200
225
263
60
70
80
24
28
32
300
350
400
90
42
525
Based
on
Percent
of Weeks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
weekly
Max
Tick
Range
31
37

1
150
true
10
1500
1750
600
700
750
875
900
1050
1050
800
900
1050
1200
1400
1000
1125
1313
1500
1750
1200
1350
1575
1800
2100
5
1350
1575
1800
525
600
700
600
675
788
900
1050
1200
1400
1600
1800
2100
2400
2025
2363
2700
2000
2250
2625
3000
800
1050
1200
1575
1600
2100
2000
2625
2400
3150
2800
3200
4200
3150
3600
4725
3500
4000
5250
ranges
from
January
450
525
300
350
400
450
1980through
June
1225
1400
1575
1838
2100
2450
2800
3675
5
388
43
48
53
463
538
600
663
60
67
76
94
750
838
950
1175
775
1163
1550
925
1075
1200
1388
1613
1800
1850
2150
2400
1325
1500
1675
1988
2250
2513
2650
3000
3350
1900
2350
2850
3525
3800
4700
5
2325
2775
2713
3100
3238
3763
4200
3700
4300
4800
4638
5250
5863
5300
6000
6700
5400
5963
6750
7538
6650
8225
7600
9400
8550
10575
1938
2313
2688
3000
3313
3750
4188
4750
5875
3225
3600
3975
4500
5025
5700
7050
Percent
of Days
5
3488
4163
4838
10
5
3875
4625
5375
6000
6625
7500
8375
9500
11750
contract.
Max
Tick
Range
10
75
150
225
300
375
450
525
600
675
750
20
30
40
50
8
10
12
14
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
350
300
375
450
525
400
500
600
700
500
625
750
875
600
750
900
1050
700
875
1050
1225
800
1000
1200
1400
900
1125
1350
1575
1000
1250
1500
1750
60
70
80
16
19
24
200
238
300
400
475
600
600
713
900
800
950
1200
1000
1188
1500
1200
1425
1800
1400
1663
2100
1600
1900
2400
1800
2138
2700
2000
2375
3000
90
32
400
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
3200
3600
4000
10
on
weekly
true
ranges
from
10
Based
1988

1
235
January
1980
through
June
1988
Max
Tick
Range
10
20
30
18
23
28
225
288
350
450
575
700
675
863
1050
900
1150
1400
1125
1438
1750
1350
1725
2100
1575
2013
2450
1800
2300
2800
2025
2588
3150
2250
2875
3500
40
50
60
33
39
46
413
488
575
825
975
1150
1238
1463
1725
1650
1950
2300
2063
2438
2875
2475
2925
3450
2888
3413
4025
3300
3900
4600
3713
4388
5175
4125
4875
5750
70
80
90
52
60
82
650
750
1025
1300
1500
2050
1950
2250
3075
2600
3000
4100
3250
3750
5125
3900
4500
6150
4550
5250
7175
5200
6000
8200
5850
6750
9225
6500
7500
10250
Percent
ofWeeks
5.5
contract.
SIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMODITIES

Analysis of Opening Prices for British Pound Futures
Analysis for Up Periods
E
Analysis of Opening Prices for
24 Commodities
Difference in Ticks? between

the Open (0) and the Low (L)
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2
5
7
10
12
15
18
23
32
2
7
10
15
20
28
37
50
75
Analysis for Down Periods
This Appendix analyzes the location of up and down periods for 24

commodities. An up period is one where the close price is higher than
the opening price. A down period is one where the close price is lower
than the opening price. The analysis is conducted separately for daily and
weekly data. A percentile distribution is provided for (a) the difference
between the open and the low, for up periods, and (b) the difference
between the high and the open, for down periods.
For example, in 90 percent of the up days analyzed for the British
pound, the opening price was found to be within 32 ticks of the daily
low. In 90 percent of the down weeks analyzed for the British pound,
the opening price was found to be within 85 ticks of the weekly high.
Difference in Ticks between

the High (H) and the Open (0)
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2
5
5
10
12
15
18
23
32
3
7
12
18
25
32
42
58
85
Based on price data from January 1980 through June 1988.

