MANAGING The Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Managing the
Fuzzy Front-End
of Innovation
Publishing authors: Utz Dornberger and J. Alfredo Suvelza G.
iN4iN & Partners

All right reserved
www.in4in.net
Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

First edition, December 2012
Published by:
intelligence 4 innovation
International SEPT Program, the Leipzig University
Beethovenstrasse 15
04107 Leipzig
Germany
Phone:
+49 341 9737 039
Fax:
+49 341 9737 048
Internet:
www.in4in.net
Publishing authors:
Prof. Dr. Utz Dornberger

J. Alfredo Suvelza G., MBA
ISBN: 3-934693-23-7
2012 by the authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by mechanical or electronic means, including photocopying, recording, information storage or retrieval, without written permission from the publishers.
Contents
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
List of contributing authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Institutional Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Part one - Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The innovation process and its challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Strategic management of innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Creativity as basis for innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Innovation culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Organization for innovation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Pricing of innovative products and funding strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Part two - Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Management of the fuzzy front end of innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Personas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) of products and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Creativity methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Service Blueprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Target costing for services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Project management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Technology Roadmaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Investment evaluation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Elimination of behavioral barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
List of contributing authors

Publishing editors
Prof. Dr. Utz Dornberger: dornberger@uni-leipzig.de
J. Alfredo Suvelza G., MBA: suvelza@uni-leipzig.de
Part one - Concepts

Chapter 1 The innovation process and its challenges
Chapter 2 Strategic Management of Innovation
Jos Isaac Yrigoyen Montestruque, MBA

Dr. Dirk Bessau
Chapter 3 Creativity as basis for innovation
Chapter 4 Innovation Culture

Omar Torres, MBA
Chapter 5 Organization for innovation
Katja Butzmann
Chapter 7 Finantial planning of innovation
Dipl. Kfm. Uwe Becher
Part two - Tools

Managing of the fuzzy front-end of innovation

Personas
Dipl. Wirt. Inf. Maik Seyring

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) for products and services
Luis Bernal, MBA

Scenarios
Fernando Lizaso, MSc.

Creativity stimulation techniques
Alexander Hernndez Valencia, MBA

Service Blueprinting
Dipl. Wirt. Inf. Maik Seyring

Luis Bernal, MBA
Target Costing for services
Luis Bernal, MBA

Omar Torres, MBA
Project planning tools
Katja Butzmann
Technology Roadmaps
Luis Bernal, MBA

Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)
Luis Bernal, MBA

Investment evaluation methods

Elimination of innovation barriers

With the assitance of:
Christian Hauke, M.A.

Thomas Osterburg, MBA
Giovanna Mata Garcia Lorenzana, MBA
Gina Sophia Cifuenes, MBA
Kwabena Obiri Yeboah, MBA
Institutional Presentation
iN4iN
Intelligence 4 innovation, in4in, is a program of the International SEPT Program of Leipzig University
and Conoscope GmbH, a consulting company, both of them based in Germany.
This program brings together a team of high-level professionals with experience in innovation management, enterprise management and development. The applied knowledge is a result of rigorous processes
of experiences and knowledge systematization, advanced research on the topic and a direct linkage with
the private sector.
Together, SEPT, Conoscope GmbH and their strategic international and multidisciplinary partners, deliYHU LPPHGLDWH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ VROXWLRQV LQ WKH HOG RI LQQRYDWLRQ PDQDJHPHQW DQG UHODWHG DUHDV
In4in and their partners have been carrying out their activities in different regions of the world, with a
decade of cumulated experience in Europe, Latin America and Africa.
International SEPT Program Leipzig University
The International SEPT Program is a research and training program at Leipzig University dedicated to
providing theoretical insights as well as practical experiences in the promotion of small and mediumsized enterprises in developing and transition countries.
SEPT was launched at Leipzig University with a strong support from the German Academic Exchange
Service (DAAD) as well as other private and public partners.
Because of its location in Germany, SEPT staff have permanently the opportunity to learn from successful German Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) and to analyze in detail their best practices and
winning experiences, as well as those of the institutions that foster and promote them.
These exceptional 'Mittelstand' Firms, as they are called in Germany, are known worldwide for their
dynamism and constant innovation. Additionally, many of them have managed to achieve leadership po-
sitions in many different countries and markets, basically with high-value-added products and services.
For these reasons, all activities that are offered by SEPT are based on the patterns of the outstanding
German 'Mittelstand' and the measures that have been successfully applied to promote them. SEPTs
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forward to implementing successful strategies in the promotion of SMEs.
Conoscope GmbH
CONOSCOPE GmbH was founded in 2010 by the companies INNOWAYS GmbH, CONTOUR 21
GmbH and inomic GmbH. These companies have each more than 10 years of experience in their respecWLYH HOGV DQG KDYH FRPPRQ URRWV DV WKH\ ZHUH DOO VSLQRIIV IURP WKH /HLS]LJ 8QLYHUVLW\ &2126&23(
works with the objective to lead innovation for sustainable business success and implement innovation
in these companies to ensure their long-term success.
What drives us is innovation, in order to offer our customers a comprehensive, unique and compelling
services portfolio.
Preface
One of the authors main motivations to publish this book is the need to raise the success rate of innovation projects undertaken by enterprises and organizations.
The emphasis placed by the authors in the fuzzy front-end of the innovation process is due to the fact
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the decisive impact that this fuzzy front-end has in the fate and results of the innovation projects. When
investing the necessary resources, using suitable human resources and promoting essential intangible
capacities to cover the demands of this crucial period, it is possible to reduce the risk of failure of the
innovation projects. The high rate of failure is not only related to the very nature of the innovation, which
essentially means the attempt of something that has not been previously carried out. Many projects fail
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are often explained on one hand by the lack of analysis and poor planning, and on the other hand, by the
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7KH WZR VHFWLRQV RI WKLV ERRN SXUVXH WZR PDLQ REMHFWLYHV UVW WR GHOLYHU WKH UHDGHU WKH FRQFHSWXDO EDsis to understand the why and how of innovation management with a strict orientation towards market.
Since an isolated application of methods and tools, without previously establishing a clear action line and
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be avoided. Both those who assume a leadership role in decision making and those who from their most
specialized areas intervene in innovation projects, must understand innovation as a process incorporating
multiple factors, areas and dimensions, and which implies certain complexities for the management and
the employees. In this way, it is possible to count with the necessary elements to practice analysis and
develop strategies. Based on this approach it is possible to begin with the implementation of tools, which
allow materializing strategies.
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section, arise from the practices of German companies and their successful innovation approaches.
Editors
is a professor in development economics with special emphasis on SME Promotion at Leipzig University
since 2004.
After completing his PhD at the University of Jena and a Master in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
Development at the Leipzig University, Germany in the year 2000, Utz Dornberger became Director of
the International SEPT Program (Small Enterprise Promotion + Training) at Leipzig University.
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Prof. Dr. Utz Dornberger has been managing R&D projects in the German academic sector. Furthermore,
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Mr. Suvelza is an international consultant in innovation management and SME development. His background includes experience in governmental and non-governmental institutions as well as work with international cooperation bodies. Mr. Suvelza has also vast experience as entrepreneur in different sectors
of the private economy. His activities as consultant, researcher and trainer comprise projects in Africa,
East Asia, Europe, Middle-East, and Central and South America.
Currently, Alfredo Suvelza lives in Leipzig. He runs consulting and training projects with CONOSCOPE
GmbH, he is a lecturer and a member of the evaluation board of the International SEPT Program at the
Leipzig University and is involved in a series of innovative projects and start-ups with different partners.
Carlos Andrs Palacios Valds, MSc.

He is a consultant in Technology and Innovation Management specialized in the early phases of the innovation process (including innovation strategy, idea generation, evaluation and implementation) as well
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His career began in Latin America in the areas of industrial design and packaging. Since 2004 he is working at Siemens AG as a consultant for innovation management in its corporate R & D division in Munich,
Germany. His projects are oriented for all the four sectors of the company: Energy, Industry, Healthcare
and Infrastructures & Cities. He also gives innovation management trainings in Europe and Latin America.
10
Alexander Hernndez Valencia, MBA

Mr. Hernandez Valencia currently living in Colombia, He studied a MBA postgraduate course in Small
and Medium-Sized Enterprises Development in Germany at the Universitt Leipzig. He works as Coordinator of Academic Planning of the Universidad Tecnolgica de Pereira, as main responsibilities are
to plan, coordinate, control and assess academic activities such as creation of new academic programs,
market studies on educative context and institutional capabilities to support academic functions.
Additionally, his task include assuring quality standards in the academic processes and administrative
activities. He has been part-time professor and a consultant for Innovation Management, project Management and SME Development.
Eng. Jos Isaac Yrigoyen Montestruque, MBA

Isaac Yrigoyen is Professor in the Master of Management and Policies in Innovation and Technology,
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and process and project management. He holds an MBA in SME development (Leipzig University, Germany), a Bachelor in Informatics Engineering (PUCP) and a Diploma in Project Management (PUCP).
He has specializations on Innovation and Uncertainty (Max Planck Institute of Economics and FSU,
Germany), e-Business (UCM, Spain) and Automatic Data Capture (Ohio Univ., USA).
He has led corporate projects of ERP systems implementation and given consultancy in different industries such as consumer products, personal care, agrochemicals, mattresses, plastics, pharmaceuticals, and
services. His latest research included the study of factors that stimulate innovation in 50 micro and small
Peruvian companies with a published paper at the IEEE conference APBITM (China).
Luis Bernal, MBA

He is currently in charge of economic analysis and development of innovation projects in biotechnology
at the University of Applied Sciences Leipzig (HTWK, Leipzig), Germany. Among the activities in this
institution include the development business plans, market and competitors analysis, as well as consulting issues of technology transfer and management services. As an independent consultant, he plays a
role in supporting programs to promote technology transfer, innovation and commercialization between
Latin America and Europe. He has worked on projects in countries like Colombia, Panama, MERCOSUR countries, Kosovo, Germany and Peru.
11

Mr. Becher is General Manager of the consulting company CONOSCOPE GmbH, CEO and Senior
Partner of the consulting company INNOWAYS and was Project Manager of the Entrepreneurship Programme for founders in Biotech and Meditech SMILE.medibiz of Leipzig University (Alemania) for
more than 5 years. He also worked as Profesor at the International SEPT Programme Small enterprise
promotion and training of Leipzig University.
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WKH HOG RI LQWHUQDWLRQDOL]LQJ 60(V DQG ,QQRYDWLRQ 0DQDJHPHQW 7UDLQLQJ DQG &RDFKLQJ IRU WKH PLGGOH
and upper Management, for governmental decision takers and Entrepreneurs, and the Co-Management
for companies regarding their foreign market entry.
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planning including company evaluation and in the Business Planning of new companies and the support
for Entrepreneurship.
Katja Butzmann
She studied Business Administration at the Leipzig University. Mrs. Butzmann served at the beginning
of her career as an investment manager for the Thringer Industriebeteiligungs GmbH & Co. She has
since 2001 worked as a manager in the company CDA Datentrger Albrechts GmbH, where she was the
spokeswoman of the board of trustees in 2008.
Dr. Dirk Bessau

He studied Business Administration at the Leipzig University. Currently he is managing
General Bundesverbands WindEnergie e.V. (BWE), after being engaged in the development companies
in the energy sector. He has made important contributions to the systematization of knowledge of innovation management.
Maik Seyring
He studied Systems Engineering at the Leipzig University. He worked as a consultant from 2008 to 2010
for the Innovation Lab Services at the Leipzig University, besides operating as a consultant in the area
of systems support since 2005. He has vast experience in the analysis and simulation of processes of
innovation for service companies.
12
Fernando Lizaso, M.Sc.

Fernando received a Master of Sciences on Technology & Innovation Management (TIM) in 2002 from
University of Applied Sciences of Brandenburg, Germany. He is Director of the Executive Program
on Technology Foresight and Innovation Strategy since 2007 at Austral University, Argentine, and
is guest Professor at SEPT-Leipzig University, Germany. His research focus is on strategic innovation
management issues in business such us Technology & Innovation Strategy, Technology Foresight, S&T
Roadmapping, and Innovation Leadership, Culture and Best Practices. He is engaged in the development
of strategic TIM frameworks, methods and techniques like Technology Roadmapping or Scenarios.
Fernando has years of experience in research, training and consultancy projects in industry and academy.
He has developed some management frameworks and tools working with organizations like 3M, Bayer,
,$( %XVLQHVV 6FKRRO +H KDV ZRUNHG DQG SXEOLVKHG VFLHQWLF SDSHUV LQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO MRXUQDOV LQ $UJHQWLna, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Germany, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Spain, United
Kingdom, United States and Tanzania.
Omar A. Torres Z., MBA

He has broad experience in export project management and institutional promotion activities for SMEs.
After his MBA at the University of Leipzig, he has been working on technology based innovation projects at the University of Leipzig and the Chemnitz University of Technology. He was part of the consultant team for the Biotech-MERCOSUR Program, and currently deals with the analysis and design
of institutional models for the technology transfer consortium CERIM - "Central Europe Research to
Innovation Models". Mr. Torres promotes the internationalization of SMEs projects in Latin America
and Germany, as freelance consultant.
13
14
15
PART ONE
Concepts
16
The innovation process and its

challenges
The concept of innovation
Schumpeter points out the difference between the concept of novelty, which he names invention, and
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innovation, among the main authors exist fundamental differences in the use of the term innovation referring to the process or the result of obtaining something considered as new. If we consider innovation as
a process - based on Schumpeters point of view -, it refers to the process followed to obtain something
new. From the point of view related to the process objective, innovation is the result of a process.
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recognize that invention and the economical use of it are different. Roberts (1987) leads this conceptiRQ WR D VLPSOH IRUPXOD LQQRYDWLRQ
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can be understood as a market-oriented economical use of an invention.
The dimensions of innovation

