Contents:1.

OVERVIEW OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

2.PCM
3.SWITCHING
4.OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
5.GSM MOBILE
6.CDMA TECHNOLOGY
7.BROADBAND
8.OVERVIEW OF INTRANET
9.LEASED LINES
10.WI-MAX
11.WIRELESS FIDELITY(WI-FI)

OVERVIEW OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Introduction
The telephone is a telecommunication device that is used to transmit and receive electronically or
digitally encoded speech between two or more people conversing. It is one of the most common household
appliances in the world today. Most telephones operate through transmission of electric signals over a complex
telephone network which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other user.
Telecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are
geographically far apart. An entity may be a computer or human being, a facsimile machine, a teleprinter, a data
terminal and so on. The entities are involved in the process of information transfer that may be in the form of a
telephone conversation (telephony) or a file transfer between two computers or message transfer between two
terminals etc.
With the rapidlygrowing traffic and untargeted growth of cyberspace, telecommunication becomes a
fabric of our life. The future challenges are enormous as we anticipate rapid growth items of new services and
number of users. What comes with the challenge is a genuine need for more advanced methodology supporting
analysis and design of telecommunication architectures. Telecommunication has evaluated and growth at an
explosive rate in recent years and will undoubtedly continue to do so.
The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The universal connectivity is
realized when any entity in one part of the world can communicate with any other entity in another part of the
world. In many ways telecommunication will acts as a substitute for the increasingly expensive physical
transportation.
The telecommunication links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication. With the
appropriate attachments/equipments, they can be used to transmit data. A modern society, therefore needs new
facilities including very high bandwidth switched data networks, and large communication satellites with small,
cheap earth antennas.

Voice Signal Characteristics

Telecommunication is mainly concerned with the transmission of messages between two distant points.
The signal that contains the messages is usually converted into electrical waves before transmission. Our voice
is an analog signal, which has amplitude and frequency characteristics.
Voice frequencies: The range of frequencies used by a communication device determines the communication
channel, communicating devices, and bandwidth or information carrying capacity. The most commonly used
parameter that characterizes an electrical signal is its bandwidth of analog signal or bit rate if it is a digital
signal. In telephone system, the frequencies it passes are restricted to between 300 to 3400 Hz.
In the field of telecommunications, a Telephone exchange or a Telephone switch is a system of electronic
components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant
equipment including telephone switches, which make telephone calls "work" in the sense of making
connections and relaying the speech information.

Switching system fundamentals

Telecommunications switching systems generally perform three basic functions: they transmit signals
over the connection or over separate channels to convey the identity of the called (and sometimes the calling)
address (for example, the telephone number), and alert (ring) the called station; they establish connections

through a switching network for conversational use during the entire call; and they process the signal
information to control and supervise the establishment and disconnection of the switching network
connection.In some data or message switching when real-time communication is not needed, the switching
network is replaced by a temporary memory for the storage of messages. This type of switching is known as
store-and-forward switching.

PCM PRINCIPLE
INTRODUCTION
A long distance or local telephone conversation between two persons could be provided by using a
pair of open wire lines or underground cable as early as early as mid of 19th century. However, due to fast
industrial development and increased telephone awareness, demand for trunk and local traffic went on
increasing at a rapid rate. To cater to the increased demand of traffic between two stations or between two
subscribers at the same station we resorted to the use of an increased number of pairs on either the open wire
alignment, or in underground cable. This could solve the problem for some time only as there is a limit to the
number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one alignment due to headway consideration and
maintenance problems. Similarly increasing the number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one
alignment due to headway consideration and maintenance problems. Similarly increasing the number of pairs
to the underground cable is uneconomical and leads to maintenance problems.It, therefore, became
imperative to think of new technical innovations which could exploit the available bandwidth of transmission
media such as open wire lines or underground cables to provide more number of circuits on one pair. The
technique used to provide a number of circuits using a single transmission link is called Multiplexing.

MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques
i.Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
ii.Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

FrequencyDivisionMultiplexing (FDM):
The FDM techniques is the process of translating individual speech circuits (300-3400 Hz) into preassigned frequency slots within the bandwidth of the transmission medium. The frequency translation is done
by amplitude modulation of the audio frequency with an appropriate carrier frequency. At the output of the
modulator a filter network is connected to select either a lower or an upper side band. Since the intelligence is
carried in either side band, single side band suppressed carrier mode SSBSC of AM is used. This results in
substantial saving of bandwidth mid also permits the use of low power amplifiers.FDM techniques usually find
their application in analogue transmission systems. An analogue transmission system is one which is used for
transmitting continuously varying signals.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Time Division Multiplexing:

Basically,
time
division
multiplexing
involves
nothing
more
than
sharing
a transmission medium by a number of circuits in time domain by establishing a sequence of time slots
during which individual channels (circuits) can be transmitted. Thus the entire bandwidth in frequency is
periodically available to each channel. Normally all time slots 1 are equal in length. Each channel is assigned a
time slot with a specific common repetition period called a frame interval. This is illustrated in Figure
Each channel is sampled at a specified rate and transmitted for a fixed duration PAM . All channels are
sampled one by, the cycle is repeated again and again. The channels are connected to individual gates which are
opened one by one in a fixed sequence. At the receiving end also similar gates are opened in unision with the
gates at the transmitting end.The signal received at the receiving end will be in the form of discrete
samples and these are combined to reproduce the original signal. Thus, at a given instant of time, onty one
channel is transmitted through the medium, and by sequential sampling a number of channels can be staggered in
time as opposed to transmitting all the channel at the same time as in FDM systems. This staggering of
channels in time sequence for transmission over a common medium is called Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM)

UG CABLE JOINING
Introduction
Paper insulated cables are the primitive under ground cables that are used in the telecommunications network.
These cables are available upto 1800 pairs. Later on due to various factors like escalation into the cost of lead
and more incidence of faults due to paper insulation, these cables are replaced by polythene insulated jelly filled
cables. They are popularly known as PIJF cables which consists of twisted pairs of polythene insulated copper
conductors. The PIJF cables are available upto 3600 pairs.
Number of Pairs
The cables shall be in sizes 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 2000, 2400, 2800, 3200 and 3600 pairs.
Conductors
Each conductor shall be insulated with polyethylene of insulating grade. Different gauges of conductors
0.32mm, 0.40mm, 0.50mm, 0.63mm, and 0.90 mm are used in the cables.
Insulation
Each conductor shall be insulated with solid medium density polythene of density 0.926 to 0.94 to a
thickness. The insulation should be uniform, smooth and free from all defects. The insulation will have
following colour for identifying pairs /conductors under normal lighting conditions.
ADVANTAGES OF POLYTHENE INSULATED JELLY CABLES.

Counting of pairs is easy and human mistakes are avoided.

Jointing is easy and require no chamber or additional place.

Failure of joints is less.

Entry of moisture / water is prevented by Jelly in the core.
Cables can be directly terminated on MDF / Cabinet / Pillar and DPs, thus avoiding
additional joints decreasing the cost and time.
Handling of cable is easy not delicate like paper insulated cables.
Life of cable is more.

JOINTING LOCAL TELECOM CABLES

Objective of the Lesson : The necessity of a joint in telecom underground cable and choosing of correct
technique from the techniques available and adopting for better construction methods for jointing of
conductors and joint closures for various types of cables available. Different types of Jointing Techniques for
U/G telephone cables, using different types of connecting techniques for jointing conductors and joint closures.
One of the oldest form of cable existing in our networks are lead sheath dry core (LSDC) paper insulated
cable. As discussed its use has been discarded due to various reasons. These are being replaced by PIJF cables
and OF cables in the networks.
Necessity of joints :
The joint of a underground telecom cable arises due to
a. Limited lengths available for different sizes of cables in new cables.
b. Occurrence of Damages to the working cables , resulting in a joint or two.
THIS IS CALLED STRAIGHT JOINT

c. An operation on a New cable or Existing working cable is made for diverting part of cable pairs to
another direction / area.