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.0002 per Pound, is
equivalent to $12.50 per contract.
236
237
238
ANALYSIS
OF
OPENING
PRICES
FOR
24
COMMODITIES
ANALl SIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMODITIES
Analysis of Opening Prices for Corn Futures
Analysis of Opening Prices for Crude Oil Futures
Difference in Tick9 between


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
1
2
3
3
4
5
8
0
2
3
4
6
7
9
12
18
IO
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
3
5
6
7
9
11
17
0
5
8
10
12
14
20
28
47

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
1
0
2
2
2
2
4
4
7

Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
6
7
11
13
18

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.25 cents per bushel, is
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
2
4
5
7
9
12
18
1
3
5
7
12
17
20
26
38

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.01 per barrel, is equivalent to $10.00 per contract.
239
I
I
I
240
ANALYSIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMODIT I E S
ANALYSIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMODITIES
Analysis of Opening Prices

for Copper (Standard) Futures

for Treasury Bond Futures
Difference in Tick? between


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
0
1
2
4
5
8
14
0
2
4
6
10
14
18
28
44
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
2
4
5
6
8
10
14
2
4
6
9
12
16
20
27
36


Percent of
Total .Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
IO
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
2
4
4
6
8
10
16
1
4
5
7
IO
14
17
22
29
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
2
3
4
5
7
8
11
15
0
3
6
8
11
14
19
27
39

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.05 cents per pound, is

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or YQ of one percentage point,
is equivalent to $3 I .25 per contract.
241

for Deutsche Mark Futures

Analysis of Opening Prices for Eurodollar Futures

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
2
3
4
6
7
9
12
17
2
4
7
9
13
18
22
31
40

Percent of
Total Obs.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
2
4
5
6
7
9
12
17
2
4
6
9
11
15
20
29
39

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.0001 per mark, is equivalent to $12.50 per contract.
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
0
1
1
2
2
3
4
5
7
0
2
3
4
5
7
9
11
18

Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks

Percent of
Total Obs.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
0
0
1
1
2
3
4
5
7
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
0
2
3
5
6
8
10
14
20
Based on price data from December 1981 through June 1988.

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.01 of one percentage
point, is equivalent to $25.00 per contract.
243
ANALYSIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMOI

for Gold (COMEA) Futures
IS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMODITIES

Analysis of Opening Prices for Japanese Yen Futures

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
3
5
9
10
15
19
26
40
3
IO
15
20
25
35
45
70
110

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
2
3
4
5
7
9
12
15
2
4
8
10
13
17
22
27
37

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
4
5
8
10
14
18
25
35
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
3
6
10
18
24
30
40
60
90

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
2
3
4
6
7
9
12
18
2
5
6
9
13
16
22
31
44

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.10 per troy ounce, is
Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.0001 per 100 yen, is

245
246
ANALYSIS
OF
OPENING
PRICES
FOR
24
COMMODITIES
Analysis of Opening Prices for Live Cattle Futures
Analysis of Opening Prices for Live Hog Futures

Difference in Tick@ between

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
IO
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
2
4
5
6
8
IO
13
17
2
5
9
13
18
22
29
36
50
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
2
4
5
7
9
12
14
20
2
6
8
12
16
22
28
34
44

Difference in Ticksa between

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
2
4
5
6
8
10
13
17
2
4
8
11
14
18
21
28
38
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
2
4
5
7
9
12
14
19
2
4
8
12
18
24
28
34
43


247
248
ANAL\/ SIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMODITIES
Analysis of Opening prices

for Treasury Notes Futures

NYSE Composite Index Futures
Difference in Ticksa between


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0
1
1
2
3
4
5
7
9
1
2
4
5
7
9
13
18
25
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
2
4
5
6
8
10
14
20
3
5
8
12
15
19
25
31
41


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
2
2
3
4
6
7
10
2
3
5
6
8
10
13
16
25
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Based on price data from May 1982 through June 1988.

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or /Q of one percentage point,
is equivalent to $3 I .25 per contract.
(H
Daily Data
- 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
1
2
3
4
6
7
10
13
19
1
4
7
9
11
15
18
21
29
Based on price data from June 1983 through June 1988.

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.05 index points, is equivalent to $25.00 per contract.
249
ANALYSIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMMC
Analysis of Opening Prices for Oats Futures
Analysis of Opening Prices for Soybeans Futures


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
0
2
4
4
6
10
14
0
2
4
8
12
16
20
26
36
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
2
4
6
8
12
15
22
0
4
8
10
16
22
26
42
62


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
0
2
4
4
8
10
16
0
2
4
a
10
16
20
28
44
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
3
5
7
10
12
16
24
0
6
10
12
18
22
26
36
52


251

Analysis of Opening Prices for,Swiss
Franc Futures

Analysis of Opening Prices for Soymeal
Futures


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
2
5
6
8
11
13
17
24
4
7
10
13
18
24
29
40
58
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
2
3
5
6
8
11
17
0
4
7
10
13
17
21
29
41

Difference in Ticks be.tween

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
17
23
3
5
9
11
17
23
32
40
65
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
0
2
3
5
7
10
15
0
2
4
5
8
11
16
23
35

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.0001 per Swiss franc,
is equivalent to $12.50 per contract.

