Physics Study Material For Class Xi PDF

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
Physical constants:1. Mass of an electron (Me) = 9.1x10-31kg.

2. Mass of a proton ( Mp) = 1.6725 x 10-27kg.
3. Mass of a neutron (Mn) = 1.6746 x 10-27kg.
4. Charge of an electron (e) = -1.6 x 10-19c
5. Speed of light in vacuum (c) = 3 x108 m/sec.
6. Planck Constant (h) = 6.6256 x 10-34 J x sec .
7. Universal Gravitation constant (G) = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/ kg2.
8. Avogadro Number (NA) = 6.023 x1023 mol-1.
9. Boltzmann constant (K) = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
10. Stefan Constant () = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4.
11. Wien Displacement Constant (b) = 2.898 x10-3 m K
12. Solar Constant (S) = 1.388 x 103 W m-2
13. Mass of the sun (MS) = 2x 1030kg.
14. Mass of the earth (ME) = 5.98x 1024kg
15. Radius of the earth (Re) = 6400 Km. = 6.4x106m.
16. Density of earth 5.522x103kg/m3.
17. Average angular velocity of the earth = 7.29x 10-5rad./sec
18. Average distance between the sun and earth = 1.5x10 11m.
19. Average distance between moon and the earth =3.84x 10 8m.
20. Magnetic Moment of the earth = 6.4x 1021 Amp. X m2.
Conversion Coefficients
1. 1Light year = 9.46x1015m.
2. 1 A.U. = 1.496 x 1011m.
3. 1 = 10-10m.
4. 1 Pound = 0.4536kg = 453.6 gm
5. 1 Fermi = 10-15m.
6. 1 C.S.L.= 1.4 x Mass of the sun.
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K.V. Aizawl
7. 1 Shake = 10-8sec
8. 1ev = 1.6 x10-19 Joule.
9. 1 Horse Power = 746 Watt.
Quadratic Equation
An equation of second degree is called a quadratic equation. It is of the form
:ax2 + bx + c =0
The roots of a quadratic equation are
X = -b (b2 + 4ac)1/2
2a
Binomial Theorem
If n is any integer, positive or negative or a fraction and x is any real number,
then
( 1+x)n = 1 + nx + n(n-1)x2 + .. .
2
If IxI <<1 , then (1+x)n = 1+ nx.
Mensuration :1. Area of a circle =
r2 = D2/4
2. Surface area of a sphere = 4r2 = D2

3. Volume of a sphere = 4/3 r3
4. Surface area of a cylinder = 2r(r+l)
5. Volume of a cylinder = r2 l
6. Curved surface area of a cone = rl
7. Volume of a cone = 1/3r2h
8. Surface area of a cube = 6x(side)2
9. Volume of a cube = (side)3
Fundamental Trigonometric relations

Cosec
Sec
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Cot
Tan
Sin2
+ Cos2 =1
1+ tan 2 =Sec2
1+ Cot2
= Cosec2
Sin(A+B) = SinACosB + CosASinB

Cos (A + B) = CosACosB SinASinB
Sin (A B) = SinACosB CosASinB
Cos (A B) = CosACosB + SinASinB
Sin 2A = 2SinACosA
Cos 2A = 2Cos2A 1=1- 2Sin2A = Cos2A Sin2A
Sin (A+B) + Sin(A-B) = 2 SinACosB
Cos(A+B) + Cos (A-B) = 2CosACosB
)
Logarithms
Logamn = Logam + Logan
Loga ( ) = Logam - Logan
Logam = Logbm x Logab
Log10103 = Log101000 = 3
Loga1 = 0
Logaa = 1
3
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Average Values
<
>=0
,<
>=0
< Sin2 >=

< Cos2
>=
Approximate Values
If angle (
Cos
) small then
Tan
Differential Formulae
1. Differentiation of a constant is zero
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Integral Formulae
1. dx =x +c
Where c = constant
2. xn+1dx =
3. dx/x = logex +c
4. Sinx dx = - Cosx +c
5. Sin ax dx = -Cos ax
a
6. Cos x dx = Sin x +c
7. Sec2x dx = tan x +c
8. Cosec2x dx = -Cot x +c
9. Sec x tan x dx = Sec x +c
10. Cosec x Cot x dx = - Cosec x + c
11. ex dx = ex +c
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Physical World And Measurement

There are four fundamental forces which govern both macroscopic and
microscopic phenomena. There are
(i)
Gravitational force
(iii) Electromagnetic force
(ii)
Nuclear force
(iv) Weak force
The relative strengths of these forces are

Fg :Fw:Fe:Fs=1:1025:1036:1038 .
All those quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of
which the laws of physics can be expressed are called physical quantities.
(a) Fundamental quantities
(b) Derived quantities.
The units of the fundamental quantities called fundamental units , and the units of
derived quantities called derived units.
System of units:(a) MKS
(b) CGS
(c) FPS
(d) SI
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the

fundamental quantities are raised to represent that physical quantity.
The equation which expresses a physical quantity in terms of the fundamental

units of mass, length and time, is called dimensional equation.
According to this principle of homogeneity a physical equation will be

dimensionally correct if the dimensions of all the terms in the all the terms
occurring on both sides of the equation are the same.
If any equation is dimensionally correct it is not necessary that must be

mathematically correct too.
There are three main uses of the dimensional analysis-
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(a) To convert a unit of given physical quantities from one system of units to
another system for which we use
n2 = n1[M1/M2]a[L1/L2]b[T1/T2]c
(b) To check the correctness of a given physical relation.
(c) To derive a relationship between different physical quantities.
Significant figures: - The significant figures are normally those digits in a

measured quantity which are known reliably plus one additional digit that is
uncertain.
For counting of the significant figure rule are as:

(i)
All non- zero digits are significant figure.
(ii)
All zero between two non-zero digits are significant figure.
(iii)
All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood
decimal point are not significant. But such zeros are significant if they come
from a measurement.
(iv)
All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are
significant.
(v)
All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant.
(vi)
All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are
not significant. Single zero conventionally placed to the left of the decimal
point is not significant.
(vii)
The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units.
In addition or subtraction, the result should be reported to the same
number of decimal places as that of the number with minimum number of
decimal places.
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In multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same

number of significant figures as that of the number with minimum of
significant figures.
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of the
physical quantity and precision refers to the resolution or the limit to which
the quantity is measured.
Difference between measured value and true value of a quantity
represents error of measurement.
It gives an indication of the limits within which the true value may lie.
Mean of n measurements
amean =
Absolute error ( a ) = amean - ai
Where ai = measured value
It may be - positive, negative or zero.

(i)
Mean absolute error
(ii)
Relative error - it is the ratio of the mean absolute error to the true
value.
a = I a I/ amean
(iii)
The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.
The error is communicated in different mathematical operations as detailed below:

(i)
For x = (a b),
x = ( a + b)
(ii)
For x = a x b ,
x/x = ( a/a + b/b)
(iii)
For x = a/b ,
(iv)
n m
x/x = ( a/a + b/b)

p
x/x = ( na/a +m b/b + pc/c
For x= a b /c
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Very short answer type questions, (1 mark question)

Q1. State one law that holds good in all natural processes.
Ans. One such laws is the Newtons gravitation law, According to this law everybody
in this nature are attracts with other body with a force of attraction which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportionally To the
square of the distance between them.
Q2: Among which type of elementary particles does the electromagnetic force act?
Ans : Electromagnetic force acts between on all electrically charged particles.
Q3. Name the forces having the longest and shortest range of operation.
Ans : longest range force is gravitational force and nuclear force is shortest range
force.
Q4. If slap times speed equals power, what will be the dimensional equation for
slap?
Ans . Slap x speed = power
Or
slap = power/speed = [MLT-2]
Q5. If the units of force and length each are doubled, then how many times the unit
of energy would be affected?
Ans : Energy = Work done = Force x length
So when the units are doubled, then the unit of energy will increase four times.
Q6. Can a quantity has dimensions but still has no units?
Ans : No, a quantity having dimension must have some units of its measurement.
Q7. Justify L +L = L and L L =L.
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Ans: When we add or subtract a length from length we get length, So L +L =L AND L
L =L, justify.
Q8. Can there be a physical quantity that has no unit and no dimensions?
Ans : yes, like strain.
Q9. Given relative error in the measurement of length is 0.02, what is the percentage
error?
Ans: percentage error = 2 %
Q10. If g is the acceleration due to gravity and is wavelength, then which physical
quantity does represented by g.
Ans. Speed or velocity.
Short answer type questions (2 marks)

Q1.If heat dissipated in a resistance can be determined from the relation:
H = I2Rt joule , If the maximum error in the measurement of current,
resistance and time are 2% ,1% , and 1% respectively, What would be the maximum
error in the dissipated heat?
Ans: % error in heat dissipated is 6 %.
Q2. Name any three physical quantities having the same dimensions and also give
their dimensions.
Ans : Any group of physical quantities, like work , energy and torque and their
dimensions [ ML2 T-2].
Q3. In Van der Walls equation ( P + a/V2)( V b ) = RT, Determine the dimensions
of a and b.
Ans : [a] = [ML5 T-2] and
[b] = [ M0L3T0].
Q4. Give the limitations of dimensional analysis.
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Ans
Q5. If X= a+ bt2 , where X is in meter and t is in second . find the unit of a and b?
Ans : unit of a is meter and unit of b is m/sec2.
Q6. What is meant by significant figures ? State the rules for counting the number of
significant figures in a measured quantity?
Ans.
Q7. Show that the maximum error in the quotient of two quantities is equal to the
sum of their individual relative errors.
Ans : For x = a/b ,
x/x = ( a/a + b/b)
Q8. Deduce the dimensional formulae for the following physical quantities.
A) Gravitational constant.
B) Power
C) coefficient of viscosity
D) Surface tension.
Ans: (A) gravitational constant = [M-1 L3 T-2],
B) Power = [ML2T-3]
C) Coefficient of viscosity = [ ML-1 T-1]
D) Surface tension = [ ML0T-2]
Q9. Name the four basic forces in nature. Arrange them in the order of their
increasing strengths.
Ans :
(i) Gravitational force
(ii) Electromagnetic force
(iii)
(iv) Weak force
nuclear force
The relative strengths of these forces are

Fg :Fw:Fe:Fs=1:1025:1036:1038 .
Q10. Convert 1 Newton force in to Dyne.
Ans : 1N = 105 Dyne.
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Short answer type questions (3marks)

Q1. If E,M,J and G respectively denote energy, mass, angular momentum and
gravitational constant, Calculate the dimensions of EJ2 /M5G2
Q2. The frequency of vibration of stretched string depends on its length L its mass
per unit length m and the tension T in the string obtain dimensionally an expression
for frequency .
Q3. What is meant by significant figures .State the rules for counting the number of
significant figures in a measured quantity?
Q4. A physical quantity X is given by
X = A2B3/CD , If the percentage errors of
measurement in A,B,C and D are 4%,2%,3% and 1% respectively, then calculate

the % error in X.
Q5. If two resistors of resistance R1=(4 0.5) and R2=(16 0.5) are connected
(1) In series and (2) Parallel . Find the equivalent resistance in each case with limits
of % error.
Q6. The length of a rod measured in an experiment was found to be 2.48m, 2.46,
2.50m and 2.48m and 2.49m, Find the average length , the absolute error in each
observation and % error.
Q7. A famous relation in physics relates moving mass m to the rest mass m 0 of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of the light c. A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes:
m = mo / (1 v2)1/2
Guess where to put the missing c.
Q8. A calorie is a unit of heat energy and it equals about 4.2 J, where 1 J = 4.2
kgm2s-2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals
kg, the unit of length equals m, the units of time is sec. show that a calorie has a
magnitude 4.2 -1 -2 2 in terms of the new units.
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Q9. In the formula X = 3YZ2, X and Z have dimensions of capacitance and magnetic
induction respectively, what are the dimensions of Y in MKS system?
Q10. In an experiment, on the measurement of g using a simple pendulum the time
period was measured with an accuracy of 0.2 % while the length was measured with
accuracy of 0.5%. Calculate the percentage error in the value of g.
Long answer question ( 5 marks )

Q1. Explain:
(i)
Absolute error
(iii) Mean absolute error
(ii)
Relative error
(iv) percentage error
(v)
Random error
Q2. Convert:
( i) Gravitational constant (G) = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
to cm3 g-1 s-2
(ii) The
escape velocity v of a body depends on, the acceleration due to gravity g of the
planet and the radius R of the planet, Establish dimensionally for relation for the
escape velocity.
Q3. Name the four basic forces in nature. Write a brief note of each, hence compare
their strengths and ranges.
HOTs
Q1. What are the dimensions of
/u00, where symbols have their usual meaning.
Ans : [ M0 L2 T-2]
Q2.What is the dimensions of (1/2 )0E2 , Where E electric field and 0 permittivity of
free space.
Ans : [ M1 L-1 T-2 ]
Q3. The pairs of physical quantities that have the same dimensions are:
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(a) Reynoldss number and coefficient of friction,

(b) Curie and frequency of a light wave
(c) Latent heat and gravitational potential
(d) Plancks constant and torque.
Ans : (a), (b).
Q4. If L,C,R represent inductance , capacitance and resistance respectively, the
combinations having dimensions of frequency are
(a) 1/CL
(b) L/C
(c) R/L
(d ) R/C
Ans : (a) and (c).

Q5. If the error in radius is 3%, what is error in volume of sphere?
(a) 3 %
(b)
27 %
(c) 9 %
(d) 6 %
Ans : ( c ) 9%.
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K.V. Aizawl
KINEMATICS
*rest and Motion are relative terms, nobody can exist in a state of absolute rest or of
absolute motion.
*One dimensional motion:- The motion of an object is said to be one dimensional
motion if only one out of three coordinates specifying the position of the object
change with time. In such a motion an object move along a straight line path.
*Two dimensional motion:- The motion of an object is said to be two dimensional
motion if two out of three coordinates specifying the position of the object change
with time. In such motion the object moves in a plane.
*Three dimensional motion:- The motion is said to be three dimensional motion if all
the three coordinates specifying the position of an object change with respect to time
,in such a motion an object moves in space.
*The magnitude of displacement is less than or equal to the actual distance travelled
by the object in the given time interval.
Displacement Actual distance
*Speed:- It is rate of change of distance covered by the body with respect to time.
Speed = Distance travelled /time taken
Speed is a scalar quantity .Its unit is meter /sec. and dimensional formula is
[M0L1T-1] .It is positive or zero but never negative.
*Uniform Speed:- If an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time than
the speed of the moving object is called uniform speed. In this type of motion,
position time graph is always a straight line.
*Instantaneous speed:-The speed of an object at any particular instant of time is
called instantaneous speed. In this measurement, the time t0.
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K.V. Aizawl
When a body is moving with uniform speed its instantaneous speed = Average
speed = uniform speed.
*Velocity:- The rate of change of position of an object in a particular direction with
respect to time is called velocity. It is equal to the displacement covered by an
object per unit time.
Velocity =Displacement /Time
Velocity is a vector quantity, its SI unit is meter per sec. Its dimensional formula is
[M0L1T-1]. It may be negative, positive or zero.
*When a body moves in a straight line then the average speed and average velocity
are equal.
*Acceleration:- The rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time is
called its acceleration.
Acceleration = Change in velocity /time taken
It is a vector quantity, Its SI unit is meter/ sec.2 and dimension is [M0L1T-2], It may be
positive ,negative or zero.
*Positive Acceleration:- If the velocity of an object increases with time, its
acceleration is positive .
*Negative Acceleration :-If the velocity of an object decreases with time, its
acceleration is negative . The negative acceleration is also called retardation or
deacceleration.
*Formulas of uniformly accelerated motion along straight line:For accelerated motion,
For deceleration motion
V = u + at
v = u - at
S = ut + 1/2 at2
S = ut - 1/2 at2
V2 =u2+ 2as
V2= u2- 2as
Sn = u + a/2(2n- 1)
Sn = u - a/2( 2n- 1)
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*Free fall :- In the absence of the air resistance all bodies fall with the same
acceleration towards
earth from a small height. This is called free fall. The
acceleration with which a body falls is called gravitational acceleration (g).Its value is
9.8 m/sec2.
*Relative Motion:- The rate of change of distance of one object with respect to the
other is called relative velocity. The relative velocity of an object B with respect to the
object A when both are in motion is the rate of change of position of object B with
respect to the object A.
*Relative velocity of object A with respect to object B
AB = A - B
When both objects are move in same direction, then the relative velocity of object B
with respect to the object A
BA = B - A
When the object B moves in opposite direction of object A .
BA = B + A
When VA and VB are incident to each other at angle
VAB = (V2A + V2B 2VAVBCos )1/2
*Scalars :- The quantities which have magnitude only but no direction. For example :
mass, length, time, speed , temperature etc.
*Vectors :- The quantities which have magnitude as well as direction and obeys
vector laws of addition, multiplication etc.
For examples : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force , momentum etc.
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Addition of Vectors :(i)
Only vectors of same nature can be added.
(ii)
The addition of two vector A and B is resultant R
=
And
R = ( A2 + B2+ 2AB Cos)1/2
And
tan = B Sin/ ( A + B Cos) ,
Where is the angle between vector A and vector B, And is the angle which R
makes with the direction of A.
(iii)
Vector addition is commutative
(iv)
Vector addition is associative,
( + ) +
(v)
+ = +
+( + )
R is maximum if = 0 and minimum if = 180 0.
Subtraction of two vectors :(i)
Only vector of same nature can be subtracted.
(ii)
Subtraction of B from A = vector addition of A and (-B),
+ ( )
Where R = [ A2+ B2+2AB Cos(180 - ) ]1/2 and

tan = B Sin(180 - )/ [ A + B Cos(180 - ) ], Where is the angle between A and
B and is the angle which R makes with the direction of A.
(iii)
Vector subtraction is not commutative -
(iv)
Vector subtraction is not associative,
( - )-
-( - )
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Rectangular components of a vector in a plane :- If A makes an angle with x-axis

and Ax and By be the rectangular components of A along
X-axis and Y- axis
respectively, then
Here Ax = A Cos and Ay = A Sin

And
And
A = ( Ax2 + Ay2)1/2
tan = Ay/Ax
Dot product or scalar product : - The dot product of two vectors A and B,
represented by
is a scalar , which is equal to the product of the magnitudes of
A and B and the Cosine of the smaller angle between them.

If is the smaller angle between A and B, then
. = AB Cos
(i)
. = . = . = 1
(ii)
. = . = . = 0
(iii)
If
= Ax + Ay + Az
Then
and
= Bx + By + Bz
. =AxBx + AyBy +AzBz
Cross or Vector product :The cross product of two vectors and , represented by x is a vector , which
is equal to the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the sine of the smaller
angle between them.
If is the smaller angle between A and B, then
= AB Sin
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Where is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing and .
(i)
x =
(ii)
x =

x =-
=0
x =
x =-
x
If =Ax +Ay +Az and
(iii)
x =
=-
=Bx +By +Bz
x = ( AxBz - AzBy) + ( AzBx - AxBz) +( AxBy - AyBx)

Projectile motion : - Projectile is the name given to anybody which once thrown in to
space with some initial velocity, moves thereafter under the influence of gravity
alone without being propelled by any engine or fuel. The path followed by a projectile
is called its trajectory.
Path followed by the projectile is parabola.
Velocity of projectile at any instant t ,

V = [(u2 - 2ugtsin + g2t2)]1/2
Horizontal range
R = u2 Sin2/g
For maximum range =450,
Rmax = u2 /g
Flight time
T = 2u Sin/g
Height
H = u2 sin2/2g
For maximum height =900
Hmax.= u2/2g
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Very Short answer type questions ( 1 marks )

Q1. What does the slope of v-t graph indicate ?
Ans : Acceleration
Q2. Under what condition the average velocity equal to instantaneous velocity?
Ans :For a uniform velocity.
Q.3. The position coordinate of a moving particle is given by x=6+18t+9t2 (x in
meter, t in seconds) what is its velocity at t=2s
Ans : 54 m/sec.
Q4. Give an example when a body moving with uniform speed has acceleration.
Ans : In the uniform circular motion.
Q5. Two balls of different masses are thrown vertically upward with same initial
velocity. Height attained by them are h1 and h2 respectively what is h1/h2.
Ans : 1/1, because the height attained by the projectile is not depend on the masses.
Q6. State the essential condition for the addition of the vector.
Ans : They must represent the physical quantities of same nature.
Q7. What is the angle between velocity and acceleration at the peak point of the
projectile motion ?
Ans : 90 0 .
Q8. What is the angular velocity of the hour hand of a clock ?
Ans : W = 2/12 = /6 rad h-1,
Q9. What is the source of centripetal acceleration for earth to go round the sun ?
Ans. Gravitation force of the sun.
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K.V. Aizawl
Q10. What is the average value of acceleration vector in uniform circular motion .
Ans : Null vector .
Short Answer type question ( 2 marks )

Q1. Derive an equation for the distance travelled by an uniform acceleration body in
nth second of its motion.
Ans. S Sn = u +
( 2n- 1)
Q2. The velocity of a moving particle is given by V=6+18t+9t2 (x in meter, t in

seconds) what is its acceleration at t=2s
Ans. Differentiation of the given equation eq. w.r.t. time

We get
a = 18 + 18t
At
t = 2 sec.
a= 54 m/sec2.
Q3.what is relative velocity in one dimension, if VA and VB are the velocities of the
body A and B respectively then prove that VAB=VA-VB?
Ans. Relative Motion:- The rate of change of separation between the two object is
called relative velocity. The relative velocity of an object B with respect to the object
A when both are in motion is the rate of change of position of object B with respect
to the object A .
*Relative velocity of object A with respect to object B
VAB = VA - VB
When both objects are moving in same direction , then the relative velocity of object
B with respect to the object A
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K.V. Aizawl
VBA = VB - VA
Q4. Show that when the horizontal range is maximum, height attained by the body
is one fourth the maximum range in the projectile motion.
Ans : We know that the horizontal range

R = u2 Sin2/g
For maximum range =450,
Rmax = u2 /g
and Height
H = u2 sin2/2g
For =450
H = u2 /4g = 1/4 of the Rmax.
Q6. State
the parallelogram law of vector addition. Derive an expression for
magnitude and direction of resultant of the two vectors.

Ans. The addition of two vector
and is resultant
= +
And
R = ( A2 + B2+ 2AB Cos)1/2
And
tan = B Sin/ ( A + B Cos) ,
Where is the angle between vector
and vector , And is the angle which
makes with the direction of .

Q7. A gunman always keeps his gun slightly tilted above the line of sight while
shooting. Why,
Ans.
Because bullet follow parabolic trajectory under constant downward
acceleration.
Q8. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.
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K.V. Aizawl
Ans : Derive the expression

V=r
Q9. What do you mean by rectangular components of a vector? Explain how a
vector can be resolved into two rectangular components in a plane .
Q10. The greatest height to which a man can a stone is h, what will be the longest
distance upto which he can throw the stone ?
Ans: we know that
Hmax.= Rmax /2
So
h = R/2
Or
R = 2h
Short answer questions ( 3 marks )

Q1. If R is the horizontal range for inclination and H is the height reached by the
projectile, show that R(max.) is given by
Rmax =4H
Q2. A body is projected at an angle with the horizontal. Derive an expression for
its horizontal range. Show that there are two angles 1 and 2 projections for the
same horizontal range. Such that (1 +2 ) = 900.
Q3. Prove that there are two values of time for which a projectile is at the same
height . Also show that the sum of these two times is equal to the time of flight.
Q4: Draw position time graphs of two objects , A and B moving along straight line,
when their relative velocity is zero.
(i)
Zero
Q5. Two vectors A and B are inclined to each other at an angle . Using triangle law
of vector addition, find the magnitude and direction of their resultant.
24
K.V. Aizawl
Q6. Define centripetal acceleration. Derive an expression for the centripetal

acceleration of a particle moving with constant speed v along a circular path of
radius r.
Q7. When the angle between two vectors of equal magnitudes is 2/3, prove that
the magnitude of the resultant is equal to either.
Q8. A ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 19.6 m/s from the top of a tower
returns to the earth in 6s. find the height of the tower. ( g = 9.8 m/sec2)
Q9. Find the value of so that the vector = 2 + + and = 4 2 2 are
perpendicular to each.
Q10. Show that a given gun will shoot three times as high when elevated at angle of
600 as when fired at angle of 300 but will carry the same distance on a horizontal
plane.
Long answer question ( 5 marks)
Q1. Draw velocity- time graph of uniformly accelerated motion in one dimension.
From the velocity time graph of uniform accelerated motion, deduce the equations
of motion in distance and time.
Q2. (a) With the help of a simple case of an object moving with a constant velocity
show that the area under velocity time curve represents over a given time interval.
(b) A car moving with a speed of 126 km/h is brought to a stop within a distance
of 200m. calculate the retardation of the car and the time required to stop it.
Q3. Establish the following vector inequalities :
(i)
+ +
(ii)
- +
When does the equality sign apply.
25
K.V. Aizawl
Q4. What is a projectile ? show that its path is parabolic. Also find the expression
for :
(i)
Maximum height attained and
(ii)
Time of flight
Q5. Define centripetal acceleration. Derive an expression for the centripetal

acceleration of a body moving with uniform speed v along a circular path of
radius r. explain how it acts along the radius towards the centre of the circular
path.
HOTS
Q1. and are two vectors and is the angle between them, If
x = 3 ( . ), calculate the value of angle .
Ans : 60 0
Q2. A boat is sent across a river with a velocity of 8km/h. if the resultant velocity
of boat is 10 km/h , then calculate the velocity of the river.
Ans : 6 km/h.
Q3. A cricket ball is hit at 450 to the horizontal with a kinetic energy E. calculate
the kinetic energy at the highest point.
Ans : E/2.(because the horizontal component uCos450 is present on highest
point.)
Q4. Speed of two identical cars are u and 4u at a specific instant. The ratio of
the respective distances at which the two cars stopped from that instant.
Ans : 1 : 16
Q5. A projectile can have the same range R for two angles of projection. If t1 and
t2
be
the
time
of
flight
in
t1t2 = 2R/g
26
the
two
cases,
then
prove
that
K.V. Aizawl
ans : for equal range the particle should either be projected at an angle and (
90 - ) ,
then
t1 = 2u Sin/g
t2 = 2u Sin(90 - )/g = 2u Cos/g

t1t2 = 2R/g .
27
K.V. Silchar
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