THIS IS CALLED BRANCH JOINT

d. To transfer the existing cable pairs of one area in
(old pillar ) another area (new pillar ) in the same exchange system

an

exchange

system

e. To transfer the existing cable pairs from existing exchange in the area to another new exchange called
area transfer.

AREA to be transferred

Old exchange

New exchange

THIS IS CALLED TEE JOINTING OR PARALLEL JOINT

The jointing of the Local cables are described as detailed below :a. Jointing of LSDC cables
b. Thermo shrink joint technique.
c. Jointing with ALSS technique.
d. Jointing Jelly filled cables with TSF kits.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED FOR JOINTS:
Very often a large size of cable is required to be jonted with another same size or more than one cable of
smaller sizes of cables. While proceeding for jointing following precautions are to be taken particularly in case
of Bbrach joints and Tee joints.

The jointing of conductors should be done as per jointing schme ensuring that the smaller branch cabe is
jointed to inner layer or main cable.

In case there is any spare cable pairs left, these should be bunched together and stumped in the joint,
which can be utilized infutre (with recording )

Dressing of main sleeve should be done in such a way that the man sleeve flushes on all sides as far as
possible.

In case of plumping of LSDC should be done properly at Branching point to fill any gaps or pin holes
while dressing.

Suitable size of Kits should be used depending on the specifications.

ARRANGEMENTS TO BE MADE BEFORE THE START OF JOINTING:

Cable jointing pit suitable size be dug so as to accommodate the cable splicer along with his assitants and
tools and facilitage easy jointing.

Guarding of work against public to avoid danger to vehicles , pedestrians and cable jointing personnel.

Beware of existing cables and particularly existing joints at that place.

Beware of underground Power cables at the place of joint.

Protection against weather and water toavoid low insulation in joint.

Pre arranging Joint tools and Joint materials.

JOINTING TECHNIQUES:
Any jointing technique consists of the following operations.
(a) conductor jointing.
(b) Protecting the joint against moisture entry and / or making the joint air tight.
(c) Protecting the joint against corrosion and mechanical damage.
CONDUCTOR JOINTING:
Using UV Connector
One conductor from one direction and another conductor from another direction to be jointed are
inserted into the UY connector without removing the insulation of the wires. The contact will be made by the
plate after cutting through the insulation. This technique is used for Polythene insulated jelly filled cables.
JOINT PROTECTION AGAINST MOISTURE ENTRY:
In addition to the conventional system of closing with lead sleeve, different ways such as mechanical
closure, Epoxy resin filled joints, XAGA closure etc. are used in different countries.
PROTECTING THE JOINT AGAINST MECHANICAL DAMAGE AND CORROSION :
During splicing process the protective layers of the cable e.g. ply - jacket, Hessian tapes, steel armours
etc. are removed. Hence after incorporating moisture barrier system in new joint, it must have some protection
against mechanical and corrosive damages. The following are some of the processes adopted to achieve it by
putting the joint in :(1)

Cast iron or mild steel box and filling it with molten bitumen.

(2)

Brick chamber and filling it with molten bitumen.

(3)

Brick chamber and filling it with sand or soil. (joint must have anticorrosive jacket)

The above methods are used particularly in protecting the joints of paper insulated cables. The following
additional precautions are to be followed at places of joints in underground telecom cables.
(1)

Putting joint indicator to indicate the actual location of the joint.

(2)

Putting the joint in Manhole, hand hole and joint chamber.

(3)

Placing RCC or stone slab over the joint.

OPTICAL FIBER CABLE, CHARACTERISTICS,

CONSTRUCTION AND SPLICING
A Brief History of Fiber-Optic Communications:
Optical communication systems date back to the 1790s, to the optical semaphore telegraph invented by
French inventor Claude Chappe. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell patented an optical telephone system, which
he called the Photophone. However, his earlier invention, the telephone, was more practical and took tangible
shape.
By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for long-range
communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard. Dr. Kao also illustrated the need
for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970 Corning Glass invented fiber-optic wire or "optical
waveguide fibers" which was capable of carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through
which information carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles
away. Corning Glass developed an SMF with loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nm by doping titanium into the fiber core.
By June of 1972, multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with a loss of 4 dB per kilometer
and much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber. Prof. Kao was awarded half of the 2009 Nobel Prize in
Physics for "groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical
communication".
In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first live telephone
traffic through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach, California. They were soon followed by
Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone communication system installed in the downtown Chicago area,
covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice
channels and was equivalent to a DS3 circuit. Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance voice
and data traffic is carried over optical-fiber cables.

Fiber-Optic Applications
FIBER OPTICS: The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber applications
are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global networks to desktop
computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter to
hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their nationwide
networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service between central office switches at
local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or individual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]).
Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms need secure, reliable
systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings to the desktop terminals or computers and
to transfer data around the world. Cable television companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and
data services.
The high bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband signals, such as
high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts. Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart highways with
intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based
telemetry systems.

Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic
systems are used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic images. Other
applications for optical fiber include space, military, automotive, and the industrial sector.

Fiber Optic System : Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video)
is transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the transmission
sequence give below :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
-

Information is Encoded into Electrical Signals.

Electrical Signals are Converted into light Signals.
Light Travels Down the Fiber.
A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
Electrical Signals are Decoded into Information.
Inexpensive light sources available.
Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss fibres are used at high
data rates.

Figure

ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS :

Fiber Optics has the following advantages :
SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or strengthened.

 RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other nearby cables.
MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

TECHNICAL AWARENESS OF GSM MOBILE

Principle of Mobile Communication
Multiple Access methodology
The technique of dynamically sharing the finite limited radio spectrum by multiple users is called Multiple
Access Technique.
Generally there are three different types of multiple access technologies. They are
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division multiple Access (CDMA)
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
FDMA is a familiar method of allocating bandwidth, where a base station is allowed to transmit on one or more
number of preassigned carrier frequencies and a mobile unit transmits on corresponding reverse channels.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
In a TDMA system each channel is split up into time segments, and a transmitter is given exclusive use of one
or more channels only during a particular time period.
Duplexing and Multiple Access Techniques in use:
N
o

Name of System

Multiple Access

Duplexing

GSM

FDMA-TDMA

FDD

CDMA

CDMA

FDD

FREQUENCY ALLOCATION:
Two frequency bands have been allocated for the GSM system:

The band 890-915 MHz and 1710-1785 MHz has been allocated for the uplink direction (transmitting
from the mobile station to the base station).

The band 935-960 MHz and 1805-1880 MHz has been allocated for the downlink direction
(transmitting from the base station to the mobile station).

ARCHITECTURE OF THE GSM NETWORK :

The architecture of the GSM network is presented in figure

G
OMC

VLR
B

BSS

A
BSC

BTS

MS
Un

Other
MSCs
VLRs

D
C
HLR

MSC

AUC

Abis
F

E
Other
MSCs

Other
Networks

EIR

Subsystems and network elements in GSM

The GSM network is called Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN). It is organised in three subsystems:

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
Network Management Subsystem (NMS)

The three subsystems, different network elements, and their respective tasks are presented in the following.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) contains the network elements MSC, GMSC, VLR, HLR, AC and
EIR.

The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The main functions of NSS are:
Call control:
This identifies the subscriber, establishes a call, and clears the connection after the conversation is over.
Charging:
This collects the charging information about a call (the numbers of the caller and the called subscriber, the time
and type of the transaction, etc.) and transfers it to the Billing Centre.
Mobility management:
This maintains information about the subscriber's location.
Signalling:
This applies to interfaces with the BSS and PSTN.
Subscriber data handling:
This is the permanent data storage in the HLR and temporary storage of relevant data in the VLR.

Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC):

Mobile-services Switching Center (MSC) performs the switching functions for all mobile stations located in the
geographic area covered by its assigned BSSs. Functions performed include interfacing with the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) as well as with the other MSCs and other system entities, such as the
HLR, in the PLMN.
Functions of the MSC include:

Call handling that copes with mobile nature of subscribers (e.g., paging)
Management of required logical radio-link channel during calls
Management of MSC-BSS signalling protocol
Handling location registration and ensuring interworking between Mobile Station and VLR
Control of inter-BSS and inter-MSC handovers
Acting as a gateway MSC to interrogate the HLR
Exchange of signalling information with other system entities
Standard functions of a local exchange switch in the fixed network (example: charging)

Gateway Mobile services Switching Centre (GMSC):

The GMSC is responsible for the same tasks as the MSC, except for paging. It is needed in case of mobile
terminated calls. In fixed networks, a call is established to the local exchange, to which the telephone is
connected to. But in GSM, the MSC, which is serving the MS, changes with the subscribers mobility.
Therefore, in a mobile terminated call, the call is set up to a well defined exchange in the subscribers home
PLMN. This exchange is called GMSC. The GMSC than interacts with a database called Home Location
Register, which holds the information about the MSC, which is currently serving the MS. The process of
requesting location information from the HLR is called HLR Interrogation. Given the information about the
serving MSC, the GMSC then continues the call establishment process. In many real life implementations, the
MSC functionality and the GMSC functionality are implemented in the same equipment, which is then just
called MSC. Many operators use GMSCs for breakout to external networks such as PSTNs.
Home Location Register (HLR):
The Home Location Register (HLR) contains the identities of mobile subscribers (called International Mobile
Subscriber Identities or IMSIs), their service parameters, and their location information.
In summary, the HLR contains:
Identity of mobile subscriber
ISDN directory number of mobile station
Subscription information on teleservices and bearer services
Service restrictions (if any)
Supplementary services
Location information for call routing

Visitor Location Register (VLR):

The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains the subscriber parameters and location
information for all mobile subscribers currently located in the geographical area (i.e.,
cells) controlled by that VLR.
In summary, the VLR contains:

Identity of mobile subscriber

Any temporary mobile subscriber identity
ISDN directory number of mobile
A directory number to route calls to a roaming station
Location area where the mobile station is registered
Copy of (part of) the subscriber data from the HLR

Equipment Identity Register (EIR):

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is accessed during the equipment validation procedure when a mobile
station accesses the system. It contains the identity of mobile station equipment (called International Mobile
Station Equipment Identity or IMEI) which may be valid, suspect, or known to be fraudulent.
This contains:

White or Valid list - List of valid MS equipment identities

Grey or Monitored list - List of suspected mobiles under observation
Black or prohibited list - List of mobiles for which service is barred.

Authentication Center (AUC):

The Authentication Center (AUC):

Contains subscriber authentication data called Authentication Keys (Ki)

Generates security related parameters needed to authorize service using Ki
Generates unique data pattern called a Cipher Key (Kc) needed for encrypting user speech and data

Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

The Base Station Subsystem is responsible for managing the radio network, and it is controlled by an MSC.
Typically, one MSC contains several BSSs. A BSS itself may cover a considerably large geographical area
consisting of many cells (a cell refers to an area covered by one or more frequency resources). The BSS consists
of the following elements:
BSC Base Station Controller
BTS Base Transceiver Station
TRAU Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit (often referred to as TC (Transcoder))

Radio path control:

In the GSM network, the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is the part of the network taking care of radio
resources, that is, radio channel allocation and quality of the radio connection.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CENTER (OMC):
The Operations and Maintenance Center (OMC) is the centralized maintenance and diagnostic heart of the Base
Station System (BSS). It allows the network provider to operate,administer, and monitor the functioning of the
BSS.
OTHER NETWORK ELEMENTS:
Other optional network elements that the MSC can interface include:
Billing Center:
Each MSC writes call accounting records to local disk memory. The Billing Center periodically polls the disk
records of each MSC to collect the billing data for the PLMN.
Service Center:
The Service Center interfaces with the MSCs to provide special services, such as the Short Message Service
(SMS), to mobile subscribers in the PLMN.
The Billing Center and Service Center are not a basic part of the GSM system.

CDMA Technology
Access Network:
Access network, the network between local exchange and subscriber, in the Telecom Network accounts
for a major portion of resources both in terms of capital and manpower. So far, the subscriber loop has remained
in the domain of the copper cable providing cost effective solution in past. Quick deployment of subscriber
loop, coverage of inaccessible and remote locations coupled with modern technology have led to the emergence
of new Access Technologies. The various technological options available are as follows :
1.
Multi Access Radio Relay
2.
Wireless In Local Loop
3.
Fibre In the Local Loop

Wireless in Local Loop (WILL):

Fixed Wireless telephony in the subscriber access network also known as Wireless in Local Loop (WLL) is one
of the hottest emerging market segments in global telecommunications today. WLL is generally used as the last
mile solution to deliver basic phone service expeditiously where none has existed before. Flexibility and
expediency are becoming the key driving factors behind the deployment of WILL.
WLL shall facilitate cordless telephony for residential as well as commercial complexes where people are
highly mobile. It is also used in remote areas where it is uneconomical to lay cables and for rapid development
of telephone services. The technology employed shall depend upon various radio access techniques, like
FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.
Different technologies have been developed by the different countries like CT2 from France, PHS from Japan,
DECT from Europe and DAMPS & CDMA from USA. Let us discuss CDMA technology in WLL application
as it has a potential ability to tolerate a fair amount of interference as compared to other conventional radios.
This leads to a considerable advantage from a system point of view.
SPREAD SPECTRUM PRINCIPLE:
Originally Spread spectrum radio technology was developed for military use to counter the interference by
hostile jamming. The broad spectrum of the transmitted signal gives rise to Spread Spectrum. A Spread
Spectrum signal is generated by modulating the radio frequency (RF) signal with a code consisting of different
pseudo random binary sequences, which is inherently resistant to noisy signal environment.
A number of Spread spectrum RF signals thus generated share the same frequency spectrum and thus the entire
bandwidth available in the band is used by each of the users using same frequency at the same time.

CDMA ACCESS A CONCEPT

On the receive side only the signal energy with the selected binary sequence code is accepted and original
information content (data) is recovered. The other users signals, whose codes do not match contribute only to
the noise and are not despread back in bandwidth (Ref Fig-1) This transmission and reception of signals
differentiated by codes using the same frequency simultaneously by a number of users is known as Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Technique as opposed to conventional method of Frequency Division
Multiple Access and Time Division Multiple Access.
In the above figure, it has been tried to explain that how the base band signal of 9.6 Kbps is spread using a
Pseudo-random Noise (PN) source to occupy entire bandwidth of 1.25 Mhz. At the receiving end this signal will
have interference from signals of other users of the same cell, users of different cells and interference from other
noise sources. All these signals get combined with the desired signal but using a correct PN code the original
data can be reproduced back. CDMA channel in the trans and receive direction is a FDD (Frequency Division
Duplexing) channel. The salient features of a typical CDMA system are as follows:
Frequency of operation:
824-849Mhz and 869-894 Mhz
Duplexing Mehtod:
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Access Channel per carrier: Maximum 61 Channels
RF Spacing:
1.25 Mhz
Coverage:
5 Km with hand held telephones and approx.
20 Km with fixed units.
The different types of codes used for identification of traffic channels and users identification etc as follows:

Different Codes used in CDMA

Walsh Code:
In CDMA the traffic channels are separated by unique Walsh code. All such codes are orthogonal to each
other. The individual subscriber can start communication using one of these codes. These codes are traffic
channel codes and are used for orthogonal spreading of the information in the entire bandwidth. Orthogonality
provides nearly perfect isolation between the multiple signals transmitted by the base station.