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or $0.10 per ton, is equivalent
to $10.00 per contract.
ANALYSIS OF OPENING PRICES FOR 24 COMM(

Analysis of Opening Prices for Soybean Oil Futures

for Sugar (#l 1 World) Futures


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
IO
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
0
1
3
5
6
IO
15
0
3
5
7
IO
15
20
29
45
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
3
5
7
9
12
15
24
1
4
7
12
17
23
32
40
55

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
IO
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2
2
4
5
6
8
IO
15
25
2
4
6
IO
12
15
21
29
43

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
1
3
5
7
10
15
22
0
3
5
8
15
22
30
40
53

equivalent to $I I .20 per contract.

255
256

S&P 500 Stock Index Futures

for Silver (COMEX) Futures


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
3
6
8
10
13
16
22
30
4
8
12
16
22
29
36
44
58
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
9
15
25
35
50
70
100
0
15
30
40
60
80
110
170
270

Difference in Tick@ between

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
3
5
8
10
12
16
20
30
5
10
16
20
25
28
34
44
58
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
10
20
25
35
50
69
90
140
0
15
30
40
60
95
130
190
295
Based on price data from May 1982 through June 1988.

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.05 index points, is equivalent to $25.00 per contract.

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.10 cents per troy ounce,
is equivalent to $5.00 per contract.
257
258
ANALYSIS
OF
OPENING
PRICES
FOR
24
COMMODITIES

for Wheat (Chicago) Futures
Analysis of Opening Prices for Treasury Bills Futures


Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
1
2
3
3
4
6
10
1
2
4
5
7
9
12
18
28

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
2
2
4
5
6
8
12
0
2
4
7
9
11
16
21
28

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
IO
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
1
2
3
3
5
7
12
0
2
2
4
5
6
9
14
23

Minimum price fluctuation of one tick, or 0.01 of one percentage
point, is equivalent to $25.00 per contract.

Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
12
0
3
5
8
11
14
20
24
34

259
260

Analysis of Opening prices for
Wheat (Kansas City) Futures
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(0 - L) in Ticks
10
20
1
2
3
5
7
10
14
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
F
Deriving Optimal Portfolio
Weights: A Mathematical
Statement of the Problem

the High (HI and the Open (0)
Percent of
Total Obs.
Daily Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
Weekly Data
(H - 0) in Ticks
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2
3
4
7
9
12
14
22
Minimize
Si = x(Wi)2Sf + y,
i
y,(Wi)(Wj)Sij
subject to the following constraints:

Rp = 7: Wiri = T
Wi =

equivalent to $ 12.50 per contract.
Wi L
where R, = portfolio expected return

Ti = expected return on commodity i
261
262
DERIVING OPTIMAL PORTFOLIO WEIGHTS
wi = proportion of risk capital all,ocated to i

S: = portfolio variance
S = variance of returns on commodity i
sii = covariance between returns on i and j
INDEX
T = prespecified portfolio return target
Adjusted payoff ratio index, 84-86

Aggregation, 67
effect of, 70, 72
Allocation:
multi-commodity portfolio, 130-138
single-commodity portfolio, 130
Anti-Martingale strategy, 123-124
Assured unrealized profit, 145-149
Babcock, Bruce, Jr., 96, 123
Bailey, Norman T. J., 15
Bear trap, 104-105
Black-Scholes model, 95
Breakout systems, see Fixed price
reversal systems
Brorsen, R. Wade, 135
Bull trap, 103-104
Capital, linkage between risk and total,
138-139
Commodity selection, significance of,
2-3, 76-77
Commodity selection index, 80-83
Consolidation patterns, see Continuation
patterns
Continuation patterns, 25, 41, 43, 44
Correlation, 3-4, 62-64, 70-74, 124
spurious, 69-70
statistical significance of, 68-69
Covariance, 62-63, 134-135
Curve-fitting (of system parameters),

see Mechanical trading systems,
optimizing
Delayed entry, 10
Delayed exit, 11
Directional indicator, 81
Directional movement index rating,
81-82
Dispersion, see Variance
Diversification:
limitations of, 74-75
rationale for, 64-67
Dollar value stops, 97-98
Double tops and bottoms, 30
estimated risk, 31
examples of, 31-34
minimum measuring objective, 30
Drawdown, 87
on profitable trades, 98-103
Dunn & Hargitt database, 67
Edwards Robert D., 24
Efficient frontier, 132
Equal dollar allocation, 131
Errors of judgment:
types of, 171-173
emotional consequences of,
173-175
financial consequences of, 173
263
264
INDEX
Expectations, trade profit, 119, 177-179