Newton 1st law or Law of Inertia
Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion
until and unless and until it is compelled by an external force to change its state
of rest or of uniform motion.
Inertia
The property by virtue of which a body opposes any change in its
state of rest or of uniform motion is known as inertia. Greater the mass of the
body greater is the inertia. That is mass is the measure of the inertia of the
body.
Numerical Application
If, F = 0 ; u = constant
Physical Application
1. When a moving bus suddenly stops, passengers head gets jerked in the
forward direction.
2. When a stationery bus suddenly starts moving passengers head gets jerked
in the backward direction.
3. On hitting used mattress by a stick, dust particles come out of it.
4. In order to catch a moving bus safely we must run forward in the direction of
motion of bus.
5. Whenever it is required to jump off a moving bus, we must always run for a
short distance after jumping on road to prevent us from falling in the forward
direction.
Key Concept
In the absence of external applied force velocity of body remains
unchanged.
Newton 2nd law

Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied
force and this change always takes place in the direction of the applied force.
dp F
dt
28
K.V. Silchar
or,
dp =F (here proportionality constant is 1)

dt
putting,
p = mv
F = dp
dt
or,
F = dmv
dt
or,
F = mdv + vdm
dt
dt
or,
F = mdv (if m is constant dm/dt = 0)

dt
or,
F = ma
Note :- Above result is not Newtons second law rather it is the conditional result
obtained from it, under the condition when m = constant.
a = FNet
m
Where FNet is the vector resultant of all the forces acting on the body.
F1
F6
m
F5
F2
F3
F4
Where, FNet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 + F6
29
FNet
K.V. Silchar
Horizontal Plane
i) Case - 1
Body kept on horizontal plane is at rest.
For vertical direction

N = mg(since body is at rest)
mg
ii) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally under single horizontal
force.
N

N = mg (since body is at rest)
For horizontal direction

F = ma
mg
iii) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under two
horizontal forces. (F1 > F2)
N
a
F2
F1
F1 - F2 = ma
mg
iv) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally under single inclined
force
FSin
F
N

N + FSin = mg (since body is at rest)
FCos

FCos = ma
mg
v) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under an

inclined force and a horizontal force.
F1Sin

N + F1Sin = mg (since body is at rest)
F2

F1Cos F2 = ma
mg
30
F1
F1Cos
K.V. Silchar
vi) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under two
inclined forces acting on opposite sides.
N
F1Sin
F1
a
N + F1Sin = mg + F2 Sin
(since body is at rest)
F2Cos

F1Cos F2Cos = ma
F1Cos
F2
F2Sin
mg
Inclined Plane
i) Case - 1
Body sliding freely on inclined plane.
a
Perpendicular to the plane
N = mgCos (since body is at rest)
mgSin
mgCos
Parallel to the plane

mgSin = ma
mg
ii) Case - 2
Body pulled parallel to the inclined plane.

mgSin

F - mgSin = ma
mgCos
mg
iii) Case - 3
Body pulled parallel to the inclined plane but accelerating downwards.
N


mgSin - F = ma
mgSin
mgCos
31
mg
K.V. Silchar
iv) Case - 4
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of two forces acting parallel to the
incline.
N

F1
a
F2

F1 - F2 - mgSin = ma
mgSin
mgCos
mg
v) Case - 5
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of horizontal force.
F1Cos

N = mgCos + F1Sin (since body is at rest)
F1
F1Sin

F1Cos - mgSin = ma
mgSin
mgCos
mg
vi) Case - 6
Body accelerating down the incline under the effect of horizontal force and gravity.
N
FSin

N + FSin = mgCos (since body is at rest)
F
FCos

FCos + mgSin = ma
mgSin
mgCos
mg
vii) Case - 7
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of two horizontal forces acting on
opposite sides of a body and gravity.
N

N + F1Sin = mgCos + F2Sin(since body is at rest)
F2Cos
F1Sin
F1
F2Sin
F1Cos

F2Cos - F1Cos - mgSin = ma
mgSin
mgCos
mg
32
mg
F2
K.V. Silchar
Vertical Plane
i) Case - 1
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and moving vertically
downward.
a
mg = ma (since body is at rest)

F=N
mg
ii) Case - 2
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and pulled vertically
upward.
F2

F2 - mg = ma
a
N
For horizontal direction (since body is at rest)

N = F1
F1
mg
iii) Case - 3
Body pushed against the vertical plane by inclined force and accelerates vertically
upward.
FCos
F

N = FSin (since body is at rest)
FSin

FCos mg = ma
mg
iv) Case - 3
downward.
N a
FSin

FCos + mg = ma
FCos
mg
33
K.V. Silchar
Tension In A Light String

Force applied by any linear object such as string, rope, chain, rod etc. is known
as its tension. Since string is a highly flexible object so it can only pull the object and can
never push. Hence tension of the string always acts away from the body to which it is
attached irrespective of the direction.
Tension of the string, being of pulling nature, always acts away from the body to which it is attached
i) Flexible wire holding the lamp pulls the lamp in upward direction and pulls the
point of suspension in the downward direction.
ii) Rope holding the bucket in the well pulls the bucket in the upward direction and
the pulley in the downward direction.
iii) Rope attached between the cattle and the peg pulls the cattle towards the peg
and peg towards the cattle.
iv) When a block is pulled by the chain, the chain pulls the block in forward direction
and the person holding the chain in reverse direction.
Key Point
In case of light string, rope, chain, rod etc. tension is same all along their lengths.
T1
T2
Consider a point P on a light (massless) string. Let tensions on either side of it be T 1

and T2 respectively and the string be accelerating towards left under these forces.
Then for point P
T1 - T2 = ma
Since string is considered to be light mass m of point P is zero
or,
T1 - T2 = 0
or,
T1 = T2
34
K.V. Silchar
i) Case - 1
Two bodies connected by a string are placed on a smooth horizontal plane and
pulled by a horizontal force.
N2
N1
a
m2
m1
m2g
m1g
For vertical equilibrium of m1 and m2

N1 = m1g and N2 = m2g
For horizontal acceleration of m1 and m2
F T = m1a and T = m2a
(Since both the bodies are connected to the same single string they have same acceleration)
ii) Case - 2
Two bodies connected by a horizontal string are placed on a smooth horizontal
plane and pulled by a inclined force.
N2
N1
FSin
a
m2
m1
m2g
FCos
m1g

N1 + FSin = m1g and N2 = m2g
FCos T = m1a and T = m2a
(since both the bodies are connected to the same single string they have same accelerations)
iii) Case - 3
Two bodies connected by a inclined string are placed on a smooth horizontal
plane and pulled by a inclined force.
35
K.V. Silchar
N2
N1
FSin
TCos
m2
TSin
T
m1
FCos
TSin
TCos
m2g
m1g

N1 + FSin = m1g + TSin and N2 + TSin = m2g
FCos TCos = m1a and TCos = m2a
(since both the bodies are connected to the same single string they have same accelerations)
iv) Case - 4
Two bodies connected by a string made to accelerate up the incline by applying
force parallel to the incline.
F
N1
m1gSin
N2
T
m1gCos
T
m1g
m2gSin
m2g
m2gCos
For equilibrium of m1 and m2 in the direction perpendicular to the plane

N1 = m1gCos and N2 = m2gCos
For acceleration of m1 and m2 up the incline
F - T - m1gSin = m1a and T - m2gSin = m2a
Tension of A light Rigid Rod

Force applied by rod is also known as its tension. Since rod is rigid,
it cannot bend like string. Hence rod can pull as well as push. Tension of rod can be
of pulling as well as pushing nature but one at a time. Tension of a rod attached to
the body may be directed towards as well as away from the body.
T
FFF
Tension of rod is pulling both the blocks
Tension of rod is pushing both the blocks
36
K.V. Silchar
i) Pillars supporting the house pushes the house in the upward direction and
pushes the ground in the downward direction.
ii) Wooden bars used in the chair pushes the ground in the downward direction and
pushes the seating top in the upward direction.
iii) Parallel bars attached to the ice-cream trolley pushes the trolley in the forward
direction and pushes the ice-cream vendor in the backward direction.(when the trolley
is being pushed by the vendor)
iv) Rod holding the ceiling fan pulls the fan in the upward direction and pulls the
hook attached to the ceiling in the downward direction.
v) Parallel rods attached between the cart and the bull pulls the cart in the forward
direction and pulls the bull in the backward direction.
Different Cases of Light Rigid Rod

i) Case - 1
Rod attached from the ceiling and supporting the block attached to its lower end.
Since the block is at rest
T
T = mg
T
m
mg
ii) Case - 2
Rod is attached between two blocks placed on the horizontal plane and the blocks
are accelerated by pushing force.
N1
N2
a
m1
m2

m1g
m2g
(Since both the bodies connected to the rod will have same acceleration)
iii) Case - 3
Rod is attached between two blocks placed on the horizontal plane and the blocks
are accelerated by pulling force.
N2
N1
a
m2

m2g
37
m1
m1g
K.V. Silchar

(Since both the bodies are connected to the same rod they have same acceleration)
iv) Case - 4
Rod is attached between two blocks placed on the incline plane and the blocks are
accelerated by pushing parallel to the incline.
N2
N1 = m1gCos and N2 = m2gCos
N1
m2gSin
m2gCos
m2g
For acceleration of m1 and m2 parallel to

the incline
F m1gSin - T = m1a,
T m2gSin = m2a
m1gSin
m1gCos
m1g
Fixed Pulley
It is a simple machine in the form of a circular disc or rim supported by
spokes having groove at its periphery. It is free to rotate about an axis passing
through its center and perpendicular to its plane.
Key Point
In case of light pulley, tension in the rope on both the sides of the pulley is
same (to be proved in the rotational mechanics)
T1
or,
T2
Anticlockwise Torque - Clockwise Torque = Moment of Inertia x Angular acceleration

T1 x r - T2 x r = I
Since the pulley is light and hence considered to be massless, its moment of inertia
I=0
T1 x r - T2 x r = 0
or,
T1 x r = T2 x r
or,
T1 = T2
38
K.V. Silchar
Different Cases of Fixed Pulley
i) Case - 1
Two bodies of different masses (m1 > m2) are attached at
two ends of a light string passing over a smooth light pulley
T1
For vertical equilibrium of pulley

T1 = T + T = 2T
T1
For vertical acceleration of m1 and m2

m1g - T = m1a and T - m2g = m2a
m1 accelerates downwards and m2 accelerates upwards(m1>m2)
a T
m1
m2
m1g
m2g
ii) Case - 2
Two bodies of different masses are attached at two ends of a light string passing
over a light pulley. m1 is placed on a horizontal surface and m 2 is hanging freely in
air.
N
For vertical equilibrium m1
N = m1g
a
m1
T
For horizontal acceleration of m1

T = m1a
m1g
For vertically downward acceleration of m2

m2g - T = m2a
T
T
m2g
iii) Case - 3
Two bodies of different masses are attached at two ends of a light string passing
over a light pulley. m1 is placed on an inclined surface and m2 is hanging freely in air.
39
K.V. Silchar
For equilibrium of m1 perpendicular to incline plane

N = m1gCos
N
For acceleration of m1 up the incline plane

T - m1gSin = m1a
m1
m1gSin
m2

m2g - T = m2a
m2g
m1g
m1gCos
Movable Pulley
The pulley which moves in itself is known as movable pulley.
Key Point
In case of light movable pulley, acceleration of a body (pulley) goes on
decreasing on increasing the number of strings attached to it. That is the body
attached with two ropes moves with half the acceleration of the body attached with
single rope.
Length of the string is constant
z
x + 2y + z = L (Constant)
Differentiating both sides with respect to t (Time)
dx + 2dy + dz = dL
dt
dt dt dt
y
or, v1 + 2v2 + 0 = 0 (z and L are constant)
x
or, v1 + 2v2 = 0
Again differentiating both sides with respect to t
a1
dv1 + 2dv2 = 0
dt
dt
m1
m2
or, a1 + 2a2 = 0
a2
or, a1 = - 2a2
That is acceleration of m1 (body attached to a single string) is opposite and twice
the acceleration of m2 (body attached to a double string)
Different Cases of Light Movable Pulley

i) Case - 1
Mass m1 is attached at one end of the string and the other end is fixed to a rigid
support. Mass m2 is attached to the light movable pulley.
40
K.V. Silchar
w T1
For vertical acceleration of m1

m1g - T = m12a (m1 is connected to a single string)
T1
For vertical acceleration of m2

T2 m2g = m2a
(m1 accelerates downwards and m2 accelerates upwards since m1>2m2)
T
T2
For the clamp holding the first pulley
T1 = 2T
2a
For the clamp holding the movable pulley
T2a
T
m1
2T - T2 = mpulleya
or, 2T - T2 = 0 (light pulley)
or, 2T = T2
m2
a
m1g
m2g
ii) Case - 2
Mass m1 is attached at one end of the string and placed on a smooth horizontal
surface and the other end is fixed to a rigid support after passing throughaa light
movable suspended pulley. Mass m2 is attached to the light movable pulley.
N
For vertical equilibrium of m1

N = m1g
For horizontal acceleration of m1
T = m12a
2a
m1
m1g
For vertical motion of m2

m2g 2T = m2a
a
m2
m2g
iii) Case - 3
Mass m1 is attached to the movable pulley and placed on a smooth horizontal
a
surface. One end of the string is attached to the clamp holding the pulley fixed to the
horizontal surface and from its other end mass m2 suspended.
N
a
For vertical equilibrium of m1
T
T
N = m1g
m1
T
For horizontal motion of m1

2T = m1a
T
T
m1g
For vertical motion of m2

m2g - T = m22a
2a
m2
m2g
41
K.V. Silchar
iv) Case - 4
Mass m1 is attached to a movable pulley and placed on a smooth inclined surface.
Mass m2 is is suspended freely from a fixed light pulley.
t
T
T
For equilibrium of m1 perpendicular to incline plane
T
N = m1gCos
T
For acceleration of m1 up the incline plane
2T - m1gSin = m1a
T
T
2a
m2
m1

m2g - T = m22a
m2g
m1gSin
m1gCos
m1g
Newton 3rd law or Law of Action and Reaction

Every action is opposed by an equal and opposite reaction.
or
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
F12
F21
m1
m2
F12 is the force on the first body (m1) due to second body (m2)
F21 is the force on the second body (m2) due to first body (m1)
If F12 is action then F21 reaction and if F21 is action then F12 reaction
Force on the first body due to second body (F12) is equal and opposite to
the force on the second body due to first body (F21).
F21 = - F12
i) When we push any block in the forward direction then block pushes us in the
backward direction with an equal and opposite force.
ii) Horse pulls the rod attached to the cart in the forward direction and the tension of
the rod pulls the cart in the backward direction.
42
K.V. Silchar
iii) Earth pulls the body on its surface in vertically downward direction and the body
pulls the earth with the same force in vertically upward direction.
iv) While walking we push the ground in the backward direction using static frictional
force and the ground pushes us in the forward direction using static frictional force.
v) When a person sitting on the horse whips the horse and horse suddenly
accelerates, the saddle on the back of the horse pushes the person in the forward
direction using static frictional force and the person pushes the saddle in the
backward direction using static frictional force.
Note Normal reaction of the horizontal surface on the body is not the reaction of the weight of the
body because weight of the body is the force with which earth attracts the body towards its center,
hence its reaction must be the force with which body attracts earth towards it.
Linear Momentum
It is defined as the quantity of motion contained in the body.
Mathematically it is given by the product of mass and velocity. It is a vector quantity
represented by p.
p = mv
Principle Of Conservation Of Linear Momentum

It states that in the absence of any external applied force total
momentum of a system remains conserved.
ProofWe know that,
F = ma
or,
F = mdv
dt
or,
F = dmv
dt
or,
F = dp
dt
if,
F=0
dp = 0
dt
or,
or,
p = Constant (differentiation of constant is zero)

pinitial = pfinal
43
K.V. Silchar
i) Recoil of gun when bullet is fired in the forward direction gun recoils in the
backward direction.
ii) When a person jumps on the boat from the shore of river, boat along with the
person on it moves in the forward direction.
iii) When a person on the boat jumps forward on the shore of river, boat starts
moving in the backward direction.
iv) In rocket propulsion fuel is ejected out in the downward direction due to which
rocket is propelled up in vertically upward direction.
Different Cases of Conservation of Linear Momentum
Recoil of gun
Let mass of gun be mg and that of bullet be mb.
Initially both are at rest, hence their initial momentum is zero.
pi = mgug + mbub = 0
Finally when bullet rushes out with velocity vg, gun recoils with velocity vb, hence
their final momentum is
pf = mgvg + mbvb
Since there is no external applied force, from the principal of conservation of linear
momentum
pf = pf
or,
mgvg + mbvb = 0
or,
mgvg = -mbvb
or,
vg = - mbvb
mg
From above expression it must be clear that

1. Gun recoils opposite to the direction of motion of bullet.
2. Greater is the mass of mullet mb or velocity of bullet vb greater is the recoil of the
gun.
3. Greater is the mass of gun mg, smaller is the recoil of gun.
44
K.V. Silchar
Impulse and Impulsive Force

Impulsive Force
The force which acts on a body for very short duration of time but is
still capable of changing the position, velocity and direction of motion of the body up
to large extent is known as impulsive force.
Example 1. Force applied by foot on hitting a football.
2. Force applied by boxer on a punching bag.
3. Force applied by bat on a ball in hitting it to the boundary.
4. Force applied by a moving truck on a drum.
Note- Although impulsive force acts on a body for a very short duration of time yet its
magnitude varies rapidly during that small duration.
Impulse
Impulse received by the body during an impact is defined as the product of
average impulsive force and the short time duration for which it acts.
I = Favg x t
Relation Between Impulse and Linear Momentum

Consider a body being acted upon by an impulsive force, this force
changes its magnitude rapidly with the time. At any instant if impulsive force is F
then elementary impulse imparted to the body in the elementary time dt is given by
dI = F x dt
Hence total impulse imparted to the body from time t 1 to t2 is
t2
I = Fdt
t1
But from Newtons second law we know that

F = dp
dt
or,
Fdt = dp
Therefore,
p2
I=
dp
p1
p2
or,
I = [p]
p1
or,
I = p2 p1
Hence impulse imparted to the body is equal to the change in its momentum.
45
K.V. Silchar
Graph Between Impulsive Force and Time

With the time on x axis and impulsive force on y axis the graph of the
following nature is obtained
t1
t2
t
Area enclosed under the impulsive force and time graph from t 1 to t2 gives the
impulse imparted to the body from time t1 to t2.
i) While catching a ball a player lowers his hand to save himself from getting hurt.
ii) Vehicles are provided with the shock absorbers to avoid jerks.
iii) Buffers are provided between the bogies of the train to avoid jerks.
iv) A person falling on a cemented floor receive more jerk as compared to that falling
on a sandy floor.
v) Glass wares are wrapped in a straw or paper before packing.
Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces

If the number of forces act at the same point, they are called concurrent
forces. The condition or the given body to be in equilibrium under the number of
forces acting on the body is that these forces should produce zero resultant.
The resultant of the concurrent forces acting on a body will be zero if they
can be represented completely by the sides of a closed polygon taken in order.
F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 = 0
F3
F4
F2
F3
F5
F4
F1
F2
F1
F5
46
K.V. Silchar
Lamis Theorem It states that the three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium if
each force is proportional the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
F1
F2
F1
F3
F2
F3
F1 = F2 = F3
Sin
Sin
Sin
Inertial and Non-inertial Frame of Reference

Frame of reference is any frame with respect to which the body
is analyzed. All the frames which are at rest or moving with a constant velocity are
said to be inertial frame of reference. In such frame of reference all the three laws of
Newton are applicable.
Any accelerated frame of reference is said to be non-inertial
frame of reference. In such frames all the three laws of Newton are not applicable as
such. In order to apply Newtons laws of motion in a non-inertial frame, along with all
other forces a pseudo force F = ma must also be applied on the body opposite to the
direction of acceleration of the frame.
a
T
TCos
TSin
TSin
mg
TCos
ma
mg
47
K.V. Silchar
Inertial Frame of Reference
Inertial Frame of Reference
(Frame outside the accelerated car)

For vertical equilibrium of body
TCos = mg
For horizontal acceleration of body, as the
body is accelerated along with the car
when observed from the external frame
TSin = ma
a=0
(Frame attached to the accelerated car)

For vertical equilibrium of body
TCos = mg
For horizontal equilibrium of the body, as
the body is at rest when observed from the
frame attached to the car
TSin = ma
Therefore,
Tan = a/g
Therefore,
Tan = a/g
Since body is at rest when observed from the non-inertial frame attached to
the accelerated car a pseudo force F = ma is applied on the body opposite to the acceleration of
the car which balance the horizontal component of tension of the string TSin acting on the body.
Note- From which ever frame we may observe the situation, final result always comes out to be
the same.
Reading of Spring Balance

Reading of a spring balance is equal to the tension in the spring of
the balance but measured in kilogram.
Reading = T kgf
g
Reading of Weighing Machine

Reading of a weighing machine is equal to the normal reaction
applied by the machine but measured in kilogram.
Reading = N kgf
g
LIFT
a
mg
a=0
mg
48
mg
K.V. Silchar
Observer Outside the Lift
Lift Accelerating Vertically Up
Lift Accelerating Vertically Down
Moving up with increasing velocity.

or
Moving down with decreasing velocity.
Moving up with constant velocity.

or
Moving down with constant velocity.
Moving up with decreasing velocity.

or
Moving down with increasing velocity.
For vertical motion of body

T - mg = ma
T = mg + ma
T = m(g + a)

mg - T = ma
T = mg - ma
T = m(g - a)
or,
or,
a=0
T = mg
or,
or,
a
a=0
mg'
mg
mg
Observer Inside the Lift

(Body is at rest according to the observer inside the lift)
Lift Accelerating Vertically Down
Moving up with increasing velocity.

or
Moving down with decreasing velocity.
Moving up with constant velocity.

or
Moving down with constant velocity.
Moving up with decreasing velocity.

or
Moving down with increasing velocity.
Since body is at rest

T= mg
but,
T = m(g + a)
therefore,
g = g + a
Where g is apparent acceleration
due to gravity inside the lift.

T = mg
but,
T = mg
therefore,
g = g

T = mg
But,
T = m(g - a)
therefore,
g = g - a
49
K.V. Silchar
MEMORY MAP
Newtons 1st Law

If F = 0
u = Constant
Newtons 2nd Law

F = dp/dt
a = FNet/m
Newtons Laws of Motion
Newtons 3rd Law

F12 = F12
F12 = - F12
FORCE
Impulse
I = FAVG t
I = p
Principle of Conservation
of Momentum
If, Fext = 0; pi = pf
50
K.V. Silchar
FRICTION
Friction - The property by virtue of which the relative motion between two surfaces
in contact is opposed is known as friction.
Frictional Forces - Tangential forces developed between the two surfaces in
contact, so as to oppose their relative motion are known as frictional forces or
commonly friction.
Types of Frictional Forces - Frictional forces are of three types :1. Static frictional force
2. Kinetic frictional force
3. Rolling frictional force
Static Frictional Force - Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in contact
which are relatively at rest, so as to oppose their relative motion, when they tend to
move relatively under the effect of any external force is known as static frictional
force. Static frictional force is a self adjusting force and its value lies between its
minimum value up to its maximum value.
Minimum value of static frictional force - Minimum value of static frictional force is
zero in the condition when the bodies are relatively at rest and no external force is
acting to move them relatively.
fs(min) = 0
Maximum value of static frictional force - Maximum value of static frictional force
is sN (where s is the coefficient of static friction for the given pair of surface and N
is the normal reaction acting between the two surfaces in contact) in the condition
when the bodies are just about to move relatively under the effect of external applied
force.
fs(max) = sN
Therefore,
or,
fs(min) fs fs(max)
0 fs sN
Kinetic Frictional Force - Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in
contact which are moving relatively, so as to oppose their relative motion, is known
as kinetic frictional force. Its magnitude is almost constant and is equal to kN where
k is the coefficient of kinetic friction for the given pair of surface and N is the normal
reaction acting between the two surfaces in contact. It is always less than maximum
value of static frictional force.
Since,
Therefore,
or,
fk = kN
fk < fs(max) = sN
kN < sN
k < s
51
K.V. Silchar
Limiting Frictional Force The maximum value of static frictional force is the
maximum frictional force which can act between the two surfaces in contact and
hence it is also known as limiting frictional force.
Laws of Limiting Frictional Force
1. Static friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.
2. It comes into action only when any external force is applied to move the two
bodies relatively, with their surfaces in contact.
3. Static friction opposes the impending motion.
4. It is a self adjusting force.
5. The limiting frictional force is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
Cause of Friction
Old View - The surfaces which appear to be smooth as seen through our naked
eyes are actually rough at the microscopic level. During contact, the projections of
one surface penetrate into the depressions of other and vice versa. Due to which the
two surfaces in contact form a saw tooth joint opposing their relative motion. When
external force is applied so as to move them relatively this joint opposes their
relative motion. As we go on increasing the external applied force the opposition of
saw tooth joint also goes on increasing up to the maximum value known as limiting
frictional force (sN) after which the joint suddenly breaks and the surfaces start
moving relatively. After this the opposition offered by the saw tooth joint slightly
decreases and comes to rest at almost constant value (kN)
Modern View According to modern theory the cause of friction is the atomic and
molecular forces of attraction between the two surfaces at their actual point of
contact. When any body comes in contact with any other body then due to their
roughness at the microscopic level they come in actual contact at several points. At
these points the atoms and molecules come very close to each other and
intermolecular force of attraction start acting between them which opposes their
relative motion.
Contact Force - The forces acting between the two bodies due to the mutual
contact of their surfaces are known as contact forces. The resultant of all the contact
forces acting between the bodies is known as resultant contact force. Example
52
K.V. Silchar
friction (f) and normal reaction (N) are contact forces and their resultant (Fc) is the
resultant is the resultant contact force.
Fc
N
F
f
mg
Fc = f2 + N2
Since maximum value of frictional force is Limiting frictional force ( sN) Therefore
maximum value of contact force is
Fc(max) = (sN) 2 + N2
or,
Fc(max) = N s 2 + 12
or,
Fc(max) = N s 2 + 1
Angle of Friction The angle between the resultant contact force (of normal
reaction and friction) and the normal reaction is known as the angle of friction.
Tan = f
Fc
N
F
or, = Tan-1 f
f
or, max = Tan-1 f max
N
or, max = Tan
-1
sN
N
mg
or, max = Tan-1 s

Angle of Repose The angle of the inclined plane at which a body placed on it just
begins to slide is known as angle of repose.
N

fs
Parallel to the plane when body is at rest

mgSin = fs
mgSin
mgCos
When body is just about to slide
53
mg
K.V. Silchar
mgSin = fs(max) = sN = smgCos

Tan = s
-1
= Tan s
or,
or,
Note - Angle of repose is equal to the maximum value of angle of friction
Rolling Frictional Force - Frictional force which opposes the rolling of bodies (like
cylinder, sphere, ring etc.) over any surface is called rolling frictional force. Rolling
frictional force acting between any rolling body and the surface is almost constant
and is given by rN. Where r is coefficient of rolling friction and N is the normal
reaction between the rolling body and the surface.
fr = rN
Note Rolling frictional force is much smaller than maximum value of static and
kinetic frictional force.
fr << fk < fs(max)
or,
rN << kN < sN
or,
r << k < s
Cause of Rolling Friction When any body rolls over any surface it causes a little
depression and a small hump is created just ahead of it. The hump offers resistance
to the motion of the rolling body, this resistance is rolling frictional force. Due to this
reason only, hard surfaces like cemented floor offers less resistance as compared to
soft sandy floor because hump created on a hard floor
is much smaller as compared to the soft floor.
fr
v(direction of rolling)
Need to Convert Kinetic Friction into Rolling Friction Of all the frictional
forces rolling frictional force is minimum. Hence in order to avoid the wear and tear
of machinery it is required to convert kinetic frictional force into rolling frictional force
and for this reason we make the use of ball-bearings.
Rings having groove on its inner side
Rings having groove on its outer side
Steel ball trapped between the groves
54
K.V. Silchar
Friction: A Necessary Evil Although frictional force is a non-conservative force

and causes lots of wastage of energy in the form of heat yet it is very useful to us in
many ways. That is why it is considered as a necessary evil.
Advantages of Friction i) Friction is necessary in walking. Without friction it would have been impossible for
us to walk.
ii) Friction is necessary for the movement of vehicles on the road. It is the static
frictional force which makes the acceleration and retardation of vehicles possible on
the road.
iii) Friction is helpful in tying knots in the ropes and strings.
iv) We are able to hold anything with our hands by the help of friction only.
Disadvantages of Friction i) Friction causes wear and tear in the machinery parts.
ii) Kinetic friction wastes energy in the form of heat, light and sound.
iii) A part of fuel energy is consumed in overcoming the friction operating within the
various parts of machinery.
Methods to Reduce Friction
i) By polishing Polishing makes the surface smooth by filling the space between
the depressions and projections present in the surface of the bodies at microscopic
level and there by reduces friction.
ii) By proper selection of material Since friction depends upon the nature of
material used hence it can be largely reduced by proper selection of materials.
iii) By lubricating When oil or grease is placed between the two surfaces in contact,
it prevents the surface from coming in actual contact with each other. This converts
solid friction into liquid friction which is very small.
Horizontal Plane
i) Body kept on horizontal plane is at rest and no force is applied.
N
For vertical equilibrium

N = mg
ffriction = 0 (friction is a opposing force and there is no external applied force)
mg
ii) Body kept on horizontal plane is at rest under single horizontal force.
For vertical equilibrium
N
F
For horizontal equilibrium (since body is at rest)

F = fs
55
fs
mg
K.V. Silchar
iii) Body kept on horizontal plane is just about to move.