In this book, innovation is considered as the commercial value (utility, usefulness) of a novelty, thus
distinguishing it from invention. Innovations can occur in the following dimensions:
17
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Figure 1 illustrates in more detail this general description of the dimensions of innovation.
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the client (Dimension 3). Particularly new information technologies and communications have driven
countless innovations, which have changed the scene of activities in areas such as marketing, distribution
and processes organization. The success behind service provider companies, such as Amazon or Dell,
has been based especially on the use of Internet to establish new forms of interaction with clients on a
framework of relatively traditional products trading such as books and computers. Thus, the innovative
capacity of a company does not only rely on the employees technological abilities, but it is increasingly
based on non-technological abilities, such as market and service intelligence.
18
Stages of innovation process

The innovation process is made up of different stages. Figure 2 shows an ideal innovation process within
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search for novelties in the idea generation phase. In this stage new proposals and approaches will be evaluated and chosen. The concept Fuzzy Front End of Innovation summarizes these three phases. This
concept is particularly important for the success of the innovation process, because the selection of the
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development of a new product or service, etc.
In the product development phase, is critical to focus the limited resources of the company such as
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in the commercialization phase, innovation should be directed to the needs of customers and promptly
implemented in the market (time-to-market).
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According to the previous explanation, it is essential to consider the process nature of innovation
projects. The innovation process requires the collaboration of different people and departments in the
company which are related to research and development (R&D), marketing and sales, production and
purchasing. The management of innovation should exert a special role and leadership throughout all
phases of an innovation process.
19
Management of Innovation Processes

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innovation. The tasks of innovation management border closely with those of general management.
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tasks in the administration:
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These characteristics clarify the substantial differences in innovation management and the general management of routine processes within a company. The task of the innovation management is a processoriented work and not an isolated work, being responsible for a unifying task (and integral), because in
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of the key success factors for innovation.
These features of innovation management also help us to understand why the success rate of innovation
processes is relatively low. Industry spokesmen often say that between 80% and 90% of new products
are never successful, and a recent study by Nielsen Bases and Ernst & Young puts the failure rate of U.S.
consumer goods at 95% and for European consumer goods at 90%.1
For this reason, the key task of the innovation management is the application of management tools which
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market in the medium and long term.
Challenges of innovation management

The minimization of risks in the context of innovation processes plays an important role, especially for
small and medium enterprises. Consequently, three key points must be considered for reducing risks in
innovation processes (see Figure 3).
20
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Time-to-Market Management
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products life cycle (see Table 1).
Construction
Automotive
Machinery
Electronics
IT
Chemical
90s
9,3
7,3
7,1
6,3
5,3
5,5
70s
13,0
10,9
12,0
11,6
11,1
9,8
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Simultaneously, one can observe the lengthening of the time required for the development of new products. The new products must be equipped with more and more features every time, which implies an
increase in its complexity. In the same manner, reducing the size of the products plays an important role.
As a result, the gap between the life cycle of the products in the market and the time required for its development is shrinking, and frequently the development period is even longer than the life cycle of the
product itself in the market (Perillieux, 1995). The management of innovation must therefore take into
consideration an accelerated reduction of life cycles. This situation must be, consequently considered in
the integrated analysis of product life cycles (see Figure 4).
21
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conditions prior to a technology as well as the period between the search for alternative solutions in this
domain and the market exit of the innovative product.
As a result, the management of Time-To-Market has gained increasing importance. Innovative companies require management tools that enable them to assess which impulses produce technological progress
and market innovation. It is therefore necessary to generate innovation plans through the synchronization
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the context of innovation projects.
Price-to-Market management
One of the major problems in the management of innovation projects is the management of Price-ToMarket (price when launching a new product to the market). Many projects fail because of underestimating costs. For this reason, it is essential to pay close attention to the management of the Price-To-Market
22
since the beginning of the innovation process. Doing so, the innovation project is in line with the target
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advantage or helps easily to obtain it. In this process, one has to consider both development costs and
production or service delivery costs. This is particularly important in innovation projects in highly competitive markets with short life cycles and a dynamic price development.
The goal is, thereby, to align the product or service development with the market and competitors actions. This implies the need for a paradigm shift in the management of innovation projects, which traditiRQDOO\ KDYH SRVHG WKH TXHVWLRQ +RZ PXFK ZLOO WKH QHZ SURGXFW FRVW DQG KRZ FDQ WKH SURWDELOLW\ RI WKH
company be ensured when selling this product? But the central question is certainly much broader: How
much can the new product cost and how to target it toward the clients needs and the market to ensure the
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ration.
23
Client (customer) integration in the innovation process

The narrow scope for planning and the great uncertainty of innovation, especially in its early stages,
require a high level of cooperation between the different parties of the company involved in the project.
Additionally, a good measure to reduce the risks of development is usually client integration in innovation processes. The client can give clues to the company about unsolved problems in the market and ideas
for developing solutions and opportunities to implement certain existing technologies. The information
concerning both the market and the technology can lead to the generation of ideas and concepts for new
products. In the later stages of the innovation process, the integration of customers in product testing or
application development may generate useful inputs for the improvement of products or services or for
the prevention of failures.
Companies that involve customers more in obtaining ideas and their development processes, increase the
successful launch of the product to market despite the high degree of uncertainty of these innovations.
Particularly, client integration leads to a reduction in development time by up to 20%. Additionally reductions in the costs of development and product complexity can also be generated, though on a smaller scale.
Companies which actively involve clients in the innovation process frequently appear more among the
pioneers of the market than those that make it less often. The pioneers, given its time advantage, can temSRUDULO\ HQMR\ D PRQRSROLVWLF SRVLWLRQ DQG FDWFK WKH SURWV RI WKH HDUO\ VWDJHV LQ WKH SURGXFW OLIH F\FOH
The adaptation of a new product or service to the customers demands is undoubtedly a major aim of inQRYDWLRQ PDQDJHPHQW +RZHYHU LW PXVW EH UHFDOOHG WKDW WKH FXVWRPHUV FDSDFLW\ WR SUHGLFW KLVKHU WDVWHV
and needs has a limit. In most of the cases, customers refer only to their current needs and problems; that
is to say, to situations which are within the scope of their direct experiences and imagination.
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so far unknown, cannot be expected from the part of the customer. Hamel and Prahalad (1995) make
reference to innovations such as mobile telephone, fax and CD player, among others, to which clients
were not manifesting any explicit need before they were launched to the market. Even Henry Ford had
an opinion about it: My customers needs were faster horses, not modern transportation such as an automobile.
When an enterprise bases its innovation activities only on clients recognizable needs, it leaves apart many
market opportunities. For this reason, it is important that during the idea generation phase both types:
unexpressed demands and needs from people who do not necessarily belong to the current target group
have to be considered. In this way, the potential existing within the market can be recognized and used.
24
Strategic management
of innovation
Introduction
Currently, most of the markets are distinguished for having very aggressive and dynamic competitors
headed by innovative companies. In this environment, called hyper-competition by some authors, new
competitors are oriented to create constant unbalances and changes through new technology, shortening
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business core (DAveni, 1995). Quality and price are basic conditions required to be competitive (Forcadell and Guadamillas, 2002). As a consequence, enterprises should seek new markets in which they can
maintain, at least for a short period of time, a competitive advantage which allows them to obtain some
advantages (DAveni, dem). In this context of intense competition, innovation is seen as one of the most
valuated strategic resources and becomes indispensable.
The innovation strategy, assuming the enterprise as the unit of analysis, must be incorporated in the gloEDO EXVLQHVV VWUDWHJ\ RI WKH FRPSDQ\ 7KXV WKLV FKDSWHU ZLOO DSSURDFK LQ UVW SODFH DQG RQ D VXFFLQFW
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strategy will be discussed.
Michael Porter (1996) states that a strategy is the creation of a unique positioning which the company
achieves in the market through the implementation of a set of differentiated steps or actions which will
result in a competitive advantage that will be tenable over time.
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the early 70s and 80s. Japanese companies were able to penetrate and lead markets with pioneer practices related to total quality management and continuous improvement because their competitors were
far from the productivity frontier. However, the rapid spread of these good practices would result in the
fact that competitors could also acquire such capabilities generating standardization (homogenization)
instead of differentiation and, thus, these were no longer strategic (good policy) practices. Moreover,
this convergence of strategies normally occurs in a scenario where equality drives to price competition,
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IURP 6WDQIRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ GHQHV VWUDWHJ\ DV D ZD\ WR JDLQ DQG PDLQWDLQ FRQWURO RYHU RQHV RZQ GHVWLQ\
Galavan et al (2008), with a practical orientation, sustained that an isolated strategy lacks life and energy.
It would only come to life through its linkage with innovation, leadership and change management.
25
)URP WKH GHQLWLRQV SUHVHQWHG LW FDQ EH FRQFOXGHG WKDW D EXVLQHVV VWUDWHJ\ EDVHG RQ V\VWHPDWLF DQG FRQtinuous innovations, radical or disruptive, may provide the distinguishing element that has been sought to
achieve the goals set by the company. However, due to the high degree of uncertainty and the risk inherent to innovations, the innovation effort deployed by companies must be focused and planned in a consistent manner. Innovation efforts without clear goals or well-conceived strategies are often detrimental to
the companys performance and represent a negative impact factor in the companys innovation culture.
Business strategy and the innovation effort

In order to understand the relationship between the global strategy of a company and the role of the
innovation efforts, it is necessary to review some basic concepts related to strategy and to consider the
difference between a current status, a future status and the means and ways to accomplish the change
from one situation to another.
Every company has a goal, whose realization will depend on the actions that its members carry out. The
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achieve in the future. The second group represents courses of action to be taken in order to achieve the
proposed end.
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what the company understands as the established vision. These have to be demanding enough yet realistic. If the goals are too high, they will demand unnecessary efforts and inadequate decisions that will
affect the company. If they are mediocre, they will lead to waste of the companys capabilities and potential, will limit the employees impetus and motivation, and will leave the door open for new competitors
entry. The objectives are the milestones that will transform goals into reality, and therefore, they should
have measurable attributes such as the deadlines to be achieved and the quantity or magnitudes to be obtained. This hierarchical set of aims, goals and objectives will provide the criteria to determine whether
the performance of the company was in line with the desired results or not.
7KH PLVVLRQ LV E\ FRQWUDVW ZKDW WKH FRPSDQ\ PXVW GR WKH SXUSRVH RI LWV H[LVWHQFH DQG WKH MXVWLcation of its vision. Business strategies are the plans and courses of actions aimed to achieve goals: the
strategies answer the question how to achieve the goals. The mission will be the point of reference when
establishing business strategies. From the multiple strategies which can be raised to achieve the established goals, only those in line with the companys mission will be selected. For example, a company whose
mission includes protecting the environment would do wrong if planning a strategy which contradict or
ignore this principle. On the other hand, tactics (which allow implementing strategies) are achievable in
a shorter period and have a more limited scope. The mission, strategies and tactics will also shape the
image and personality that the company will project in its environment.
26
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$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH PRGHO SUHVHQWHG RQ JXUH WKH VWUHQJWKV ZHDNQHVVHV RSSRUWXQLWLHV DQG WKUHDWV HYDOXDWLRQ DOORZV WR GHOLPLW ULVNV DQG UHZDUGV ZKLFK DULVH IURP WKH LQXHQFH RI H[WHUQDO DQG LQWHUQDO IDFWRUV
both in the purposes (vision, goals and objectives) and in the actions (mission, strategies and tactics). If
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27
on the business planning, but they will have an impact on the implementation and results.
Figure 7 shows, as an example, a summary of the mission, vision, great goals and main strategic axis of
Procter & Gamble (P&G) in order to contrast the differences. According to Robert McDonald, President
and CEO of P&G, innovation makes these strategies to become winners.
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Once the model of Business Strategic Management has been presented, it is possible to identify the starting point of the innovation efforts of the enterprise. The possibilities of innovation lie in the gap between
what the projections suggest on where the enterprise is and where the company wants to be (Scott, 2008).
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28
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could be deducted that the target state, realistic but demanding, represents precisely the group of results
to be achieved (scheme A), while projections based on historical data of the companys performance
would conform the projected state (scheme B). Assuming that the company only wishes to achieve its
projected state (scheme B), it means that it will work on the same way that it has been done, without
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the additional contribution or the innovation effort that the company must be willing to perform, if it
intends to reach the most challenging goals (scheme A). As shown in Figure 8, innovation is not an end,
but the means which is a critical component of the business strategy. Depending on the magnitude of the
required innovation effort, an innovation strategy will be designed in order to achieve the aspirations for
growth of the company and to achieve the changes which will allow reaching the outlined targets.
Using the same chart (Figure 8), the phenomenon of hyper-competition can be better explained. For a
29
leader in innovation, the scheme B would point that its traditional actions are already including efforts
and innovation activities, since historically, the enterprise has been innovative. When such companies
pose even more challenging target to states with progressively higher innovation efforts, then the hypercompetition environment is generated in the market. These companies not only have a good innovation
management, but they optimize it on a constant basis. Consequently, competitors who do not adopt
strategic actions for innovation will become less competitive in the market and, therefore, they will have
fewer chances to survive.
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diagnosis and the second one, the design of the strategy itself.
Strategic diagnosis
The proper strategic management of innovation requires a good interpretation of reality and state of art.
It is necessary to know the current status of the company and its products with regard to that reality and
identify the different possibilities for courses of action.
To support the strategic decision-making, it is necessary to begin with the analysis of the product and
services life cycle, of the technologies related to a product, service or process and of the industry or sector in which they compete.
Product and technology life cycle