Exposure:
aggregate, 124-127
effective, 145-147
trade-specific, 119-121
Lane, George C., 152

Limit orders, 110
Locked-limit markets, 107
Surviving, 107-109
Lukac, Louis I?, 135
Feller, William, 14
Fibonacci ratio, 48
Fixed fraction exposure, 115- 118
Fixed parameter systems, 157
analyzing performance of, 157-I 64
implications for trading, 164
Fixed price reversal systems, 154
Flags, 44
estimated risk, 46
examples of, 46
Flexible parameter systems, 167
F statistic, 159, 162-166
Fundamental analysis, 1
Magee, John, 24
Margin investment:
initial, 56
maintenance, 56
Markowitz, Harry, 53, 132
Martingale strategy, 122-l 23
Mechanical trading systems,
151
optimizing, 168-169
profitability index of, 156
role of, 154-156
types of, 152-154
Modem portfolio theory, 13 1-135
Money management process, l-5
Moving average crossover systems,
152
Mutually exclusive opportunities, 77
Geometric average, 125

Head-and-shoulders formation, 25
estimated risk, 27
examples of, 27-30
minimum measuring objective,
25-27
Historic volatility, 93- -95
Holding period return WPR),
see Return
Number of contracts, determining,

139-140
Implied volatility, 95-96

Inaction, 8-9
Incorrect action, 9-l 1
Incremental contract determination,
148-149
Independent opportunities, 77
Islands, see V-formations
Opening price behavior, 105-107

Optimal exposure fixed fraction:
for an individual trade, f, 118-121
aggregate across trades, F, 124-127
Optimal portfolio construction,
131-137
Optimization, see Mechanical trading
systems
Options on futures:
delta of, 141-142
to create synthetic futures, 107-108
to hedge futures, 108
Kelly, J. L., 117

Kelly formula, 117-l 19
Payoff ratio, 4, 116-I 19, 156, 164,

166, 179
INDEX
Physical commodity, exchange for,
109
Portfolio risk, 55, 64-67
Prechter, Robert, 48
Premature entry, 10
Premature exit, 10
Price movement index, 83-84
Probability stops, 98-103
Probability of success, 4, 115, 156,
164-165, 178-179
Pyramiding, 4, 144-150
Quadratic programming, 133
Randomness of prices, 157
Resistance, 30, 89, 110
Return:
expected, 58-59, 63-66, 133
historical or realized, 55-58, 62,
134
holding period (HPR), 120-121,
125-127
Reversal patterns, 24, 25, 30, 34, 35
Reward estimates, 23-24
Reward/risk ratio, 4, 24, 27, 31, 44,
50, 51
Risk:
multi-commodity, 62-64
single commodity, 59-62
Risk aversion, 5
Risk equation, 5
balancing, 6
trading an unbalanced, 6-7
Risk estimates, 23-24
revising, 48, 50-51
Risk lover, 5
Risk matrix, 70, 72
Risk of ruin, 12
determinants of, 13
simulating, 16-17
Rounded tops and bottoms, see Saucer
tops and bottoms
Ruin, 5, 8. See also Risk of ruin
Runs test, 176-177
265
Saucer tops and bottoms, 34-35
estimated risk, 35
example of, 35
minimum measuring objective,
35
Sharpe, William, 78
ratio, 79-80
Siegel, Sidney, 176
Spikes, see V-formations
Spread trading, 73-74
Standard deviation, 93-94
Statistical risk, 59-64
Stochastics oscillator, 152-154
Stop-loss price, 2, 88-89
Support, 30, 89, 110
Switching, 108-109
Synthetic futures, see Options on futures
Synergistic trading, 72-73
Technical trading, 1, 23
Technical trading systems, see
Mechanical trading systems
Terminal wealth relative (TWR),
120-121, 126-127
Thorp, Edward O., 117
Time stops, 96-97
Triangles, right-angle and symmetrical,
41
estimated risk, 42
examples of, 43
minimum measuring objective, 41-42
Triple tops and bottoms, see Double tops
and bottoms
True range, 80-83, 94-95
Unrealized loss, 87-89
Unrealized profit, 109-l 10
Variance:
of expected returns, 60-62
of historic returns, 59-60, 134
Variation margin, see Margin
maintenance investment
266
V-formations, 35-37
estimated risk, 38
examples of, 3841
Vince, Ralph, 120
Visual stops, 89-92
Volatility, see Variance
Volatility stops, 92-96
Volume, 23, 25, 30, 34, 35, 41, 43, 46
INDEX
Wedges, 43
estimated risk, 44
examples of, 4445
Wilder, J. Welles, 76. See also
Commodity selection index
Ziemba, William T., 119
SOFTWARE FOR MONEY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Programs in the package include:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Correlation analysis;
Effective exposure analysis;
Risk of ruin analysis;
Optimal allocation of capital; and
Avoiding Bull and Bear Traps.
The programs operationalize some of the key concepts presented in