N
F
For horizontal direction (since body is just about to move)

F = fs = fs(max) = sN
fs = fs(max) = sN
mg
iv) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally.


F fk = ma
or, F kN = ma
fk = kN
mg
v) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under

single upward inclined force.
FSin


FCos - fk = ma
or, FCos - kN = ma
FCos
fk = kN
mg
vi) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under
single downward inclined force.
N

N = FSin + mg (since body is at rest)
FCos

FCos - fk = ma
or, FCos - kN = ma
F
FSin
fk = kN
mg
vii) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under an
inclined force and an opposing horizontally applied force.
FSin

F1

FCos - F1 - fk = ma
or, FCos - F1 - kN = ma
FCos
fk = kN
mg
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K.V. Silchar
vi) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under two
inclined forces acting on opposite sides.
N
For vertical direction(since body is at rest)

N + F1Sin = mg + F2 Sin
F1Sin
F1
a
F2Cos

F1Cos F2Cos - kN = ma
F2
F1Cos
F2Sin
fk = kN
mg
Inclined Plane
i) Case - 1
Body is at rest on inclined plane.
N
N
fs

mgSin
Parallel to the plane (since body is at rest)

mgSin = fs
mgCos
mg
ii) Case - 2
Body is just about to move on inclined plane.
N
fs = fs(max) = sN

mgSin
Parallel to the plane (since body is at rest)

mgSin = fs = fs(max) = sN
mgCos
mg
iii) Case - 3
Body is accelerating downwards on inclined plane.
N
fk

mgSin

mgSin - fk = ma
or, mgSin - kN = ma
mgCos
mg
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K.V. Silchar
iv) Case - 4
Body is accelerating up the incline under the effect of force acting parallel to the
incline.
N

a

F - fk - mgSin = ma
or, F - kN - mgSin = ma
mgSin
mgCos
fk
mg
v) Case - 5
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of horizontal force.
FCos

N = mgCos + FSin (since body is at rest)
FCos - mgSin - fk = ma
or, FCos - mgSin - kN ma
FSin
a
mgSin
mgCos
fk
mg
Vertical Plane
i) Case - 1
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and is at rest.
fs

F=N
F

mg = fs
mg
ii) Case - 2
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and pulled vertically
upward
F1

F=N
F
N

F1 - mg fs = ma
fs
mg
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K.V. Silchar
iii) Case - 3
upward.
FCos
F

FSin

FCos - mg - fs = ma
N
fs
mg
59
K.V. Silchar
MEMORY MAP
Static Frictional
Force
0 fs sN
Kinetic Frictional
Force
fk = kN
A NECESSARY EVIL
FRICTION
Rolling Frictional
Force
fr = rN
r << k < s
Angle of Friction
Angle of Repose
= Tan f/N
0 Tan-1s
= Tan-1s
-1
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K.V. Silchar
CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular Motion When a body moves such that it always remains at a fixed
distance from a fixed point then its motion is said to be circular motion. The fixed
distance is called the radius of the circular path and the fixed point is called the
center of the circular path.
Uniform Circular Motion Circular motion performed with a constant speed is
known as uniform circular motion.
Angular Displacement Angle swept by the radius vector of a particle moving on a
circular path is known as angular displacement of the particle. Example : angular
displacement of the particle from P1 to P2 is .
P2
P1
Relation Between Angular Displacement and Linear Displacement

Since,
Angle =
arc
radius
Anglular Displacement = arc P1P2

radius
= s
r
Angular Velocity Rate of change of angular displacement of a body with respect
to time is known as angular displacement. It is represented by .
Average Angular Velocity It is defined as the ratio of total angular displacement
to total time taken.
avg = Total Angular Displacement
Total Time Taken
avg =
t
Instantaneous Angular Velocity Angular velocity of a body at some particular
instant of time is known as instantaneous angular velocity.
Or
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K.V. Silchar
Average angular velocity evaluated for very short duration of time is

known as instantaneous angular velocity.
= Lim avg =
t0
t
= d
dt
Relation Between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity
We know that angular velocity
= d
dt
Putting, = s/r
= d (s/r)
dt
or,
= 1 ds
r dt
or,
= v
r
or,
v = r
Time Period of Uniform Circular Motion Total time taken by the particle
performing uniform circular motion to complete one full circular path is known as
time period.
In one time period total angle rotated by the particle is 2 and time period is T.
Hence angular velocity
= 2
T
or,
T = 2

Frequency - Number of revolutions made by the particle moving on circular path in

one second is known as frequency.
f = 1 = a
T
2
Centripetal Acceleration When a body performs uniform circular motion its speed
remains constant but velocity continuously changes due to change of direction.
Hence a body is continuously accelerated and the acceleration experienced by the
body is known as centripetal acceleration (that is the acceleration directed towards
the center).
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K.V. Silchar
v2
a
P2
r
v1
v
C
v2
v1
B
v
P1
A
Consider a particle performing uniform circular motion with speed v.

When the particle changes its position from P1 to P2 its velocity changes from v1 to v2
due to change of direction. The change in velocity from P1 to P2 is v which is
directed towards the center of the circular path according to triangle law of
subtraction of vectors.
From figure OP1P2 and ABC are similar, hence applying the condition of similarity
BC = P1 P1
AB O P1
or,
v = s
v
r
or,
v = vs
r
v = vs
t rt
Dividing both sides by t,

Taking limit t
0 both sides,
t0
or,
or,
Putting v = r,
Lim v = v Lim
t r t0 t
dv = vds
dt
dt
a = v2
r
a = r2
Since the change of velocity is directed towards the center of the circular
path, the acceleration responsible for the change in velocity is also directed towards
center of circular path and hence it is known as centripetal acceleration.
Centripetal Force Force responsible for producing centripetal acceleration is
known as centripetal force. Since centripetal acceleration is directed towards the
center of the circular path the centripetal force is also directed towards the center of
the circular path.
If a body is performing uniform circular motion with speed v and angular
velocity on a circular path of radius r, then centripetal acceleration is given by
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K.V. Silchar
Fc = mv2 = mr2
r
Fc
Net Acceleration of a Body Performing Non-Uniform Circular Motion

When a body performs non-uniform circular motion its speed
i.e. magnitude of instantaneous velocity varies with time due to which it experiences
tangential acceleration aT along with the centripetal acceleration aC. Since both the
accelerations act simultaneously on a body and are mutually perpendicular to each
other, the resultant acceleration aR is given by their vector sum.
aR
aT
aC
aR = aT + aC
aR = aT2 + aC2
Physical Application of Centripetal Force

i) Case - 1
Circular motion of a stone tied to a string.
Centripetal force is provided by the tension of the string
Fc = mv2 = T
r
ii) Case - 2
Circular motion of electron around the nucleus.
Centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the
positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electron
Fc = mv2 = FE
r
64
K.V. Silchar
iii) Case - 3
Circular motion of planets around sun or satellites around planet.
Centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of attraction between the

planet and sun
Fc = mv2 = Fg
r
iv) Case - 4
Circular motion of vehicles on a horizontal road.
Centripetal force is provided by the static frictional force between the road and the
tyre of the vehicle.
Fc = mv2 = fs
r
v) Case - 5
Circular motion of a block on rotating platform.
Centripetal force is provided by the static frictional force between the block and the
platform.
Fc = mv2 = fs
r
vi) Case - 6
Circular motion of mud particles sticking to the wheels of the vehicle.
Centripetal force is provided by the adhesive force of attraction between the mud
particles and the tyres of the vehicle.
Fc = mv2 = Fadhesive
r
At very high speed when adhesive force is unable to provide necessary centripetal
force, the mud particles fly off tangentially. In order to prevent the particles from
staining our clothes, mud-guards are provided over the wheels of vehicle.
v
65
K.V. Silchar
vii) Case - 7
Circular motion of a train on a horizontal track.
Centripetal force is provided by the horizontal component of the reaction force
applied by the outer track on the inner projection of the outer wheels
N
NH
2
Fc = mv = NHorizontal
r
NH
viii) Case - 8
Circular motion of a toy hanging from ceiling of vehicle.
T TCos
TSin
mg
Car moving with constant velocity on horizontal road
Car taking a turn with constant velocity on a horizontal road
Whenever car takes a turn, string holding the toy gets tilted outward such that the
vertical component of the tension of string balances the weight of the body and the
horizontal component of tension provides the necessary centripetal force.
TSin = mv2
r
TCos = mg
Tan = v2
rg
Therefore,
ix) Case - 9
Conical pendulum.
a
TCos
TSin
mg
Whenever bob of a pendulum moves on a horizontal circle its string generates a

cone. Such a pendulum is known as conical pendulum. The vertical component of
the tension of the string balances the weight of the body and the horizontal
component of tension provides the necessary centripetal force.
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K.V. Silchar
TSin = mv2
r
TCos = mg
Tan = v2
rg
Therefore,
x) Case - 10
Well of death.
NCos
NCos
mg
In the well of death, the rider tries to push the wall due to its tangential velocity in the
outward direction due to which wall applies normal reaction in the inward direction.
The vertical component of the normal reaction balances the weight of the body and
its horizontal component provides the necessary centripetal force.
NSin = mv2
r
NCos = mg
Tan = v2
rg
Therefore,
xi) Case - 11
Turning of aero plane.
FP
FP
FPCos
FPSin
a
mg
mg
While taking a turn aero-plane tilts slightly inwards due to which its pressure force
also gets tilted inwards due to which its pressure force also gets tilted inwards such
that its vertical component balances the weight of the body and the horizontal
component provides the necessary centripetal force.
67
K.V. Silchar
FPSin = mv2
r
FPCos = mg
Tan = v2
rg
Therefore,
xi) Case - 11
Banking of Roads
In case of horizontal road necessary centripetal force mv2/r is provided by static
frictional force. When heavy vehicles move with high speed on a sharp turn (small
radius) then all the factors contribute to huge centripetal force which if provided by
the static frictional force may result in the fatal accident.
To prevent this roads are banked by lifting their outer edge.
Due to this, normal reaction of road on the vehicle gets tilted inwards such that its
vertical component balances the weight of the body and the horizontal component
provides the necessary centripetal force.
nCosa
c
nSin
nSin = mv2
r
nCos = mg
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K.V. Silchar
Tan = v2
rg
Therefore,
xii) Case - 12
Bending of Cyclist
In case of a cyclist moving on a horizontal circular track
necessary centripetal force is provided by static frictional force acting parallel along
the base. As this frictional force is not passing from the center of mass of the system
it tends to rotate the cycle along with the cyclist and make it fall outward of the
center of the circular path.
To prevent himself from falling, the cyclist leans the cycle
inwards towards the center of the circle due to which the normal reaction of the
surface of road on the cycle also leans inward such that that its vertical component
balances the weight of the body and the horizontal component provides the
necessary centripetal force.
NCos
NSin
r
mg
NSin = mv2
r
NCos = mg
Therefore,
Tan = v2
rg
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K.V. Silchar
xiii) Case - 13
Motion of a Ball in a Bowl
NCos
NCos
mg
When the bowl rotates with some angular velocity . The vertical
component of the normal reaction of the bowl on the ball balances the weight of the
body and its horizontal component provides the necessary centripetal force.
NSin = mv2
r
NCos = mg
Therefore,
Tan = v2
rg
xiv) Case - 14
Motion of a train on the banked tracks.
At the turns tracks are banked by slightly elevating the outer tracks with
respect to the inner ones. This slightly tilts the train inwards towards the center of the
circular path due to which the normal reaction of the tracks on the train also gets
slightly tilted inwards such that the vertical component of the normal reaction
balances the weight of the train and its horizontal component provides the
necessary centripetal force.
NCos
mg
70
K.V. Silchar
NSin = mv2
r
NCos = mg
Tan = v2
rg
Therefore,
Vertical Circular Motion

Whenever the plane of circular path of body is vertical its motion is said to
be vertical circular motion.
Vertical Circular Motion of a Body Tied to a String
vA
A
TA
mg
TA
Consider a body of mass m tied to a string and performing vertical

circular motion on a circular path of radius r. At the topmost point A of the body
weight of the body mg and tension TA both are acting in the vertically downward
direction towards the center of the circular path and they together provide centripetal
force.
TA + mg = mvA2
r
Critical velocity at the top most point
As we go on decreasing the vA , tension TA also goes on decreasing and in the
critical condition when vA is minimum tension TA = 0. The minimum value of vA in this
case is known as critical velocity TA(Critical) at the point A. From above
0 + mg = mvA(Critical)2
r
or,
vA(Critical)2 = rg
or,
vA(Critical) = rg
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K.V. Silchar
If the velocity at point A is less than this critical velocity then the string will slag and
the body in spite of moving on a circular path will tend to fall under gravity.
Critical velocity at the lower most point
A
2r
TB
TB
VB
B
mg
Taking B as reference level of gravitational potential energy and applying energy

conservation
EA = EB
PA + KA = PB + KB
mg2r + 1mvA2 = mg0 + 1mvB2
2
2
Putting, vA = rg
mg2r + 1m(rg) 2 = 0 + 1mvB2
2
2
or,
4mgr + mgr = mvB2
or,
5mgr = mvB2
or,
vB = 5gr
This is the minimum possible velocity at the lower most point for vertical circular
motion known as critical velocity at point B.
vB(Critical) = 5gr
Tension at lowermost point in critical condition
For lowermost point B net force towards the center is centripetal force. Tension
TB acts towards the center of the circular path whereas weight mg acts away from it.
Hence,
TB mg = mvB2
r
Putting, vB = 5rg
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K.V. Silchar
TB mg = m5gr
r
or,
TB = 6mg
Hence in critical condition of vertical circular motion of a body tied to a

string velocities at topmost and lowermost be (rg) and (5rg) respectively and
tensions in the strings be 0 and 6mg respectively.
General Condition for Slagging of String in Vertical Circular Motion
For the body performing vertical circular motion tied to a string,
slagging of string occurs in the upper half of the vertical circle. If at any instant string
makes angle with vertical then applying net force towards center is equal to
centripetal force, we have
mgCos
v
mg
T + mgCos = mv2
r
For slagging T = 0,
0 + mgCos = mv2
r
or,
v = rgCos
Case-1 At Topmost point = 0, therefore v = rg

Case-2 At = 60o, therefore v = rgCos60 = rg/2
Case-3 When string becomes horizontal that is at = 90o, v = rgCos90 = 0
Velocity Relationship at different Points of Vertical Circular Motion
Let initial and final velocities of the body performing vertical
circular motion be v1 and v2 and the angle made by string with the vertical be 1 and
2. Taking lowermost point of vertical circular path as reference level and applying
energy conservation,
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K.V. Silchar
V1
V2
rCos1
rCos2
or,
or,
E1 = E 2
P 1 + K 1 = P2 + K 2
mg(r + rCos1) + 1mv12 = mg(r + rCos2) + 1mv22
2
2
2
2
mgr(Cos1 Cos2) = 1m(v2 v1 )
2
(v22 v12) = 2gr(Cos1 Cos2)
Vertical Circular Motion of a Body Attached to a Rod
Since rod can never slag hence in the critical situation a body
attached to the rod may reach the topmost position A of the vertical circular path with
almost zero velocity. In this case its weight mg acts in vertically downward direction
and tension of rod acts on the body in the vertically upward direction. Applying net
force towards center is equal to centripetal force,
vA
A
TA
mg
TA
mg - TA = mvA2
r
Putting vA = 0 (for critical condition)
mg - TA = 0
or,
TA = mg
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K.V. Silchar
Critical velocity and Tension at the lower most point

A
2r
TB
TB
VB
B
mg
Taking B as reference level of gravitational potential energy and applying energy

conservation
EA = EB
PA + KA = PB + KB
mg2r + 1mvA2 = mg0 + 1mvB2
2
2
Putting, vA = 0(for critical condition)
or,
mg2r + 0 = 0 + 1mvB2
2
4mgr = mvB2
or,
vB = 4rg
This is the minimum possible velocity at the lower most point for vertical circular
motion known as critical velocity at point B.
vB(Critical) = 4rg
Tension at lowermost point in critical condition
For lowermost point B applying net force towards center is
equal to centripetal force. Tension TB acts towards the center of the circular path
whereas weight mg acts away from it in vertically downward direction. Hence,
TB mg = mvB2
r
Putting, vB = 4rg
or,
TB mg = m4gr
r
TB = 5mg
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K.V. Silchar
Hence in critical condition of vertical circular motion of a body

attached to the rod velocities at topmost and lowermost be 0 and 4rg respectively
and tensions in the rod be mg (pushing nature) and 5mg (pulling nature)
respectively.
Motion of A Body Over Spherical Surface
N
mgSin
mgCos
mg
A body of mass m is moving over the surface of the smooth sphere of

radius r. At any instant when the radius of sphere passing through the body makes
angle with the vertical the tangential velocity of the body is v. Since net force
towards the center is centripetal force we have
mgCos N = mv2
r
or,
N = mgCos mv2
r
if v increases N decreases and when the body just loses contact with the sphere
N = 0.
Putting N = 0,
0 = mgCos mv2
r
or,
or,
mv2 = mgCos
r
v = rg Cos
This is the minimum velocity at which the body loses contact and
it is the maximum velocity at which the body remains in contact with the surface.
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K.V. Silchar
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
It is a pseudo force experienced by a body which is a part of the
circular motion. It is a non-realistic force and comes into action only when the body
is in a circular motion. Once the circular motion of the body stops, this force ceases
to act. Its magnitude is exactly same as that of centripetal force but it acts opposite
to the direction of the centripetal force that is in the radially outward direction.
Frame of reference attached to a body moving on a circular path is
a non-inertial frame since it an accelerated frame. So when ever any body is
observed from this frame a pseudo force F = ma = mv2/r = mr2 must be applied on
the body opposite to the direction of acceleration along with the other forces. Since
the acceleration of the frame in circular motion is centripetal acceleration a = v2/r
directed towards the center of the circular path, the pseudo force applied on the
bodies observed from this frame is F = mv2/r directed away from the center of the
circular path. This pseudo force is termed as a centrifugal force.
FCF
FCentrifugal = mv2 = mr2

r
(Directed in radially outward direction)
CENTRIFUGE
It is an apparatus used to separate cream from milk. It works on the
principal of centrifugal force. It is a cylindrical vessel rotating with high angular
velocity about its central axis. When this vessel contains milk and rotates with high
angular velocity all the particles of milk start moving with the same angular velocity
and start experiencing centrifugal force FCentrifugal = mr2 in radially outward direction.
Since centrifugal force is directly proportional to the mass of the particles, massive
particles of milk on experiencing greater centrifugal force starts depositing on the
outer edge of the vessel and lighter cream particles on experiencing smaller
centrifugal force are collected near the axis from where they are separated apart.
Cream
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K.V. Silchar
MEMORY MAP
= v = 2= 2 f
r
T
Centripetal Force
Centrifugal Force
FC = mv2 = mr2
Radially Outward Direction
FCF = mv2 = mr2
Circular Motion
Radially Inward Direction
Critical
Condition For
Vertical Circular Motion
Body Attached to Rod

Vtop = 0 and Vbottom = (4rg)
Ttop = -mg and Tbottom = 5mg
Body Tied to String

Vtop = (rg) and Vbottom = (5rg)
Ttop = 0 and Tbottom = 6mg
Critical Condition of Vertical Circular MOtion
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K.V. Silchar
Very Short Answer Type 1 Mark Questions

1. Is net force needed to keep a body moving with uniform velocity?
2. Is Newtons 2nd law (F = ma) always valid. Give an example in support of your
answer?
3. Action and reaction forces do not balance each other. Why?
4. Can a body remain in state of rest if more than one force is acting upon it?
5. Is the centripetal force acting on a body performing uniform circular motion always
constant?
6. The string is holding the maximum possible weight that it could withstand. What
will happen to the string if the body suspended by it starts moving on a horizontal
circular path and the string starts generating a cone?
7. What is the reaction force of the weight of a book placed on the table?
8. What is the maximum acceleration of a vehicle on the horizontal road? Given that
coefficient of static friction between the road and the tyres of the vehicle is .
9. Why guns are provided with the shoulder support?
10. While paddling a bicycle what are the types of friction acting on rear wheels and
in which direction?
Answer
1. No.
2. It is valid in an inertial frame of reference. In non-inertial frame of reference (such
as a car moving along a circular path), Newtons 2nd law doesnt hold apparently.
3. Since they are acting on different bodies.
4. Yes, if all the forces acting on it are in equilibrium.
5. No, only its magnitude remains constant but its direction continuously goes on
changing.
6. It will break because tension in the string increases as soon as the body starts
moving.
7. The force with which the book attracts the earth towards it.
8. amax = fs(max)/m = N/m = mg/m = g.
9. So that the recoil of gun may be reduced by providing support to the gun by the
shoulders.
10. Static friction in forward direction and rolling friction in backward direction.
Short Answer Type 2 Marks Questions
1. Explain why the water doesnt fall even at the top of the circle when the bucket full
of water is upside down rotating in a vertical circle?
2. The displacement of a particle of mass 1kg is described by s = 2t + 3t2. Find
the force acting on particle?
(F = 6N)
3. A particle of mass 0.3 kg is subjected to a force of F = -kx with k = 15 Nm1. What
will be its initial acceleration if it is released from a point 10 cm away from the origin?
2
(a = - 5 ms )
4. Three forces F1, F2 and F3 are acting on the particle of mass m which is
stationary. If F1 is removed, what will be the acceleration of particle?
(a = F1/m)
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K.V. Silchar
5. A spring balance is attached to the ceiling of a lift. When the lift is at rest spring
balance reads 50 kg of a body hanging on it. What will be the reading of the balance
if the lift moves :(i) Vertically downward with an acceleration of 5 ms2
(ii) Vertically upward with an acceleration of 5 ms2
(iii) Vertically upward with a constant velocity.
Take g = 10m/s2.
[(i) 25kgf,(ii) 75kgf, (iii) 50kgf]
6. Is larger surface area break on a bicycle wheel more effective than small surface
area brake? Explain?
7. Calculate the impulse necessary to stop a 1500 kg car moving at a speed of
25ms1?
( 37500 N-s)
8.Give the magnitude and directions of the net force acting on a rain drop falling
freely with a constant speed of 5 m/s?
(Fnet = 0)
9. A block of mass .5kg rests on a smooth horizontal table. What steady force is
required to give the block a velocity of 2 m/s in 4 s?
(F= .25N)
10. Calculate the force required to move a train of 200 quintal up on an incline plane
of 1 in 50 with an acceleration of 2 ms2. The force of friction per quintal is 0.5 N?
(F = 44100N)

1. A bullet of mass 0.02 kg is moving with a speed of 10m 1s. It penetrates 10 cm of
a wooden block before coming to rest. If the thickness of the target is reduced to 6
cm only find the KE of the bullet when it comes out?
(Ans : 0.4 J)
2. A man pulls a lawn roller with a force of F. If he applies the force at some angle
with the ground. Find the minimum force required to pull the roller if coefficient of
static friction between the ground and the roller is ?
3. A ball bounces to 80% of its original height. Calculate the change in momentum?
4. A pendulum bob of mass 0.1 kg is suspended by a string of 1 m long. The bob is
displaced so that the string becomes horizontal and released. Find its kinetic energy
when the string makes an angle of (i) 0, (ii) 30, (iii) 60 with the vertical?
5. The velocity of a particle moving along a circle of radius R depends on the
distance covered s as F = 2s where is constant. Find the force acting on the
particle as a function of s?
6. A block is projected horizontally on rough horizontal floor with initial velocity u.
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the floor is . Find the
distance travelled by the body before coming to rest?
7. A locomotive of mass m starts moving so that its velocity v changes according to
v = ( s), where is constant and s is distance covered. Find the force acting on
the body after time t?
8. Derive an expression for the centripetal force?
9. Find the maximum value of angle of friction and prove that it is equal to the angle
of repose?
10. State and prove Lamis theorem?
Long Answer Type 5 Marks Questions
80
K.V. Silchar
1. Find the maximum and minimum velocity of a vehicle of mass m on a banked

road of banking angle , if coefficient of static friction of the wheels of vehicle with
the road is ?
2. Find the maximum and minimum force applied parallel up the incline on a block of
mass m placed on it if angle of inclination is and coefficient of static friction with the
block is so that the block remains at rest?
3. Prove that in case of vertical circular motion circular motion of a body tied to a
string velocities at topmost and lowermost point be (rg) and (5rg) respectively and
tensions in the strings be 0 and 6mg respectively?
4. Find the maximum horizontal velocity that must be imparted to a body placed on
the top of a smooth sphere of radius r so that it may not loose contact? If the same
body is imparted half the velocity obtained in the first part then find the angular
displacement of the body over the smooth sphere when it just loses contact with it?
5. Find the acceleration of the blocks and the tension in the strings?
m3
m2
m1
Some Intellectual Stuff