A starting point for the analysis of internal strengths and weaknesses in the strategic management of
innovation is the product life cycle model. The central idea of this model rests on the thought that goods
and services have a limited lifetime in the market. Among the typical phases of this restricted life course
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30
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6WDUWLQJ IURP WKH QGLQJ RI D QHZ VROXWLRQ WR D SUREOHP DQ LQYHQWLRQ WKH SURGXFW ZLOO EH GHYHORSHG XQtil it reaches its maturity in the market. It is then that the development costs arise in the company, which
vary noticeably according to the sector in which it is competing and the technology it is using. With the
market introduction, the commercial utilization of this novelty is produced (this is the innovation itself).
Despite the continuous sales growth, the measures to penetrate the market and to increase sales commit
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absence of a previously developed business strategy would avoid the recognition of this problem. If the
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31
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Measures to bridge the strategic gap are a timely and systematic analysis of the company (internal
strengths and weaknesses), the analysis of the environment (opportunities and threats) and the development of the strategic guidelines of the company. Not only the products and services that the company
offers have a limited lifetime. The technologies on which products and services are based can also age.
This ageing process or obsolescence is subjected to a growing dynamism due to the rapid technological
advancement, for example in information and communication technologies, engineering, biotechnology
and environmental engineering. Many technologies and products make their way in a few years; one
only needs to think of the generations of computer processors. The idea of a limited lifetime is also valid
on the context of technology life cycle. For instance, the McKinsey model clearly shows the need and
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)LJXUH 6KRZLQJ D W\SLFDO 6 VKDSH WHFKQRORJLHV KDYH UVW D JURZLQJ VXFFHVV ZKLFK WKHQ GHFUHDVHV
from the point of view of their performance. Although at one point an old technology may have a higher
performance, the development potential for the future are much higher with a new technology.
32
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7KH FODVVLFDWLRQ RI D WHFKQRORJ\ DFFRUGLQJ WR LWV SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH OLIH F\FOH SURSRVHG E\ $UWKXU ' /LWWOH
can help not only to recognize internal technological problems, but also to identify external technologies
DV ZHOO DV WKH KLJK DQG ORZ DWWUDFWLYHQHVV RI D WHFKQRORJ\ ,Q WKLV FODVVLFDWLRQ LWV SRVVLEOH WR GLIIHUHQtiate the following stages:
New Technologies
The implementation in a cost-effective way is not yet clear or is unsafe.
Setting pace technologies

he first effects of its usage in the potential market and the competitive dynamic can
be already recognized.
Key Technologies
They influence significantly the current competitiveness.
Basic Technologies
Competitors dominate (control) these technologies more or less at the same extent.
Displaced technologies
These technologies have been already replaced by new ones..
33
External and internal analysis

At a time when the products life cycles shorten, every competing company which wants to build its position in the market needs successful innovation strategies. The basis for the decision on which strategy
must be followed is an analysis of the company (internal) and an analysis of the environment (external).
The internal analysis deeply explores the strengths and weaknesses, the resources potential, structure and
infrastructure, and core competencies of a company. Internal factors also include the explicit or implicit
values of the company such as the practices commonly used in the company, the assumptions and diOHPPDV DQG WKH SUHURJDWLYHV RI WKRVH LQ SRZHU LQ WKH FRPSDQ\ 7KH %XVLQHVV 5XOHV *URXS LGHP 7KH
portfolio analysis of the company and its products also belong to the internal analysis.
In contrast, the analysis of external factors examines, on one hand, the macro environment, whose factors
are determined by the environment or surrounding conditions, which affect the existence, performance
and development of the company. Current and future economic environment belong to this group, as well
as the legal and regulatory environment, the changes and trends of society, the political environment and
the overall evolution of technologies. Moreover, the external analysis explores also the competitive enviURQPHQW ZKLFK LV FRQVWLWXWHG E\ YH IRUFHV )LJXUH LPPHGLDWHO\ LQXHQFLQJ WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI WKH
company and, thus, the strategys design. Michael Porter proposed a very practical model for analyzing
the competitive environment.
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34
Generic strategies and its impact in innovation management

Porter distinguishes the business (corporate) strategy in two dimensions: cost-leadership based strategies
and differentiation strategies. These are complemented by its scope in the market serving the whole
market or focusing on a niche (niche strategy). These strategies are called competitive strategies (see
Table 2).
Low cost
Differentiation
Wide target Market
Costs leadership
Differentiation
Narrow target Market
Focus on costs
scope
Competitive
Competitive Advantage
Focused
differentiation
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According to Porter (1997), the long-term business success can be gathered from the implementation of
only one of these strategies. Positioning in the middle, in other words, to assay one and the other , does
not lead to long-term business success, since according to him, focusing only on one of the strategies
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its low prices, whereas a company with a differentiation strategy highlights the superior performance of
its products.
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what is relevant in the market. In this way, the entire market can be reached or a niche strategy can be
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market segment. This course leads thus either to a cost leadership or to a differentiation strategy.
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context of a cost-leadership strategy, the innovation on the companys processes acquires a great importance. If in the long term exists a competition for the lowest prices with all the other players within a
35
given market, the company must be able to produce goods at lower prices. A quality leader, by contrast,
must convince its customers with a relatively high quality. Current improvement and renovation projects
are essential for the long-term business success, in which innovations become a fundamental need in
order to maintain the quality-leadership strategy.
According to the strategic direction, the innovation efforts will be focused on different fronts. By specifying the links between process and product innovation, it can be understood that, in both cases, over
time, technological innovation in its different forms becomes relevant. Just as product innovation usually
lead to process innovation, process innovation also generate at least incremental product innovation. In
any case, the direction of the innovation efforts can be differentiated according to the companys strategy.
In the case of the niche strategy, it is argued that a company must offer its products according to its
customers wishes in a relevant market segment. These wishes may mean adapting to quality factors,
cost, etc. Certainly, thanks to the homogeneity of niche customers, compared to an entire market, it is
possible to implement more focused actions; it even becomes irrelevant to select among the forms of
strategy. A well conducted market analysis can provide the basis to decide whether to apply a quality
strategy or a price strategy.
Analysing the industry and its life cycle for forecasting sectors growth
The concept of sector life cycle is an extension of the simple concept of product life cycle. This is a tool
that provides diagnostics of the sector situation in order to forecast its development. The base would be
the following hypothesis: when immediate reaction or responses in the very short term is needed because
of changes in the companys environment, the costs of measures for strategic adaptation increase. The
concept of sector life cycle will be helpful for the early detection of relevant strategic problems, avoiding
thereby higher costs caused by precipitated immediate reactions.
The position of the strategic business units in the framework of the current industry situation must be
determined and a forecast of the future development should be carried out. This should ensure that necessary measures are taken in a timely manner. The need of these measures will become evident by:
Identifying gaps in revenues caused by the simultaneous decline of the main products.
Not noticing in the right moment structural changes in the industry development.
36
In order to know the industry life cycle, the products and products generations life cycles must be added (Figure 13). A product generation consists in all sorts of products which can solve certain customers
problem with a given technology. An example is the set of all the electronic watches which solve the
customers problem time measurement and expression with the aid of quartz oscillators and electronic
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a solution regardless of the technology to solve it. So arise and vanish sectors or industries: according to
the emergence and disappearance of typical problems and needs of customers (in the example, the need
or problem to measure and see time).
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An industry life cycle over time (in the sense of the evolution of customer problems regardless of the
solution) can be understood as the sequence of several new technologies (in the graph, technologies life
cycles are represented by the blue intermediate curves grouping different product life cycles curves).
While an industry life cycle comes to an end only when the customers problem disappears, different
product generations can grow and decline within the same period (the long red line at the top corresponds
to the life cycle of the industry).
The graph below (Figure 14) shows an ideal industry life cycle for computer based information procesVLQJ V\VWHPV XVHG LQ WKH RIFH
37
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Recognizing maturity and decline

There are recognizable indicators that help predict turning points in the sales of an industry. A particularly important point is the transition from the maturity phase to the decline phase of the industry. This
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Decreased interest from customers

Customers lose interest in the possible applications of the products in the
announcement of product enhancements and innovations.
Substitute products and technologies

An example of substitute products and technologies is the introduction of colour
television which was accompanied by a decrease in sales of black and white TVs.
Pressure on prices due to an overcapacity or lack of product differentiation

If capacity cannot be used fully and the prices are reduced because of overcapacity,
38
one can deduct the decline in the industry growth, since in most cases; these capabilities
were achieved over a period of positive industrial development. Lack of product
differentiation that occurs at the end of the growing process of development and
continuous improvement is also an indicator of the decline in industry growth.
Market saturation
The reduction in the number of new buyers also indicates the industry's transition
towards a stage of maturity or even decline.
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Innovation strategy design

The design of the innovation strategy of the company will be given, on one hand, by the innovation approach, and on the other, by the innovation strategy, which must align all its components or axes with
the approach.
The innovation approach will help to set out the vision, mission and goals in the different dimensions
related to innovation. The strategies will make possible to close the existing gaps between current innovation capabilities of the company and the capabilities required to achieve the desired outcomes. The
alignment of the components or strategic innovation axes will be the differentiating factor enabling the
company to maximize the success probabilities of their innovation efforts in the overall business strategy.
39
Innovation approach
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non-exclusive dimensions: the scope of innovation, the kind of innovations that will by prioritized, the
degree of novelty of the innovation outcomes and the market entry order (see Figure 16).
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Scope of Innovation
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The choice of the scope will correspond to the resources and capacities that the company has to expand
the areas of expertise, the external pressures forcing it to change the course and the growth targets that it
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from their core competency areas, which obviously requires a strategy which shows greater challenges.
40
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in technology and consumption needs of the population (Ebert, Chandra and Liedtke, 2008). This is because both factors provide the means of more rapid economic growth and higher margin which enables
companies to achieve their goals. In recent years, for example, the beverage industry has been showing
a new direction away from the core of its business by innovating with functionally hybrid products
%OLVFKRN 7KHVH GULQNV QRW RQO\ IXOO WKHLU WUDGLWLRQDO IXQFWLRQ RI TXHQFKLQJ WKLUVW EXW DOVR LQFOXde healthier solutions with vitamins or fewer calories. With these moves, the barriers between industries
are increasingly permeable creating a much more intense competition.
Kind of innovation
Innovation has been traditionally regarded as new products development, but companies can compete in
a variety of areas: providing new and better services, improving operational execution, acquiring new
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2008). Therefore, an innovative company will not only be one which can create new products, but also
the one having the ability to place them on the market at the right time and under the best conditions.
Three generic types of innovation spanning a wider range are mainly considered (product, process and
organization). However, there are several typologies of innovations, identifying among them product,
process, marketing, organizational and market innovations.
Product innovations are new or improved products or services introduced to the market to meet consumers
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trading method related to product, promotion, positioning and price (OECD, 2005). The focus of process
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workplace or in relationships with external organizations (OECD, idem). Finally, market innovations can
arise if the market size is reduced or competition is such that the company cannot achieve the necessary
market share to grow at the desired pace. On the one hand, the company may choose to enter new market
segments or completely new markets, adapting its products to the particularities of these. On the other
hand, market innovation can occur when the company has developed a product innovation that has no
place in its market and has to look for other markets where to place it. A different case is a new product
which is so innovative that it can modify consumption patterns, and therefore, the characteristics of
existing markets.
The company must decide whether to focus on one type of innovation or choose various types. Clearly,
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41
it will have a better position to face the competition. In fact, innovation projects often require changes in
processes and company structures.
Market entry order or launching

A fundamental decision for innovations in product and for an eventual innovation project has to do with
the time-to-market and, consequently, with the period before this launch. This dimension responds to
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mover early follower and late entrant.
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advances), the product life cycle is reduced. This means that the period for the commercial use of any
innovation and the corresponding depreciation of the investment is becoming smaller every time. New
generations of products or completely new solutions occur more often. If a company in this environment
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entire project is jeopardized. A late release could in any case be compensated with aggressive and intense
marketing as well as through existing distribution channels which have already demonstrated their perIRUPDQFH DQG HIFLHQF\ D PHDVXUH WKDW LV RIWHQ WDNHQ E\ ODUJH FRPSDQLHV
As it can be appreciated, the life cycle of products is closely related to the order in which the company
enters the market. The company must know the key moments when its innovation should be introduced
to the market and the phases of maximum growth, maturity and decline as seen in Figure 9. The launch
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those with the help of techniques to reduce the development time of the innovation. There are companies
that handle carefully the precise moment of their launchings, for example by introducing successive
versions of the product as incremental innovations to enhance product and brand presence in the market
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Because of this, the launch strategy gains importance for the commercial success of the innovation.
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vie for having next generation products and are the ones who usually make drastic movements in their
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HDUO\ IROORZHUV PRQLWRU WKH DFWLRQV RI WKH UVW PRYHUV LQ RUGHU WR DGRSW DQG RU DGDSW WKH QHZ LQWURduced product. With the aim of gaining market share, early followers should focus on having a better
understanding of the customer and offer services that allow them to compete with the pioneers, thus its
success is often given by marketing innovations. As for the late starters, they should focus on reducing
42
costs and producing on a large scale, therefore, process innovations are often their main objective.
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resources to recognize and observe the new technological developments, consumption trends, introduce
radical innovations and create new markets. A key factor is to take advantage of the stages after the product launch to achieve as much sales as possible at the highest prices that the market is willing to pay. In
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The followers in general are the companies offering a product after it has been released by another. Thus,
the follower can be a copycat company or one that has not developed the technology by itself but after
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the pioneering technology even at the time of launch. Because of this, for the early follower, shortening
the development time to accelerate the market entry is a crucial factor for success. Especially in highly
dynamic sectors such as information technology and communications, for example in the Internet, only
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the imitators often have the opportunity to overtake pioneers before reaching maturity in the market. For
example, this type of follower can present or attempt to set a new standard with its own development. For
the late entrants, development time becomes less important because they enter imitating competitors in
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their processes in order to reduce prices to levels that will allow achieving the necessary sales volumes
and thus, reach their goals.
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success in the order of market entry will depend largely on the barriers that the company set to prevent
the entry of new competitors, and one of the best barriers will be a strategy of continuous innovation.
43
First movers
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Degree of Novelty
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Incremental innovations represent minor changes to existing products that are constituted in discrete advances
in time and cause less impact on both the market and in the production and knowledge systems of the company. Radical innovations, conversely, are major changes which usually involve introduction of new technology
products that cause a great impact on the markets. These include the discovery of new knowledge, are highly
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terms of the usual practices of the organization.
On the other hand, disruptive innovations are not great technological breakthroughs such as radical innovations, but they create a break in the market by supplying marginal segments not considered by radical innovations. Clayton Christensen, creator of the theory of disruptive innovation, says that the technologies at an
early stage do not meet customer needs. As they evolve these become more complex because companies focus
on developing more sophisticated products for more demanding customer segments, displacing customers
willing to pay reasonable prices for more basic and simple products which suit their needs. There are many
companies that come in a dizzying race without observing that certain products are surpassing customer expectations. Xavier Mosquet, General Manager in Detroit at The Boston Consulting Group, refers to the French
supersonic aircraft Concorde as an example of an entirely new product, which however, failed to capture
neither the price level nor the market share necessary to achieve the equilibrium point. This kind of situations
opens the door to companies that strategically achieve positioning their disruptive innovations to attract customers who are outside the scope of the market because they lack skills, access or wealth (e.g. eBay or Intuit's
Quick Book with a very simple accounting software for small businesses), attracting frustrated customers who
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they desire due to market fragmentation (e.g. P & G unifying the market through big brands), or clients who
did not need and did not value all the functionality of existing products on the market (e.g. Tata with a basic
car but more affordable) (Scott et al., 2006).
&RPSDQLHV OHDGLQJ LQ LQQRYDWLRQ WU\ WR QG D EDODQFH EHWZHHQ WKH GLIIHUHQW GHJUHHV RI QRYHOW\ RI WKHLU LQQRvations. As seen in Figure 7, P & G in its third strategy focuses on reaching low-income consumers. This strategy opens the way for disruptive solutions that provide more basic products that meet the needs of marginal
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very low-income markets. His second strategy is the drive to achieve more radical innovations, since the apSURDFK LV WR GHYHORS QHZ SURGXFWV DQG K\EULGV WKDW IROORZ JOREDO WUHQGV ,Q WKH UVW VWUDWHJ\ 3 * DLPV WR
strengthen the positioning of their big brands through a better understanding of the needs and aspirations of
its consumers. This understanding of consumption patterns will allow incorporating them into their existing
products through incremental innovations.
45
The innovation strategy