The basic concept behind creation of the code is as follows:

(a)
Repeat the function right
(b)
Repeat the function below
(c)
Invert function (diagonally)
0 ----- 0
0

0 -------1

0
0
0
0

0
1
0
1

0
0
1
1

0
1
1
0

Long Code:
The long pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 2 42 characteristic polynomial. With this long code the
data in the forward direction (Base to Mobile) is scrambled. The PN codes are generated using linear shift
registers. The long code is unique for the subscribers and is known as users address mask.
Short Code:
The short pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 2 15 characteristic polynomial. This short code
differentiates the cells & the sectors in a cell. It also consists of codes for I & Q channel feeding the modulator.
Advantages: CDMA wireless access provides the following unique advantages.

Larger Capacity:
Let us discuss this issue with the help of Shannons Theorem. It states that the channel capacity is related to
product of available band width and S/N ratio.
C

= W log 2 (1+S/N)

Where C

= channel capacity

= Band width available

S/N

= Signal to noise ratio.

It is clear that even if we improve S/N to a great extent the advantage that we are expected to get in terms of
channel capacity will not be proportionally increased. But instead if we increase the bandwidth (W), we can
achieve more channel capacity even at a lower S/N. That forms the basis of CDMA approach, wherein increased
channel capacity is obtained by increasing both W & S/N. The S/N can be increased by devising proper power
control methods.
Vocoder and variable data rates:
As the telephone quality speech is band limited to 4 Khz when it is digitized with PCM its bit rate rises to
64Kb/s vocoding compress it to a lower bit rate to reduce bandwidth. The transmitting vocoder takes voice
samples and generates an encoded speech/packet for transmission to the receiving vocoder. The receiving
vocoder decodes the received speech packet into voice samples. One of the important feature of the variable rate
vocoder is the use of adaptive threshold to determine the required data rate. Vocoders are variable rate vocoders.
By operating the vocoder at half rate on some of the frames the capacity of the system can be enhanced without
noticeable degradation in the quality of the speech. This phenomenon helps to absorb the occasional heavy
requirement of traffic apart from suppression of background noise. Thus the capacity advantage makes spread
spectrum an ideal choice for use in areas where the frequency spectrum is congested.
Less (Optimum) Power per cell:
Power Control Methods: As we have already seen that in CDMA the entire bandwidth of 1.25Mhz is used by all
the subscribers served in that area. Hence they all will be transmitting on the same frequency using the entire
bandwidth but separated by different codes. At the receiving end the noise contributed by all the subscribers is
added up. To minimize the level of interfering signals in CDMA, very powerful power control methods have
been devised and are listed below:
1. Reserve link open loop power control
2. Reserve link closed loop power control
3. Forward link power control
The objective of open loop power control in the reverse link (Mobile to Base) is that the mobile station should
adjust its transmit power according to the changes in its received power from the base. Open loop power control
attempts to ensure that the received signal strength at the base station from different mobile stations, irrespective
of their distances from the base site, should be same.
In Closed loop power control in reverse link, the base station provides rapid corrections to the mobile stations
open loop estimates to maintain optimum transmit power by the mobile stations. The base station measures the
received signal strength from the mobile connected to it and compares it with a threshold value and a decision is
taken by the base every 1.25 ms to either increase or decrease the power of the mobile.
In forward link power control (Base to Mobile) the cell (base) adjusts its power in the forward link for each
subscriber, in response to measurements provided by the mobile station so as to provide more power to the
mobile who is relatively far away from the base or is in a location experiencing more difficult environment.
These power control methods attempt to have an environment which permits high quality communication (good
S/N) and at the same time the interference to other mobile stations sharing the same CDMA channel is

minimum. Thus more numbers of mobile station are able to use the system without degradation in the
performance. Apart from the capacity advantage thus gained power control extends the life of the battery used
in portables and minimizes the concern of ill effects of RF radiation on the human body.
Seamless Hand-off:
CDMA provides soft hand-off feature for the mobile crossing from one cell to another cell by combining the
signals from both the cells in the transition areas. This improves the performance of the network at the
boundaries of the cells, virtually eliminating the dropped calls.
No Frequency Planning:
A CDMA system requires no frequency planning as the adjacent cells use the same common frequency. A
typical cellular system (with a repetition rate of 7) and a CDMA system is shown in the following figures which
clearly indicates that in a CDMA network no frequency planning is required.

CDMA Frequency

Frequency Reuse of 7 in GSM

High Tolerance to Interference:
The primary advantage of spread spectrum is its ability to tolerate a fair amount of interfering signals as
compared to other conventional systems. This factor provides a considerable advantage from a system point of
view.
Multiple Diversity:
Diversity techniques are often employed to counter the effect of fading. The greater the number of diversity
techniques employed, the better the performance of the system in a difficult propagation environment.
CDMA has a vastly improved performance as it employs all the three diversity techniques in the form of the
following:
A .Frequency Diversity:

A wide band RF signal of 1.25 Mhz being used.

B. Space Diversity:

Employed by way of multipath rake receiver.

C. Time Diversity:Employed by way of symbol interleaving error detection and correction coding.
Capacity Considerations:
Let us discuss a typical CDMA wireless in local loop system consisting of a single base station located at the
telephone exchange itself, serving a single cell. In order to increase the number of subscribers served the cell
is further divided into sectors. These sectors are served by directional antennas.
The capacity of a cellular system is claimed to be 20-40 active lines per sector per 1.25 MHz for a single
CDMA Radio Channel. In WLL environment assuming an average busy hour traffic of 0.1 Erlang, 400
subscribers can be served per sector over a single 1.25 MHz channel.
Assuming typically six sectors in a cell the total capacity of a CDMA network consisting of 1.25 MHz duplex
channels is 2400 (400x6) subscribers.
Capacity can further be increased if we use another frequency on the same base station covering the same
geographical area (overlapping cell). Thus in 10 Mhz in the bandwidth we can utilize 5 MHz of bandwidth in
the forward link and 5 Mhz in the reverse link. Hence if we have 4 RF carriers in 5 Mhz bandwidth, the network
can support 12000 (5x400x6) subscribers per cell.
Conclusion
Hence we see that use of common frequency, multipath rake receiver, power control & variable bit rate
vocoding and soft hand-off features of CDMA give us the benefits of no frequency planning, larger capacity,
flexibility alongwith high performance quality.

Broadband
Introduction
Broadband services are used by Telecom Companies worldwide to leverage their existing investment in copper
in the local loop. Copper as a last-mile delivery medium has the advantage of near-universal penetration, and
local Telecom Companies are increasingly eyeing broadband services on it as a means of hitting back at cable
operators who have begun infringing on their turf by their bundled Internet offerings.
This article attempts to demystify the basic technologies involved in broadband delivery, the GOIs attempts to
promote broadband usage in the country, and BSNLs broadband plans as part of its ambitious NIB-II project.

What is broadband?
To state the obvious, broadband indicates a means of connectivity at a high or broad bandwidth. In India,
TRAI has defined broadband as any connectivity delivered to the end user at a bandwidth greater that 256 kbps.
(So that immediately excludes the popular DIAS services offered by BSNL at many places).
Why is bandwidth so important and how to estimate how much bandwidth is required for a particular
application? A small example below will help illustrate the concept.
Assuming you wish to receive a VCD quality transmission ( incidentally, this is also the quality offered by low
cost desktop videoconferencing applications ) over your broadband connection, the maths is:

Pixel count per frame 200 X 300 = 60000

Frame rate
-- 30 per sec (minimum)

Bandwidth required : 200 X 300 X 30 = 1800000 = 1.8 Mbps

Of course, the above is raw transmission rate modern technologies use advance compression algorithms to
reduce the data rate to a great extent.