the book. They are designed to run on an IBM or an IBM compatible
personal computer and are available on 3.5inch or 5.25inch diskettes.
The cost of a demonstration diskette is a nonrefundable $25. This fee
will be applied toward the purchase price of the software should the software be ordered within 30 days of ordering the demonstration diskette.
Please add $3 for postage and handling. Illinois residents should include 8 percent sales tax. Checks should be drawn in favor of Money
Management Strategies.
Mail your check, clearly specifying your diskette preference, to:
Money Management Strategies
Post Box 59592
Chicago, IL 60659-0592
267

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1 Understanding the Money Management Process

Steps in the Money Management Process, -1

70+ DVDs FOR SALE & EXCHANGE

3 Estimating Risk and Reward

The Importance of Defining Risk, 23

Measuring the Return on a Futures Trade, 55

Mutually Exclusive versus Independent

Wilders Commodity Selection Index, 80

Drawing the Line on Unrealized Losses, 88

7 Managing the Bankroll: Controlling Exposure

Equal Dollar Exposure per Trade, 114

Allocating Risk Capital Across Commodities, 129

Optimal Capital Allocation: Enter vodern Portfolio Theory, 13 1

The Design of Mechanical Trading Systems, 15 1

Avoiding Four-Star Blunders, 171

Appendix E Analysis of Opening Prices for 24 Commodities

Appendix F Deriving Optimal Portfolio Weights: A Mathematical

UNDERSTANDING THE MONEY MANAGEMENT PROCESS

CONTROLLING OVERALL EXPOSURE

CONTROLLING OVERALL EXPOSURE

UNDERSTANDING THE MONEY MANAGEMENT PROCESS

THE RISK EQUATION

consequences of such adverse swings is the hallmark of a successful

Willingness to assume risk

The ability to lose is a function of capital available for trading: the

UNDERSTANDING THE MONEY MANAGEMENT PROCESS

DECIDING THE NUMBER OF CONTRACTS TO BE TRADED:

winning over reason. Here speculation or reasonable risk taking can

impossible to accept the switch at face value. It is so much easier to do

Timing is important in any investment endeavor, but it is particularly

THE DYNAMICS OF RUIN

stemming from imprecise timing will be discussed under the following

A new trader, or even an experienced trader shaken by a string of recent

ASSESSING THE MAGNITUDE OF LOSS

This includes a delayed exit out of a profitable trade or a delayed exit

ASSESSING THE MAGNITUDE OF LOSS

THE DYNAMICS OF RUIN

THE RISK OF RUIN

risk of ruin is a function of the following:

The probability of success

The probability of ruin at the end of the first trade

0.40 + 0.096 = 0.496

THE DYNAMICS OF RUIN

Notice how the probability of ruin increases as the trading horizon

THE RISK OF RUIN

that is smaller than 1. Moreover, we can assume that the traders

tions to the Natural Sciences (New

THE DYNAMICS OF RUIN

k = number of units of equal dollar amounts of capital avail-

able for trading

SIMULATING THE RISK OF RUIN

A fraction between 0 and 1 is selected at random by a random number

The results of the simulation are presented in Table 2.1. As expected,

THE DYNAMICS OF RUIN

SIMULATING THE RISK OF RUIN

Probability pf Ruin Tables

Available Capital = $1; Capital Risked = $1 or 100%

Available Capital = $3; Capital Risked = $1 or 33.33%