The innovation strategy includes the following axes: innovation process, innovation culture, organizaWLRQDO VWUXFWXUH IRU LQQRYDWLRQ NQRZOHGJH SODWIRUP QDQFLDO DQG WLPH UHVRXUFHV IRUHLJQ DLG DQG LQIUDstructure. Each of them is a strategic axis that must be aligned with the rest (see Figure 17).
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The innovation strategy will aim to close the gaps between the current status and the goal state of each
strategic axis, so that these are aligned with each other and according to the needs and possibilities of
each company (see Figure 18). Both the vision and mission of the innovation system of the company and
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from the business strategy (see Figure 18 and see also Figure 8). The strategic innovation plan should
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objectives which were set.
46
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Christiansen (2000) argues that the design of the innovation system, and therefore the innovation strategies, depends largely on the industry to which the company belongs. Table 4 shows the relationship
between the abundance of ideas for new products versus the risk degree of the investment linked to their
development. This analysis suggests that there are differences between industries that lead to different innovation strategies. This approach will help in the analysis of the strategic innovation axes shown below.
47
Numerous/low risk
Numerous/high risk
Focus: diversification
Focus on areas with a
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industry
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industry
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Limited/low risk
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Strategic axis: Innovation process

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that will be used and later on optimizing it.
According to Robert G. Cooper, creator of the stage-gate process3 for new product development, the
choice of the innovation process will depend on the risk of the innovations being carried out. A radical
innovation requires a process with more gates, since a higher risk requires more checkpoints to assess
whether the project should continue or not. This is the common scenario for industries in the quadrants
of high risk (see Table 4), where companies like Merck, the giant chemistry-pharmaceutical chemistry,
could only get a single drug approved out of 5,000 to 10,000 compounds that it produces, taking between
10 and 15 years to develop a successful medicine at an average cost of 1 billion dollars. Meanwhile, incremental innovations having lower risk may require a process with fewer gates and therefore with more
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3
48
focused stages. Due to the lower cost and risk of these projects, the involvement of senior management
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The second strategic checkpoint is to optimize the innovation process. Cooper (2009) points that, like all
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the innovation process in order to improve the activities that are adding value and remove those which
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shorten the Time-To-Market.
Strategic axis: Innovative culture

Innovation is a complex phenomenon that largely comprises the management of social processes. Ensuring that staff cooperates with each other is crucial to unleash the creativity and leadership required to
innovate.
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purpose or mission of the company. This will be the inspiration to unify the company toward achieving
the innovation goals. In the same way, it should act to disseminate business goals very clearly among
employees in order to avoid mistakes and accelerate the innovation process. To encourage recognition,
appreciation and acceptance of ideas (Riederer et al., 2005), to assign innovation goals to employees to
promote the contribution of ideas (Forcadell and Guadamillas, 2002), and to encourage experimentation
through tolerance for mistakes so that staff take risks without fear of being punished (Alegre and Chiva
2008) are all also success factors within an innovative culture.
6SHFLF H[DPSOHV RI VWUDWHJLF DFWLRQV LQ WKLV D[LV DUH JLYHQ E\ ,UL]DU D 6SDQLVK FRPSDQ\ OHDGHU LQ LQQRvation. At Irizar, 10% of time is allocated to shared learning, every employee is encouraged to contribute
with at least two ideas for improvement per year and 90% of employees participate voluntarily in team
works (Guadamillas and Forcadell, 2002). In this sense, the elimination of behaviour related barriers to
innovation is another key factor for project success, and, therefore, the innovation strategy.
Strategic axis: Organizational structure for innovation

The strategy in the axis organizational structure for innovation should seek the necessary connections
to ensure favourable communication channels for the continuous production of ideas and the successful
conduct of the innovation process. A company may have a staff with a very innovative culture but if there
are no structures that allow the use of their creative potential, the expected outcomes will not be achieved
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49
lity and complexity in terms of expertise, functional diversity, the degree of professionalism (Liao, 2007;
Sciulli, 1998, Damanpour and Gopalakrishnan, 1998) and implementation of incentive systems (de Jong
and Brouwer, 1999) often lead to better innovation outcomes. Additionally, recent studies (Menguc and
$XK VXJJHVW WKDW UPV FRPELQLQJ ERWK LQFUHPHQWDO DQG UDGLFDO LQQRYDWLRQV VKRXOG QRW KDYH FRPpletely formal (more standardized and mechanical) nor completely informal structures (less bureaucratic
and organic).
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structures encourage individuals to take initiative and provide collaborative spaces for them. In indusWULHV ZKHUH QHZ SURGXFW LGHDV DUH YHU\ UDUH TXDGUDQW OLPLWHG ORZ ULVN UPV FRPSHWH FRPPRQO\
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endeavour the participation of employees to improve these processes.
A suitable structure is also important in high-tech companies as that in the quadrant of high risk (see
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However, his laboratory, located in Palo Alto Research Center, was so separated from the functional areas that they did not understand the concept of the PC, rejecting it and categorizing it as useless. Researchers as Ledwith (2000), Guadamillas and Forcadell (2002), and Koc (2007), propose that appropriate
structures for innovation are those forming multidisciplinary teams or multifunctional teams self-led by
its members and not by functional managers that can take sides in favour of their functional area. However, various factors determine the suitability of the implementation of one structure or the other.
In turn, this strategic axis should include programs of incentives to motivate people. The incentive structure is another way to unleash the innovative potential of employees. These systems range from the
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Strategic axis: external cooperation

The strategy in the axis of cooperation with external organizations will be given by the kind of industry
and the companys strengths and weaknesses.
A partnership under a scheme of functional complementarity may take place when the strength of one
of the companies relies on the launching to the market (sales and distribution channels strongly establisKHG DQG WKH RWKHU LQ 5 ' $QRWKHU W\SH RI FROODERUDWLRQ LV WKH FDVH RI UPV ZLWK GLIIHUHQW WHFKQRORJLFDO
know-how which integrate efforts to create a product derived from the technology mix.
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Proposing a scheme of open innovation through alliances with strategic partners will allow them to
50
share the high risk and diversify their research areas. In this way, the latest technological developments
can be used without carrying out the development itself in the process. Alliances (strategic) are another
form of R&D cooperation, which are also called Venture-Management. In the latter, technological knowledge is acquired through participation in young and dynamic technology companies. The importance of
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to Handok Pharmaceuticals Co., a pharmaceutical leader in Korea, it is important to know what they can
do and what they cannot. This company is seeking strategic partnerships to develop innovations together
with other organizations or to consolidate technology-licensing agreements (using technology developed
by other companies that they cannot develop at home) (Langvardt, 2010). The innovation strategy must
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are not affected.
Another example of this partnership is that of Buckman Laboratories Inc., a specialist in chemical products. They managed to establish a close relationship with their clients focusing on the strategy of the
latter to produce their innovations (Mc Donough et al., 2008). When this integration strategy is successful, it will become a powerful incentive so that the customer does not switch its supplier.
Strategic Axis: Knowledge platform

The difference between what the company knows and it needs to know in order to compete creates a
knowledge gap that must be eliminated. Polaroid Corporation was a case of example due to lack of strategy in this axis. Its bankruptcy in 2001 was due to the fact that Polaroid Corporation wanted to change
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closing the gap on their knowledge platform, which focused on the chemical area and not in computer
imaging technology (Mc Donough et al., 2008).
A company may decide whether to close their knowledge gaps by developing it internally, by acquiring
it from external organizations or by striking a balance between these two alternatives. Biotechnology
companies with high intensity of R&D generally have strategies to reinforce their research capabilities
by entering in partnership with external entities (Hall and Bagchi-Sen, 2007). On the other hand, companies that do not achieve a substantial updating of its knowledge platform should align their goals to
their capabilities.
,W LV QHFHVVDU\ WR NHHS LQ PLQG WKDW WKLV D[LV GRHV QRW UHIHU RQO\ WR JDSV LQ WHFKQLFDO DQG VFLHQWLF NQRZledge, but also those existing within project management, portfolio management, innovation management, etc. These gaps are usually closed through training or external consultancy.
51
Strategic axis: Infrastructure

Strategic actions in this axis must be directed to build the infrastructure that supports the innovation
system. All documents, information and experiences related to the management of innovation projects
and the lessons that emerge from them will form part of the assets of the organization. The development
of metrics is a very important factor that will assess the success and development of the innovation system. For this purpose, information technology will play a key role not only for storage, dissemination of
information and reporting innovation outcomes, but also to support each stage of the innovation process,
such as the implementation of an extranet and intranet software specialized in the capture, storage and
dissemination of new ideas.
Strategic axis: Resources allocation

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necessary at the right moment to achieve the success of the project.
According to Cooper (2009), after approval at a certain gate (the concept of Stage-Gate process), the
project must come out of this with the resources to carry out the next stage, otherwise the approval decision will have no sense and the project will be queued along with other projects without reaching the
required time-to-market.
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innovation projects of the company. Internally, the optimization of the innovation process can be a mean
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projects. According to Robert Burgelman, reducing costs through increased overall productivity can
serve for channelling the saved resources towards investment in innovation. Externally, proposals will
be sought and presented in order to achieve innovation funds from government, banks, venture capital
or by making alliances with other organizations. Equally important is to have an adequate and formally
stipulated budget for innovation activities (Ebert et al., 2008).
In short, the implementation of an innovation strategy is a great challenge. However, any new developments regarding good business practice begins with a process of trial and error, and over time, the
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intermediate state of structuring. As knowledge becomes more structured, it will be more easily consumed by more companies. Those companies gaining an advantage today will be those being able to see
patterns and choose to use them where others see only chaos (Scott et al., 2006).
52
Evolution of the innovation model in the firm

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innovation approach of the enterprise and the innovation strategies to achieve the proposed approach.
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they depend on the context of the industry. However, a company may assume an evolution path in order
to achieve innovation systems that have increasing impact on the business strategy.
According to Christiansen (2000), evolution (progress) towards improving the innovation system in the
business must happen in stages. Firstly, he recommends evaluating the progress of the system by identifying what is not working properly. Secondly, deciding in which problem or improvement to work. In
addition, thirdly, do the work and produce changes. He advises not to cover more than three components
simultaneously. There are different options for choosing the axes or components to be considered:
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skills and can focus on other axes
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the company
This progress will be carried on as the company gains expertise in the development and alignment of the
strategic axes of its innovation system and decides to undertake more challenging innovation approaches
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53
Creativity as basis for innovation