1. Find the acceleration of the blocks m1 and m2. All the surfaces are smooth and
string and pulley are light? Also find the net force on the clamped pulley?
t
m2
m1
2. A body of mass m explodes into three fragments of with masses in the ratio 2:2:6.
If the two similar masses move of perpendicular to each other with the speed of
10m/s each, find the velocity of the third particle and its direction relative to the two
other bodies?
3. A mass of 5 kg is suspended by a rope of length 2m from the ceiling. A horizontal
force of 50 N is applied at the mid point P of the rope? Calculate the angle that the
rope makes with the vertical and the tension in the part of the rope between the point
of suspension and point P?. Neglect the mass of the rope. (g = 10ms2)
4. A body moving inside a smooth vertical circular track is imparted a velocity of
(4rg) at the lowermost point. Find its position where it just loses contact with the
track?
5.
m2
m1
m2
m1
81
K.V. Silchar
Find in both the cases

(i)Acceleration of the two blocks.(ii)Tension in the clamp holding the fixed pulley?
6. Mass of both the blocks is m and coefficient of kinetic friction with the ground is .
Find the acceleration of the two blocks and tension in the string attached between
the two blocks?
F
7. A small sphere of mass m is placed in a hemispherical bowl of radius R. Bowl is

rotated with angular velocity . Find the angle made by the radius of the bowl
passing through the sphere with the vertical when the sphere starts rotating with the
bowl?
a
8. Mass of both the blocks is m find net force on the pulley?
9. Mass of both the blocks is m find acceleration of both the blocks and net force on
the clamp holding the fixed pulley?
10. Mass of both the blocks is m find acceleration of the system and the tension in
the rod?
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K.V. Silchar
WORK ENERGY AND POWER

WORK
PHYSICAL DEFINITION
When the point of application of force moves in the direction of the applied
force under its effect then work is said to be done.
MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION OF WORK

F
s
Work is defined as the product of force and displacement in the direction of force
W=Fxs
FSin
FCos
s
If force and displacement are not parallel to each other rather
they are inclined at an angle, then in the evaluation of work component of force (F)
in the direction of displacement (s) will be considered.
W = (Fcos) x s
or,
W = FsCos
VECTOR DEFINITION OF WORK

F
s
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K.V. Silchar
Force and displacement both are vector quantities but their product, work
is a scalar quantity, hence work must be scalar product or dot product of force and
displacement vector.
W=F .s
WORK DONE BY VARIABLE FORCE

Force varying with displacement
In this condition we consider the force to be constant for any
elementary displacement and work done in that elementary displacement is
evaluated. Total work is obtained by integrating the elementary work from initial to
final limits.
dW = F . ds
s2
W = F . ds
s1
Force varying with time

In this condition we consider the force to be constant for any
elementary displacement and work done in that elementary displacement is
evaluated.
dW = F . ds
Multiplying and dividing by dt,
dW = F . ds dt
dt
or,
dW = F . v dt (v=ds/dt)
Total work is obtained by integrating the elementary work from initial to
final limits.
t2
W = F . v dt
t1
WORK DONE BY VARIABLE FORCE FROM GRAPH

Let force be the function of displacement & its graph be as shown.
aF
a
s1
ds
84
s2
K.V. Silchar
To find work done from s1 to s2 we consider two points M & N very

close on the graph such that magnitude of force (F) is almost same at both the
points. If elementary displacement from M to N is ds, then elementary work done
from M to N is.
dW = F.ds
dW = (length x breadth)of strip MNds
dW = Area of strip MNds
Thus work done in any part of the graph is equal to area
under that part. Hence total work done from s1 to s2 will be given by the area
enclosed under the graph from s1 to s2.
W = Area (ABS2S1A)
DIFFERENT CASES OF WORK DONE BY CONSTANT FORCE

Case i) Force and displacement are in same direction
=0
Since,
W = Fs Cos
Therefore
W = Fs Cos 0
or,
W = Fs
Ex - Coolie pushing a load horizontally
a
Case ii) Force and displacement are mutually perpendicular to each other
= 90
Since,
W = Fs Cos
Therefore
W = Fs Cos 90
or,
W=0
Ex - coolie carrying a load on his head & moving horizontally with constant velocity.
Then he applies force vertically to balance weight of body & its displacement is
horizontal.
F
a
s
mg
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K.V. Silchar
(3)
Force & displacement are in opposite direction

= 180
Since,
W = Fs Cos
Therefore
W = Fs Cos 180
or,
W = - Fs
mg
s
Ex - Coolie carrying a load on his head & moving vertically down with constant
velocity. Then he applies force in vertically upward direction to balance the weight of
body & its displacement is in vertically downward direction.
ENERGY
Capacity of doing work by a body is known as energy.
Note - Energy possessed by the body by virtue of any cause is equal to the total work done by the
body when the cause responsible for energy becomes completely extinct.
TYPES OF ENERGIES
There are many types of energies like mechanical energy, electrical,
magnetic, nuclear, solar, chemical etc.
MECHANICAL ENERGY
Energy possessed by the body by virtue of which it performs some
mechanical work is known as mechanical energy.
It is of basically two types(i) Kinetic energy
(ii) Potential energy
KINETIC ENERGY
Energy possessed by body due to virtue of its motion is known as
the kinetic energy of the body. Kinetic energy possessed by moving body is equal to
total work done by the body just before coming out to rest.
V0
a
s
Consider a body of man (m) moving with velocity (vo).After travelling

through distance (s) it comes to rest.
86
K.V. Silchar
Applying,
or,
or,
u = vo
v=0
s=s
2
v = u2 + 2as
0 = v02 + 2as
2as = - v02
a = -vo2
2s
Hence force acting on the body,

F = ma
Fon body = - mvo2
2s
But from Newtons third law of action and reaction, force applied by body is equal
and opposite to the force applied on body
Fby body = -Fon body
=+mvo2
2s
Therefore work done by body,
W = F. s
or,
W = mv02.s.Cos 0
2s
or,
W = 1 mvo2
2
Thus K.E. stored in the body is,
K.E.= 1 mvo2
2
KINETIC ENERGY IN TERMS OF MOMENTUM
K.E. of body moving with velocity v is
K.E. = 1 mvo2
2
Multiplying and dividing by m
K = 1 mv2 x m
2 m
= 1 m2v2
2 m
But, mv = p (linear momentum)
Therefore,
K = p2
2m
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position or state is known
as potential energy. Example:- gravitational potential energy, elastic potential
energy, electrostatic potential energy etc.
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K.V. Silchar
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its height above surface of
earth is known as gravitational potential energy. It is equal to the work done by the
body situated at some height in returning back slowly to the surface of earth.
Consider a body of mass m situated at height h above the surface of
earth. Force applied by the body in vertically downward direction is
F = mg
Displacement of the body in coming back slowly to the surface of earth is
s=h
Hence work done by the body is
W = FsCos
or,
W = FsCos0
or,
W = mgh
This work was stored in the body in the form of gravitational potential energy due to
its position. Therefore
G.P.E = mgh
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy possessed by the spring by virtue of compression or
expansion against elastic force in the spring is known as elastic potential energy.
Spring
It is a coiled structure made up of elastic material & is capable of
applying restoring force & restoring torque when disturbed from its original state.
When force (F) is applied at one end of the string, parallel to its length, keeping the
other end fixed, then the spring expands (or contracts) & develops a restoring force
(FR) which balances the applied force in equilibrium.
On increasing applied force spring further expands in order to
increase restoring force for balancing the applied force. Thus restoring force
developed within the spring is directed proportional to the extension produced in the
spring.
FR
88
K.V. Silchar
FR
or,
FR = kx (k is known as spring constant or force constant)
If x = 1, F R = k
Hence force constant of string may be defined as the restoring
force developed within spring when its length is changed by unity.
But in equilibrium, restoring force balances applied force.
F = FR = k x
If x = 1, F = 1
Hence force constant of string may also be defined as the force
required to change its length by unity in equilibrium.
Mathematical Expression for Elastic Potential Energy
L
x
F
-dx
x0
Consider a spring of natural length L & spring constant k its length

is increased by xo. Elastic potential energy of stretched spring will be equal to total
work done by the spring in regaining its original length.
If in the process of regaining its natural length, at any instant extension in the spring
was x then force applied by spring is
F = kx
If spring normalizes its length by elementary distance dx opposite to x under this
force then work done by spring is
dW = F. (-dx) . Cos0
(force applied by spring F and displacement dx taken opposite to extension x are in same direction)
dW = -kxdx
Total work done by the spring in regaining its original length is obtained in integrating
dW from x0 to 0
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K.V. Silchar
0
W = -kxdx
x0
x0
2
or,
W = -k[x /2]
or,
W = - k ( 0 /2 - x02/2)
o r,
W = -k (0 - x02/2)
W = 1 kxo2
2
This work was stored in the body in the form of elastic potential energy.
or,
E.P.E = 1 kxo2
2
WORK ENERGY THEOREM
It states that total work done on the body is equal to the change in
kinetic energy.(Provided body is confined to move horizontally and no dissipating
forces are operating).
v1
v2
F
F
s
Consider a body of man m moving with initial velocity v1. After travelling through
displacement s its final velocity becomes v2 under the effect of force F.
u = v1
v = v2
s=s
2
Applying,
v = u2 + 2as
v22 = v12 + 2as
or,
2as = v22 - v12
or,
a = v22 - v12
2s
Hence external force acting on the body is
F = ma
F = m v22 - v12
2s
Therefore work done on body by external force
or,
W=F. s
W = m v22 - v12 . s .Cos 0
2s
(since force and displacement are in same direction)
90
K.V. Silchar
or,
W = 1 mv22 - 1 mv12
2
2
W = K2 K1
or,
W = K
or,
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
a v0
v1
h-y
v2
It states that energy can neither be creased neither be

destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.
Consider a body of man m situated at height h & moving with velocity vo. Its energy
will be.
E1 = P 1 + K1
or,
E1 = mgh + mvo2
If the body falls under gravity through distance y, then it acquires velocity v1 and its
height becomes (h-y)
u = vo
s=y
a=g
v = v1
From
v2 = u2 +2as
v12 = vo2 + 2gy
Energy of body in second situation
E2 = P 2 + K 2
or,
E2 = mg (h-y) + mv2
or,
E2 = mg (h-y) + m (vo2 + 2gy)
or,
E2 = mgh - mgy + mvo2 + mgy
or,
E2 = mgh + mvo2
Now we consider the situation when body reaches ground with velocity v2
u = vo
s=h
a=g
v = v2
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K.V. Silchar
From
v2 = u2 +2as
2
2
2 = vo + 2gh
Energy of body in third situation

E3 = P 3 + K 3
or,
E3 = mg0 + mv22
or,
E3 = 0 + m (vo2 + 2gh)
E3 = mvo2 + mgh
or,
From above it must be clear that E1 = E2 = E3. This proves the law of conservation of
energy.
CONSERVATIVE FORCE
Forces are said to be conservative in nature if work done against the
forces gets conversed in the body in form of potential energy. Example:gravitational forces, elastic forces & all the central forces.
PROPERTIES OF CONSERVATIVE FORCES
1. Work done against these forces is conserved & gets stored in the body in the form
of P.E.
2. Work done against these forces is never dissipated by being converted into nonusable forms of energy like heat, light, sound etc.
3. Work done against conservative forces is a state function & not path function i.e.
Work done against it, depends only upon initial & final states of body & is
independent of the path through which process has been carried out.
4. Work done against conservative forces is zero in a complete cycle.
TO PROVE WORK DONE AGAINST CONSERVATIVE FORCES IS A STATE
FUNCTION
Consider a body of man m which is required to be lifted up to height h. This can be
done in 2 ways.
F
(i) By directly lifting the body against gravity
(ii) By pushing the body up a smooth inclined plane.
mg
Min force required to lift the body of mass m vertically is

h
F = mg
And displacement of body in lifting is
F
s=h
Hence work done in lifting is
W 1 = FsCos0o (since force and displacement are in same direction) mg
W1 = mgh
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K.V. Silchar
Now we consider the same body lifted through height h by pushing it up a smooth
inclined plane
F
mgSin
h
Sin
mgSin
Min force required to push the body is

F = mgSin
And displacement of body in lifting is
s= h
Sin
Hence work done in pushing is
W 2 = FsCos0
or,
W 2 = mgSin .
or,
h . 1a
Sin
W2 = mgh
From above W 1 = W 2 we can say that in both the cases work done in lifting the body
through height h is same.
To Prove That Work Done Against Conservative Forces Is Zero In A
Complete Cycle
F
mg
mg
mg
mg
Consider a body of man m which is lifted slowly through height h & then allowed to
come back to the ground slowly through height h.
For work done is slowly lifting the body up,
Minimum force required in vertically upward direction is
F = mg
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K.V. Silchar
Vertical up displacement of the body is

s=h
Hence work done is
W = FsCos
or,
WI = FsCos0 (since force and displacement are in same direction)
or,
WI = mgh (since force and displacement are in same direction)
For work done is slowly bringing the body down,

Minimum force required in vertically upward direction is
F = mg
Vertical down displacement of the body is
s=h
Hence work done is
or,
W 2 = FsCos180(since force and displacement are in opposite direction)
or,
W2 = - mgh
Hence total work done against conservative forces in a complete cycle is
W = W 1 + W2
or,
W = (mgh) + (-mgh)
or,
W=0
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
Non conservative forces are the forces, work done against which
does not get conserved in the body in the form of potential energy.
PROPERTIES OF NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
1. Work done against these forces does not get conserved in the body in the form of
P.E.
2. Work done against these forces is always dissipated by being converted into non
usable forms of energy like heat, light, sound etc.
3. Work done against non-conservative force is a path function and not a state
function.
4. Work done against non-conservative force in a complete cycle is not zero.
PROVE THAT WORK DONE AGAINST NONCONSERVATIVE FORCES IS A
PATH FUNCTION
Consider a body of mass (m) which is required to be lifted to height h by pushing it
up the rough incline of inclination.
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K.V. Silchar
h
Sin
h
N
mgSin
fk
mgSin
mg
Minimum force required to slide the body up the rough inclined plane having
coefficient of kinetic friction with the body is
F = mgSin + fk
or,
F = mgSin + N
or,
F = mgSin + mgCos
Displacement of the body over the incline in moving through height h is
s= h
Sin
Hence work done in moving the body up the incline is
W = F.s.Cos0(since force and displacement are in opposite direction)
or,
W = (mgSin + mgCos). h .1
Sin
or,
W = mgh + mgh
Tan
Similarly if we change the angle of inclination from to 1, then work done will be
W1 = mgh + mgh
Tan1
This clearly shows that work done in both the
cases is different & hence work done against non-conservative force in a path
function and not a state function i.e. it not only depends upon initial & final states of
body but also depends upon the path through which process has been carried out.
To Prove That Work Done Against Non-conservative Forces In A Complete
Cycle Is Not Zero
Consider a body displaced slowly on a rough horizontal plane through displacement
s from A to B.
N
A
N
F
fk = N
fk = N
mg
95
mg
K.V. Silchar
Minimum force required to move the body is

F = fk = N = mg
Work done by the body in displacement s is
W = F.s.Cos0(since force and displacement are in same direction)
or,
W = mgs
Now if the same body is returned back from B to A
N
F
fk = N
fk = N
s
mg
mg
Minimum force required to move the body is

F = fk = N = mg
Work done by the body in displacement s is
W = F.s.Cos0(since force and displacement are in same direction)
or,
W = mgs
Hence total work done in the complete process
W = W1 + W2 = 2mgs
Note - When body is returned from B to A friction reverse its direction.
POWER
Rate of doing work by a body with respect to time is known as power.
Average Power
It is defined as the ratio of total work done by the body to total time taken.
Pavg = Total work done = W
Total time taken
t
Instantaneous Power
Power developed within the body at any particular instant of time is known
as instantaneous power.
Or
Average power evaluated for very short duration of time is known as
instantaneous power.
P inst = Lim Pavg
t0
or,
P inst = Lim W
t0 t
96
K.V. Silchar
Pinst = dW
dt
or,
Pinst = dF . s
dt
or,
Pinst = F . d s
dt
or,
Pinst = F . v
EFFICIENCY
It is defined as the ratio of power output to power input.
Or
It is defined as the ratio of energy output to energy input.
Or
I It is defined as the ratio of work output to work input.
= POutput = EOutput = WOutput
PInput EInput WInput
PERCENTAGE EFFICIENCY
Percentage Efficiency = Efficiency x 100
Percentage Efficiency = = POutput = EOutput = WOutput x 100
PInput EInput WInput
COLLISION
Collision between the two bodies is defined as mutual
interaction of the bodies for a short interval of time due to which the energy and the
momentum of the interacting bodies change.
Types of Collision
There are basically three types of collisionsi) Elastic Collision That is the collision between perfectly elastic bodies. In this type
of collision, since only conservative forces are operating between the interacting
bodies, both kinetic energy and momentum of the system remains constant.
ii) Inelastic Collision That is the collision between perfectly inelastic or plastic
bodies. After collision bodies stick together and move with some common velocity. In
this type of collision only momentum is conserved. Kinetic energy is not conserved
due to the presence of non-conservative forces between the interacting bodies.
iii) Partially Elastic or Partially Inelastic Collision That is the collision between the
partially elastic bodies. In this type of collision bodies do separate from each other
after collision but due to the involvement of non-conservative inelastic forces kinetic
energy of the system is not conserved and only momentum is conserved.
97
K.V. Silchar
Collision In One Dimension Analytical Treatment

u1
Before Collision
u2
u1
u2
v1<u1 v2>u2
Collision Starts
Velocity Changing of Bodies
u1>v> u2
Common Velocity
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 with their center of

masses moving along the same straight line in same direction with initial velocities u1
and u2 with m1 after m2. Condition necessary for the collision is u1 > u2 due to which
bodies start approaching towards each other with the velocity of approach u 1 - u2.
Collision starts as soon as the bodies come in contact. Due to its greater velocity
and inertia m1 continues to push m2 in the forward direction whereas m2 due to its
small velocity and inertia pushes m1 in the backward direction. Due to this pushing
force involved between the two colliding bodies they get deformed at the point of
contact and a part of their kinetic energy gets consumed in the deformation of the
bodies. Also m1 being pushed opposite to the direction of the motion goes on
decreasing its velocity and m2 being pushed in the direction of motion continues
increasing its velocity. This process continues until both the bodies acquire the same
common velocity v. Up to this stage there is maximum deformation in the bodies
maximum part of their kinetic energy gets consumed in their deformation.
Elastic collision
v
v1<v v2>v
v1
v2
v1
v2
In case of elastic collision bodies are perfectly elastic. Hence after their maximum
deformation they have tendency to regain their original shapes, due to which they
start pushing each other. Since m2 is being pushed in the direction of motion its
velocity goes on increasing and m1 being pushed opposite to the direction of motion
its velocity goes on decreasing. Thus condition necessary for separation i.e. v2>v1 is
attained and the bodies get separated with velocity of separation v2 - v1.
In such collision the part of kinetic energy of the bodies which has
been consumed in the deformation of the bodies is again returned back to the
system when the bodies regain their original shapes. Hence in such collision energy
conservation can also be applied along with the momentum conservation.
Applying energy conservation
Ei = E f
2
1m1u1 + 1m2u22 = 1m1v12 + 1m2v22
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
m1(u1 - v1 ) = m2(v2 u22)
m1(u1 - v1)(u1 + v1) = m2(v2 u2)(v2 + u2) (i)
Applying momentum conservation
pi = pf
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1(u1 - v1) = m2(v2 u2) .(ii)
98
K.V. Silchar
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)

u1 + v1 = v2 + u2
or,
v2 v1 = u1 u2
or,
Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
or,
v2 = v1 + u1 u2
Putting this in equation (i)
v1 = (m1-m2)u1 + 2m2 u2
(m1+m2) (m1+m2)
Similarly we can prove
v2 = (m2-m1)u2 + 2m1 u1
(m1+m2) (m1+m2)
Case 1- If the bodies are of same mass,
m1 = m2 = m
v1 = u2
v2 = u1
Hence in perfectly elastic collision between two bodies of same mass, the velocities
interchange.ie. If a moving body elastically collides with a similar body at rest. Then
the moving body comes at rest and the body at rest starts moving with the velocity of
the moving body.
Case 2- If a huge body elastically collides with the small body,
m1 >> m2
m2 will be neglected in comparison to m1
v1 = (m1-0)u1 + 2.0. u2
(m1+0) (m1+0)
v1 = u1
and
v2 = (0-m1)u2 + 2m1 u1
(m1+0)
(m1+0)
v2 = -u2 + 2u1
If, u2 = 0
v2 = 2u1
Hence if a huge body elastically collides with a small body then there is
almost no change in the velocity of the huge body but if the small body is initially at
rest it gets thrown away with twice the velocity of the huge moving body.eg. collision
of truck with a drum.
Case 3- If a small body elastically collides with a huge body,
m2 >> m1
m1 will be neglected in comparison to m2
v1 = (0-m2)u1 + 2m2 u2
(0+m2) (0+m2)
99
K.V. Silchar
or,
If
v1 = -u1 + 2u2
u2 = 0
v1 = -u1
and
v2 = (m2-0)u2 + 2.0.u1
(0+m2) (0+m2)
v2 = u2
Hence if a small body elastically collides with a huge body at rest then
there is almost no change in the velocity of the huge body but if the huge body is
initially at rest small body rebounds back with the same speed.eg. collision of a ball
with a wall.
Inelastic collision
In case of inelastic collision bodies are perfectly inelastic. Hence
after their maximum deformation they have no tendency to regain their original
shapes, due to which they continue moving with the same common velocity.
been consumed in the deformation of the bodies is permanently consumed in the
deformation of the bodies against non-conservative inelastic forces. Hence in such
collision energy conservation can-not be applied and only momentum conservation
is applied.
Applying momentum conservation
pi = pf
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v + m2v
or,
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1+m2)v
or,
v = m1u1 + m2u2
(m1+m2)
Partially Elastic or Partially Inelastic Collision

In this case bodies are partially elastic. Hence after their maximum
deformation they have tendency to regain their original shapes but not as much as
perfectly elastic bodies. Hence they do separate but their velocity of separation is
not as much as in the case of perfectly elastic bodies i.e. their velocity of separation
is less than the velocity of approach.
been consumed in the deformation of the bodies is only slightly returned back to the
system. Hence in such collision energy conservation can-not be applied and only
momentum conservation is applied.
(v2 v1) < (u1 u2)
100
K.V. Silchar
Collision In Two Dimension Oblique Collision

v1 Sin
v1
v1Cos
u1
u2
v2Cos
v2
v2Sin
Before Collision
Collision Starts
After Collision
When the centers of mass of two bodies are not along the same
straight line, the collision is said to be oblique. In such condition after collision bodies
are deflected at some angle with the initial direction. In this type of collision
momentum conservation is applied separately along x-axis and y-axis. If the collision
is perfectly elastic energy conservation is also applied.
Let initial velocities of the masses m1 and m2 be u1 and u2
respectively along x-axis. After collision they are deflected at angles and
respectively from x-axis, on its either side of the x axis.
Applying momentum conservation along x-axis
pf = p i
m1v1 Cos + m2v2 Cos = m1u1 + m2u2
Applying momentum conservation along y-axis
pf = pi
m1v1 Sin - m2v2 Sin = m10 + m20
or,
m1v1 Sin - m2v2 Sin = 0
or,
m1v1 Sin = m2v2 Sin
In case of elastic collision applying energy conservation can also be applied

Kf = K i
1m1u12 + 1m2u22 = 1m1v12 + 1m2v22
2
2
2
2
Coefficient Of Restitution
It is defined as the ratio of velocity of separation to the
velocity of approach.
e = Velocity of separation
Velocity of approach
101
K.V. Silchar
or,
e = (v2 v1)
(u1 u2)
Case-1 For perfectly elastic collision, velocity of separation is equal to velocity of

approach, therefore
e=1
Case-2 For perfectly inelastic collision, velocity of separation is zero, therefore
e=0
Case-3 For partially elastic or partially inelastic collision, velocity of separation is less
than velocity of approach, therefore
e<1
102
K.V. Silchar
MEMORY MAP
Work
W=F.s
Energy
K.E.=1mv2; G.P.E.=mgh
2
E.P.H.=1kx2
2
Power
WORK
ENERGY
POWER
Pavg = W ; Pinst = dW
t
dt
Elastic Collision
Elastic Collision
Energy and Momentum

Both Conserved
Only Momentum
Conserved
103
K.V. Silchar
Very Short Answer Type 1 Mark Questions

1. Define the conservative and non-conservative forces? Give example of each?
2. A light body and a heavy body have same linear momentum. Which one has
greater K.E?
(Ans: Lighter body has more K.E.)
3.If the momentum of the body is doubled by what percentage does its K.E
changes?
(300%)
4. A truck and a car are moving with the same K.E on a straight road. Their engines
are simultaneously switched off which one will stop at a lesser distance?
(Truck)
(decrease)
5. What happens to the P.E of a bubble when it rises up in water?

6. Define spring constant of a spring?
7. What happens when a sphere collides head on elastically with a sphere of same
mass initially at rest?
8. Derive an expression for K.E of a body of mass m moving with a velocity v by
calculus method.
9. After bullet is fired, gun recoils. Compare the K.E. of bullet and the gun.
(K.E. of bullet > K.E. of gun)
10. In which type of collision there is maximum loss of energy?