Broadband delivery technologies

The problem of the last mile
While telecom companies have adequate high speed OFC infrastructure to connect their Exchanges and
switches, the same does not hold good with the legacy fixed line customers who are connected, however
adequately for voice communication, by good old copper. How to deliver the broadband content over this
seemingly low bandwidth medium was the question till recently, when advanced Line coding and compression
technologies solved the problem.
The Misunderstood Copper
It has been the general perception that copper is no good for anything other than speech communications of
the analog variety. However, the blame for the low bandwidth rests with the telephone system rather than with
the medium. The telephone system filters the voice to a range of 400 Hz to 3.4 KHz, thereby rendering the
local lead useless for even good quality sound transmission. And people blame the poor copper !
When data transmission was attempted over non-exchange lines using traditional line coding mechanisms like
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion), a good bandwidth could not be achieved because these mechanisms corrupt
the spectrum and cause interference between the pairs in a copper cable bundle. To overcome this , alternative
technologies were devised which performed the line coding and transmission in such a way that the interference
was minimized, thereby enabling much higher frequencies to be transmitted. And the mother of all technologies
was DSL.
Broadband over copper: the DSLs
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Loop.
The diagram below shows how DSL modulates the Line Spectrum. Data Signal is sent at a frequency higher
that the Voice (3.4 Khz) frequency.

There are various technologies spawned off from DSL which perform to different expectations:
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line
SDSL: Single Line Digital Subscriber Line
ADSL: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
HDSL: High data rate Digital Subscriber Line
VDSL : Very High data rate Digital Subscriber Line
IDSL: ISDN Digital Subscriber Line
These technologies offer differing bandwidths over different distances. The table below shows a comparison of
their capabilities:

ADSL:
Of all the mechanisms outlined above, Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop (ADSL) has found favour as a
broadband delivery mechanism, in view of its high downstream bandwidth. Downstream refers to data
flowing from the service provider to the user. Most of the popular applications, like web browsing, video
streaming, FTP downloads, etc., require much higher downstream bandwidth than upstream bandwidth. ADSL
manages to extract high data rates in this direction. The distance limitations for ADSL are shown below:

Bandwidth
(Downstream)

Range in feet

1.544 (T1)

18000

2.048 (E1)

16000

6.312 (DS2)

12000

8.448

9000

With all the local telecom companies edging closer to the customer with their distributed access mechanisms
like DLCs and RSUs, the above distances lie well within the range of most customer premises, and thus
broadband delivery can be quite effective, with a richer user experience.
Multiplexing Voice and Data: DSLAM

The DSL Access Multiplexer, popularly known as DSLAM, is employed by the Telecom Companies to code the
subscriber line with the broadband data content. Once the ADSL copper line reaches the customer, some
customer premises equipment (CPE) has to be employed to separate the voice and data signals.

In many cases the Splitter function is combined within the DSL Modem CPE equipment, which is also known
sometimes as a Set-top Box.
Broadband Services
Several interesting services can be provided in an Integrated manner by the broadband service provider. Some
of these are:
High Speed Internet Services
Video on Demand
Multicast Video Streaming
Interactive e- Learning
Interactive Gaming
High speed Internet Services refer to always-on fast Internet access.
Video on Demand enables the user to select from an online library of content and select any of the
available choices for viewing at a convenient time. This is similar to borrowing a Video for viewing .
Multicast video streaming is similar to cable or terrestrial broadcast the user can join at any time but the
stream begins and ends at the preappointed times.
Interactive e-learning can consist of electronic classrooms with 2-way and multi-way communication between
teachers and students.
Interactive gaming enables multiple players to play online games pitted against each other or against computers,
through gaming servers employed by gaming content providers.
Needless to say, all these services require the service provider to have strong tie-ups with the various content
providers. After all, what is hardware without usable software?

The Indian Scenario

Broadband services in India have not yet really taken off because none of the major Telcos has been able to
rollout such services in a really big way so far. Broadband penetration is, of course, dependent upon PC
penetration as a major factor. India lags behind other major countries of the region by a substantial margin, as
the following table will show.

OVERVIEW OF BROAD BAND

Definition of Broad Band
Broadband is often called high-speed Internet, because it usually has a high rate of data transmission. In general,
any connection to the customer of 256 kbit/s or more is considered broadband.
HOW IS BROADBAND DIFFERENT FROM DIAL-UP SERVICE?

Broadband service provides higher speed of data transmissionAllows more content to be carried
through the transmission pipeline.

Broadband provides access to the highest quality Internet servicesstreaming media, VoIP (Internet
phone), gaming and interactive services. Many of these current and newly developing services require
the transfer of large amounts of data which may not be technically feasible with dial-up service.
Therefore, broadband service may be increasingly necessary to access the full range of services and
opportunities that the Internet can offer.

Broadband is always ondoes not block phone lines and no need to reconnect to network after logging
off.

Less delay in transmission of content when using broadband.

WHY IS BROADBAND IMPORTANT ?

Broadband can provide you with the technical capability to access a wide range of resources, services and
products that can enhance your life in a variety of ways. These resources, services and products include,

Education, Culture, & Entertainment

o

Tele-health & Telemedicine

o

Broadband can overcome geographical and financial barriers to provide access to a wide range of
educational, cultural and recreational opportunities and resources.

Broadband can facilitate provision of medical care to unserved and underserved populations through remote
diagnosis, treatment, monitoring and consultations with specialists.

Economic Development/E-Commerce

Broadband can promote economic development and revitalization through electronic commerce (ecommerce) by:

Creating new jobs and attracting new industries.

Providing access to regional, national and worldwide markets.

Electronic Government (E-Government)

Electronic government can help streamline peoples interaction with government agencies and provide
information about government policies, procedures, benefits and programs.
Public Safety and Homeland Security

Broadband can help protect the public by facilitating and promoting public safety information and
procedures, including, but not limited to:

Early warning/public alert systems and disaster preparation programs.

Remote security monitoring and real time security background checks.
Backup systems for public safety communications networks.
Broadband Communications Services

Broadband provides access to new telecommunications technologies such as Voice Over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) allowing voice communication using the Internet.
Communications Services for People With Disabilities

Broadband permits users of Telecommunications Relay Services (TRS) to use Video Relay Services (VRS)
to communicate more easily, quickly and expressively with voice telephone users.

TYPES OF BROADBAND CONNECTIONS

Broadband includes several high-speed transmission technologies such as:

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

Cable Modem

Fiber

Wireless

Satellite

Broadband over Power lines (BPL)

The broadband technology you choose will depend on a number of factors. These may include whether you are
located in an urban or rural area, how broadband Internet access is packaged with other services (like voice
telephone and home entertainment), price and availability.

What is Broadband Service?

Broadband refers to a connection that has capacity to transmit large amount of data at high speed. Presently a
connection having download speeds of 256 kbps or more is classified as broadband. When connected to the
Internet broadband connection allows surfing or downloading much faster than a dial-up or any other
narrowband connections. BSNL offers 2 Mbps minimum download speed for its Broadband connections.
Requirement for providing Broad Band connection:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Personal Computer
ADSL Modem
Land Line Connection
Splitter for separating telephone from Personal computer.