Creativity is one of the most valuable resources to explore new areas of knowledge. Creativity, in its simSOHVW GHQLWLRQ FDQ EH XQGHUVWRRG DV DELOLW\ WR FUHDWH WKDW LV WR SURGXFH VRPHWKLQJ RXW RI QRWKLQJ &UHDtivity comes from the Latin word "creare", which means to generate something new, invent something,
produce something, but is also associated with the concept of choice.
Originally, the concept of creativity was used to designate the cause of a personal intellectual creation,
referring especially to artists. However, nowadays, this concept is not limited to the arts (Amabile, 2005).
In fact, creativity becomes important now in business as a tool for generating new ideas.
3V\FKRORJ\ KDV GHDOW ZLWK FUHDWLYLW\ DV D VWXG\ REMHFW +RZHYHU FUHDWLYLW\ LV PXFK PRUH GLIFXOW WR DQDO\]H EHFDXVH XQOLNH LQWHOOLJHQFH FUHDWLYLW\ LV HOXVLYH DW WKH WLPH RI EHLQJ PHDVXUHG 7KH LGHQWLFDWLRQ
RI WKH PRPHQW ZKHQ FUHDWLYLW\ LV DFWLYDWHG LQWR DQ LQGLYLGXDO LV QRW VRPHWKLQJ WKDW LV [HG E\ SUHVVLQJ D
button. American psychologist Joy Paul Gilford came to the conclusion that creativity involves several
psychic characteristics of human beings (Guilford, 1950):
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According to Guilford, there are two different types of thinking: convergent thinking and divergent thinking. Convergent thinking starts from a general knowledge and moves on closing its scope but increasing
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does the reverse process: starts from a particular subject and moves on to increase its scope. The aim is to
develop ideas in different directions which provide solutions to problems which were previously identiHG $OWKRXJK GLYHUJHQW WKLQNLQJ LV XVHG LQ WKH JHQHUDWLRQ RI LGHDV WKH FUHDWLYH SURFHVV LQFOXGHV QRW RQO\
RQH EXW ERWK W\SHV RI WKLQNLQJ &UHDWLYLW\ QHHGV D VWDUWLQJ SRLQW DQG WKLV PXVW EH FOHDUO\ GHQHG 7KLV LV
DFKLHYHG WKURXJK FRQYHUJHQW WKLQNLQJ GHQLQJ SUREOHPV WKLQNLQJ FRUULGRUV RU DUHDV RI LQQRYDWLRQ 6XEsequently, after generating a number of ideas using divergent thinking, convergent thinking is used again
to select the idea or combination thereof that best solve the problem or the optimal solution with regard to
different factors. The following chart shows the path of the creative process.
54
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In order to develop ways of thinking that stimulate the ideas generation (this is creativity itself), Edward
De Bono developed the concept of lateral thinking (De Bono, 1970). This way of thinking seeks to generate alternative thinking directions, in opposition to vertical thinking, which seeks to develop ideas in a
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are used when decisions must be taken. However, these existing patterns in the mind do not always offer
the best response to a situation. While vertical thinking is analytical, lateral thinking is provocative to
suggest these new thinking directions. Nevertheless, according to De Bono (1970), these two forms of
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problem solving and vertical thinking may be useful to develop them.
From birth, human being starts to gather experiences, from moving his own body with an objective until
acting so that other people make what this human being wants. That's why experiences which have not
been lived before become uncomfortable, because they are outside the framework already established
through experience. Activities such as cycling or swimming mean a new experience different from the
normal movement in the air. Maybe if we did not learn to walk, or simply did not have the experience of
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Of course, not all accumulated experiences are unnecessary. In fact, many of the experiences gained
are necessary to tackle new problems. The major drawback appears when the reactions are based only
on accumulated experiences and problems are not questioned. Normally, these problems can be solved
based on the standards established by experience, but new ways to solve the problems do not arise from
this practice.
55
Establishing patterns can be more easily understood through a chart, as shown in Figure 20. following,
WKH UVW JLYHQ VHTXHQFH WKH VXP RI WKH WZR WULDQJOHV UHVXOWV LQ D VTXDUH 7KH PLQG DFFXPXODWHV WKLV UHsult, which can help to deduce that if instead of having two triangles there would be four, the result may
be two squares.
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that in the case of having 4 triangles, the result would be 2 squares, but leaves out the possibility that the
result could be a bigger square, as shown in Figure 21.
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56
The same happens with knowledge, technical problems tend to be solved based on the knowledge we
have. For example, if a mechanical engineer is faced with a problem, he will tend to seek the solution to
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of chemistry. Much of the creativity techniques suggest new ways to seek solutions to existing problems.
Another aspect to consider is the creation of partnerships. By having a problem or an area to apply creativity, people tend to make associations with situations or circumstances surrounding the problem or issue
to be solved. That's why some creativity techniques, as will be discussed in following sections, aim to
present different elements with which independent associations can be made or different from the typical
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The objective of creativity is, then, to break with these pre-established patterns in order to get new ways
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ways to solve problems, and, in this sense, is a skill that can be developed in a person.
Creativity and innovation

Although normally the link between creativity and innovation is almost immediate, the reasons why this
link exists are not always clear. Creativity, as previously mentioned, can be understood as the ability to
produce new knowledge. However, the human being occupies much of his life accumulating existing
knowledge to be used in facing daily problems. This is why, among other things, creativity diminishes
in humans as years pass by, since the accumulation of knowledge during the education and through experience restricts the ability to think in new directions (Herb, 2000). The accumulated information and
knowledge are not always enough to solve problems or challenges. It is then that creativity is necessary.
The increase in product's complexity in order to improve the competitive position thereof on one hand,
and the development of new technologies on the other, make the development of new products or improving existing ones objectives which are increasingly elusive. The use of creativity in analyzing problems
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barrier to innovation.
Viewed from the perspective of innovation, creativity is more than just the creation of something new.
Generate something new would be a relatively easy task. That's why, in the context of innovation, creaWLYLW\ VKRXOG EH GHQHG RQO\ DV WKH FUHDWLRQ RI VRPHWKLQJ QHZ EXW DW WKH VDPH WLPH YDOXDEOH 7KH YDOXH
RU TXDOLW\ RI ZKDW LV QHZ GHWHUPLQHV LWV LQXHQFH RQ DQ LQQRYDWLRQ LQ RWKHU ZRUGV WKH PRUH YDOXDEOH
the result of creativity (e.g. an idea), the more likely that this will become an innovation. By becoming
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when the idea hit the market after becoming a product.
57
Stages of the creative process

$OWKRXJK FUHDWLYLW\ FDQQRW W LQWR WKH IUDPHZRUN RI D SURFHVV DV WKLV FDQQRW EH DFWLYDWHG DQG GHDFWLYDted as is done with a computer), there are certain stages to go through to generate an idea. Understanding
these stages helps in the time to facilitate a favourable environment for creativity, so that the right tools
at the right time can be implemented. As mentioned above, there are different kinds of thinking to be used
according to the existing need. When analyzing a problem convergent thinking is used and when generating ideas divergent thinking is used. But which are the phases where these different types of thinking are
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Research phase
Incubation phase
Enlightenment phase
Development phase
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is more complicated than it seems, because it must determine the problem to solve, which is not always
easy. It may be a technical problem in the simplest case, but can also be a need in the market, or even less
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this issue directly with the innovation process can be thought that this phase corresponds to the phase in
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EH DSSOLHG LWV QHFHVVDU\ WR VWDUW JDWKHULQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ 7KLV LQIRUPDWLRQ KHOSV WR EHWWHU GHQH WKH SURElem and identify the tools and resources that could provide a complete solution to the problem. Another
activity in this phase is to set the problem in different scenarios or analyze it from different points of
view. This helps to identify different directions to solve the problem or start the ideas generation process.
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phase is initiated. During this stage, the problem or area of innovation matures. Often it is simply loaded
with the problem, and in some cases it is confronted with different situations. In this phase the problem
is also abstracted, and thus compared to other similar problems or situations that already have been exSHULHQFHG ,Q VRPH FDVHV ZH WU\ WR QG WKH SDWWHUQ RI VWDQGDUG SUREOHP LQ RUGHU WR JLYH D VROXWLRQ WR LW
The phase of enlightenment is where ideas are generated. After having compared the problem to other
58
situations already experienced and be familiar with the problem and the resources to solve it, there
comes a moment of enlightenment in which one or more ideas around the problem are generated. As
previously mentioned, this phase cannot be arbitrarily activated at any given time, but the tour through
the previous phases facilitates that this moment of enlightenment occurs. It should also be mentioned
that these phases do not always occur in similar time spans. The journey to the generation of an idea can
be relatively fast.
Finally, when an idea is conceived, it is not always ready to be presented, much less to be implemented.
Thus, in the next phase, that of development, it is necessary to mature the idea and take it to the point
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The content of the phases is similar; the difference is only in the differentiation between problem identiFDWLRQ DQG QGLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ WKH FODVVLFDWLRQ GHVFULEHG DERYH ZKLOH WKLV RWKHU FODVVLFDWLRQ RQO\
refers to a preparation phase.
Creativity stimulation
Creativity, as memory and other human capabilities, can be developed. In order to do so, different means
have been developed which contribute to solving problems that required creativity. There are different
terms to refer to these means, for example, techniques, methods and tools. The techniques are sometimes referred to brief indications that help organizing information, such as the use of cards for boards or
sticky notes to collect ideas. Under the creative methods concept, it can be understood as a systematic
procedure with several steps, which is also based in some techniques.
The different methods of creativity can be divided into intuitive methods and systematic-analytical methods (Winkelhofer, 2006) (Figure 22). Intuitive methods aim to generate insights that lead immediately
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59
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category. This method consists in writing ideas and associations spontaneously on a paper that must be
passed to other group members.
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of the problem, for example of nature, with the objective of coming up with solutions that contribute to
develop solutions.
Intuitive methods of confrontation take an object of stimulus that is not directly related to the problem
(e.g. a word) and it is confronted with the problem to derive ideas from this stimulus. An example is the
method Synectics whereby several analogies are made in different areas to derive ideas at the end.
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the causes of problems or circumstances that result in ideas to solve problems or proposed challenges.
7KH UVW FDWHJRU\ LV WKH V\VWHPDWLFDQDO\WLFDO PHWKRGV RI DVVRFLDWLRQ 7KHVH PHWKRGV GLYLGH WKH SURblem into sub-problems to be solved independently. The resulting solutions are structured, combined,
are varied and then consolidated in a comprehensive solution. An example of these methods is the morphological box. The next category is the systematic-analytical methods of confrontation. Just as in the
systematic-analytical methods of association, the problem is divided into parts, but in this case based on
analogies. An example of these methods is the morphological matrix.
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and prioritize the problem and its parts in order to make visible the main problem on this basis and develop the solution for it. An example of these methods is the relevance tree analysis.
In the literature about creativity, there are many creativity methods. Some of them are designed to be
used individually, others in small groups and others in larger groups. In the second part of this book,
different creativity methods will be described.
60
Creativity in organizations
In many organizations, the use of creativity tools is considered synonymous with creativity. However,
fostering creativity depends not only on tools, since there are other elements that contribute to the fact
that an organization can effectively use creativity. One way to understand these additional elements is
the analysis of the three components of creativity by Ambile (2005): expertise, creative thinking skills
and motivation (Figure 23).
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studies made by the individual and conferences, among others.
Creative thinking skills refer to the way a person approaches a problem and its solution. It includes how
to seek ideas, the way in which we analyze the problems, methodologies, techniques, etc. Creativity techniques are part of these creative thinking skills. It can be concluded, therefore, that the use of creativity
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part of the creativity.
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EXW GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ WKH LQXHQFH WKDW RQH FRPSRQHQW RU WKH RWKHU KDV FDQ EH ELJJHU RU
VPDOOHU 6RPH VWXGLHV FRQFOXGH WKDW PRWLYDWLRQ KDV WKH ELJJHVW LQXHQFH LQ RUGHU WR LPSURYH FUHDWLYLW\
(Amabile, 2005); nevertheless, it is important to keep in mind the other components to get good results.
61
%HVLGHV LGHQWLI\LQJ WKH WKUHH FRPSRQHQWV RI FUHDWLYLW\ $PDELOH KDV LGHQWLHG VL[ SUDFWLFHV RI WKH PDnagement contributing to creativity, namely, challenge, freedom, resources, teamwork characteristics,
supervisor encouragement and strong support from the organization.
Challenge: 5HIHUV WR DVVLJQLQJ WKH ULJKW SHUVRQ WR IXOO HDFK DFWLYLW\ 7KLV LQYROYHV
collecting information necessary to combine the tasks with the right person to perform
them so that the person has a challenge which can be accomplished.
Freedom: The possibility that employees have to choose how to achieve the
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changing constantly, otherwise freedom does not contribute.
Resources: It consists of obtaining a balance between economic, time and physical

resources to foster an enabling environment for creativity.
Characteristics of teamwork: 7KLV SUDFWLFH UHIHUV WR KDYLQJ DQ LQXHQFH LQ WKH

formation of teams to achieve diversity and to encourage different points of view,
fellowship or team spirit, the same enthusiasm for the goal and mutual respect.
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Encouragement of supervisor: 5HIHUV WR WKH LQXHQFH WKDW WKH VXSHULRU KDV RQ WKH
employees, the way he recognizes their ideas, not extrinsically, but intrinsically, so that
the creativity contributions of the employee are evaluated and taken into account
according to their potential.
Organizational support: Refers to the support of the leaders of the organization