Very Short Answer Type 2 Marks Questions
1. A bob is pulled sideway so that string becomes parallel to horizontal and released.
Length of the pendulum is 2 m. If due to air resistance loss of energy is 10% what is
the speed with which the bob arrives the lowest point?
(Ans : 6m/s)
2. Find the work done if a particle moves from position r1 = (4i + 3j + 6k)m to a
position r 2 = (14i = 13j = 16k) under the effect of force, F = (4i + 4j - 4k)N?
(Ans : 40J)
3. 20 J work is required to stretch a spring through 0.1 m. Find the force constant of
the spring. If the spring is stretched further through 0.1m calculate work done?
(Ans : 4000 Nm1, 60 J)
4. A pump on the ground floor of a building can pump up water to fill a tank of
volume 30m3 in 15 min. If the tank is 40 m above the ground, how much electric
power is consumed by the pump? The efficiency of the pump is 30%.
(Ans : 43.556 kW)
5. Spring of a weighing machine is compressed by 1cm when a sand bag of mass

0.1 kg is dropped on it from a height 0.25m. From what height should the sand bag
be dropped to cause a compression of 4cm?
(Ans : 4m)
6. Show that in an elastic one dimensional collision the velocity of approach before
collision is equal to velocity of separation after collision?
7. A spring is stretched by distance x by applying a force F. What will be the new
force required to stretch the spring by 3x? Calculate the work done in increasing the
extension?
8. Write the characteristics of the force during the elongation of a spring. Derive the
relation for the P.E. stored when it is elongated by length. Draw the graphs to show
the variation of potential energy and force with elongation?
9. How does a perfectly inelastic collision differ from perfectly elastic collision? Two
particles of mass m1 and m2 having velocities u1 and u2 respectively make a head on
collision. Derive the relation for their final velocities?
104
K.V. Silchar
10. In lifting a 10 kg weight to a height of 2m, 250 Joule of energy is spent. Calculate
2
the acceleration with which it was raised?(g=10m/s2)
(Ans : 2.5m/s )
1. An electrical water pump of 80% efficiency is used to lift water up to a height of
10m.Find mass of water which it could lift in 1hrour if the marked power was 500
watt?
2. A cycle is moving up the incline rising 1 in 100 with a const. velocity of 5m/sec.
Find the instantaneous power developed by the cycle?
3. Find % change in K.E of body when its momentum is increased by 50%.
4. A light string passing over a light frictionless pulley is holding masses m and 2m at
its either end. Find the velocity attained by the masses after 2 seconds.
5. Derive an expression for the centripetal force experienced by a body performing
uniform circular motion.
6. Find the elevation of the outer tracks with respect to inner. So that the train could
safely pass through the turn of radius 1km with a speed of 36km/hr. Separation
between the tracks is 1.5m?
7. A block of mass m is placed over a smooth wedge of inclination . With what
horizontal acceleration the wedge should be moved so that the block must remain
stationery over it?
8. Involving friction prove that pulling is easier than pushing if both are done at the
same angle.
9. In vertical circular motion if velocity at the lowermost point is (6rg) where find the
tension in the string where speed is minimum. Given that mass of the block attached
to it is m?
10. A bullet of mass m moving with velocity u penetrates a wooden block of mass M
suspended through a string from rigid support and comes to rest inside it. If length of
the string is L find the angular deflection of the string.
Long Answer Type 5 Marks Questions

1. What is conservative force? Show that work done against conservative forces is a
state function and not a path function. Also show that work done against it in a
complete cycle is zero?
2. A body of man 10 kg moving with the velocity of 10m/s impinges the horizontal
spring of spring constant 100 Nm-1 fixed at one end. Find the maximum compression
of the spring? Which type of mechanical energy conversion has occurred? How
does the answer in the first part changes when the body is moving on a rough
surface?
3. Two blocks of different masses are attached to the two ends of a light string
passing over the frictionless and light pully. Prove that the potential energy of the
bodies lost during the motion of the blocks is equal to the gain in their kinetic
energies?
105
K.V. Silchar
4. A locomotive of mass m starts moving so that its velocity v is changing according

to the law v (as), where a is constant and s is distance covered. Find the total work
done by all the forces acting the locomotive during the first t seconds after the
beginning of motion?
5. Derive an expression for the elastic potential energy of the stretched spring of
spring constant k. Find the % change in the elastic potential energy of spring if its
length is increased by 10%?
Some Intellectual Stuff
1. A body of mass m is placed on a rough horizontal surface having coefficient of
static friction with the body. Find the minimum force that must be applied on the
body so that it may start moving? Find the work done by this force in the horizontal
displacement s of the body?
2. Two blocks of same mass m are placed on a smooth horizontal surface with a
spring of constant k attached between them. If one of the block is imparted a
horizontal velocity v by an impulsive force, find the maximum compression of the
spring?
3. A block of mass M is supported against a vertical wall by a spring of constant k. A
bullet of mass m moving with horizontal velocity v0 gets embedded in the block and
pushes it against the wall. Find the maximum compression of the spring?
4. Prove that in case of oblique elastic collision of a moving body with a similar body
at rest, the two bodies move off perpendicularly after collision?
5. A chain of length L and mass M rests over a sphere of radius R (L < R) with its
one end fixed at the top of the sphere. Find the gravitational potential energy of the
chain considering the center of the sphere as the zero level of the gravitational
potential energy?
106
K.V. Lumding; K.V. Karimganj; K.V. Langjing
MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND

RIGID BODY
CONCEPTS.
.Centre of mass of a body is a point where the entire mass of the body can be
supposed to be concentrated
For a system of n-particles, the centre of mass is given by
.Torque
The turning effect of a force with respect to some axis, is called moment
of force or torque due to the force.
force from the axis of rotation.
.Angular momentum (). It is the rotational analogue of linear momentum and is

measured as the product of linear momentum and the perpendicular distance of its
line of axis of rotation.
Mathematically: If is linear momentum of the particle and its position vector, then
angular momentum of the particle,
(a)In Cartesian coordinates :

(b)In polar coordinates :
Where
is angle between the linear momentum vector and the position of vector
.
S.I unit of angular momentum is kg
107
Geometrically, angular momentum of a particle is equal to twice the product of

mass of the particle and areal velocity of its radius vector about the given axis.
.Relation between torque and angular momentum:
(i)
(ii) If the system consists of n-particles, then
.Law of conservation of angular momentum. If no external torque acts on a

system, then the total angular momentum of the system always remain conserved.
Mathematically:
.Moment of inertia(I).the moment of inertia of a rigid body about a given axis of

rotation is the sum of the products of masses of the various particles and squares of
their respective perpendicular distances from the axis of rotation.
Mathematically: I=
SI unit of moment of inertia is kg
MI corresponding to mass of the body. However, it depends on shape & size of the
body and also on position and configuration of the axis of rotation.
Radius of gyration (K).it is defined as the distance of a point from the axis of
rotation at which, if whole mass of the body were concentrated, the moment of
inertia of the body would be same as with the actual distribution of mass of the body.
= rms distance of particles from the axis of
Mathematically :K=
rotation.
SI unit of gyration is m. Note that the moment of inertia of a body about a given axis
is equal to the product of mass of the body and squares of its radius of gyration
about that axis i.e. I=M
.Theorem of perpendicular axes. It states that the moment of inertia of a plane

lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of the moment of
108
inertia of the lamina about any two mutually perpendicular axes in its plane and
intersecting each other at the point, where the perpendicular axis passes through the
lamina.
Mathematically:
Where x & y-axes lie in the plane of the Lamina and z-axis is perpendicular to its
plane and passes through the point of intersecting of x and y axes.
.Theorem of parallel axes. It states that the moment of inertia of a rigid body about
any axis is equal to moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis through its
center of mass plus the product of mass of the body and the square of the
perpendicular distance between the axes.
Mathematically:
, where
axis through its centre of mass and
is moment of inertia of the body about an

is the perpendicular distance between the two
axes.
.Moment of inertia of a few bodies of regular shapes:
i.
M.I. of a rod about an axis through its c.m. and perpendicular to rod,
ii.
M.I. of a circular ring about an axis through its centre and

perpendicular to its plane,
iii.
M.I. of a circular disc about an axis through its centre and

perpendicular to its plane,
iv.
M.I. of a right circular solid cylinder about its symmetry axis,
v.
M.I. of a right circular hollow cylinder about its axis =
vi.
M.I. of a solid sphere about its diameter,
vii.
M.I. of spherical shell about its diameter,
109
.Moment of inertia and angular momentum. The moment of inertia of a rigid body
about an axis is numerically equal to the angular momentum of the rigid body, when
rotating with unit angular velocity about that axis.
Mathematically:
.Moment of inertia and kinetic energy of rotation. The moment of inertia of a rigid
body about an axis of rotation is numerically equal to twice the kinetic energy of
rotation of the body, when rotation with unit angular velocity about that axis.
Mathematically:
.Moment of inertia and torque. The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis
of rotation is numerically equal to the external torque required to produce a unit
angular acceleration in the body BOUT THE GIVEN AXIS.
MATHEMATICALLY:
.Law of conservation of angular momentum. If no external torque acts on a
system, the total angular momentum of the system remains unchanged.
Mathematically:
For translational equilibrium of a rigid body, =

For rotational equilibrium of a rigid body,
=0
1.The following table gives a summary of the analogy between various quantities
describing linear motion and rotational motion.
110
s.no.
Linear motion
s.no.
Rotational motion
1.
Distance/displacement (s)
1.
Angle or angular
displacement ( )
2.
Linear velocity,
2.
Angular velocity,
3.
Angular acceleration=
3.
Linear acceleration,
Moment of inertia ( )
Mass (m)
4.
4.
Angular momentum,
Linear momentum,
5.
5.
Torque,
Force,
6.
6.
Also, torque,
Also, force
7.
8.
9.
7.
Translational KE,
Work done,
Rotational KE,
8.
Work done,
9.
Power,
Power,
111
10.
11.
10.
Linear momentum of a system
is conserved when no external
force acts on the system.
11.
Equations of rotational
motion
Equation of translator motion

i.
12.
12.
ii.
Angular momentum of a
system is conserved when
no external torque acts on
the system
iii.
i.
ii.
iii.
have their usual

meaning.
have their usual

meaning.
112
CENTRE
OF MASS
CHARACTERISTICS
POSITION VECTOR
COORDINATES
+ +
+
R=
1/
MOTION
(IN CASE OF AN
ISOLATED SYSTEM)
UNIFORM VELOCITY
1/
1/
ROTATIONAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN A PLANE
CAUSES
CONSEQUENCES
TORQUE
ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
MOTION OF A STONE TIED

TO A STRING WOUND
OVER A ROTATING
CYLINDER
113
MOTION OF A BODY
ROLLING DOWN AN
INCLINED PLANE
WITHOUT SLIPPING
1 Marks Questions
1. If one of the particles is heavier than the other, to which will their centre of
mass shift?
Answer:- The centre of mass will shift closer to the heavier particle.
2. Can centre of mass of a body coincide with geometrical centre of the body?
Answer:- Yes, when the body has a uniform mass density.
3.Which physical quantity is represented by a product of the moment of inertia
and the angular velocity?
Answer:- Product of I and represents angular momentum(L=I ).
4.What is the angle between and , if and denote the adjacent sides
of a parallelogram drawn from a point and the area of parallelogram is AB.
Answer:- Area of parallelogram=|
= =
| = AB
= AB. (Given)
or =
5. Which component of linear momentum does not contribute to angular

momentum?
Answer:- The radial component of linear momentum makes no contribution to
angular momentum.
6.A disc of metal is melted and recast in the form of solid sphere. What will
happen to the moment of inertia about a vertical axis passing through the
centre ?
Answer:- Moment of inertia will decrease, because
, the
radius of sphere formed on recasting the disc will also decrease.

7. What is rotational analogue of mass of body?
Answer:- Rotational analogue of mass of a body is moment of inertia of the body.
114
8. What are factors on which moment of inertia depend upon?

Answer:- Moment of inertia of a body depends on position and orientation of the axis
of rotation. It also depends on shape, size of the body and also on the distribution of
mass of the body about the given axis.
9. Is radius of gyration of a body constant quantity?
Answer:- No, radius of gyration of a body depends on axis of rotation and also on
distribution of mass of the body about the axis.
10. Is the angular momentum of a system always conserved? If no, under what
condition is it conserved?
Answer:- No, angular momentum of a system is not always conserved. It is
conserved only when no external torque acts on the system.
2 Marks Questions
1. Why is the handle of a screw made wide?
Answerwer:- Turning moment of a force= force distance(r) from the axis of
rotation. To produce a given turning moment, force required is smaller, when r is
large. Thats what happens when handle of a screw is made wide.
2. Can a body in translatory motion have angular momentum? Explain.
Answer:- Yes, a body in translatory motion shall have angular momentum, the fixed
point about which angular momentum is taken lies on the line of motion of the body.
This follows from | |= r p
L=0, only when =
or =1
.
.
3. A person is sitting in the compartment of a train moving with uniform

velocity on a smooth track. How will the velocity of centre of mass of
compartment change if the person begins to run in the compartment?
Answer:- We know that velocity of centre of mass of a system changes only when an
external force acts on it. The person and the compartment form one system on
which no external force is applied when the person begins to run. Therefore, there
will be no change in velocity of centre of mass of the compartment.
115
4. A particle performs uniform circular motion with an angular momentum L. If

the frequency of particles motion is doubled and its K.E is halved, what
happens to the angular momentum?
Answer:-
and
r=
As,
K.E=
, therefore,
/
When K.E. is halved and frequency (n) is doubled,
i.e. angular momentum becomes one fourth.

5. An isolated particle of mass m is moving in a horizontal plane(x-y), along
the x-axis at a certain height above the ground. It explodes suddenly into two
fragments of masses m/4 and 3 m/4. An instant later, the smaller fragments is
at y= +15 cm. What is the position of larger fragment at this instant?
Answer:- As isolated particle is moving along x-axis at a certain height above the
ground, there is no motion along y-axis. Further, the explosion is under internal
forces only. Therefore, centre of mass remains stationary along y-axis after
collision. Let the co-ordinates of centre of mass be (
Now,
Or
, 0).
+
+
/
/
So, larger fragment will be at y= -5 ; along x-axis.

6. Why there are two propellers in a helicopter?
Answerwer:- If there were only one propeller in a helicopter then, due to
conservation of angular momentum, the helicopter itself would have turned in the
opposite direction.
7. A solid wooden sphere rolls down two different inclined planes of the same
height but of different inclinations. (a) Will it reach the bottom with same
116
speed in each case ? (b) Will it take longer to roll down one inclined plane than
other ? Explain.
Answer:- (a) Yes, because at the bottom depends only on height and not on slope.
(b) Yes, greater the inclination( ), smaller will be time of decent, as
1/
8. There is a stick half of which is wooden and half is of steel. It is pivoted at
the wooden end and a force is applied at the steel end at right angles to its
length. Next, it is pivoted at the steel end and the same force is applied at the
wooden end. In which case is angular acceleration more and why?
Answer:- We know that torque, = Force
Distance =
= constant
Angular acc. ( ) will be more, when I is small, for which lighter material(wood)
should at larger distance from the axis of rotation I.e. when stick is pivoted at the
steel end.
9. Using expressions for power in rotational motion, derive the relation
where letters have their usual meaning.
Answer:- We know that power in rotational motion,
.(i)
and K.E. of motion, E=
.(ii)
As power= time rate of doing work in rotational motion, and work is stored in the
body in the form of K.E.
( K.E. of rotation)
(
Using (i),
or
which is the required relation.
10. Calculate radius of gyration of a cylindrical rod of mass m and length L

about an axis of rotation perpendicular to its length and passing through the
centre.
Answer:- K=? , mass= m , length=L
Moment of inertia of the rod about an axis perpendicular to its length and passing
through the centre is
117
Also,
3 Marks Questions
1. Explain that torque is only due to transverse component of force. Radial
component has nothing to do with torque.
2. Show that centre of mass of an isolated system moves with a uniform
velocity along a straight line path.
3. If angular momentum is conserved in a system whose moment of inertia is
decreased, will its rotational kinetic energy be also conserved ? Explain.
Ans:- Here,
constant
K.E. of rotation,
As
is constant,
1/
When moment of inertia( ) decreases, K.E. of rotation( ) increases. Thus K.E. of

rotation is not conserved.
4. How will you distinguish between a hard boiled egg and a raw egg by
spinning each on a table top?
Ans:- To distinguish between a hard boiled egg and a raw egg, we spin each on a
table top. The egg which spins at a slower rate shall be raw. This is because in a
raw egg, liquid matter inside tries to get away from its axis of rotation. Therefore, its
moment of inertia increases. As
constant, therefore,
decreases i.e.
raw egg will spin with smaller angular acceleration. The reverse is true for a hard
boiled egg which will rotate more or less like a rigid body.
118
5.Equal torques are applied on a cylindrical and a hollow sphere. Both have
same mass and radius. The cylinder rotates about its axis and the sphere
rotates about one of its diameters. Which will acquire greater speed? Explain.
6.Locate the centre of mass of uniform triangular lamina and a uniform cone.
7. A thin wheel can stay upright on its rim for a considerable length when
rolled with a considerable velocity, while it falls from its upright position at the
slightest
Answer:-
disturbance
when
stationary.
Give
reason.
When the wheel is rolling upright, it has angular momentum in the
horizontal direction i.e., along
the axis of the wheel. Because the angular
momentum is to remain conserved, the wheel does not fall from its upright position
because that would change the direction of angular momentum. The wheel falls only
when it loses its angular velocity due to friction.
8.
Why
is
the
speed
of
whirl
wind
in
tornado
so
high?
Answer:- In a whirl wind, the air from nearby region gets concentrated in a small
space thereby decreasing the value of moment of inertia considerably. Since, I =
constant, due to decrease in moment of inertia, the angular speed becomes quite
high.
9. Explain the physical significance of moment of inertia and radius of
gyration.
10. Obtain expression for K.E. of rolling motion.
5 Marks Questions
1. Define centre of mass. Obtain an expression for perpendicular of centre of mass
of two particle system and generalise it for particle system.
2. Find expression for linear acceleration of a cylinder rolling down on a inclined
plane.
A ring, a disc and a sphere all of them have same radius and same mass roll down
119
on inclined plane from the same heights. Which of these reaches the bottom (i)
earliest (ii) latest ?
3. (i) Name the physical quantity corresponding to inertia in rotational motion. How is
it calculated? Give its units.
(ii)Find expression for kinetic energy of a body.
4. State and prove the law of conservation of angular momentum. Give one
illustration to explain it.
5. State parallel and perpendicular axis theorem.
Define an expression for moment of inertia of a disc R, mass M about an axis along
its diameter.
TYPICAL PROBLEMS
1. A uniform disc of radius R is put over another uniform disc of radius 2R of the
same thickness and density. The peripheries of the two discs touch each other.
Locate the centre of mass of the system.
Ans:Let the centre of the bigger disc be the origin.

2R = Radius of bigger disc
R = Radius of smaller disc
(
, where T = Thickness of the two discs
=Density of the two discs

The position of the centre of mass
120
=(
At R/5 from the centre of bigger disc towards the centre of smaller disc.
2. Two blocks of masses 10 kg and 20 kg are placed on the x-axis. The first mass is
moved on the axis by a distance of 2 cm. By what distance should the second mass
be moved to keep the position of centre of mass unchanged ?
Ans:- Two masses
m1 = 10 kg
and
are placed on the X-axis
m2 = 20kg
The first mass is displaced by a distance of 2 cm
1
The 2nd mass should be displaced by a distance 1cm towards left so as to kept
the position of centre of mass unchanged.
3. A simple of length is pulled aside to make an angle
Find the magnitude of the torque of the weight
with the vertical.
of the bob about the point of
suspension. When is the torque zero ?
121
Ans:- A simple of pendulum of length l is suspended from a rigid support.

A bob of weight W is hanging on the other point.
When the bob is at an angle
with the vertical,
then total torque acting on the point of suspension = i = F r

W r sin
= W l sin
At the lowest point of suspension the torque will be zero as the force acting on the
body passes through the point of suspension.
4. A square plate of mass 120 g and edge 5.0 cm rotates about one of edges. If
it has a uniform angular acceleration of 0.2 rad/ , what torque acts on the
plate ?
Ans:- A square plate of mass 120 gm and edge 5 cm rotates about one of the edge.
Let take a small area of the square of width dx and length a which is at a distance x
from the axis of
rotation.
Therefore mass of that small area
m/
a dx(m=mass of the square ; a= side of the plate)
( /
( / )( / )
/
Therefore torque produced = I = (
/ )
-3
= {(120 10 52 10-4)/3} 0.2
= 0.2 10-4 = 2 10-5 N-m.
5. A wheel of moment of inertia 0.10 kg-
is rotating about a shaft at an
angular speed of 160 rev/minute. A second wheel is set into rotation at 300
rev/minute and is coupled to the same shaft so that both the wheels finally
rotate with a common angular speed of 200 rev/minute. Find the moment of
122
inertia of the second wheel.
Ans:- Wheel (1) has

= 0.10 kg-
= 160 rev/min
Wheel (2) has

=?;
= 300 rev/min
Given that after they are coupled, = 200 rev/min
Therefore if we take the two wheels to bean isolated system
Total external torque = 0
(
)
Therefore,
0.10 160 + 300 = (0.10 + ) 200
5 = 1 0.8
= 0.04 kg- .
123
GRAVITATION
CONCEPTS
Kepler's law of planetry motion
(a) Kepler's first law (law of orbit): Every planet revolves around the sun in an
elliptical orbit with the sun is situated at one focus of the ellipse.
(b) Kepler's second law (law of area): The radius vector drawn from the sun to a
planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time , i.e., the areal velocity of
the planet around the sun is constant.
(c) Kepler's third law (law of period): The square of the time period of revolution of a
planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of semimajor axis of the
elliptical orbit of the planet around the sun.
Gravitation is the name given to the force of attraction acting between any two
bodies of the universe.
Newton's law of gravitation: It states that gravitational force of attraction acting

between two point mass bodies of the universe is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them, i.e., F=Gm1m2/r2, where G is the universal
gravitational constant.
Gravitational constant (G): It is equal to the force of attraction acting between

two bodies each of unit mass, whose centres are placed unit distance apart.
Value of G is constant throughout the universe. It is a scalar quantity. The
dimensional formula G =[M-1L3T-2]. In SI unit, the value of G =6.67X1011
Nm2kg-2.
Gravity: It is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards its centre on a

body lying on or near the surface of earth. Gravity is the measure of weight of
the body. The weight of a body of mass m=mass X acceleration due to
gravity=mg. The unit of weight of a body will be the same as those of force.
124
Acceleration due to gravity (g): It is defined as the acceleration set up in a

body while falling freely under the effect of gravity alone. It is vector quantity.
The value of g changes with height, depth, rotation of earth the value of g is
zero at the centre of the earth. The value of g on the surface of earth is 9.8
ms-2. The acceleration due to gravity (g) is related with gravitational constant
(G) by the relaion, g=GM/R2 where M and R are the mass and radius of the
earth.
Variation of acceleration due to gravity:
(a)
Effect of altitude, g=Gr2/(R+h)2 and g=g(1-2h/R)

The first is valid when h is comparable with R and the second relation
is valid when h<<R.
The value of g decreases with increase in h.
(b)
Effect of depth g=g(1-d/R)

The acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase in depth d and
becomes zero at the center of earth.
(c)
Effect of rotation of earth: g=g-R 2

The acceleration due to gravity on equator decreases on account of
rotation of earth and increase with the increase in latitude of a place.
Gravitational field: It is the space around a material body in

which its gravitational pull can be experienced by other bodies.
The strength of gravitational field at a point is the measure of
gravitational intensity at that point. The intensity of gravitational
field of a body at a point in the field is defined as the force
experienced by a body of unit mass placed at that point
provided the presence of unit mass does not disturb the original
gravitational field. The intensity of gravitational field at a point
distance r from the center of the body of mass M is given by
125
E=GM/r2=acceleration due to gravity.
Gravitational potential: The gravitational potential at a point in

a gravitational field is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point without
acceleration.
Gravitational
done(W)/test mass(m0)=
potential
-GM/r.
at
V=
point,
V=work
= -
Gravitational intensity (I) is related to gravitational potential (V)

at a point by the relation, E= -dV/dr
Gravitational potential energy of a body, at a point in

the gravitational field of another body is defined as the
amount of work done in bringing the given body from
infinity to that point without acceleration.
Gravitational potential energy U=gravitational potential X
mass of body =-
X m.
Inertial mass of a body is defined as the force required

to produce unit acceleration in the body.
Gravitational mass of a body is defined as the
gravitational pull experienced by the body in a
gravitational field of unit intensity.
Inertial mass of a body is identical to the gravitational
mass of that body. The main difference is that the
gravitational mass of a body is affected by the presence
of other bodies near it. Whereas the inertial mass of a
body remains unaffected by the presence of other bodies
near it.
Satellite: A satellite is a body which is revolving

continuously in an orbit around a comparatively much
126
larger body.
(a)
Orbital speed of satellite is the speed required to

put the satellite into given orbit around earth.
Time period of satellite(T): It is the time taken by satellite

to complete one revolution around the earth.
T=
( + )
Height
Total energy of satellite, E=P.E +K.E=
of
satellite
above
the
earth
surface:
( + )
Blinding energy of satellite = -E = GM m/(R+h)
Geostationary satellite: A satellite which revolves around the earth with the
same angular speed in the same direction as is done by the earth around its
axis is called geostationary or geosynchronous satellite. The height of
geostationary satellite is = 36000 km and its orbital velocity = 3.1 km s-1.
Polar satellite: It is that satellite which revolves in polar orbit around earth ,i.e.
, polar satellite passes through geographical north and south poles of earth
once per orbit.
Escape speed: The escape speed on earth is defined as the minimum speed
with which a body has to be projected vertically upwards from the surface of
earth( or any other planet ) so that it just crosses the gravitational field of
earth (or of that planet) and never returns on its own. Escape velocity ve is
given by, ve
. For earth, the value of escape speed is
11.2kms-1.
For a point close to the earths surface , the escape speed and orbital speed
are related as ve =
Weightlessness: It is a situation in which the effective weight of the body

becomes zero.
127
GOVERNED BY
MEASURED THROUGH
APPLICATIONS
ACCELERATION DUE
TO GRAVITY (g)
NEWTONS LAW OF
GRAVITATION
SATELLITE
ESCAPE
VELOCITY
MATHEMATICAL
LY
VARIES DUE TO
MATHEMATICALLY
V=
V=
ALTIDUDE
=g(1-
DEPTH
=g(1
- )
ROTATION OF
EARTH/LATITUDE
=g(1-R )
=+
ORBITAL VELOCITY v=
V=R
CAUSES MOTION OF
PLANETS EXPLAINED BY
+
(+ )
TIME PERIOD T=2

(+ )
T=2
KEPLERS LAW
T=2
HEIGHT h={ }
LAW OF AREAL
LAW OF
VELOCITIES
ELLIPTICAL
1MARK
QUESTIONS
ORBITS
LAW OF TIME
PERIODS
128
Q1.When a stone of mass m is falling on the earth of mass M; find the acceleration
of earth if any?
Ans. Force exerted by falling stone on earth, F=mg
Acceleration of earth= =
Q2.Why G is called a universal constant?
Ans. It is so because the value of G is same for all the pairs of the bodies (big or
small) situated anywhere in the universe.
Q3.According to Keplers second law the radius vector to a planet from the sun
sweeps out equal area in equal interval of time. The law is a consequence of which
conservation law.
Ans. Law of Conservation of angular momentum.
Q4.What are the factors which determine ; Why some bodies in solar system have
atmosphere and others dont have?
Ans. The ability of a body (planet) to hold the atmosphere depends on
acceleration due to gravity.
Q5.What is the maximum value of gravitational potential energy and where?
Ans. The value of gravitational potential energy is negative and it increases as we
move away from the earth and becomes maximum ( zero) at infinity.
Q6.The gravitational potential energy of a body at a distance r from the center of
earth is U. What is the weight of the body at that point?
Ans. U=
=(
) r m=g r m= (mg) r
Q7.A satellite revolving around earth loses height. How will its time period be
changed?
129
( + )
Ans. Time period of satellite is given by; T=2
. Therefore ,T will decrease,
when h decreases.
Q8.Should the speed of two artificial satellites of the earth having different masses
but the same orbital radius, be the same?
Ans.Yes it is so because the orbital speed of a satellite is independent of the mass
of a satellite. Therefore the speeds of the artificial satellite will be of different masses
but of the same orbital radius will be the same.
Q9.Can a pendulum vibrate in an artificial satellite?
Ans. No, this is because inside the satellite, there is no gravity ,i.e., g=0.
As t = 2 / , hence, for g=0 , t =
. Thus, the pendulum will not vibrate.
Q10.Why do different planets have different escape speed?