Broad Band Services

BSNL is in the process of commissioning of a world class, multi-gigabit, multi-protocol, convergent IP
infrastructure through National Internet BackboneII (NIB-II), that provides convergent services through the
MPLS based backbone and broadband access network. The high speed Backbone comprises of powerful Core
Routers connected with high speed 2.5 Gbps (STM-16) on DWDM links.
MPLS VPN is a technology that allows a service provider like BSNL to have complete control over parameters
that are critical to offering its customers service guarantees with regard to bandwidth throughputs, latencies and
availability.
The Broadband service are available on DSL technology (on the same copper cable that is used for connecting
telephone), on a countrywide basis spanning more than 690 cities.
Services available through Broadband

High speed Internet Access: This is the always-on Internet access service with speed ranging from 256
kbps to 8 Mbps.
Bandwidth on Demand: This will facilitate customer to change bandwidth as per his / her requirement.
For example a customer with 256 kbps can change to 1 Mbps during the video Conferencing session.
Multicasting: This is to provide video multicast services, video-on-demand etc. for application in
distance education, telemedicine etc.
Dial VPN Service: This service allows remote users to access their private network securely over the
NIB-II infrastructure.
Video and Audio Conferencing:
Content based Services: Like Video on Demand, Interactive Gaming, Live and time shifted TV
Video on Demand: Customers can view any movie of their choice from a pool of movies stored in a
central server. The movies can be viewed either on a TV or a PC.
Audio on Demand: It is a similar service where person can listen to any music of his choice.

TV channels through broadband connection: The TV channels may be available in the broadband
connection. In fact, there may be other new channels, particularly the educational and scientific
channels, depending on demand. Additional equipments required in the customer's premises are
Set Top Box (STB) - The STB converts the digital IP based signal to a form compatible with the
TV set.
PC and TV
The TV services envisaged are:
i.
S-VoD : Subscription based Video Content, as in Pay Channels.
ii.
Video-On-Demand
iii.
N-VoD : Near Video-On-Demand. NVOD provides playouts on fixed time bands which
people can watch against payment.
iv.
T-VOD : Transaction or Pay-Per-View service.

The video content will have Hindi, international and regional movies, music, soaps and serials, sports,
news, interactive gaming, e-learning and niche channels. "The driver in entertainment will be ondemand movies, interactive gaming, broadband Internet connectivity and e-learning,"
Billing: To provide a means to bill for the aforesaid services by either time-based or volume-based
billing. It shall provide the customer with the option to select the services through web server To provide
both pre-paid and post paid broadband services
IP Telephony

Messaging: plain and feature rich,

Multi-site MPLS VPN with Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees.

Wi-Fi

Web hosting & web co-location.

Lease line service.

OVERVIEW OF INTRANET
CONTENTS:
BASIC OF INTRANET

INTRANET SETUP

FEATURE OF LAN

HARDWARE REQUIREMENT

TOPOLOGY

WHAT IS INTRANET :

Smaller private version of Internet. It uses Internet protocols to create enterprise-wide network which
may consists of interconnected LANs.

It may or may not include connection to Internet.

Intranet is an internal information system based on Internet technology and web protocols for
implementation within a corporate organization.

This implementation is performed in such a way as to transparently deliver the immense informational
resources of an organization to each individuals desktop with minimal cost, time and effort.

The Intranet defines your organization and display it for everyone to see.

If everyone knows
what the company stands for,
what the companys strategic vision is,
what the guiding company principles are,
who the clients and partners are,
then they can focus more clearly on what their own contributions are to the organization.
Every organization can constantly refer to the central messages and develop their own supporting sites
accordingly. Use the Web as an information, communications, and project-management tool across the
organization.
Who needs an Intranet:
In an Intranet environment is used to communicate over two or more networks across different locations.
1. Users having multi-locations with multi-networks.
2. Users having single locations with multi-networks.
3. Users having single locations with single networks.

Whats really HOT about Intranets:

From a technology point of view, an Intranet is simply beautiful. because:
1. It is scaleable.
2. It is Interchangeable.
3. It is platform independent
4. It is Hardware independent.
5. It is vendor independent.
Why Intranet for an Organization:

Quick access to voice, video, data and other resources needed by users.

Variety of valuable applications of Intranet applications improve communication and productivity across
all areas of an enterprise.

An Intranet can give immediate access to products specifications, pricing charts and new collaterals, sales lead,
competitive information and list of customer wins including profit/loss analysis, thus boosting the success of the
business.
A Decision Making Tool:

The intranet links together all of the information in your organization. By using interactive forms one can prune
and graft information, which helps analyze market trends, or business behavior. You can share results with
colleagues, clients and partners, and modify business decisions accordingly.
A Complete Communication Tool:
The intranet helps in integrating, all departmental communications, all group communications and all individual
communications. Intranet creates a repository of information accessible to everybody in the organization.
A 21st Century Telephone:
The intranet has become a utility in many companies, much like a telephone. Using it you empire a knowledge
environment in which individuals within the organization, knows who they are talking to, what they represent
and how they fit into the organization.
An ISO Tool:
The intranet can satisfy a lot of your ISO 9000 requirements. You can provide all information on-line in one
location and can identify processes, metrics, and project contacts on-line. It becomes a solid source or
repository which enables many of the ISO requirements.
A Target Marketing Tool:
The elements of a traditional business-to-business marketing and sales programs can be integrated within the
web environment in order to create target marketing which attracts highly qualified customer/client prospects
and engages in an ongoing product/sales dialogue. The end result can be more profitable.

Applications of Intranet:
Publishing Corporate documents:
Corporate documents such as newsletters, annual reports, maps, company facilities, price lists, products
information literature can be easily published and propagated across an organization. Intranet technology
facilitates efficient, timely and accurate communication across the entire corporate organization and cuts down
on the cost of publishing the information on paper every now and then.
Access into searchable directories
Intranet provides rapid access to corporate phone books and the like. By using this technology, information can
be made more widely available.
Excellent Mailing Facilities:
With Intranet mail products mailing attachment of documents, sound, vision and other multimedia is facilitated.
With the evolution of this web technology one-to-many communication has become more effective.
Proper Sharing of Information:
Using Intranet technology, applications such as Bulletin Board Services can help every individual in an
organization to put forth his views on various topics and discuss it with others in the organization.
Developing Groupware Applications:
The flow of documents can be automated by incorporating intranet in an organization. Thus the overall
efficiency of an organization increases as less manual and paper involvement will be required. Typical examples
are sanctioning of expense reports/travel reports, Conference room booking, etc.
Brief :

Organizational & personnel changes can be immediately communicated on intranet. Mergers, new
ventures, new projects, product releases can be immediately communicated.

Instant availability of the latest organizational information.

Conference type online interaction.

Employees can view benefits programs, Company policy and procedures online.

Distribution of software and manuals centrally.

Reduce paper work with the organization.

In manufacturing units all products details and company standards can be put centrally on the Intranet.

Leased Lines
A leased line is a permanent fiber optic or telephone connection between two points set up by a
telecommunications carrier. A leased line is also sometimes referred to as a dedicated line. They can be used for
telephone, data, or Internet services. Oftentimes businesses will use a leased line to connect to geographically
distant offices because it guarantees bandwidth for network traffic. For example, a bank may use a leased line in
order to easily transfer financial information from one office to another. A leased line can span long or short
distances and customers generally pay a flat monthly rate for the service depending on the distance between the
two points. Leased lines do not have telephone numbers because each side of the line is always connected to one
another, as opposed to telephone lines which reuse the same lines for numerous conversations through a process
called "switching." The information sent through the leased line travels along dedicated secure channels,
eliminating the congestion that occurs in shared networks.

MLLN MANAGED LEASED LINE NETWORK

The MLLN service is specially designed mainly for having effective control and monitoring on the
leased line so that the down time is minimized and the circuit efficiency is increased. This mainly deals with
data circuits ranging from 64 Kbps to 2048 Kbps.

DRAWBACK OF TRADITIONAL LEASED LINE CIRCUITS

1.

Limited range of services - Only Plain Leased Line Service, Data cards support only up to 64 kbps,
no support for N x 64 Kbps.