through collaboration and information exchange to stimulate a creative environment.
The stimulation of these factors contributes to increase creativity in organizations, but in each of these
factors is also possible to adversely affect creativity, for example, changing constantly the goals of the
organization, or simply ignoring the initiative of employees, or eliminating any resource that can be used
E\ DQ HPSOR\HH WR GHYHORSV LGHDV ZKLFK IDYRXU WKH DFKLHYHPHQW RI JRDOV 7KHUH DUH DOVR RWKHU GLIFXOties, as many valid business imperatives such as the pursuit of productivity, coordination and control
affect a creative environment. That is why a balance between stimulating creativity and controlling business performance should be found.
Creativity in the organization is something that can be cultivated as a principle and can be integrated into
the philosophy of the organization. It is also something that can be developed. However, this requires
work on it. Creativity should not be left in the hands of the skills of each person; there must also be a
stimulus, if necessary, incorporated into the strategy and corporate culture of the organization. In order
WR HIIHFWLYHO\ LQXHQFH WKH FUHDWLYLW\ RI WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ PDQDJHPHQW PXVW EH DFWLYHO\ LQYROYHG WR IDFLlitate the actions and elements that stimulate creativity.
62
Innovation culture
Introduction
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and its results. It determines the manner in which its members assume their roles, face different tasks,
set goals, design strategies and cooperate or compete to materialize them. In a nutshell: the way of doing
things, beyond the quality and pertinence of the formal provisions that the entity holds, derives from
the culture, since this culture will determine the way these are interpreted and assumed into the cultural
framework of the organization.
The direct relationship between organizational culture and climate affects factors such as trust, not so
much in terms of security regarding the capabilities of those involved, but rather in terms of the expectations that they have concerning the opportunistic behaviour of other members, or about the internal
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the levels of cooperation and commitment within the organization and its sub-structures, whether they
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On the other hand, culture has a temporal dimension as it emanates from recognizable patterns in the
history of the organization, for example, how to exercise authority and communication, willingness to
take changes, challenges and commitments, and importance attached to certain areas, among others. No
wonder that this impulse from the past tends to outline the future path, and this often results in barriers
to innovation, as discussed later on.
Culture determines, therefore, behaviour and intangible factors inherent to innovation as the predispoVLWLRQ WR FUHDWLYLW\ OLPLWV WR ODWHUDO WKLQNLQJ RU WROHUDQFH WR ULVN DQG IDLOXUH 2I FRXUVH WKLV LQXHQFH LV
also visible through more tangible means as the funds or personnel that are allocated to innovation and
the attribution of greater or lesser importance to innovation activities.
Innovation culture is subject to a development or evolution. A.T. Kearney proposes a model of four stages of development towards excellence in culture for innovation (see Table 5).
63
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64
The elements of promotion or support to the innovation culture are evident: values and norms for innoYDWLRQ SURPRWLRQ DQG WKH EDVLF DVVXPSWLRQV RI WKLV SURPRWLRQ 7KHVH WKUHH W\SHV RI IDFWRUV DUH UHHFWHG
in the dimensions of the innovation promotion, namely orientation of the organization, creativity, trust,
change and risk, as shown in Table 6.
Cu ture for innovation
E ements of
innovation
promotion
Innovation
vision
Innovation
goa s and
strategy
Myths and
history of
innovation
Rewarding
Innovation
Encourage
ideas deveopment
Free
disposition
of working
hours
Creativity
techniques
Interdiscip inary teams
Constructive
conscience
(awareness)
RI FRQLFWV
Workers
training
Know edge
networks
and management of
know edge
Intensive
communication with
customers
and supp iers
Wi ingness
to earn
Va ues and
norms for
innovation
promotion
Importance
of innovation
within the
company
Ideas deve
lopment and
discussion
+ROLVWLF H[
pansion of the
knowledge
base
Basic
assumptions of
innovation
promotion
Constant
development
to assure
H[LVWHQFH
Chaos as a
way of creati
ve thinking
Orientation
towards inno
vation
Creativity
Open
vertica and
horizonta
communication
Management sty e
fostering
confidence
High f exibiity of structures and

processes
Changes
acceptance
and adoption of these
changes by
the members
Adequate
risk disposition by
members of
the organization
Acceptance
of probems in the
innovation
process
High
to erance to
fai ure
Risk awarenes
Competence,
benevolence,
integrity
Desire for
continuous
improvement
5LVN DF
ceptance,
tolerance to
mistakes
Knowledge
process as
base for evo
lution
+XPDQ LPDJH
Companies
as part of the
dynamic envi
ronment
Need to take
entrepreneu
rial risks, risk
awareness
Knowledge
Trust
Change
5LVN
Dimensiones de fomento de la innovacin
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The links between culture and the dimensions and elements that promote or, at least, enable innovation
in an organization are complex. To give some structure to this multiplicity of factors and behaviours that
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factors (see Figure 24).
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Barriers to innovation
A barrier to innovation is an obstacle which inhibits, conditions or prevents the establishment of a suitable environment and hinders the proper management of the elements of the innovation promotion dimensions and, thus, constitute impediments to innovation itself.
These obstacles may originate within the entity or outside it. Examples of external barriers are the difFXOW\ RI DFFHVV WR H[WHUQDO IXQGLQJ KLJK ULVN LQ WKH QDWLRQDO HFRQRP\ RU LQ WKH PDUNHWV RI WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ OLPLWHG DYDLODELOLW\ RI TXDOLHG SHUVRQQHO LQ WKH UHJLRQ RU WKH EXUHDXFUDF\ LQ WHUPV RI VORZ
and unnecessarily complex administrative procedures, restrictive and poorly developed regulations and,
above all, the lack of protection to intellectual property rights. These exogenous barriers and its potential
solutions are discussed in other sections of this book. Since the focus of this chapter is on the culture
within the organization, the analysis will focus on those barriers originated within the organization.
Barriers within the organization tend to interrelate and interact with each other, forming a complex interweaving of obstacles that can lead to vicious circles of repetitive behaviour, trapping the organization in
a status quo that prevents, slows down or drops the effectiveness of innovation processes.
There are three main types of internal barriers: those related to an unfavourable organization to innovaWLRQ WKH RQHV UHODWHG WR DQ LQVXIFLHQW UHVRXUFHV DOORFDWLRQ DQG PRVW LPSRUWDQWO\ EHKDYLRXUDO EDUULHUV
66
Unfavourable organization to innovation

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innovation activities require. The improperly established roles and responsibilities hinder the consistent
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lack of clarity of roles leads to a decreasing commitment to the established objectives and the impossibility of making effective decisions at the levels remaining in the grey area of authority and responsibility.
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At the management level, barriers are often seen in limitations to cope with uncertainty, risks, results and
timing of innovation. This is usually caused by incongruities between the competencies and professional
skills of managers on one hand, and the requirements of strategic and holistic vision on the other. From
there erroneous decisions about incompatible innovation projects that do not waste incompatible or potential synergies could arise, causing scattered efforts rather than progress towards the achievement of
objectives.
Insufficient resources allocation

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RI SHRSOH ZLWK LQDGHTXDWH SUROH WR SURMHFWV DQG DUHDV UHODWHG WR LQQRYDWLRQ ,Q PDQ\ FDVHV KXPDQ UHsources are allocated to an innovation unit that was created more to show that the organization is trying
to work in this area and that it has such unit than to bear fruit in this area.
Similarly, meagre and unrealistic budgets make the acquisition of the means and knowledge necessary
for innovation remain simply unattainable. This is directly related to the provision of infrastructure and
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ZLWK OLPLWDWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ DFFHVV WR NH\ LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG NQRZOHGJH DV VFLHQWLF OLWHUDWXUH DQG UHFHQW
and reliable market information.
Behavioral Barriers
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overcoming and impact of other barriers such as an inadequate resource allocation or the inappropriate
67
structure design. These barriers can be found in all organization levels and, mainly, between levels, departments and teams.
One of the most common forms is the traditional administrative behaviour, which can be seen in the excessive rigidity in the control of activities and processes through excessive regulation and bureaucracy.
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exercise of their creative abilities. Also typical is the excessive rigidity of the hierarchy, which prevents
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barriers is the inadequate distribution of working time of employees: if this time is used solely or primarily on the performance of routine and urgent tasks, no time is left for the generation and exchange
of ideas. Among the classical and extremely disadvantageous behaviours for innovation is the excessive
centralization of decisions, especially the less strategic ones. Finally, the resistance to change the status
quo and winning formulas is a fear of managers that often eliminates the mere idea of seeking change.
As for the barriers related to the behaviour of groups, the most common are to be seen in unnecessary
rivalry between departments and projects of the organization and the rivalry between managers, assistant
managers and their teams. This is usually due to excessive professional jealousy. This triggers and feeds
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formulate and commit to shared goals. Also common is the existence of pre-established patterns for the
opinion-forming and the adoption of postures and attitudes.
The individual behaviour of members is directly linked to the ego of people and often generates and fuels
great barriers based on the fear to attempt and failure, the fear of change and especially the fear of critical
opinion of colleagues to unconventional or out of the box ideas, since individuals want to avoid any
possibility of being perceived as ignorant or irrational. This is related to excessive self-comparison with
colleagues and extreme professional jealousy. The results of these behaviours usually trigger some others
which undermine innovation activities, such as resistance to take on challenges under the motto it has
never been done, I do not know how to do it, the indifference and apathy at work and the demotivation.
At the organizational level, disposition barriers and cultural characteristics refer to the general resistance
to change, to the habit of senior management to give little support to suggestions of the staff of lower
ranks, a fact which is usually based on prejudices as only senior managers have good ideas. Excessive
sensitivity, susceptibility and widespread professional jealousy of the members of staff in change projects produces stagnation in the way of thinking and the development of tolerance to new initiatives and
ideas. This will perpetuate a vision focused on local and immediate reality.
Barriers to behaviour can and should be overcome to pave the way for innovation. This can be done only
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these obstacles.
68
Analysis of involved actors

As previously explained, companies often face resistance to change, which in turn is based on the described behaviour barriers. To analyze the reason and source of these barriers, all the actors involved in an
organization which are relevant to innovation should be analyzed
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the other members.
One of the critical factors for a good evaluation and analysis is a good knowledge of the informal strucWXUHV RI DQ RUJDQL]DWLRQ VLQFH SRZHU DQG LQXHQFH RI SHRSOH LV RIWHQ EDVHG RQ WKHP EH\RQG IRUPDO
positions and roles. This means that some relationships which have more to do with sympathy and antipathy among members, common characteristics or personal goals and simple preferences, play a role
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VKDUHG H[SHULHQFHV 6RPH RI WKHVH IDFWRUV KDYH GLUHFW LQXHQFH RQ WKH FRQGHQFH OHYHOV RI LQGLYLGXDOV
towards others.
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this purpose, for example, workshops or sessions. In the section on tools for innovation management of
this book a tool for this procedure is provided.
Innovation promoters
The innovation promoters are individuals or groups of individuals who facilitate the elimination of barriers to innovation and in doing so, they raise the levels of motivation and increase the chances of a
successful execution of changes and, hence, of the innovation projects.
These promoters are committed to the innovation process to a very personal level and with their example
inspire other members of the organization to take on changes in behaviour, thereby improving the culture
of innovation.
Promoters usually have strong leadership skills and personality traits that turn them into people who are
respected and heard more per their ability of persuasion, argument and knowledge than by a simple
69
exercise of mere authority. Thus, they achieve results and assume key roles such as:
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Mediation between fears and prejudices about the processes of innovation
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or mistrust, opening up the way for building positive relationships
Interaction for discussion of new ideas and approaches
Balance, mediation and conciliation between existing and new structures and
relationships
The main challenge of the promoter is to facilitate the open discussion about the barriers and the distrust
of employees with regard to innovation processes.
Among the critical factors for a promoter or team of promoters are their willingness and ability to support
the innovation process and reduce concerns. This requires the sponsors to have well developed communication skills, abstract reasoning ability and temperament to generate sympathy and, at the same time,
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allows the integration of promoters. This depends mainly on the decisions, the convictions and commitment of senior management. From there, the promoter or team of promoters will achieve step by step the
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70
Organization for innovation
The tasks in a company are usually executed by two organizational forms: the stable or permanent and
the temporary by projects. The following example will illustrate the difference: the R&D department of
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form of line organization. In contrast, a project for the development or improvement of a product, service
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structure may be later restored and giving a new beginning for a new phase.
Normally, the nature of innovation causes most of their activities to be structured in organizations accorGLQJ WR WKH W\SH RI SURMHFWV 7KHVH XVXDOO\ LQFOXGH WKH GLYLVLRQ ZLWK VSHFLF UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU LQQRYDWLRQ
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expected, the materialization of these organizations involves the formation of teams.
This chapter will focus on analyzing the organization of innovation projects.
Reasons to seek a good project organization

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broader framework of the organization of a company. In other words, it should clarify who is responsible
for what, who authorized what to whom and who is disciplinary and technically subordinate to whom.
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to the project manager, but to realize organizational forms that encourage cooperative, interdisciplinary
teamwork and between different areas.
The typical organization of a company is linear. The line organization, which is characterized by separaWLRQV DFFRUGLQJ WR IXQFWLRQV SURGXFWLRQ PDUNHWLQJ SXUFKDVLQJ DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ QDQFH HWF QRUPDOO\
imposes some obstacles to teamwork because it pays more attention to isolated linear functions of the
FRPSDQ\ WKDQ WR SURMHFWV )RU WKLV UHDVRQ WKHUH DUH RIWHQ FRQLFWV RI LQWHUHVW EHWZHHQ WKH OLQH RUJDQL]Dtion and the project organization. If the project priorities are unclear, especially when resources are
scarce, there are obstacles and disruptions that threaten the success of each project.
Poor organization of projects leads to:
71
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technical issues
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questions)
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The transition from a linear-based organization to a projects-oriented enables a quick decision making
and continuous observation of the progress of the project. As the manager of a project, the projectoriented organization ensures the coherence of its tasks with its responsibility and with its command or
authority.
Forms of project organization

Pure projects organization
This form of organization implies that each project manager has full technical and disciplinary responsibility. Everyone involved in the project form a separate structural unit and all work is fully framed in the
project, so that they are detached from the lines of organization by divisions or departments. The project
manager has all the responsibility and authority.
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unity of tasks and competences. The pure projects organization is highly recommended for large projects
and especially for important R&D projects.
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of levels that decisions and information must go through. The project team can work focused on their
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A very rigid and closed project structure shows some disadvantages. In this case, teams can develop a
kind of clique, creating problems of acceptance and isolation from those who are not involved in the team
or are working on another project. This can even lead to double efforts as contact is lost between teams.
72
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A variant of this form is that of venture teams, where employees from different areas are involved in a
project. By the end of the project, the employees return to their former areas or become managers of new
business units or divisions resulting from the project. This form is suitable for high-level innovations,
such as the development of new technologies or entry into new business areas.
Matrix Organization
The matrix organization is basically two-dimensional. In this, the project employees maintain their normal tasks line of the linear organization while dealing with the project. The manager of the area or department is the one who has disciplinary control over the project workers, regulates the allocation of staff and
is responsible for the execution of each task. The project manager, meanwhile, has the power to lead the
technical aspects of the project and coordinate with the functional areas (of line) that should be involved.
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of competences (powers) between the project manager and area manager can be very problematic. The
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To make this work well, it is important that project employees are released from their normal linear tasks
(of line). If employees must perform the project work in addition to their other tasks, they will be quickly
overwhelmed and unmotivated.
73
The matrix organization leads to greater acceptance of project work because there is a constant exchange
with the linear (in line) work. Furthermore, after work on a project, the reintegration of the project
employees to their jobs is easier. This form of organization is suitable especially for small and medium
projects with clear priorities.
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Staff organization
In this kind of organization the project manager has neither power of decision nor leading role or full
responsibility for the project. He plays a role rather of an adviser and is subordinated to a manager of an
area or to the general manager, who fully supervises the project.
74
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The advantage of this organization is that it is not necessary to make major changes in the structure and that
is possible to achieve that different organizational units or departments work on the project. This form
of organization is suitable for medium-sized projects with clear priorities which are not very intertwined.
Timeshare organization
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possibilities. Employees are assigned to a project for a certain time per day or week. The rest of the time,
they perform their activities in their respective units or departments (line Organization). During the time
assigned to the project, the project manager has to be in charge of the disciplinary and technical decision;
when the employee works in his division, the area manager has the lead.
When decisions regarding time periods that overlap must be taken, for example, an employee's long vacation, it is necessary that both managers agree (from the area, and the project). It is also very important
to have an agreement or contract signed by the employee, the manager of the area, the project manager
and the General Management. In this way both times and responsibilities will be clear for all sides.
Company organization favorable to innovation