Ans. As, escape speed =
, therefore its value are different for different
planets which are of different masses and different sizes.

2 MARKS QUESTIONS
Q1.Show that weight of all body is zero at Centre of earth?
Ans. The value of acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below the surface of earth
of radius R is given by =g(1-d/R).At the center of earth, (dept)d=R; so, =0.The
weight of a body of mass m at the centre of earth =mg=m x 0=0.
Q2.If a person goes to a height equal to radius of the earth from its surface. What
would be his weight relative to that on the earth.
Ans. At the surface of the earth, weight W=mg=GM m/
At height h =R , weight W=mg=
( + )
( + )
130
W=
It means the weight would reduce to one-fourth of the weight on the surface of earth.
Q3.What will be the effect on the time period of a simple pendulum on taking to a
mountain?
Ans. The time period of a pendulum, T=2 / , i.e., T= 1/ .As the value of g is
less at mountain than at plane, hence time period of simple pendulum will be more
at mountain than at plane though the change will be very small.
Q4.A satellite is revolving around the earth, close to the surface of earth with a
kinetic energy E. How much kinetic energy should be given to it so that it escapes
from the surface of earth?
Ans. Let
be the orbital and escape speeds of the satellite, then
Energy in the given orbit,

(
Energy for the escape speed,

Energy required to be supplied =
Q5.A tennis ball and a cricket ball are to be projected out of gravitational field of the
earth. Do we need different velocities to achieve so?
Ans. We require the same velocity for the two balls, while projecting them out of the
gravitational field. It is so because, the value of escape velocity does not depend
upon the mass of the body to be projected [i.e. ,
].
Q6.Suppose the gravitational force varies inversely as the nth power of the distance.
Show that the time period of a planet in circular orbit of radius R around the sun will
be proportional to
Ans.
( + )/
( )
( + )
131
( + )/
( + )/
Q7.Draw graphs showing the variation of acceleration due to gravity with (a)height
above the earths surface, (b)depth below the Earths surface.
Ans.(a)The variation of g with height h is related by relation g 1/
where r=R+h.
Thus, the variation of g and r is a parabolic curve.

(b)The variation of g with depth is released by equation g=g(1-d/R) i.e. g (
.Thus, the variation of g and d is a straight line.

Q8.Why does moon have no atmosphere?
Ans. Moon has no atmosphere because the value of acceleration due to gravity g
on surface of moon is small. Therefore, the value of escape speed on the surface of
moon is small. The molecules of atmospheric gases on the surface of the moon
have thermal speeds greater than the escape speed. That is why all the molecules
of gases have escaped and there is no atmosphere on moon.
Q9.A rocket is fired with a speed v=2
the earths surface and directed
upwards. Find its speed in interstellar space.

Ans. Let v be the speed of rocket instellar space.
Using law of conservation of energy, we have
132
) =
3 marks questions
Q1.Explain how knowledge of g helps us to find (i) mass of earth and (ii)mean
density of earth?
Q2. Obtain the expression for orbital velocity, time period, and altitude of a satellite.
Q3. What do you understand by Escape velocity? Derive an expression for it in
terms of parameters of given planet.
Q4. What do you understand by gravitational field, Intensity of gravitational field .
Prove that gravitational intensity at a point is equal to the acceleration due to gravity
at that point.
Q5.A mass M is broken into two parts of masses
. How are
related so that force of gravitational attraction between the two parts is maximum.
Ans. Let
then
Gravitational force of attraction between them

(
when placed distance r apart will be
Differentiating it w.r.t. m, we get

(
If F is maximum, then
Then
[ ( 1)
;
or
M=2m
or
m=
Q6.Two particles of equal mass move in a circle of radius r under the action of their
mutual gravitational attraction. Find the speed of each particle if its mass is m.
Ans. The two particles will move on a circular path if they always remain dramatically
opposite so that the gravitation force on one particle due to other is directed along
the radius. Taking into consideration the circulation of one particle we have
133
or
Q7.The magnitude of gravitational field at distances

uniform sphere of radius R and mass M are
from the centre of a

respectively. Find the ratio of
( / ) if
Ans.
When
the point lies outside the sphere . Then sphere can be
considered to be a point mass body whose whole mass can be supposed to be

concentrated at its Centre. Then gravitational intensity at a point distance
Centre of the sphere will be,
When
from the
the point P lies inside the sphere. The unit mass body placed at P, will
experience gravitational pull due to sphere of radius
, whose mass is M=
.
Therefore, the gravitational intensity at P will be ,
1
Q8.Two bodies of masses
are initially at rest at infinite distance apart.
They are then allowed to move towards each other under mutual gravitational
attraction. Find their relative velocity of approach at a separation distance r between
them.
Ans. Let
be the relative velocity of approach of two bodies at a distance r apart.
The reduced mass of the system of two particles is ,

According to law of conservation of mechanical energy.
Decrease in potential energy = increase in K.E.

134
or
or
Q9.Since the moon is gravitationally attracted to the earth, why does it not
simply crash on earth?
Ans. The moon is orbiting around the earth in a certain orbit with a certain
period . The centripetal force required for the orbital motion is provided to the
gravitational pull of earth. The moon can crash into the earth if its tangential
velocity is reduced to zero. AS moon has tangential velocity while orbiting
around earth, it simply falls around the earth rather than into it and hence
cannot crash into the earth.
Q10.What are the conditions under which a rocket fired from earth, launches
an artificial satellite of earth?
Ans. Following are the basic conditions: (i) The rocket must take the satellite to
a suitable height above the surface of earth for ease of propulsion.
(ii)From the desired height, the satellite must be projected with a suitable
speed, called orbital speed.
(iii)In the orbital path of satellite, the air resistance should be negligible so that
its speed does not decrease and it does not burn due to the heat produced.
5 marks questions
Q1.State Keplers laws of planetary motion. Prove second Keplers law using
concept of conservation of angular motion.
135
Q2.State universal law of gravitation. What is the significance of this law. Find the
expression for acceleration due to gravity.
Q3.Explain the variation of acceleration due to gravity with (I) altitude (ii) depth
Q4. Define gravitational potential energy. Derive the expression for gravitational
potential energy. What is the maximum value of gravitational potential energy?
Q5.What is escape speed? Derive the expressions for it. Calculate escape speed for
the Earth.
TYPICAL PROBLEMS
Q1.Two particles of equal mass go round a circle of radius R under the action of
their mutual gravitational attraction. Find the speed of each particle.
Ans. The particles will always remain diametrically opposite so that the force on
each particle will be directed along the radius. Consider the motion of one of the
. If the speed is v, its acceleration is
particles. The force on the particle is

/ .
Thus by Newtons Law,
V=
Q2.A particle is fired vertically upward with a speed of 3.8km/s. Find the maximum
height attained by the particle. Radius of earth=6400km and g at the
surface=9.8m/s. Consider only earths gravitation.
Ans. At the surface of the earth, the potential energy of the earth-particle system is
with usual symbol. The kinetic energy is 1/2 m
where
/ . At the
maximum height the kinetic energy is zero. If the maximum height reached is H, the
potential energy of the earth-particle system at this instant is
conservation of energy ,
136
. Using
Writing GM=g
dividing by m,
Putting the value of R,
g on right side,
(
)
(
/ )
H = (27300 - 6400)km =20900km

3. Derive an expression for the gravitational field due to a uniform rod of length L
and mass M at a point on its perpendicular bisector at a distance d from the center.
Ans. A small section of rod is considered at x distance mass of the element = (M/L).
dx = dm
(
(
)
+
(
)
)
+
) (
Total gravitational field
E=
/
(
) /
Integrating the above equation it can be found that,
137
)((
Resultant dE = 2 dE1 sin

(
(
)
+
)((
Total gravitational field
E=
/
(
) /
Integrating the above equation it can be found that,
Q4.A tunnel is dug along a diameter of the earth. Find the force on a particle of mass
m placed in the tunnel at a distance x from the centre.
Ans. Let d be the distance from centre of earth to man m then
1
( )
M be the mass of the earth, M the mass of the sphere of radius d/2.
Then M = (4/3)
M = (4/3)
138
Or
So, Normal force exerted by the wall = F cos
Therefore I think normal force does not depend on x.

Q5. (a) Find the radius of the circular orbit of a satellite moving with an angular
speed equal to the angular speed of earths rotation.
(b)If the satellite is directly above the north pole at some instant , find the time it
takes to come over equatorial plane. Mass of the earth= 1
Ans.(a) Angular speed f earth & the satellite will be same
Or
1
( + )
Or 1 |
Or
( + )
)
(
139

(
Or
Or
+ )
(
(
)
)
(
+ )
Or (
1
(
Or
Or
(b)Time taken from north pole to equator = (1/2) t
1
( )
)
1
140
(
(
)
)
1
1
MECHANICS OF SOLID AND FLUID
Deforming force:- A force acting on a body which produces change in its

shape of body instead of its state of rest or uniform motion of the body.
Elasticity:-The property of matter by virtue which it regains its original shape

and size, when the deforming forces are removed is called elasticity.
Plasticity:- The inability of a body to return to its original shape and size,
when the deforming forces are removed is called plasticity.
Hookes law:- when a wire is loaded within elastic limit, the extension
produced in wire is directly proportional to the load applied.
OR
Within elastic limit stress strain
Stress
= Constant
Strain
Stress :- Restoring force set up per unit area when deforming force acts on
the body
Stress = Restoring force
Area
S.I Unit of stress = N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Dimensional formula = Ma LbTc
Tensile stress(When there is an

increase in dimension of the body
along the direction of force )
Types of stress:Normal stress
Compression stress(when there is

decrease in dimension )
Stress
Tangential stress (When deforming force acts tangential to the

surface of body )
Strain:- The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension is called strain
141
It has no unit
Longitudinal strain=
Types of strain:-
Volumetric strain =
Sharing Strain = =
, Where
=displacement of the face
on which force is applied and L is the height of the face
Hookes L aw:- Within elastic limit,
stress
strain
= Constant (Modulus of Elasticity)

Modulus of elasticity are of 3 types.
(1) Youngs Modulus (Y) =
(2) Bulk Modulus (K) =
(3) Modulus of rigidity modulus () =
Compressibility : the reciprocal of bulk modulus of a material is called its

compressibility
Compressibility = 1/K
Stress Strain- diagram
Proportionality limit(P) The stress at the limit of proportionality point P is

known as proportionality limit
Elastic limit - the maximum stress which can be applied to a wire so that on
unloading it return to its original length is called the elastic limit
Yield point(Y)- The stress, beyond which the length of the wire increase
virtually for no increase in the stress
Plastic region- the region of stress- strain graph between the elastic limit and
the breaking point is called the plastic region.
142
Fracture point or Breaking point(B)- the value of stress corresponding to

which the wire breaks is called breaking point
Work done in stretching a wire per unit volume/energy sored per unit
volume of specimen
= x stress x strain
Elastic after effect:- The delay in regaining the original state by a body after
the removal of the deforming force is called elastic after effect.
Elastic fatigue:- the loss in strength of a material caused due to repeated

alternating strains to which the material is subjected.
Poissons ratio() :- The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called

Poisons ratio =
Relation between Y,K,,

1. Y=3K(1-2 )
2. Y=2(1+ )
3. =
4.
= 1/K +3/
Applications of elasticity
1. Metallic part of machinery is never subjected to a stress beyond the elastic
limit of material.
2. Metallic rope used in cranes to lift heavy weight are decided on the elastic
limit of material
3. In designing beam to support load (in construction of roofs and bridges)
4. Preference of hollow shaft than solid shaft
5. Calculating the maximum height of a mountain
MECHANICS OF FLUID
Pressure :The force/threat acting per unit area is called pressure

S.I Unit of pressure is N/M2 or pascal (Pa)
143
Dimensional formula (ML-1T-2)
Pascals law:- Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted to all part

of the fluid and to the wall of the container.
Application of Pascals law:(1) Hydraulic lift, presses etc.

(2) Hydraulic brakes
Pressure exerted by liquid column:-
P = hg, where h= depth of liquid,
=density , g=accn. due to gravity.
Variation of pressure with depth:
P = Pa + hg, where Pa =atmospheric
pressure
Atmospheric pressure:- The pressure exerted by atmosphere is called

atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, atmospheric pressure= 0.76m of Hg column
Mathematically
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Nm-2
Archimedes principle:- It states that when a body is immersed completely

or partly in a fluid, it loses in weight equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by it.
Mathematically: Apparent weight = True weight Vg
Where V is volume of fluid displaced,
is its density.
Viscosity:- It is the property of liquid (or gases) due to which a backward

dragging force acts tangentially between two layers of liquid when there is
relative motion between them.
Newtons formula for Viscous force:- the viscous force between two liquid
layer each of area A and having a velocity gradient dv/dx is
F = A (dv/dx) , where is coefficient of viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity:- It is define as the tangential viscous force which

maintains a unit velocity gradient between two parallel layers each of unit
area
S.I unit of coefficient of viscosity is poiseuille or pascal-second
144
Poiseuilles equation:- when a liquid of coefficient of viscosity flows through

a tube of length l and radius r, then the volume of liquid following out per
second is given
V = Pr4/8 l ,
Where P is the difference of pressure between the two ends of the tube.
Stokes law: The backward dragging force acing on a small sphere of radius
r falling with uniform velocity v through a medium of coefficient of viscosity is
given by
F = 6 rv
Terminal velocity:- It is the maximum constant velocity acquired by the body

while falling freely in a viscous medium
The terminal velocity v of a spherical body of radius
r and density while
falling freely in a viscous medium of viscosity , density is given by
V =
Stream line:- It is the path, straight or curved, the tangent at any point to
which given the direction of the flow of liquid at that point
Tube of flow:- A tube of flow is a bundle of stream lines having the same
velocity of fluid elements over any cross section perpendicular to the direction
of flow
Stream line flow:- the flow of the liquid in which each molecule of the liquid
passing through a point travels along the same path and with the some
velocity as the preceeding molecule passing through the same point
Laminar flow:- the flow of liquid, in which velocity of the layer varies from
maximum at the axis to minimum for the layer in contact with the wall of the
tube is called laminar flow.
Turbulent flow:- It is the flow of liquid in which a liquid moves with a velocity
greater than its critical velocity. The motion of the particles of liquid becomes
disorderly or irregular.
145
Critical velocity:- It is that velocity of liquid flow, upto which the flow of liquid
is streamlined and above which its flow becomes turbulent. Critical velocity of
a liquid (Vc) flowing through a tube is given by
Vc = K/ r
Where is the density of liquid following through a tube of radius r and
the coefficient of viscosity of liquid
Reynolds umber:- It is a pure number which determines the nature of flow

of liquid through a pipe
Quantitatiively Renolds number N = D Vc/
Where
is coefficient of viscosity of liquid
is density of liquid D is
the diameter of the tube, Vc is critical velocity

For stream line flow, Reynolds number <2000
For turbulent flow, Reynolds number > 3000
For uncertain flow, 2000<Reynolds number<3000
Theorem of continuity : If there is no source or sink of the fluid along the

length of the pipe, the mass of the fluid crossing any section of the pipe per
second is always constant
Mathematically
a1v1 1 = a2v2 2
It is called the equation of continuity

For in compressible liquid 1=
Therefore the equation continuity
becomes
a1v1 =a2v2
Bernoullis theorem:- It states that for an in compressible non-viscous liquid
in steady flow, the total energy i.e. pressure energy, potential energy and
kinetic energy remains constant its flow.
Mathematically
+ gh + v2
+h+
= Constant
= Constant
146
The term
, h and
are called pressure head, gravitational head and
velocity head respectively.
Application of Bernoulls theorem

(i)
Working of Bunsen burner
(ii)
Lift of an air foil
(iii)
Spinning of ball (Magnus effect)
(iv)
Sprayer
(v)
Ping pong ball in air jet.
Toricellis theorem/speed of efflux:-It states that the velocity of efflux i.e.

the velocity with which the liquid flows out of an orifice (i.e. a narrow hole) is
equal to that which is freely falling body would acquire in falling through a
vertical distance equal to the depth of orifice below the free surface of liquid.
Quantitatively velocity of efflus
V=
Venturimeter:- It is a device use to measure the rate of flow of liquid.
Venturimeter consists of a wide tube having a constriction in the middle. If a1
and a2 are the areas of cross section of the wide end and the threat, p 1 and p2
are the pressure of liquid, then velocity of the liquid entering at the wide end is
given by V1=a2 2(P1-P2) (a12-a22)
Surface tension (T) :- It is the property of a liquid by virtue of which, it

behaves like an elastic stretched membrane with a tendency to contract so as
to occupy a minimum surface area
Mathematically
S.I Unit is
: Nm-1
T = F/l
Dimensional formula : ML0T -2
Surface Energy : The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is
called the surface energy.
Surface energy =
147
Surface tension is numerally equal to surface energy
Excess of pressure inside a drop and double:- There is excess of pressure

on concave side of a curved surface
1. Excess of pressure inside a liquid drop
= 2T/R
2. Excess of pressure inside a liquid bubble = 4T/R

3. Excess of pressure inside an air bubble
= 2T/R,
Where T is the
surface tension , R = radius of liquid drop
Angle of contact:- The angle which the tangent to the free surface of the
liquid at the point of contact makes with the wall of the containing vessel, is
called the angle of contact
For liquid having convex meniscus, the angle of contact is obtuse and for
having concave meniscus, the angle of contact is acute.
Capillary tube:- A tube of very fine bore is called capillary tube
Capillarity:-The rise or fall of liquid inside a capillary tube when it is dipped in

it is called capillarity
Ascent formula:- when a capillary tube of radius r is dipped in a liquid of

density
and surface tension T, the liquid rises or depresses through a
height,
H= 2Tcos /r g
There will be rise a liquid when angle of contact is acute. There will be fall in
liquid when angle of contact is obtuse.
Thermal expansion and calorimetry
Heat- it is a form of energy, which produce in us the sensation of warmth
Temperature:- The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called

temperature
Thermometer- It is a device used to measure the temperature of a body
Scales of temperature:- there are four scales of temperature. Given below is

scales of temp with lower and upper fixed point
Temperature scales Lower fixed point (Melting point office) Upper fixed point
(Boiling point of water)
148
1. Celsius
00C
1000C
2. Fahrenheit
320F
2120F
3. Reamur
00R
80oR
4. Kelvin
273K
373K
Relation between the various temperature scales

If C,F, R and K are temperature of a body on Celsius, Fahrenheit , Reumer
and Kelvin scale, then
C/5 = F-32/9 = R/4 = K -273 /5
Thermal expansion:- all solid expands on heating. There are three types of
expansion.
(1) Liner expansion- When a solid rod of initial length l is heated through a
temperature
then its new length l = l( 1+
) , where
is called
coefficient of liner expansion

(2) Superficial expansion- when a solid of initial surface area A is heated
through temperature then its new Area is A= A (1 +
),
where is
coefficient of superficial expansion

(3) Cubical expansion- when a solid of initial volume V is heated through a
temperature
then its new volume is V= V ( 1 +
) ,where is
the coefficient of cubical expansion.
Relation between , and

= /2 =/3
In case of liquid r= a+ g
Where r=Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid
a= Coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid
g= Coefficient of cubical expansion of the vessel
Thermal capacity = It is the amount of heat required to raise its temperature
through one degree
Water equivalent :- It is the mass of water which absorbs or emits the same
amount
of heat as is done by the body for the same rise or fall in
temperature. It is represented by
W = mc
149
Specific heat :- It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of

unit mass of substance through unit degree Celsius
/
C =
Latent heat :- It is define as the quantity of heat required to change the unit
mass of the substance from its one state completely to another state at
constant temperature
Latent heat of fusion (Lf)
Mathematically Q = ML
Types of Latent heat
Latent heat of vaporization (Lv)
Calorimeter :- Device used for measuring heat
Principle of calorimetry :- Heat loss by hot body = Heat gain by cold body
Transfer of heat :- there are three modes by which heat transfer takes place
(1) Conduction:- It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one point
to another through a substance in the direction of fall of temperature
without
the
actual
motion
of
the
particles
of
the
substance.
When two opposite faces of a slab, each of cross section A and separated
by a distance d are maintained at temperature T 1 and T2 (T1 >T2), then
amount of heat that flows in time t
Q =K A (T1 T2)t/d
Where K is coefficient of thermal conductivity of
the mater
Coefficient of thermal conductivity:- It may be defined as the quantity of

heat energy that flows in unit time between the opposite faces of a cube of
unit side, the faces being kept at one degree difference of temperature
S.I unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity
J S-1m-1K-1
or W m-1K-1
(2) Convection:- It is the process by which heat is transmitted through a

substance from one point to another due to the bodily motion of the
heated particles of the substance.
(3) Radiation:- It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place
to another without heating the intervening medium
150
Newtons laws of cooling:- It states that the rate of loss of heat or rate of
cooling of a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between the body and the surrounding, provided the temperature difference is
small
Mathematically
-dQ/dt = K(T-T0)
Perfect black body:- It is a body which absorbs heat radiations of all the
wavelengths, which fall on it and emits the full radiation spectrum on being
heated.
Stefans law:- It states that the total amount of heat energy radiated per unit
area of a perfect black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of the substance of the body
E T4
Mathematically
E = T4 Where is called Stefans constant

Its value is 5.67 x 10-8 JS-1m-2k-4
Weins displacement law:- According to this law, the wavelength m
intensity of emission of black body radiation is inversel y
of maximum
proportional to absolute
temperature (T) of black body.

m
m T = b where b is wiens constant

Questions with **(mark) are HOTs Question
1 MARK QUESTIONS
Q.1 A wire is stretched by a force such that its length becomes double. How will the
Youngs modulus of the wire be affected?
Ans. Youngs modulus remains the same.
Q.2 How does the Youngs modulus change with rise in temperature?
151
Ans. Youngs modulus of a material decreases with rise in temperature.

Q.3 Which of the three modulus of elasticity Y, K and is possible in all the three
states of matter (solid, liquid and gas)?
Ans. Bulk modulus (K)
Q.4 The Youngs modulus of steel is much more than that for rubber. For the same
longitudinal strain, which one will have greater stress?
Ans. Stress= Y X longitudinal strain. So steel will have greater stress.
Q.5 Which of the two forces deforming or restoring is responsible for elastic
behavior of substance?
Ans. Restoring force.
Q.6. Which mode of transfer of heat is the quickest?
Ans. Radiation.
** Q. 7 A boat carrying a number of large stones is floating in a water tank. What will
happen to the level of water if the stones are unloaded into the water?
Ans. The level of water will fall because the volume of the water displaced by
stones in water will be less than the volume of water displaced when stones
are in the boat.
Q.8. A rain drop of radius r falls in air with a terminal velocity v. What is the terminal
velocity of a rain drop of radius 3r ?
Ans.
=( )
v r2
v2=( )v12=9v1
**Q. 9 When air is blown in between two balls suspended close to each other , they
are attracted towards each other. Why?
152
Ans.
On blowing air between the two balls, the air velocity increases, decreasing
pressure. The pressure on the outer side of the ball being more will exert
forces on the balls, so they move towards each other.
Q.10. Why does air bubble in water goes up?

Ans. The terminal velocity ,
As the density of air
is less than
density of water , the terminal velocity is negative. For this reason air bubbles
moves upward.
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
Q.11 Steel is more elastic than rubber. Explain.
Ans.
Consider two wire, one of steel and another of rubber having equal length L
and cross sectional area A . When subjected to same deforming force F, the
extension produce in steel is lS and in rubber is lR such that lR>lS.
Then
and
>
=
As <
Hence steel is more elastic.