2.

From Operator pointt of view in case of Leased Line Circuit different boxes from different vendors
so difficult to manage & control.

3.

No Centralized Monitoring or alarm or performance monitering.

Therefore we should have a control to all this, we are able to identify before the customer know which
circuit has gone faulty The solution to this is MLLN

MLLN FEATURES:
1. MLLN is an integrated, fully managed , multi service digital network platform through which service
provider can offer a wide range of service at an optimal cost to business subscriber.
2. Using NMS, MLLN can provide high speed Leased Line with improved QoS, high availability &
reliability.
3. Except for connecting the local lead to the MODEM all operations & maintenance is carried out through
ROT (Remote Operating Terminal)

242 ROT upto 2003 and 178 new ROT installed after 2003

4. NMS supports service provisioning, Network optimization, planning & service monitering.
5. System offers end to end circuit creation and modification, circuit loop testing & fault isolation,
automatic rerouting of traffic in case of trunk failure, software programmability of NTU etc.
6. Banking, Financial institution, Stock market, paper industry, broadcasting & Internet service Provider
main customers for MLLN.

MLLN ADVANTAGES:
1. 24 hrs Performance Monitering of the circuit. (how much time circuit time up & down and the reason
for down time e.g MODEM switch off or other reason)
2. Circuit fault reports generated proactively.(Before customer know we should detect the fault & rectify it)
3. On Demand the Bandwidth can be increased. (without changing the MODEM recreate the circuit with
the same MODEM)
4. Low lead time for new circuit provisioning. (Create & debug if any fault)
5. Protection against the failure of the circuit (through recovery Management process either automatic or
manually)
6. Long drive on single copper pair.( for 64 kbps 7 kms & for 2mbps 3.5 kms)
7. Centrally managed from ROT connected to the NMS

APPLICATION OF MLLN:
1. Corporate high speed internet access through Broadband.
2. LAN interconnection.
3. Hotline connectivity for voice.
4. Point to point connection for data circuit.
5. point to multipoint connection.
6. EPABX Interconnection.
7. VPN on MLLN Network.
8. Extension of VPN (MPLS) to Customer.

Wi-MAX
Broadband wireless sits at the confluence of two of the most remarkable growth stories of the
telecommunications industry in recent years. Both wireless and broadband have on their own enjoyed rapid
mass-market adoption. The staggering growth of the Internet is driving demand for higher-speed Internet-access
services, leading to a parallel growth in broadband adoption .
So what is broadband wireless? Broadband wireless is about bringing the broadband experience to a
wireless context, which offers users certain unique benefits and convenience. There are two fundamentally
different types of broadband wireless services. The first type attempts to provide a set of services similar to that
of the traditional fixed-line broadband but using wireless as the medium of transmission. This type, called fixed
wireless broadband, can be thought of as a competitive alternative to DSL or cable modem. The second type of
broadband wireless, called mobile broadband, offers the additional functionality of portability, nomadicity and
mobility. Mobile broadband attempts to bring broadband applications to new user experience scenarios and

hence can offer the end user a very different value proposition. Wi-MAX is an acronym that stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access and this technology is designed to accommodate both fixed and
mobile broadband applications.
EVOLUTION OF BROADBAND WIRELESS
WiMAX technology has evolved through four stages, albeit not fully distinct or clearly sequential: (1)
narrowband wireless local-loop systems, (2) first-generation line-of-sight (LOS) broadband systems, (3)
second-generation non-line-of-sight (NLOS) broadband systems, and (4) standards-based broadband wireless
systems.
NARROWBAND WIRELESS LOCAL-LOOP SYSTEMS
Naturally, the first application for which a wireless alternative was developed and deployed was voice
telephony. These systems, called wireless local-loop (WLL), were quite successful in developing countries such
as China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, and Russia. In fact, WLL systems based on the digital-enhanced cordless
telephony (DECT) and code division multiple access (CDMA) standards continue to be deployed in these
markets.
During the same time, several small start-up companies focused solely on providing Internet-access
services using wireless. These wireless Internet service provider (WISP) companies typically deployed systems
in the license-exempt 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands. Most of these systems required antennas to be installed at
the customer premises, either on rooftops or under the eaves of their buildings. Deployments were limited
mostly to select neighborhoods and small towns. These early systems typically offered speeds up to a few
hundred kilobits per second. Later evolutions of license-exempt systems were able to provide higher speeds.
FIRST-GENERATION BROADBAND SYSTEMS
As DSL and cable modems began to be deployed, wireless systems had to evolve to support much higher
speeds to be competitive. Systems began to be developed for higher frequencies, such as the 2.5GHz and
3.5GHz bands. Very high speed systems, called local multipoint distribution systems (LMDS), supporting up to
several hundreds of megabits per second, were also developed in millimeter wave frequency bands, such as the
24GHz and 39GHz bands. LMDS-based services were targeted at business users.
In the late 1990s, one of the more important deployments of wireless broadband happened in the socalled multi channel multipoint distribution services (MMDS) band at 2.5GHz. The MMDS band was
historically used to provide wireless cable broadcast video services, especially in rural areas where cable TV
services were not available. The advent of satellite TV ruined the wireless cable business, and operators were
looking for alternative ways to use this spectrum. A few operators began to offer one-way wireless Internetaccess service, using telephone line as the return path.
The first generations of these fixed broadband wireless solutions were deployed using the same towers that
served wireless cable subscribers. These towers were typically several hundred feet tall and enabled LOS
coverage to distances up to 35 miles, using high-power transmitters. First-generation MMDS systems required
that subscribers install at their premises outdoor antennas high enough and pointed toward the tower for a clear
LOS transmission path. The outdoor antenna and LOS requirements proved to be significant impediments.
Besides, since a fairly large area was being served by a single tower, the capacity of these systems was fairly
limited. Similar first-generation LOS systems were deployed internationally in the 3.5GHz band.
SECOND-GENERATION BROADBAND SYSTEMS

Second-generation broadband wireless systems were able to overcome the LOS issue and to provide more
capacity. This was done through the use of a cellular architecture and implementation of advanced-signal
processing techniques to improve the link and system performance under multi path conditions. Several start-up
companies developed advanced proprietary solutions that provided significant performance gains over firstgeneration systems. Most of these new systems could perform well under non-line-of-sight conditions, with
customer-premise antennas typically mounted under the eaves or lower. Many solved the NLOS problem by
using such techniques as orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), code division multiple access
(CDMA), and multi antenna processing. A few megabits per second throughput over cell ranges of a few miles
had become possible with second-generation fixed wireless broadband systems.

AN INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS-FIDELITY (WI-FI)

Scope:
Wi-Fi is a registered trademark by the Wi-Fi Alliance. The products tested and approved as "Wi-Fi Certified"
are interoperable with each other, even if they are from different manufacturer. It is Short form for WirelessFidelity and is meant to generically refer to any type of 802.11 network, whether 802.11b, 802.11a, dualband, etc.

General description of Wi-Fi Network:

A Wi-Fi network provides the features and benefits of traditional LAN technologies such as Ethernet and Token
Ring without the limitations of wires or cables. It provides the final few metres of connectivity between a wired
network and the mobile user thereby providing mobility, scalability of networks and the speed of
installation.WIFI is a wireless LAN Technology to deliver wireless broad band speeds up to 54 Mbps to
Laptops, PCs, PDAs , dual mode wifi enabled phones etc.
In a typical Wi-Fi configuration, a transmitter/receiver (transceiver) device, called the Access Point (AP),
connects to the wired network from a fixed location using standard cabling. A wireless Access Point combines
router and bridging functions, it bridges network traffic, usually from Ethernet to the airwaves, where it routes
to computers with wireless adapters. The AP can reside at any node of the wired network and acts as a gateway
for wireless data to be routed onto the wired network as shown in Figure-1. It supports only 10 to 30 mobile
devices per Access Point (AP) depending on the network traffic. Like a cellular system, the Wi-Fi is capable of
roaming from the AP and re-connecting to the network through another AP. The Access Point (or the antenna
attached to the Access Point) is usually mounted high but may be mounted essentially anywhere that is practical
as long as the desired radio coverage is obtained.