To reduce resistance and problems of acceptance, it is important that the company has an organization
favourable to innovation. The following are set of issues that must be taken into account.
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clear responsibilities and short cuts for making decisions. This, in turn, increases the responsibilities of
employees and with it, their motivation levels.
75
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them in their work. Specialization, to the appropriate extent, is relevant for complex and innovative
projects. An essential condition for the division of work and the specialization is a well-functioning cooperation that crosses the boundaries of the different units or departments.
Open communication is crucial. One of the most common causes of failure of innovation projects are the
problems of communication and information. To have an open and transparent structure, workers should
be encouraged to ask questions and make their own suggestions. The networks of information favours
that employees know the status of the current situation effectively.
Teamwork, especially in autonomously responsible teams whose success is measured, leads to higher
employee motivation and can accelerate and qualitatively improve the processes of R&D.
The delegation of responsibility and decision making power should go hand in hand. Frequently, tasks
are simply delegated without the competence to decide or the corresponding responsibility. Even worse,
in some cases the delegation of responsibility is seen without delegation of any power of decision.
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their potential can be higher.
It is important to make a good project management. Division of work and specialization require much
coordination, which is possible through a proper project management to ensure the success thereof.
Employees should be responsible for themselves for the formulation and adjustment of a good planning,
ensuring to timely accomplish the execution of their part of work. This should be done in coordination
with cooperating areas. It is also important to give employees the opportunity to correct or improve their
work.
The strongly hierarchical and rigid forms of organization harm the process of innovation. Therefore, the
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to quickly organize a team of specialists to solve an urgent problem.
Senior management must be committed and interested in different projects, because it often only supports ideas and projects in which senior management is involved or excited.
Establishment of a creative work climate is extremely important. Thus it is necessary to have open spaces
to develop and implement innovative ideas. Attention should be paid to the working environment. For
example, in a creativity session, by simply changing the wallpaper or decoration, a difference can be
made.
The establishment of a system of incentives for creative work is highly advisable. The quality of creative
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work which is based on the performance of creativity. However, a reward should be given for this creative work. In fact, accepting new ideas instead of taking them as crazy is already a form of reward.
Non-material means such as the recognition and extension of the competences (powers) facilitate the
achievement of a good climate for innovation.
76
The Innovation Manager

The task of innovation management is a process-oriented work and it is not a job of a single department.
Innovation management must be an integrated task; in innovation processes different areas or departments
of the company must work together. This interdisciplinary work is one of the crucial factors for success
of any innovation. Besides this task of interdisciplinary management, in innovation projects is also necessary to achieve an organizational differentiation between innovation processes and the routine or linear
direction processes. The tasks of creating, evaluating and selecting ideas are not routine activities of the
company management and should be carried out by creating circles of innovation or creativity teams.
In the course of innovation processes, the task of the innovation management is to prepare the decision
and present the basics of this decision to the general management. This includes the representation of a
severe or threatening situation (perhaps the end of the life cycle of a given product or market maturity of
new technologies), the presentation of criteria for choosing innovation projects, including its logic appliFDWLRQ DQG WKH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI SURGXFW YDULDQWV EDVHG RQ WHFKQLFDO DQG RU DHVWKHWLF LQQRYDWLRQ RSWLRQ
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external experts
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in the market.
In many small and medium enterprises, innovation management is a task of the general manager. Due
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requirements of the innovation management (direction). In companies with a R&D department, many
times the responsible for this department takes the task of managing innovation processes. In this case,
this person usually has a technical background and is often not prepared for managing processes which
span several departments of the company. For these reasons, it is absolutely necessary to introduce an
innovation manager in small and medium enterprises, just as it happens in large enterprises.
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VSHFLFDOO\ RXWOLQHG DQG WKHQ FRQFUHWH LQ WKHLU VXEWDVNV $Q RYHUYLHZ RI WKH ZKROH VSHFWUXP JLYHV DQ
idea of the complexity of the scope of an innovation manager.
77
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Innovation
Decisions
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Innovation manager tasks
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Selection
of
innovation
alternatives
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factors
such
as
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Internal communication of innovations within the company
Factors selection to control innovations
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Knowledge
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Management
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Innovations
Implementation
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company. Innovation decisions have a high complexity. On one hand, at the beginning of the innovation process, structures are not recognizable to the innovation manager. For this reason, many problems
related to innovation or its consequences are often overlooked.
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possible potential of innovation both inside and outside the company.
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reasonable to order the alternatives according to their attractiveness and priority. That alternative found
as the most suitable should be conceptualized and expressed in a document for its potential implementation. At this point, the innovation manager should be in the position to provide general information
about the plan and its expected duration, as well as resource requirements for the implementation of the
various alternatives for innovation. Important criteria for a market-oriented selection are factors such
as Price-to-Market and Time-To-Market. If they are taken into account, the risks of innovation are
kept as low as possible.
The presentation of innovation alternatives to the company's management is also in the scope of the
preparation of decisions for innovation. The innovation manager has to clarify to the general manager
78
the advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives of innovation, as well as the potential bottlenecks
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project).
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of innovation must overcome all the resistance of employees in relation to innovation. It is possible that
the innovation project will produce fear and disinterest to employees, or makes them feel ignorant or
afraid to take responsibility for the project, as usually employees are comfortable with the status quo of
the company.
Additionally, the innovation manager must face other barriers to acceptance which could arise as a defensive posture, environmental concerns and arguments against the investment policy. For this reason,
one of his important functions is to communicate with internal customers. Similarly, it is up to him to
do the presentation of innovations outside the organization. The control of innovation's success is part
of their responsibilities.
Knowledge management is the third scope of the innovation manager, who is responsible for initiaWLQJ DQG GLUHFWLQJ WKH RZ RI LQIRUPDWLRQ DFURVV WKH HQWHUSULVH 7RGD\ NQRZOHGJH LV RQH RI WKH PRVW
crucial strategic factors of company competitiveness. Therefore, it is the innovation manager's role to
cover knowledge gaps existing in the company, especially those that affect the strategy and innovation
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the company. Simultaneously, he must create incentives so that workers of the company are open to the
ideas of innovation.
A further aspect that is also crucial in knowledge management is the access to external knowledge. In
this sense, the integration of customers in the innovation process of the company turns out to be decisive. Information from customers must be systematically collected and processed to serve as a basis for
the generation of new products or services and to verify its compatibility with the market.
79
Pricing of innovative products

and funding strategies
Pricing and costing
It is noteworthy that the goal of achieving certain performance with the capital employed in innovation
projects can be reached through various combinations of product and price features. This goal can also be
achieved with variants of low-cost products for a large number of buyers, or with products for exclusive
niches composed of few customers with high purchasing power. Even if one considers only one version
of the product, there could be a reasonable space to negotiate as a result of pricing. This is due to the
following reasons:
a) The higher the price, the lower is the unit sales (in most cases). The fact that this is actuDOO\ GHWULPHQWDO WR WKH FRPSDQ\
V SURW DQG UHWXUQ RQ LQYHVWPHQW GHSHQGV RQ WKH EHKDYLRXU
of customers: their willingness to pay and the price elasticity of demand, in other words, the
actual relationship between the price and the quantity purchased. This relationship depends
on psychological behavioural patterns of buyers and is different for the various groups of
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which is almost independent of the price, the so-called inelastic demand for products like
food, tobacco, energy for food manufacturing, fuel for personal mobility, etc.
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the price increases. While it is usually accepted as a rule, the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded is not always true. In some cases, the more expensive the product,
the more attractive it is to some customers. In this case, it is not about a price difference but
based on differences in product characteristics, although this difference was only the brand. In
pricing, it can be seen more and more how some manufacturers set their prices intentionally
exceeding the thresholds of 10 or 100 or 1000, rather than using the psychological pricing so
far preferred (eg, 9.99 or 99 or 950). The product projects an image of greater value. In this
way, a higher income can be obtained from a set of products than setting a lower price, if for
this higher price a compatible design and an adequate distribution channel have been chosen.
80
The price that customers are willing to pay and variations in the quantity demanded at different price
levels can be determined through different market research methods such as Conjoint Measurement (it
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from this type of analysis are the basis for the implementation of other methods, for example, the Target
Costing, which will be explained later. There are methods to estimate the willingness of customers to
pay, that innovative companies can implement themselves; for example, investment calculation methods
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A method so far not widely used by SMEs is to put themselves in the client's position and evaluate a new
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easier (and possible to do with known mathematical procedures of calculation) than in the case of consumer goods, for which usually one has to investigate various psychological preferences and the willingness to pay for several feature combinations of a product using the so called customer panels interviews.
However, also in the case of capital goods, it is rare to present to the customer an estimate of economic
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which typically require this type of analysis, for example, large industrial plants.
Then, for products whose usage leads to clear monetary effects for the client, as in the case of capital
goods, the provider may employ processes of investment valuation to show potential customers the value
of individual innovations. When investigating the purchase decision the client makes from a number of
DOWHUQDWLYHV IURP WKH SRLQW RI YLHZ RI LWV HFRQRPLF EHQHW WKH FRPSDQ\ FDQ EHWWHU PDWFK RZQ LQQRYDtions to existing needs. The company can also improve the competitiveness of its own products, because
competitiveness is by nature a relative characteristic and, therefore, must be taken into account in direct
comparison with the alternatives that the customer has. Finally, the company can prevent from the beginning the rejection to new products caused by factors such as cost.
The process of investment evaluation

The investment evaluation processes are applied to all known alternatives of products that solve the same
customer problem or satisfy the same desires. Among these methods can be mentioned:
1. Comparison of costs account
2. Comparison of earnings account
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4. Amortization Account
5. The net present value method
6. Method of internal rate of return
7. Annual method
81
Of these methods, 1, 2, 3 and 4 are called static methods, while methods of 5, 6 and 7 are used for dynamic evaluation of the investment.
The price comparison is not even mentioned, since it could hardly be considered a method. However,
the price comparison is perhaps the most common practice among customers of innovative products,
generally of private clients (users or individual buyers), but also of many industrial customers (those
who buy the product to incorporate them into their own products, services or processes). However, this
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of innovative products. The simple comparison of prices is not a good idea, as demonstrated by countless
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buys cheap, buys twice.
Static methods are also unsatisfactory. For decades, they were part of the strategy and management
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should be considered as models that because of their assumptions may produce results far from the true
consequences of investment or purchase decisions. In fact, using static methods of assessment clearly
erroneous decisions have been made, although the mathematical procedures have been resolved successfully. The main causes for the inaccuracy of these processes are:
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methods, therefore, do not distinguish whether the monetary return produced by the
use of the product (e.g. a machine) takes place in the early years or just some years laWHU 2I DOO WKH FDVK RZV D VLQJOH DYHUDJH LV HVWLPDWHG ZLWKRXW WDNLQJ LQWR DFFRXQW WKDW
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purposes, or, at least, to save for the payment of interest.
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lower price compared to other products, even when these sums mean an advantage.
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hough the actual values are accurately known: the statutory depreciation and interest
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Among the indicators of static methods are some well-known as return on investment (ROI) and the
payback period. Dynamic processes have decisive advantages in comparison with the methods referred
to here. At this stage, we will enter further into of the methods of net present value and internal rate of
return.
82
Advantages of dynamic investment evaluation methods

As for the assumptions, dynamic methods have, compared to static ones, the decisive advantage of giving
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points in time are mathematically processed and valued economically. The earlier occurrence of a posiWLYH UHWXUQ RZ RU QHJDWLYH WKH JUHDWHU LWV HIIHFW RQ WKH RXWFRPH WKDW PHDQV LQ WKH FDSLWDO YDOXH RU LQ
the internal rate of return of the investment that the client makes to purchase a product. Of course there
are as in any model, assumptions that simplify the process to make it more manageable, for example, the
assumption of perfect capital markets with a single rate of interest to equity (own) and loan (borrowed)
capital, as well as for credit and savings. But in short, the assumptions of the dynamic processes make
much more sense than those of static ones.
In the second part of this book the two methods: net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR)
are explained in detail with an example.
With the help of these two methods for evaluating investments, innovative companies can predict customer decisions in advance. This is a very interesting possibility for the planning of own competitiveness
at the level of their products.
Funding strategies for Innovations