Q.12. A wire stretches by a certain amount under a load. If the load and radius are
both increased to four times, find the stretch caused in the wire.
Ans.
For a wire of radius r stretched under a force F,

Y=
or l =
Let l be the extension when both the load and the radius are increased to
four times,
153
Then, l =
Q. 13. Calculate the percentage increase in the length of a wire of diameter 2mm
stretched by a force of 1kg F. Youngs modulus of the material of wire is 15 X
1010Nm-2.
Ans.
Y = 15 X 1010Nm-2
F = 1 Kg F = 9.8N
r = = 1mm = 10-3m
Cross section of wire , r2 = X (10-3)2 = X 10-6m2

Now
Y=
=
= 2.1 X 1
Percentage increase = 2.1 X 1
X 100 = 0.0021%
Q. 14. The pressure of a medium is changed from 1.01 X 1
pa to 1.165 X 1
pa
and changed in volume is 10% keeping temperature constant. Find the bulk
modulus of the medium.
Ans.
p = 1.165 X 1
Here
1.01 X 1
= 0.155 X 1
pa
= 10 % = 0.1
Now
Q.15.
K=
= 1.55 X 1
pa
27 identical drops of water are falling down vertically in air each with a
terminal velocity of 0.15m/s. If they combine to form a single bigger drop,
what will be its terminal velocity?
Ans.
Let r = radius of each drop,

Now
v = 0.15 m/s
-------------------------------------(1)
Let R be the radius of the big drop.
154
Volume of big drop = Volume of 27 small drops
= 27 X
R = 3r
Let v1 be the terminal velocity of bigger drop

(
v1 =
=
------------------------------------(2)
= 9
v1 = 9v = 9 X 0.15 = 1.35 m/s

Q.16. Water flows through a horizontal pipe line of varying cross section at the rate
of 0.2m3s-1. Calculate the velocity of water at a point where the area of cross
section of the pipe is 0.02m2.
Ans. Rate of flow = av
v=
Rate of flow = 0.2m3s-1
v=
a = 0.02m2
= 10 ms-1
Q. 17. A cylinder of height 20m is completely filled with water. Find the efflux water
(in m s-1) through a small hole on the side wall of the cylinder near its bottom.
Given g = 10m/s.
Ans Here h = 20m , g = 10 m/s
Velocity of efflux , v =
= 20m/s
155
**Q.18. At what common temperature would a block of wood and a block of metal
appear equally cold or equally hot when touched?
Ans.
When touched an object appear cold if heat flows from our hand to the object.
On the other hand it appears hot, if heat flows from the object towards our
hand. Therefore a block of wood and block of metal will appear equally cold or
equally hot if there is no exchange of heat between hand and the block. So the
two blocks will appear equally cold or equally hot if they are at the same
temperature as that of our hands i.e. the temperature of our body.
Q.19. A piece of chalk immersed into water emits bubbles in all directions. Why?
Ans. A piece of chalk has extremely narrow capillaries. As it is immersed in water,
water rises due to
capillary action. The air present in the capillaries
in the chalk is forced out by the rising water. As a result bubbles are emitted
from the chalk in all the directions.
3 MARKS
Q. 20. Water at a pressure of 4 X 104 Nm-2 flows at 2ms-1 through a pipe of 0.02m2
cross sectional area which reduces to 0.01m2. What is the pressure in the
smaller cross section of the pipe?
Ans.
a1v1 = a2v2
=
Again
=
=
= 4m/s
+
(
= 3.4 X 104Nm-2
156
Q.21. What is surface tension and surface energy? Derive the relation between
surface tension and surface energy.
Q.22. Derive equation of continuity for steady and irrotational flow of a perfectly
mobile and incompressible fluid. What conclusion is drawn from it?
Q.23 What is Stokes law? Derive the relation by the method of dimension.
Q.24. A piece of iron of mass 0.1 kg is kept inside a furnace, till it attains the
temperature of the furnace. The hot piece of iron is dropped into a calorimeter
containing 0.24 Kg of water at 20 .
The mixture attains an equilibrium
temperature of 60 . Find the temperature of the furnace. Given water

equivalent of calorimeter = 0.01 kg and specific heat of iron = 470 J Kg-1 K-1.
Ans. Let
be the temperature of the furnace i.e of the piece of iron.
Heat lost by the piece of iron Q = M1C1 (

Here M1 = 0.1 Kg
C1 = 470 J Kg-1 K-1
Q = 0.1 X 470 (
) = 47 (
------------------------- (1)
Heat gain by water and the calorimeter , Q = (M2 + w) C2 (

M2 = 0.24 Kg
w = 0.01 Kg
= 20
C2 = Specific heat of
water = 4200 J Kg-1 K-1

Q = (0.24 + 0.01) x 4200 X (60 20) = 42000 -------------------------(2)
From (1) and (2)
47 (
) =
42000
= 953.62
**Q. 25. Calculate the energy spent in spraying a drop of mercury of 1 cm radius into
106 droplets all of same size. Surface tension of mercury is 35 x 10 -3 Nm-1.
Ans.
T = 35 x 10-3 Nm-1
R = 1 cm
157
Let r be the radius of each small drop, when the original drop is spitted
into 106 small drops.
r3 =
Then 106 X
R3
r = 10-2 R
r = 10-2 X 1 = 10-2 cm
Initial surface area of the original drop = 4 R2 = 4 X 12 = 4 cm2
Final surface area of the 106 small drops = 106 X
400
r2 = 106 X 4
X ( 10-2)2 =
cm2
Therefore increase in surface area = 400
-4
= 396 cm2 = 396 X 10-4m2
Therefore energy spent = T X increase in surface area = 35 X 10 -3 X 396 X 10-4

= 4.354 X 10-3N
Q.26. A liquid takes 10 minutes to cool from 70
to cool from 60
Ans.
to 40
1st case
= 700C
Using
=k(
to 50 . How much time will it take
? The temperature of the surrounding is 20 .

= 500C
= 20
t = 10 minutes
), we get
= k (60 20) = 40 k
K=
For 2nd case
Using
= 600C
=k(
=
t=
= 400C
) , we get
(50 20) =
= 13.33 minutes
158
= 20
t=?
**Q. 28. A slab of stone of area 0.36m 2 and thickness of 0.1m is exposed to the
lower surface of steam at 100 . A block of ice at 0
rest on the upper surface
of the slab. In one hour 4.8 Kg of ice is melted. Calculate the thermal
conductivity of stone.
Ans.
Here A = 0.36m2 , d = 0.1m , T1 T2 = 100 0 = 100
t = 1hr = 3600
sec
Mass of ice melted M = 4.8 Kg
We know Latent heat of ice L = 336 X 103 J Kg-1
Heat required to melt the ice Q = ML = 4.8 X 336 X103 = 1.613 X 106 K
Now Q =
1.613 X 106
K = 1.245 wm-10C-1
5 MARKS
Q. 28. Define capillarity and angle of contact. Derive an expression for the ascent of
liquid inside a capillary tube where it is dipped in a liquid.
Q. 29. Show that there is always excess of pressure on the concave side of the
meniscus of a liquid. Obtain the expression for the excess of pressure inside (i)
a liquid drop (ii) liquid bubble.
Q. 30. State and prove the Bernoullis principle. Give two practical application of it.
Q.31. Define terminal velocity. Show that the terminal velocity v of a sphere of
radius r, density falling vertically through a viscous fluid of density and
coefficient of viscosity is given by
159
v=
Q. 32. State and explain Hookes law. A wire is fixed at one end and is subjected to
increasing load at the other end. Draw a curve between stress and strain. With
the help of the curve, explain the term elastic limit, yield point, breaking point
and permanent set. How this curve does may be used to distinguish between
ductile and brittle substances.
160
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermal Equilibrium:- Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium

with each other if they have the same temperature.
Thermo dynamical system:- An assembly of large numbers of particles

having same temperature, pressure etc is called thermo dynamical system.
Thermodynamic
variables
:-
The
variables
which
determine
the
thermodynamic behavior of a system are called thermodynamic variables
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics :- IT states that if two system A and B are in

thermal equilibrium with a third system C , then the two system A and B are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Thermodynamic Process :- A thermodynamic process is said to be taking

place , if the thermodynamic variable of the system change with time.
Types of thermodynamic Process:(1) Isothermal process process taking place at constant temperature.
(2) Adiabatic process process where there is no exchange of heat.
(3) Isochoric process process taking place at constant volume
(4) Isobaric process Process taking place at constant Pressure.
(5) Cyclic process:- Process where the system returns to its original state.
Equation of state : A relation between pressure, volume and temperature

for a system is called its equation of state .
Indicator diagram (P-V diagram) :- The graphical representation
of the
state of a system with the help of two thermodynamical variables is called

indicator diagram of the system.
Internal energy of a gas :- It is the sum of kinetic energy and the

intermolecular potential energy of the molecules of the gas. Internal energy is
a function of temperature.
First law of Thermodynamics :- It states that if an amount of heat dQ I

added to a system , a part of heat is used in increasing its internal energy
while the remaining part of heat may be used up as the external work done
dW by the system.
161
Mathematically
dQ=dU+dW
dQ=dU+ PdV.
Work done during expansion / compression of gas:- When the volume of

gas changes from V1 to V2 , the work done is given by W=
= Area
under the P -V diagram.
Thermodynamical operations are
(1) Isothermal process : A thermodynamic process that takes place

constant
temperature is called
at
an isothermal
process.
-
Equation of state for isothermal process : PV = constant.
Work done during an isothermal process

W iso =
= 2.303 RT loge
RT loge
(2) Adiabatic process : A thermodynamic process that takes place in such a

manner that no heat enters or leaves the system is called adiabatic process
Equation of state for adiabatic process
(i)
PV = constant (ii) TV -1 =constant
(iii)
=constant
Work done during adiabatic change
Wadia =
Reversible process :- It is a process in which the system can be retraced to

its original state by reversing the condiditions.
Irreversible process:- It is a process in which the system cannot be retraced

to its original state by reversing the conditions.
Second law of thermodynamics:
162
Kelvins statement of second law It is impossible to derive a

continous supply of work by cooling a body to a temperature lower than
that of the coldest of its surrounding.
Clausius statement of second law It is impossible for a self acting
machine unaided by any external agency to transfer heat from a body to
another body at higher temperature.
Heat Engine a heat engine is a device for converting heat energy

continuously into a mechanical work.
Component of heat engine- (i) source of heat (ii) Sink (iii) Working
substance
Efficiency of heat Engine :-It is defined as the ratio of the external work
obtained to the amount of heat energy absorbed from the heat source.
Mathematically
=1-
Carnots heat Engine :- it is an ideal heat Engine which is based on carnots

reversible cycle.
Efficiency of carnots heat Engine
= 1 -
1-
Refrigerator or Heat pump:- it is heat engine working backward.
Co-efficient of performance : It is the ratio of heat absorbed from cold body

to the work done by the refrigerator.
Mathematically
163
All Questions with **(mark) are HOTs Question

Q1 Which Thermodynamical variable is defined by the first law of thermodynamics?
1
Ans: Internal energy.
Q2 What is the amount of work done in the Cyclic process?
Ans:It is numerically equal to the area of the cyclic process.

Q3
Out of the parameters- temperature, pressure,work and volume, which
parameter does not

Characterize the thermodynamics state of matter?
Ans: Work
Q4 What is the nature of P-V diagram for isobaric and isochoric process?
Ans: The P-V diagram for an isobaric process is a straight line parrel to the
volume axis while that
For an isochoric process is a straight line parallel to pressure axis.
Q5 On what factors does the efficiency of Carnot engine depends?
Ans: Temperature of the source of heat and sink.

** Q6 Can we increase the temperature of gas without supplying heat to it?
Ans: Yes, the temperature of gas can be by compressing the gas under Adiabatic
condition.
Q7 Why does the gas get heated on compression?
Ans: Because the work done in compressing the gas increases the internal
energy of the gas.
164
Q8 Which thermodynamic variable is defined by Zeroth law of thermodynamics?

1
Ans: Temperature
Q9 Can the whole of work be converted into heat?
Ans: Yes ,Through friction.

Q10 In a Carnot engine, temperature of the sink is increased. What will happen to
its efficiency? 1
Ans: We know
=1
On increasing the temperature of the sink (T2), the efficiency of the Carnot
engine will decrease
**Q11 If hot air rises , why is it cooler at the top of mountain than near the sea
level ?
2
Ans: Since atmospheric pressure decreases with height, pressure at the top of
the mountain is lesser. When the hot air rises up,it suffer adiabatic expansion at the
top of the mountain.For an adiabatic change,first law of thermodynamics may be
express as
dU + dW =0
(dQ = 0)
dW = -dU
Therefore work done by the air in rising up (dW =+ve ) result in decrease in the
internal
Energy of the air (dU = -ve) and hence a fall in the temperature.
Q12 What happen to the internal energy of a gas during (i) isothermal expansion
(ii) adiabatic Expansion?
2
Ans: In isothermal expansion ,temperature remains constant.Therefore internal
energy which is a function of temperature will remain constant.
(ii)for adiabatic change dQ = 0 and hence first law of thermodynamics
becomes
0 = dU + dW
165
dW = - dU
During expansion, work is done by the gas i.e. dW is positive. Hence ,dU
must be negative.
Thus ,in an adiabatic expansion , the internal energy of the system will
decrease.
Q13.Air pressure in a car increases during driving. Explain Why?
Ans: During driving as a result of the friction between the tyre and road ,the
temperature of
The tyre and the air inside it increases. Since volume of the tyre does not change,
due to increase in temperature ,pressure of the increases (due to pressure law ).
Q14 The efficiency of a heat engine cannot be 100%. Explain why ?
Ans: The efficiency of heat engine
=1
The efficiency will be 100% or 1, if T2 = 0 K.

Since the temperature of 0 K cannot be reached, a heat engine cannot have 100%
efficiency.
Q15 In an effort to cool a kitchen during summer, the refrigerator door is left
open and the kitchen door and windows are closed. Will it make the room cooler ?
Ans: The refrigerator draws some heat from the air in front of it. The compressor
has to do some
Mechanical work to draw heat from the air at lower temperature. The heat drawn
from the air together with the work done by the compressor in drawing it, is
rejected by the refrigerator with the help of the radiator provided at the back to the
air. IT follows that in each cycle, the amount of heat rejected to the air at the back of
the refrigerator will be greater than that is drawn from the air in front of it. Therefore
temperature of the room will increase and make hotter.
Q16 Why cannot the Carnots engine be realised in practice?
Ans: Because of the following reasons
166
(i)
The main difficulty is that the cylinder should come in contact with the
source,sink and stand again and again over a complete cycle which is
very difficult to achieve in practice.
(ii)
The working substance should be an ideal gas however no gas fulfils

the ideal gas behaviour.
(iii)
A cylinder with a perfectly frictionless piston cannot be realised
Q17 A slab of ice at 273K and at atmospheric pressure melt.(a) What is the nature of
work done on
The ice water system by the atmosphere?(b)What happen to the internal energy of
the ice- Water system?
Ans: (a) The volume of the ice decreases on melting. Hence the work done by the
atmosphere on The ice water system is positive in nature.
(b) Since heat is absorbed by the ice during melting, the internal energy of the icewater system increases.
Q18 Why is the conversion of heat into work not possible without a sink at lower
temperature? 2
Ans:For converting heat energy into work continuosly, a part of the heat energy
absorbed from the source has to be rejected.The heat energy can be rejected only if
there is a body whose
Temperature is less than that of the source. This body at lower temperature is
called sink.
** Q19 Can water be boiled without heating ?
Ans:Yes, water can be boil without
heating. This is done by increasing the
pressure on the surface of water inside a closed insulated vessel. By doing so, the
boiling point of the water decreases to the room temperature and hence starts
boiling.
Q20 What are the limitations of the first law of thermodynamics ?
Ans: The limitations are --- (i) It does not tells us the directions of heat transfer
(ii) it does not tell us how much of the heat is converted into work.
167
(iii)it does not tell us under what conditions heat is converted into work.
**Q21 Calculate the fall in temperature when a gas initially at 72 0C is expanded
suddenly to eight times its original volume. Given = 5/3.
Ans:
Let
V1 = x cc
V2 =8x cc
T1 =273+72 =345 K
= 5/3 ,
-1
T2 = ?
= T2 V2-1
Using the relation T1 V1
Therefore T2 = T1 (V1/V2)
-1
=345x(1/8)2/3
Taking log of both sides, we get
Log T2 = log 345 2/3 log 8
=2.5378 2/3(0.9031)
= 2.5378 -0.6020 = 1.9358
Or
T2 =86.26 K
Therefore the fall in temperature = 345 -86.26 258.74 K

Q22 A Carnot engine whose source temperature is at 400K takes 100 Kcal of
heat at this temperature in each cycle and gives 70 Kcal to the sink. Calculate (i) the
temperature of the sink
(ii) the efficiency of the engine.
Ans:
Here T1 =400K
T2 = ?
(i)
Q1 = 100 Kcal
, = ?
Q1/Q2 = T1/T2
Or
T2 = (Q2/Q1)T1
Or
T2 =70/100 x400
Or
(ii)
T2 = 280 K
= 1- T2/T1
= 1 280/400
168
, Q2 = 70 Kcal
= 1- 0.7 = 0.3
Or % of = 0.3 x100 =30 %
Q23 If at 50oC and 75 cm of mercury pressure, a definite mass of gas is
compressed (i)slowly
(iii)
suddenly, then what will be the final pressure and temperature of the
gas in each case, if the final volume is one fourth of the initial
volume? Given = 1.5
Ans:(I) When the gas is compressed slowly, the change is isothermal.

Therefore
P2 V2 =P1 V1
P2 = P1V1/V2
=(75x V1/V 1 )x4 = 300 cm of mercury
Temperature remains constant at 50oC

(ii)When the gas is compressed suddenly, the change is adiabatic
As per
P2 V2 = P1 V1
P2 = P1(V1/V2)
= 75 x (4)1.5
=600 cm of Hg
Also T2 V2-1 = T1 V1-1

T2 = T1 (V1/V2)-1
= 323x(4)(1.5- 1) = 646K
=646-273 =373 oC
Q24 Two engines A and B have their sources at 400K and 350 K and sink at350K
and 300K
Respectively. Which engine is more efficient and by how much?
Ans: For engine A
T1 =400K , T2 = 350 K
Efficiency A =1 T2/T1
=1-350/400 =1/8
% of A
= 1/8 X100 = 12.5%

169
For Engine B
T1 = 350 K ,
Efficiency B
T2 = 300 K
= 1 T2/T1
= 1- 300/350
=1/7
% of B =1/7 x100 =14.3%

Since B > A so engine A is much more efficient than engine B by (14.3% 12.5% ) = 1.8%
** Q25
Assuming a domestic refrigerator as a reversible heat engine working
between melting point

Of ice and the room temperature at 27oC, calculate the energy in joule that must be
supplied to freeze 1Kg of water at 0oC.
Ans: Here T1 = 27+273 =300K , T2 =0 +273 = 273

Mass of water to be freezed , M = 1 Kg = 1000g
Amount of heat that should be removed to freeze the water
Q2 = ML =1000X 80 cal
= 1000X80 X4.2 =3.36 x 105 J
Now Q1 = (T1/T2 )X Q2 = (300/273)X3.36x105 = 3.692 x105 J
Therefore energy supplied to freeze the water
W =Q1 Q2 = 3.693x105 - 3.36 x105
= 3.32 x105 J
** Q26 A refrigerator freezes 5Kg of water at 0oC into ice at 0oc in a time interval of
20 minutes. Assume that the room temperature is 20oC, calculate the minimum
power needed to accomplish it.
Ans : Amount of heat required to convert water into ice at 0 oC,
Q2 =mL =(5Kg)x(80)Kcal/Kg
170
= 400 Kcal
Now T1 =20oC =273+20 = 293K
T2 = 0oc 0+273 =273 K
We know that Q2/W = T2/(T1 T2 )
Or W = Q2 x (T1 T2)/T2
= 400x(293- 273 )/273
= 29.3 Kcal = 29.3x4.2 x103J
=123x103 J
Time t = 20 min =20x60 =1200s
Power needed
P = W/t
=123x103/1200
=102.5 W
**Q27 The temperature T1 and T2 of two heat reserviour in an ideal carnot engine
are 1500oC and
500oC. Which of this increasing the temperature T 1 by 100oC or decreasing
T2 by 100oC would result in greater improvement of the efficiency of the engine?
Ans:
Using =1 T2/T1
=(T1- T2)/T1
(1)increasing T1 by 100oC
1 = (1600 -500)/(1600 + 273 )

= 1100/1873 = 59 %
(ii) Decreasing T2 by 1000C
2 = 1500 (500-100)/(1500 +273 )

=1100/1773 = 67%
Therefore decreasing T2 by 100oC results in greater improvement of efficiency.
171
Q28 State the first law of thermodynamics and discussed the application of this law
to the boiling process.
Q29 What is thermodynamic system ? Prove that work done by thermodynamic

system is equal to the area under P-V diagram.
30 Prove that Cp - Cv = R , for an ideal gas .
Q31 What is isothermal process / State two essential conditions for such a process
to takes place. Show analytically that the work by one mole of an ideal gas during
volume expansion from V1 V2 at temperature T is given by
W = RT logeV2/V1
Q32 Define an adiabatic process. State two essential conditions for such a process
to takes place.Derive an expression for adiabatic process to takes place.
Q33 Discuss the four steps of Carnots cycle and show that the efficiency is given
by
= 1 - T2/ T1, Where T1 and T2 are the temperature of the source and
sink respectively.
Q34 Describe the working of refrigerator as heat pump. Derive the expression of its
coefficient of performance. If the door of a refrigerator is kept open for a long time
,will it make the room warm or cool ?
Q35 What is the need of introducing the second law of thermodynamics ? State
the Kelvin Planck and Claussius statement of second law of thermodynamics and
show that both the statement are equivalent.
172
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Boyles Law: At constant temperature volume of given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure.
Charles Law: At constant pressure volume of a given mass of gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temperature.
*For 1 rise in temp.

)
Vt = Vo(1
Gay Lussacs Law:At constant volume, pressure of a given mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temp.
= constant.
For 10C rise in temperature Pt= Po (1
Ideal Gas Equation: for n mole of gas

PV=nRT,
for 1 mole , PV=RT
Universal gas constant: R = 8.31 J mol-1K-1
Boltzmann constant: kB =
where kB = Boltzmann constant,
= Avogadros
no.
Ideal gas: A gas which obeys gas law strictly is an ideal or perfect gas. The
molecules of such a gas are of point size and there is no force of attraction between
them.
173
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases

1.
All gases consist of molecules which are rigid, elastic spheres identical in all
respect for a given gas.

2.
The size of a molecule is negligible as compared with the average distance
between two molecules.

3.
During the random motion, the molecules collide with one another and
with the wall of the vessel.The collisions are almost instantaneous.

4.
The molecular density remains uniform throughout the gas.
5.
The collisions are perfectly elastic in nature and there are no forces of
attraction or repulsion between them.

Pressure exerted by gas:
Where: n=no. of molecules per unit volume.

m=mass of each molecule.
=mean of square speed.

V = Volume
M = mass of gas
Average Kinetic energy of a gas: If M is molecular mass and V is molecular volume
and m is mass of each molecule. Then
1.
Mean K.E per mole of a gas,
174
2.
Mean K.E per molecule of a gas,

=
3.
m =
k BT
K.E of 1gram of gas,
m
Avogadro Law: Equal volume of all gases under similar condition of temp. and
pressure contain equal number of molecules.
Avogadro Number:
NA =6.0225 x 1023 mol -1

G
ff
r = rate of diffusion
= density
D
law of partial pressure: Total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-
reacting gases occupying a given volume is equal to the sum of partial pressures
which gas would exert if it alone occupied the same volume at given temp.
Average Speed :-
175
Root mean square:
Most probable speed:
Relation between :v
vrms vmp
Therefore:
Degree of freedom:
f = 3N-k
where , f = no. of degree of freedom.
N = no. of of atoms in a molecule. k = no. of independent relation between the
atoms.
1.
Monoatomic gas 2 degree of freedom.
2.
Diatomic gas 5 degree of freedom.
Law of equipartion of energy: For any thermodynamical system in thermal

equilibrium, the energy of the system is equally divided amongst its various degree
of freedom and energy associated with each degree of freedom corresponding to
176
each molecule is
is the Boltzmanns constant and T is
, where
absolute temperature.
The law of equipartition of energy holds good for all degrees of freedom
whether translational , rotational or vibrational.
A monoatomic gas molecule has only translational kinetic energy
Et =1/2mVx2
+ 1/2mVy2
1/2mVz2 = 3/2KBT
So a monoatomic gas molecule has only three (translational) degrees of

freedom.
In addition to translational kinetic energy, a diatomic molecule has two
rotational
Kinetic energies
Et + Er = 1/2mVx2 + 1/2mVy2 + 1/2mVz2 + 1/2IYW y2 + 1/2IzW z2
Here the line joining the two atoms has been taken as x-axis about which there is
no rotation. So, the degree of freedom of a diatomic molecule is 5, it does not
vibrate.
At very high temperature, vibration is also activated due to which two extra degree
of freedom emerge from vibrational energy. Hence
at very high temperature
degree of freedom of diatomic molecule is seven.

*(Each translational and rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one mole of
absorption of energy and has energy 1/2kBT).
Internal Energies & specific heats of monoatomic, diatomic& polyatomic
gases:
1. If f is degree of freedom then for a gas of polyatomic molecules energy
associated with 1 mole of gas,
177
(1
2. For a monoatomic gas f=3,
1
3. For a diatomic gas with no vibrational mode f=5, so
1
4. For a diatomic gas with vibrational mode f=7, so
Meanfree path: It is the average distance covered by a molecule between two

successive collisions. It is given by,
Where,n is no. density and d is diameter of the molecule.

Brownian Equation :-The zig-zag motion of gas molecules is Brownian motion
which occurs due to random collision of molecules.
Memory Map
Kinetic Theory of gases
178
1. Vrms=
2.
3. Vrms=
4. V
E=
Law of Equipartion of Energy
= m
= k
P=
Specific Heats
where
r=
and f=degree of freedom
(1 Marks Question)
1. What type of motion is associated with the molecules of a gas?
179
Ans:- Brownian motion.

2. On which factors does the average kinetic energy of gas molecules depend?
Ans:- The average K.E. of a gas molecule depends only on the absolute temperature of
the gas and is directly proportional to it.
3. Why do the gases at low temperature and high pressure, show large deviations from
ideal behaviour?
Ans:- At low temperature and high pressure , the intermolecular attractions become
appreciable. So, the volume occupied by the gas molecules cannot be neglected in
comparison to the volume of the gas. Hence the real gases show large from ideal gas
behaviour.
4. Following fig. shows the variation of the product PV with respect to the pressure (P)
of given masses of three gases, A,B,C. The temperature is kept constant. State with
proper arguments which of these gases is ideal.
Ans:- Gas C is ideal because PV is constant for it. That is gas C obeys Boyles law
at all pressures.
5. When a gas is heated, its temperature increases. Explain it on the basis of
kinetic theory of gases.
180
Ans:- When a gas is heated, the root mean square velocity of its molecules
increases. As Vrms
so temperature of the gas increases.
6. The ratio of vapour densities of two gases at the same temperature is 8:9.
Compare the rms. velocity of their molecules?
Ans :-
(Vrms)1
(Vrms)2
M2
M1
2
9
3: 2 2
1
8
7. Cooking gas containers are kept in a lorry moving with uniform speed. What will
be the effect on temperature of the gas molecules?
Ans:- As the lorry is moving with a uniform speed, there will be no change in the
translational motion or K.E. of the gas molecules. Hence the temperature of the gas
will remain same.
8. What is the mean translational kinetic energy of a perfect gas molecule at
temperature T?
Ans:- A perfect gas molecule has only translational K.E.
E = 3/2 kBT
9. Name two factors on which the degrees of freedom of a gas depend?
Ans:- (i) Atomicity of the gas molecule.
(ii) Shape of the molecule.
(iii) Temperature of gas.
10. Define absolute zero, according to kinetic interpretation of temperature?
Ans:- Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.
(2 Marks question)
181
1. Write the relation between the pressure and kinetic energy per unit volume of a
gas. Water solidifies into ice at 273 K. What happens to the K.E. of water
molecules?
Ans:- P = 2/3 E. The K.E. of water molecules gas partly converted into the binding
energy of the ice.
2. The absolute temperature of a gas is increased 4 times its original value. What
will be the change in r.m.s. velocity of its molecules?
Ans:-
Vrms
Vrms
4T
Vrms/ Vrms = 2
Vrms = 2Vrms
Change in rms velocity of molecules = Vrms - Vrms
= Vrms
3.What will be the ratio of the root mean square speeds of the molecules of an ideal
gas at 270K and 30K?
Ans :- Vrms/ Vrms =
T
=
T'
270
=3:1
30
4.A mixture of Helium and Hydrogen gas is filled in a vessel at 30 degree Celsius.
Compare the root mean square velocities of the molecules of these gases at this
temperature.
(atomic weight of Hydrogen is 4)
Ans :- (Vrms)He/(Vrms)H2 = {(MH2)/(MHe)}1/2 =
2
=1:2 2
4
5.The velocities of three molecules are 3V,4V and 5V.Determine the root mean
square velocity.
182
Ans:- Vrms =
50
V 4.08V
3
6.Write the equation of state for 16g of O2.