Figure 1:A typical Wi-Fi Network.

Like a cellular phone system, the wireless LAN is capable of roaming from the AP and re-connecting to the
network through other APs residing at other points on the wired network. This can allow the wired LAN to be
extended to cover a much larger area than the existing coverage by the use of multiple APs such as in a campus
environment as shown in Figure 2.

Figure2:Extending Wi-Fi coverage with multiple APs.

An important feature of the wireless LAN is that it can be used independent of a wired network. It may be used
as a stand alone network anywhere to link multiple computers together without having to build or extend a
wired network. Then a peer to peer workgroup can be established for transfer or access of data. A member of
the workgroup may be established as the server or the network can act in a peer to peer mode as Shown in
Figure-3.

Figure3:Wireless LAN workgroup.

End users access the Wi-Fi network through Wi-Fi adapters, which are implemented as cards in desktop
computers, or integrated within hand-held computers. Wi-Fi wireless LAN adapters provide an interface
between the client Network Operating System (NOS) and the airwaves via an antenna. The nature of the

wireless connection is transparent to the NOS. Wi-Fi deals with fixed, portable and mobile stations and of
course, the physical layers used here are fundamentally different from wired media

Wi-Fi Network Configuration:

Wireless Peer-To-Peer Network: This mode is also known as ADHOC mode. Wi-Fi networks can be simple or
complex. At its most basic, two PCs equipped with wireless adapter cards can set up an independent network
whenever they are within range of one another. This is called a peer-to-peer network. It requires no
administration or pre-configuration. In this case, each client would only have access to the resources of the
other client and not to a central server as shown in Figure-4.

Figure-4: A Wi-Fi Peer-To-Peer Network.

Client and Access Point:

This is known as INFRASTUCTURE mode and is normally employed. However, wireless gateway can be
configured to enable peer to peer communication in this mode as well.
In this mode, one Access Point is connected to the wired network and each client would have access to server
resources as well as to other clients. The specific number client depends on the number and nature of the
transmissions involved. Many real-world applications exist where a single Access Point services from 15 to 50
client devices as shown in Figure-5.

Figure-5: A Server and Clint Wi-Fi Network.

Multiple Access Points and Roaming:

Access points can be connected to each other through UTP cable or they can be connected to each other over
radio through wireless bridging. There is an option to connect access points in a mesh architecture where in
event of a fault in an access point the network heals itself and connectivity is ensured through other access
point. This changeover takes place dynamically.

Access Points have a finite range, of the order of 500 feet indoor and 1000 feet outdoors. In a very large facility
such as a warehouse, or on a college campus, it will probably be necessary to install more than one Access
Point. Access Point positioning is done by a site survey. The goal is to blanket the coverage area with
overlapping coverage cells so that clients might range throughout the area without ever losing network contact.
The ability of clients to move seamlessly among a cluster of Access Points is called roaming. Access Points
hand the client off from one to another in a way that is invisible to the client, ensuring unbroken connectivity as
shown in Fig-6.

Figure-6: Multiple Access Points and Roaming.

Use of an Extension Point: To solve particular problems of topology, the network designer some times uses
Extension Points (EPs) to augment the network of Access Points (APs). Extension Points look and function like
Access Points, but they are not tethered to the wired network as are APs. EPs function just as their name
implies: they extend the range of the network by relaying signals from a client to an AP or another EP. EPs may
be strung together in order to pass along messaging from an AP to far-flung clients as shown in Figure-7.

Figure -7: Wi-Fi network with Extension Point (EP).

The Use of Directional Antennae: One last item of wireless LAN equipment to consider is the directional
antenna. Lets suppose you had a Wi-Fi network in your building-A and wanted to extend it to a leased buildingB, one mile away. One solution might be to install a directional antenna on each building, each antenna
targeting the other.
The antenna on A is connected to your wired network via an Access Point. The antenna on B is similarly
connected to an Access Point in that building, which enables Wi-Fi network connectivity in that facility as
shown in Figure-8.

Figure-8: A Wi-Fi network using Directional Antennae.

Benefits of Wi-Fi:
In a Wi-Fi users can access shared information without looking for a place to plug in, and network managers
can set up or augment networks without installing or moving wires. Wi-Fi offers the following productivity,
conveniences, and cost advantages over traditional wired networks:

Mobility: Wi-Fi systems can provide LAN users with access to real-time information anywhere in their
organization. This mobility supports productivity and service opportunities not possible with wired
networks.

Installation Speed and Simplicity: Installing a Wi-Fi system can be fast and easy and can eliminate the
need to pull cable through walls and ceilings.

Installation Flexibility: Wireless technology allows the network to go where wire cannot go.

Reduced Cost-of-Ownership: While the initial investment required for Wi-Fi hardware can be higher
than the cost of wired LAN hardware, overall installation expenses and life-cycle costs can be
significantly lower. Long-term cost benefits are greatest in dynamic environments requiring frequent
moves, adds, and changes.

Scalability: Wi-Fi systems can be configured in a variety of topologies to meet the needs of specific
applications and installations. Configurations are easily changed and range from peer-to-peer networks
suitable for a small number of users to full infrastructure networks of thousands of users that allows
roaming over a broad area.

It offers much high speed upto 54 Mbps which is very much greater than other wireless
access technologies like CORDECT, GSM and CDMA.

Limitation of Wi-Fi networks:

The key areas of limitation of Wi-Fi are:
Coverage: A single Access Point can cover, at best, a radius of only about 60 metres. Hundreds of Access
Points are necessary to provide seamless coverage in small area. For 10 square kms area roughly 650 Access
Points are required, where as CDMA 2000 1xEV-DO requires just 09 sites.
Roaming: It lacks roaming between different networks hence wide spread coverage by one service provider is
not possible, which is the key to success of wireless technology.

Backhaul: Backhaul directly affects data rate service provider used Cable or DSL for backhaul. Wi-Fi real
world data rates are at least half of the their theoretical peak rates due to factors such as signal strength,
interference and radio overhead .Backhaul reduces the remaining throughput further.
Interference: Wi-Fi uses unlicensed spectrum, which mean no regulator recourse against interference. The
most popular type of Wi-Fi, 802.11b uses the crowded 2.4 GHz band which is already used in Bluetooth,
cordless phones and microwave ovens.
Security: Wi-Fi Access Points and modems use the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) Standards, which is very
susceptible to hacking and eavesdropping.
Security: WEP( Wired Equivalent Privacy) is not very secure. WPA (WIFI Protected Access) offers much
better security with the help of dynamic key encryption and mutual authentication.
Authentication, Authorization and Accounting: In a server based configuration whenever a laptop enters into
a wifi zone, a welcome page is sent to it. User enters username and password. It is connected through the
wireless gateway(router) to AAA, LDAP servers. Once authenticated ,user can access sites of his choice.
Prepaid and postpaid customers can be billed.

Abbreviations:
1. LAN:
Local Area Network.
2. AP:
Access Point.
3. EP:
Extension Point.
4. ISM:
Industrial scientific & medical
5. MAC:
Media Access Control.
6. CSMA/CA:
Carrier Sense multiple Access with Collision Avoidance.
7. CDMA 2000 1x EV-DO: CDMA 2000 1x Evolution Version Data Only.
8. IEEE:
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers.
9. OSI:
Open systems Interconnect.
10. WEP:
Wireless Equivalent Privacy.