Ans :- No. of moles in 32g of O2 = 1
No. of moles in 16g of O2 = 1/9 x 16 =
As pv = nRT and n=1/2
So, PV=
7.Should the specific heat of monoatomic gas be less than, equal to or greater than
that of a diatomic gas at room temperature? Justify your answer.
Ans :- Specific heat of a gas at constant volume is equal to f/2R.
For monoatomic gases f = 3 so Cv = 3/2 R.
For diatomic gases f = 5 so Cv = 5/2 R.
Hence the specific heat for monoatomic gas is less than that for a diatomic gas.
8. A gas in a closed vessel is at the pressure Po. If the masses of all the molecules
be made half and their speeds be made double, then find the resultant pressure?
Ans:- Po
= 2P0
9. A box contains equal number of molecules of hydrogen and oxygen. If there is a

fine hole in the box, which gas will leak rapidly? Why?
Ans :-
Vrms
Hence hydrogen gas will leak more rapidly because of its smaller molecular mass.
10. When a gas filled in a closed vessel is heated through 1 0C, its pressure
increases by 0.4 %. What is the initial temperature of the gas?
Ans:- P` = P = 0.4/100. P, T` = T + 1
183
By Gay Lussacs law P/T = (P + 0.4/100.P)/T + 1,
( +
)
+
1)
)
+
T+1= (1.004)T
1=.004T
T=250K
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Show that rms velocity of O2 is times that of SO2. Atomic wt. of Sulphur is 32
and that of oxygen is 16.
Ans. V
VO
VSO
Or v = SO2.
2. Calculate the temperature at which rms velocity of SO2 is the same as that of
Oxygen at
.
Ans. For O2, Vrms =
For SO2, Vrms =

As V0 = V
= 600t = 600 273 = 327 .

3. Calculate the total no. of degrees of freedom possessed by the molecules in
1cm3 of H2 gas at NTP
1
Ans. No. of H2 Molecules in 22.4 liters or 22400 cm3 at NTP =

No. of H2 Molecules in 1 cm3 at NTP =
= 2.6875
No. of degrees of freedom associated with each H2 (a diatomic) molecule = 5

184
Total no. of degree of freedom associated with 1cm3 gas

= 2.6875
1019
5 = 1.3475
1020.
4. Derive Boyles law on the basis of Kinetic Theory of Gases.

5. Derive Charless law on the basis of Kinetic Theory of Gases.
6. State Daltons law of partial pressures. Deduce it from Kinetic Theory of Gases.
7. Using the expression for pressure exerted by a gas, deduce Avogadros law and
Grahams law of diffusion.
8. State the number of degree of freedom possessed by a monoatomic molecule in
space. Also give the expression for total energy possessed by it at a given
temperature. Hence give the total energy of the atom at 300 K.
9. At what temperature is the root mean square speed of an atom in an argon gas
cylinder equal to the rms speed of helium gas atom at
? Atomic mass of
argon = 39.9 u and that of helium = 4.0 u.

Ans. Root mean square speed for argon at temperature T
V=
Root mean square speed for helium at temp.
is
As V = so we have
or T =
T = 2523.7 K
10. From a certain apparatus the diffusion rate of Hydrogen has an average
value of 28.7 cm3 s-1; the diffusion of another gas under the same conditions is
measured to have an average rate of 7.2cm 3s-1. Identify the gas.
Ans. From Grahams law of diffusion,
185
=
M2 = ( ) M1 = (
= 31.78
2
32
Thus the unknown gas is Oxygen.
(Long Questions)
11. Prove that the pressure exerted by a gas is P = c2 where is the
density and c is the root mean square velocity.
12.What are the basic assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases? On their
basis derive an expression for the pressure exerted by an ideal gas.
186
Oscillations and Waves

Periodic Motion: A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a
regular interval of time.
Oscillatory Motion: A motion in which a body moves back and forth repeatedly
about a fixed point.
Periodic function: A function that repeats its value at regular intervals of its
argument is called periodic function. The following sine and cosine functions are
periodic with period T.
f(t) = sin
and
g(t) = cos
These are called Harmonic Functions.

Note :- All Harmonic functions are periodic but all periodic functions are
not harmonic.
One of the simplest periodic functions is given by
f(t) = A cos t
[ = 2/T]
If the argument of this function t is increased by an integral multiple of 2 radians,

the value of the function remains the same. The function f(t) is then periodic and its
period, T is given by
T=
Thus the function f(t) is periodic with period T
f(t) = f(t +T)
Linear combination of sine and cosine functions
f(t) = A sin t + B cos t
A periodic function with same period T is given as
A = D cos and B = D sin
187
f(t) = D sin (t + )
D=
and =
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A particle is said to execute SHM if it moves

to and fro about a mean position under the action of a restoring force which is
directly proportional to its displacement from mean position and is always
directed towards mean position.
Restoring Force
Displacement
F
Where k is force constant.

Amplitude: Maximum displacement of oscillating particle from its mean position.
xMax =
Time Period: Time taken to complete one oscillation.
Frequency:
. Unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).

1 Hz = 1
= 2
Angular Frequency:
S.I unit = rad

Phase:
1. The Phase of Vibrating particle at any instant gives the state of the particle
as regards its position and the direction of motion at that instant.
It is denoted by .
2. Initial phase or epoch: The phase of particle corresponding to time t = 0.
It is denoted by .
Displacement in SHM :
(
Where,
0)
= Displacement,
A = Amplitude
t = Angular Frequency
0 = Initial Phase.
188
Case 1: When Particle is at mean position x = 0
v=
vmax =
Case 2: When Particle is at extreme position x =

v=
=0
Acceleration
Case 3: When particle is at mean position x = 0,
( ) = 0.
acceleration =
Case 4: When particle is at extreme position then

acceleration =
Formula Used :
1.
0)
2. v =
2
3.
, vmax = A.
(
0)
amax = 2A
4. Restoring force F =
Where
m2
= force constant & 2 =
5. Angular freq. = 2
6. Time Period T = 2
= 2
7. Time Period T = 2
= 2
8. P.E at displacement y from mean position

EP = ky2= m2y2= m2A2 sin2t
189
9. K.E. at displacement y from the mean position

) = m2(A2 y2)
EK = k(
= m2A2cos2t
10. Total Energy at any point
ET = kA2 = m2A2 = 22mA22
11. Spring Factor K = F/y
12. Period Of oscillation of a mass m suspended from a massless spring of force
constant k
T = 2
For two springs of spring factors k1 and k2 connected in parallel effective spring
factor
T=2
k = k1 + k2
13.For two springs connected in series, effective spring factor k is given as

Or
T=2
Note:- When length of a spring is made n times its spring factor

becomes times and hence time period increases times.
14. When spring is cut into n equal pieces, spring factor of each part becomes
nk.
15. Oscillation of simple pendulum

16. For a liquid of density contained in a U-tube up to height h
190

17. For a body dropped in a tunnel along the diameter of earth
, where R = Radius of earth
18. Resonance: If the frequency of driving force is equal to the natural frequency
of the oscillator itself, the amplitude of oscillation is very large then such
oscillations are called resonant oscillations and phenomenon is called
resonance.
Waves
Angular wave number: It is phase change per unit distance.
i.e. k
, S.I unit of k is radian per meter.
Relation between velocity, frequency and wavelength is given as :-
Velocity of Transverse wave:(i)In solid molecules having modulus of rigidity and density is
(ii)In string for mass per unit length m and tension T is V

Velocity of longitudinal wave:(i)
in solid V
(ii)
in liquid V
, Y= youngs modulus
, K= bulk modulus
191
T
m
in gases V
(iii)
, K= bulk modulus
According to Newtons formula: When sound travels in gas then changes take place
in the medium are isothermal in nature. V
According to Laplace: When sound travels in gas then changes take place in the
medium are adiabatic in nature.
Where
Cp
Cv
Factors effecting velocity of sound :(i)
Pressure No effect
(ii)
Density V
(iii)
Temp- V
V1
V2
or
or
1
2
V1
T1
V2
T2
Effect of humidity : sound travels faster in moist air

(iv)
Effect of wind velocity of sound increasing along the direction of wind.
Wave equation: if wave is travelling along + x-axis

(i)
Y=A sin ( t kx ), Where, k
(ii)
Y=A sin 2 (
(iii)
Y=A sin
t x
)
T
2
(vt-x)
T
If wave is travelling along ve x- axis

(iv)
Y=A sin ( t kx ) ,Where , k
(v)
Y=A sin 2 (
(vi)
Y=A sin
t x
)
T
2
(vt+x)
T
192
Phase and phase difference

Phase is the argument of the sine or cosine function representing the wave.
t x
2
T
Relation between phase difference ( ) and time interval ( t ) is
Relation between phase difference ( p ) and path difference ( x ) is
2
t
T
2
Equation of stationary wave: t x

(1) Y1 =a sin 2 (incident wave)
T
Y1 =
t x
a sin 2 (reflected wave)
T
Stationary wave formed

Y = Y1+Y2 =
2a cos 2x
sin
2t
T
(2) For (+ve) sign antinodes are at x= 0,
And nodes at x=
3 5
, , .....
4 4 4
(3) For (-ve) sign antinodes are at x=
Nodes at x= 0,
, ,
2
2
3 5
, , .....
4 4 4
3
, ,
2
2
(4)Distance between two successive nodes or antinodes are

nodes and nearest antinodes is
.
4
(5) Nodes-point of zero displacementAntinodes- point of maximum displacement-
193
and that between

2
N
A
N
A
N = Nodes
A = Antinodes
Mode of vibration of strings:a)
p T
Where ,T= Tension
2L m
M= mass per unit length
= frequency, V=velocity of second, p = 1, 2, 3,

b) When stretched string vibrates in P loops
p=
p T
p
2L m
c) For string of diameter D and density
d) Law of length
ORGANPIPES
1. In an organ pipe closed at one end only odd harmonics are present
1= V (fundamental)
4L
2= 3 (third harmonic or first overtone)
3= 5
n= (2n-1)
2. In an open organ pipe at both ends both odd and even harmonics are present.
' 1= V = ' (first harmonic)
2L
' 2= 2
(second harmonic or first overtone)

194
' 3= 3
' n= (2n-1)
3. Resonance tube: If L1 and L2 are the first and second resonance length with a
tuning fork of frequency then the speed of sound. v = 4(
)
Where ,D=internal diameter of resonance tube
v = 2(
)
End correction=0.3D=
L 2 L1
2
Beats formation
1. Beat frequency = No. of beats per second = Difference in frequency of two
sources.
b=
2.
3. If the prong of tuning fork is filed, its frequency increases. If the prong of a
tuning fork is loaded with a little way, its frequency decreases. These facts
can be used to decide about + or sign in the above equation.
Doppler effect in sound
1. If V, Vo, Vs, and Vm are the velocity of sound , observes, source and medium
respectively, then the apparent frequency
V Vm Vo
V Vm Vs
2. If the medium is at rest (vm= o),then
'
V Vo
V Vs
3. All the velocity are taken positive with source to observer (S O) direction
and negative in the opposite (O S) direction
(Questions)
(1 marks questions)
195
1. Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the

displacement x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(b) a=-200x2
(a) a=0.7x
(c) a = -10x
(d) a=100x3
Ans: - (c) reprent SHM.

2. Can a motion be periodic and not oscillatory?
Ans: - Yes, for example, uniform circular motion is periodic but not oscillatory.
3. Can a motion be periodic and not simple harmonic? If your answer is yes, give
an example and if not, explain why?
Ans:- Yes, when a ball is doped from a height on a perfectly elastic surface ,the
motion is oscillatory but not simple harmonic as restoring force F=mg=constant and
not F -x, which is an essential condition for S.H.M.
4. A girl is swinging in the sitting position. How will the period of the swing change if
she stands up?
Ans:-The girl and the swing together constitute a pendulum of time period
T 2
l
g
As the girl stands up her centre of gravity is raised. The distance between the point
of suspension and the centre of gravity decreases i.e. length l decreases .Hence
the time period T decreases.
5. The maximum velocity of a particle, executing S.H.M with amplitude of 7mm is
4.4 m/s. What is the period of oscillation?
Ans: - Vmax= A
2
A ,
T
2A
2 22 .007
Vmax
7 4.4
0.01s
6. Why the longitudinal wave are also called pressure waves?

Ans: - Longitudinal wave travel in a medium as series of alternate compressions and
rare fractions i.e. they travel as variations in pressure and hence are called pressure
waves.
196
7. How does the frequency of a tuning fork change, when the temperature is
increased?
Ans: -As the temperature is increased, the length of the prong of a tuning fork
increased .This increased the wavelength of a stationary waves set up in the tuning
fork. As frequency,
, So the frequency of tuning fork decreases.
8. An organ pipe emits a fundamental node of a frequency 128Hz. On blowing into

it more strongly it produces the first overtone of the frequency 384Hz. What is the
type of pipe Closed or Open?
Ans: - The organ pipe must be closed organ pipe, because the frequency the first
overtone is three times the fundamental frequency.
9. All harmonic are overtones but all overtones are not harmonic. How?
Ans: -The overtones with frequencies which are integral multiple of the fundamental
frequency are called harmonics. Hence all harmonic are overtones. But overtones
which are non-integrals multiples of the fundamental frequency are not harmonics.
10. What is the factor on which pitch of a sound depends?
Ans: - The pitch of a sound depends on its frequency.
(2 Marks questions)
1. At what points is the energy entirely kinetic and potential in S.H.M? What is the
total distance travelled by a body executing S.H.M in a time equal to its time
period, if its amplitude is A?
Ans. The energy is entirely kinetic at mean position i.e. at y=0. The energy is
entirely potential at extreme positions i.e.
Total distance travelled in time period T = 2A + 2A = 4A.

197
2. A simple pendulum consisting of an inextensible length l and mass m is

oscillating in a stationary lift. The lift then accelerates upwards with a constant
acceleration of 4.5 m/s2. Write expression for the time period of simple pendulum
in two cases. Does the time period increase, decrease or remain the same, when
lift is accelerated upwards?
Ans. When the lift is stationary, T = 2
When the lift accelerates upwards with an acceleration of 4.5 m/s 2
T =
Therefore, the time period decreases when the lift accelerates upwards.
3. Does the function y = sin2t represent a periodic or a S.H.M? What is period of
motion?
Ans. Displacement y = sin2t
Velocity v =
= 2sin t cost
v = sin 2t
Acceleration a =
= cos 2t 2
a = 2 2cos 2t.
As the acceleration is not proportional to displacement y, the given function

does not represent SHM. It represents a periodic motion of angular frequency 2.
Time Period T =
4. All trigonometric functions are periodic, but only sine or cosine functions are used
to define SHM. Why?
Ans.All trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine and cosine functions can
take value between -1 to +1 only. So they can be used to represent a bounded
motion like SHM. But the functions such as tangent, cotangent, secant and
cosecant can take value between 0 and (both negative and positive). So these
functions cannot be used to represent bounded motion like SHM.
5. A simple Harmonic Motion is represented by
198
+x = 0. What is its time period?
x Or a =
Ans.
T=
=2
=
T=
6. The Length of a simple pendulum executing SHM is increased by 2.1%. What is

the percentage increase in the time period of the pendulum of increased length?
Ans. Time Period, T =
i.e. T .
The percentage increase in time period is given by

1
100 (for small variation)
2.1%
= 1.05%
7. A simple Harmonic motion has an amplitude A and time period T. What is the
time taken to travel from x = A to x = A/2.
Ans. Displacement from mean position = A = .
When the motion starts from the positive extreme position, y = A cost.
.
cos
= = cos
or
t=
8. An open organ pipe produces a note of frequency 5/2 Hz at 150C, calculate the
length of pipe. Velocity of sound at 00C is 335 m/s.
Ans.Velocity of sound at 150C
V=V0+0.61xt =335+0.61x15 =344.15 m/s. (Thermal coefficient
of velocity of sound wave is .61/0C)
Fundamental frequency of an organ pipe
V
4L
V
344.15
0.336m
4 4 512
9. An incident wave is represented by Y(x, t)=20sin(2x-4t).Write the expression for

reflected wave
199
(i) From a rigid boundary

(ii) From an open boundary.
Ans.(i) The wave reflected from a rigid boundary is
Y (x, t) = -20sin (2x+4t)
(i)The wave reflected from an open boundary is
Y (x, t) = 20sin (2x+4t)
Explain why
(i) in a sound wave a displacement node is a pressure antinode and vice- versa
(ii) The shape of pulse gets- distorted during propagation in a dispersive
medium.
Ans. (i) At a displacement node the variations of pressure is maximum. Hence
displacement node is the a pressure antinode and vice-versa.
(ii)When a pulse passes through a dispersive medium the wavelength of wave
changes.
So, the shape of pulse changes i.e. it gets distorted.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. The speed of longitudinal wave `V` in a given medium of density is given by the
formula, use this formula to explain why the speed of sound in air.
(a) is independent at pressure
(b) increases with temperature and
(c) increases with humidity
2. Write any three characteristics of stationary waves.
Ans. (i) in stationary waves, the disturbance does not advance forward. The
conditions of crest and trough merely appear and disappear in fixed position to be
followed by opposite condition after every half time period. (ii) The distance between
two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to half the wavelength. (iii) The
amplitude varies gradually from zero at the nodes to the maximum at the antinodes.
200
3. Show that the speed of sound in air increased by .61m/s for every 1 0 C rise of
temperature.
Ans. V T
Vt
t 273
Vo
0 273
Vt= V0 (1
Vt = V 0 +
1/2
t
)
273
= V0 ( 1 1 . t
2 273
V t
546
At, 00C speed of sound in air is 332 m/s.
Vt V0 = 332 t
546
When t= 10C ,Vt V0 = 0.61m/s.

4. Find the ratio of velocity of sound in hydrogen gas 7 to that in helium gas
5
5
at the same temperature. Given that molecular weight of hydrogen and
3
helium are 2 and 4 respectively.

Ans. V
RT
M
At constant temperature,
= 1.68.
(
5. The equation of a plane progressive wave is,
) where y &
x are in cm & t in second. Calculate the amplitude, frequency, wavelength &

velocity of the wave.
Ans. Given, y = 1
).. (1)
(
Standard equation for harmonic wave is,

Comparing eqn (1) & (2),
(i)
Amplitude
A = 10cm
201
) (2)
(ii)
Frequency
(iii)
Wavelength
(iv)
Velocity v =
= 1 x 200 = 200cm/s
6. Write displacement equation respecting the following condition obtained in SHM.

Amplitude = 0.01m
Frequency = 600Hz
Initial phase =
)
Ans. Y = A Sin (2
= 0.01 Sin (1
7. The amplitude of oscillations of two similar pendulums similar in all respect are
2cm & 5cm respectively. Find the ratio of their energies of oscillations.
Ans.
( )
( )
8. What is the condition to be satisfied by a mathematical relation between time

and displacement to describe a periodic motion?
Ans. A periodic motion repeats after a definite time interval T. So,
( )
9. A spring of force constant 1200N/m is mounted horizontal table. A mass of 3Kg is

attached to the free end of the spring, pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0cm and
released.
(i) What is the frequency of oscillation of the mass?
(ii) What is the maximum acceleration of the mass?
(iii) What is the maximum speed of the mass?
202
Ans.Here k = 1200N/m, m = 3Kg, A = 2cm = 20.01m
(i)
(ii)
Maximum acceleration =
(iii)
Maximum speed =
10. Which of the following function of time represent, (a) simple harmonic (b)
periodic but not SHM and
(c) non periodic ?
(i) Sin t- Cos t (ii)
Ans. (i)
( )
(ii)
( )
(iii)
(
)(iv)
) , so the function is in SHM.

) , represent two separate SHM
motion but their combination does not represent SHM.

(iii)
(iv)
( )
(
(
) , represent SHM.
(5 Marks Questions)
1. (a) A light wave is reflected from a mirror. The incident & reflected wave
superimpose to form stationary waves. But no nodes & antinodes are seen, why?
(b) A standing wave is represented by y=2ASinKxCoswt.If one of the component
wave is
) what is the equation of the second component wave?
Ans. (a) As is known, the distance between two successive nodes or two successive
antinodes is . The wavelength of visible light is of the order of 1
203
As such as a
small distance cannot be detected by the eye or by a ordinary optical instrument.

Therefore, nodes and antinodes are not seen.
(
(b) As,
According to superposition principle,
(
(
2. Discuss Newtons formula for velocity of sound in air. What correction was made
to it by Laplace and why?
Ans. According to Newton the change in pressure & volume in air is an isothermal
process. Therefore he calculated,
on substituting the require value he
found, the velocity of sound was not in close agreement with the observation value.
Then Laplace pointed out the error in Newtons formula. According to Laplace the
change in pressure and volume is an adiabatic process. So he calculated the value
of sound as,
on putting require value he found velocity of sound as 332m/s
very closed to observed theory.

3. (a) What are beats? Prove that the number of beats per second is equal to the
difference between the frequencies of the two superimposing wave.
(b) Draw fundamental nodes of vibration of stationary wave in (i) closed pipe, (ii)
in an open pipe.
204
4. Discuss the formation of harmonics in a stretched string. Show that in case of a

stretched string the first four harmonics are in the ratio 1:2:3:4.
5. Explain Dopplers effect of sound. Derive an expression for the apparent
frequency where the source and observer are moving in the same direction with
velocity Vs and Vo respectively, with source following the observer.
[Ans. =
]
(1
6. For a travelling harmonic wave,
) where x & y are in
cm and t in second. What is the phase difference between oscillatory motions at two
points separated by a distance of (i) 4cm (ii) 0.5m (iii) ( )
(1
Ans.
) ( )
(
We know,
) ( )
From (i) & (ii),

.
Phase difference,
(i)
When
(ii)
When
(iii)
When
(iv)
When
7. (i) A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency
of longitudinal vibrations of the rod is given to be 2.53 kHz. What is the speed of
sound in steel?
(ii) A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly exited by a 430 Hz source? Will this same source be in resonance
with the pipe if both ends are open? (Speed of sound = 340 m/s).
205
Ans. (i) For the fundamental mode,

= 2 L = 2 x 100 = 200 cm = 2m.
Frequency = 2.53 kHz = 2530 Hz
Speed of sound, v = = 2530 x 2 = 5060 m/s
=5.06 km/s
(ii) Length of pipe L= 20 cm = 0.2 m
Speed of sound v= 340 m/s
Fundamental frequency of closed organ pipe
= v/4L =
= 425 Hz sw can be excited
Fundamental frequency of open organ pipe

=
= 850 Hz
Hence source of frequency 430 Hz will not be in resonance with open organ
pipe.
8. A train stands at a platform blowing a whistle of frequency 400 Hz in still air.

(i) What is the frequency of the whistle heard by a man running
(a)Towards the engine 10 m/s.
(b) Away from the engine at 10 m/s?
(ii) What is the speed of sound in each case?
(iii) What is the wavelength of sound received by the running man in each
case?
Take speed of sound in still air = 340 m/s.
Ans.(i) (a) When the man runs towards the engine
V0 = -10 m/s,
v1= 0
206
v- v
' = v - v0 x =
s
x 400 =
x 400 = 411.8
(b) When the man runs away from the engine

V0 = + 10 m/s,
vs = 0
v-v
= v - v x =
x 400 =
x 400 = 388.2 Hz
(ii) (a) When the man runs towards the engine , relative velocity of sound
v = v + v0 = 340 + 10 = 350 m/s
(b) When the man runs away from the engine, relative velocity of
sound
v = v v0 = 340 10 = 330 m/s .
(iii) The wavelength of sound is not affected by the motion of the listener.
Its value is
v
= = 340/400 = 0.85m
9. What is a spring factor? Derive the expression for resultant spring constant when
two springs having constants k1 and k2are connected in (i) parallel and (ii) in
series.
10. Show that for a particle in linear S.H.M., the average kinetic energy over a period
of oscillation is equal to the average potential energy over the same period. At
what distance from the mean position is the kinetic energy in simple harmonic
oscillator equal potential energy?
207

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MATHEMATICAL TOOLS

Physical constants:1. Mass of an electron (Me) = 9.1x10-31kg.

Mensuration :1. Area of a circle =

2. Surface area of a sphere = 4r2 = D2

Fundamental Trigonometric relations

Sin(A+B) = SinACosB + CosASinB

< Sin2 >=

1. Differentiation of a constant is zero

Physical World And Measurement

(iii) Electromagnetic force

(iv) Weak force

The relative strengths of these forces are

(b) Derived quantities.

The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the

The equation which expresses a physical quantity in terms of the fundamental

According to this principle of homogeneity a physical equation will be

If any equation is dimensionally correct it is not necessary that must be

There are three main uses of the dimensional analysis-

Significant figures: - The significant figures are normally those digits in a

For counting of the significant figure rule are as:

All non- zero digits are significant figure.

All zero between two non-zero digits are significant figure.

All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant.

In multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same

Where ai = measured value

It may be - positive, negative or zero.

Mean absolute error

The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.

The error is communicated in different mathematical operations as detailed below:

x/x = ( a/a + b/b)

x/x = ( a/a + b/b)

x/x = ( na/a +m b/b + pc/c

Very short answer type questions, (1 mark question)

slap = power/speed = [MLT-2]

Short answer type questions (2 marks)

Q4. Give the limitations of dimensional analysis.

x/x = ( a/a + b/b)

(i) Gravitational force

(ii) Electromagnetic force

(iv) Weak force

The relative strengths of these forces are

Short answer type questions (3marks)

X = A2B3/CD , If the percentage errors of

measurement in A,B,C and D are 4%,2%,3% and 1% respectively, then calculate

Long answer question ( 5 marks )

(iii) Mean absolute error

(iv) percentage error

to cm3 g-1 s-2

/u00, where symbols have their usual meaning.

(a) Reynoldss number and coefficient of friction,

Ans : (a) and (c).

For deceleration motion

V2= u2- 2as

earth from a small height. This is called free fall. The

Addition of Vectors :(i)

Only vectors of same nature can be added.

The addition of two vector A and B is resultant R

R = ( A2 + B2+ 2AB Cos)1/2

tan = B Sin/ ( A + B Cos) ,