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and the respective decision criteria of the funders.
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as well as an intensive preparation to negotiate the funding.
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thanks to funding.
By providing liquidity, funding allows further investment, to cover distribution costs and maintain inventory at levels that correspond to a market quota and sales volume which have not been achieved yet. This is
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with resources from small increases in the amount of sales of the daily turnover of the business. There is
another interesting perspective: when bringing forward the growth over time, funding can justify and lead
to more growth. The big efforts (e.g. distribution), which are possible only through the additional resources that funding allows to have in advance, lead to greater sales volumes, if everything goes as planned.
83
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Structure of internal and external financing forms: equity and debt capital
The following table shows a matrix that contains the main funding possibilities for businesses and innovation projects.
Financing
Debt Capital
Equity
Internal
Financing
Debts
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External
Financing
Long-term:
Loans, leasing
Liabilities
Short-term:
Supplier credits
Customer credits
Current account loans
New shareholders
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equity and debt capital on the other.
Both equity and borrowed capital may come from outside or from inside, from the perspective of a particular period; for example, if new partners are included to raise equity, this own capital is considered
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the company and therefore, these new contributions would not be designated as external funding. Then,
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moment. However, the difference between equity and borrowed capital is independent of the situation.
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DQG GHFUHDVHV ZLWK WKH ORVVHV RI WKH FRPSDQ\ $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKHUH LV QR [HG LQWHUHVW UDWH RQ WKLV FDSLWDO
Equity investors tend to have a voice in the company decisions that can either hinder or help the original
shareholders. In any case, those who provide equity capital must maintain a closer relationship with the
development of the business than the external investors. Furthermore, the former must accept their commitment to the success of the enterprise and beyond the contribution of an amount of capital; they must
contribute as well with know-how, contacts and their own time to achieve this success.
There are typically two types of investors:
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a clear interest in increasing the value of the company they have invested in. From this business, they can
generate revenue by selling their equity share (exit); for example, the sale of a companys block shares
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)RU EXVLQHVVHV WKHVH LQYHVWRUV WHQG WR EH JRRG SDUWQHUV ZKR VXSSRUW E\ QDQFLDO LQYHVWPHQWV EXW DOVR
business know how and linkages in the market. Since the owners of the company are the key players to
these investors, they must continue to play the leading role. Financial investors usually participate in less
than 50% of the company to avoid discouraging the main players or moving them to subordinate roles.
On the other hand, those known as strategic investors are companies (often large) that have long-term
interests based on their business strategy. In regards to their character and motivations, these investors
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control of the company, in which they normally try to acquire more than 50% of the shares.
Another form of debt capital is provided by banks or by private investors who are not shareholders of
the company. This capital must be insured through support or guarantee mechanisms such as mortgages,
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RXW LQ D FRQWUDFW 7KLV LQWHUHVW PXVW EH SDLG UHJDUGOHVV RI SURW RU ORVV JHQHUDWLRQ E\ WKH FRPSDQ\
2QH DGYDQWDJH RI WKLV IRUP RI H[WHUQDO FDSLWDO LV WKDW OHQGHUV KDYH OLWWOH RU QR LQXHQFH RYHU FRPSDQ\
decisions. The outside investors have no decision power on the board or assembly of shareholders. Ano-
85
ther advantage is when the loan interest rate is lower than the return on total capital of the company's
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company. In fact, an increase of external capital leads to an increase in return on equity, reducing its
share in total funding. This relationship is known as leverage effect of external capital (leverage effect
that increases the return on equity).
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It is considered a type of equity, as responsibilities lie on the capital in case of problems. However, this
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Most of the mezzanine capital receives a constant interest. This form of capital usually takes one of two
options: it can be a small amount of its equity which is part of the initial capital of the company, ensures
the investor a say at the shareholders meeting, however, by participating, this creates for the investor
certain liabilities. The second option is when the mezzanine capital represents a great part of the capital.
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to eventual losses by bankruptcy risk. Still, on average, they continuously receive higher interests, if the
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Additionally, there are grants and development funds. In the case they are non-reimbursable, they will
directly increase the income of the company as they will be registered as extraordinary income in the
bookkeeping. These funds can compensate costs for innovation projects, thereby reducing the losses
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At the same time, they have the risk of making companies direct themselves towards the objectives of
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to businesses at different stages.
86
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Decision criteria of investors

Most investors expect and seek to see that the return on their investment is clearly higher than the return
on other risk-free investments such as bank savings. The other motivation to invest is psychological: to
build something of their own and be able to act largely independently.
In the following section, we will review external investors to understand their decision criteria, from the
point of view of their return expectations.
Criteria of public seed capital funds and business angels

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seed stage, in which perhaps the fundamental innovation projects are still in process and the prototype
has not yet been developed. It should be taken into consideration that for the investment of seed capital
funds, there are so-called total failures, where the company goes bankrupt and all the invested capital is
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87
funds. These have a promotion character; because the objective of the public sector is the creation of new
jobs, the establishment of new technologies, or the industrial development of certain regions or the entire
country. In turn, these factors become the decision criteria on funding.
Besides the criterion of the purpose of promotion and the other essential criteria, in these early phases
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selling points (USP or unique selling proposition, which are the critical differentiation factors that convinces the customer to buy the product of the company instead of the competitors).
The following questions are normally raised by seed investors:
1.
Have any patents been acquired? Patents represent a guarantee for the fund, because
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2.
Is it the appropriate team of entrepreneurs?
3.
Is the sale of the fund shares (EXIT) realistic in a period of 5 to maximum 7 years?
Question No. 2 is particularly interesting. If the team of entrepreneurs convinces the funders,
will depend on:
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shareholders.
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Management. This criterion is based on the experiences and the perspective which
assumes that many companies with great products do not achieve success when their
management is weak or mediocre and that many companies with exceptional
management can be leaders in the market even with mediocre products.
Compared to a development loan (which implies all the same risks of total failure for the government),
participating with equity in the seed stage has the advantage that the fund would participate more in the
results of a successful company. In contrast, a development bank granting credits instead of participating
with capital contributions as shareholder, has less advantages because it assumes the same risk but its income in matter of interests does not increase in the case of success of the supported company. In the seed
funds, there may be also a mixed form of participation: here, the mezzanine concept has also become a
trend, resulting in mezzanine seed capital.
Business angels are usually investors in the seed phase as well. These individuals provide capital at a
YHU\ HDUO\ VWDJH ZLWK D ODUJH ULVN $V LQGLYLGXDOV WKHLU JRDO LV WKH KLJK SURWDELOLW\ RI WKHLU LQYHVWHG FDpital rather than developing a geographic area or job creation. For business angels, the same criteria as
88
for seed capital funds are important at the time of making decisions. Business angels typically work at
a regional level, meaning within a radius of up to 2 hours away by train or car. This is because business
angels normally contribute with much more than just capital; they support the company with all their
experience, know-how and contacts. It is not uncommon that in addition to their commitment, which
they bring along with their money, they contribute with an interim management. For this reason, business
angels are very interesting for young enterprises.
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Friends, Fools and Family. Obtaining funds from these sources is interesting for several reasons, although
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therefore, a great responsibility for their own success, although they do not have to provide guarantees.
Decision criteria of private equity investors

Unlike the seed funds, private equity funds or individual private investors (persons or companies) start
looking for participation in businesses much later. They have similar criteria compared to the seed stage
funders. However, they impose as a requirement that the company is already in the growth phase, with
no more losses, and that the products and the business model of the company have been already tested.
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of the managers. This type of investors invests to obtain participation in companies that are not publicly
traded on stock exchanges.
The time horizon of private investors can be much longer than that of the seed capital investors. In this
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Criteria of commercial banks

Commercial banks are risk-averse, in comparison to private investment funds and seed capital investors.
For banks, the full payment of the loan and the interest in a timely manner are crucial. The interest rate
is established in a contract. Even though it can vary, this variation is established in advance and is not
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of a good customer or by the high risks they face. The decision to grant a loan depends mostly on the
aforementioned expectation of full and timely payment. This expectation of the bank may be positively
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89
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varies by country, but it is usually between 10% and 70% of equity within the total
capital.
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There may be also collaterals in the form of personal or bank guarantees provided by
government guaranteed banks.
Commercial banks carry out the evaluation to determine if a company is solvent through quantitative and
qualitative business factors.
Among the quantitative factors are:
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These data have the advantage of being easily accessible, but the main disadvantage is that it always
comes from the past.
Among the qualitative factors are:
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These factors say more about the opportunities and future risks to the lender and, therefore, of the reSD\PHQW +RZHYHU WKH\ DUH GLIFXOW WR TXDQWLI\ DQG SXW LQWR DQ DVVHVVPHQW VFKHPH %DQNV GHYHORS DQG
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by the staff of the bank turns out to be the only solution. The rating is a process through which banks
compare the situation of their borrowers with the results of an investigation of insolvency and determine
a sort of note or rating of the borrower. The rating is also used to determine the importance of qualitative
90
and quantitative factors allowing the observation of large amounts of data about the past of their customers. This empirical rating is very important and is used for evaluating credit potential.
Criteria of development and promotion banks

These banks, mostly publicly funded, have an explicit mission to help and support and their conditions
are more favourable than those of commercial banks, especially with less collateral requirements and
more favourable interest rates. They often do not require guarantees up to a certain limit or if they do,
these are partial. Interests are usually subsidized and therefore, lower.
Important criteria for development banks are generally more related to the purpose of fostering and less
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different from commercial banks. It is also possible that commercial banks refuse funds to a company
when it is very young and the risk is too high from their point of view. For this reason, development
banks are, along with private equity investors, the most important funders.
Development banks can also back up the responsibility of commercial banks which means that they assume the risk of unpayable credits on behalf of the commercial banks by taking the responsibility instead
of the owner or the company that receives the loan from the commercial bank.
The guarantee banks are a special form of development banks that offer entrepreneurs access to a guarantee for the payment of the credit so this can be presented to another commercial or development bank
in order to receive a loan.
91
92
93
PART TWO
Tools
94
Management of the fuzzy

front end of innovation
In the management of an innovation process there are three different phases (see Chapter 1):
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developing ideas to meet the demand detected in the market and developing the
concept of the new product and processes. At the end of the early phase, an innovation
plan must be developed.
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the innovation project, that is, the development of the new product or process.
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to the market in order to achieve a successful commercialization.
This chapter is primarily focused on the presentation of the tools that can be applied in the management
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Before innovation projects are born or set up, ideas must be developed in the early stages. But this process also needs to be structured and oriented. Ideas do not come out of nowhere and they should be reJXODWHG E\ WKH VRFDOOHG WKLQNLQJ FRUULGRUV ZKLFK PXVW EH SUHYLRXVO\ LGHQWLHG 7KLV PHDQV GHWHUPLQLQJ
the directions in which ideas will be developed. This does not depend, in turn, on random decisions, but
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innovation opportunities, which at the same time should contribute to the objectives and strategies of the
company in the future. Otherwise, one could invest and innovate in attributes or components of services
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:KHQ WKH LQQRYDWLRQ HOGV DUH GHQHG WKH JHQHUDWLRQ RI LGHDV FDQ WDNH SODFH 7KH LGHD JHQHUDWLRQ SKDVH
LV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ D OLQHDU SURFHVV LW SUREDEO\ LQFOXGHV VHYHUDO URXQGV WR QDOO\ UHDFK WKH ULJKW LGHDV
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quickly detect the best ideas within a group or pool of ideas, not only one but several processes of evaOXDWLRQ DUH UHTXLUHG 7KHVH LGHDV QHHG WR EH GHYHORSHG WR KDYH LQ WKH HQG D GHQHG FRQFHSW WDNLQJ LQWR
consideration all the possible success factors. Based on the concept of the new product, the innovation
project planning has to be developed considering the internal and external resources of the company. Finally, the plan is evaluated and in the best case, adopted by the next stage of the process: the NPD phase
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However, this process shown above is not so simple. For example, in the phase of the demand and opportunity analysis, it is essential to establish a clear link between the innovation focus on the one hand, and
the general business strategy on the other. This involves the development of many activities to make a
comprehensive analysis of the internal and external factors of the organization. As far as the idea generation phase is concerned, it does not only require the correct method for the generation of ideas but it also
depends on building the right team and having the appropriate environment (e.g. organizational culture)
to encourage the generation of ideas; the progress of an idea in the process does not occur automatically.
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introduction of new ideas faces resistance within the organization. Ideas do not progress by themselves
through the innovation process: key people, methods and other elements are necessary for moving ideas
forward.
In the past decades, the attention was mainly set on the NPD phase and the other phases were managed
by other disciplines such as sales and marketing. But the early stage of innovation, also known as Fuzzy
front-end (the confusing front-end) was not the focus of the analysis. However, this front-end repreVHQWV DV VKRZQ LQ )LJXUH WKH SDUW RI WKH SURFHVV LQ ZKLFK LQQRYDWLRQ FDQ EH PRUH LQXHQFHG VLQFH
the front-end of innovation management shows a high potential for improvement.
96
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Costs of change
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Innovation Process
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Demand and Opportunity Analysis

The demand and opportunity analysis should be divided into the analysis of market demands and opportunities (external) on the one hand, and the analysis of demands (internal) on the other.
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There are several methods for structuring the collection of customers and market information
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Personas is a tool capable of transforming data about the market into a subject, into a model. The tool
takes the information of the market and turns it into an archetype that facilitates the design of services
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concerning the design of products or services are being taken.
One of the most powerful tools for innovation management is the QFD (Quality Function Deployment),
because it can assist the innovation process from its inception until the design phase. The results are
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IXOOPHQW +RZ LV WKLV DFFRPSOLVKHG" %RWK WKH GHPDQGV DQG WKH IDFWRUV WKDW VDWLVI\ WKHP DUH LQWURGXced in the so-called House of Quality and in this way, it becomes possible to link them, visualize them,
and also to identify the positive and negative interrelations with each feature of the product involved in
satisfying the customer demands. The tool allows one to determine where or in what should be innovated.
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98
strategic areas for innovation taking into account the products offered by the competitors and their ability
to meet the needs of the customers compared to the companys own offer.
The scenario technique allows analyzing different possible variants of the reality in the future. Since
the different scenarios are constructed based on coherent combinations of variables, this method is very
useful for determining the options of action and strategy courses that should be adopted in certain future
scenarios. It is advisable to create scenarios with the variables that could affect the project the most and
not to develop too many scenarios; it is more useful to develop some scenarios with clear contingency
strategies.
Particularly in the area of service companies, an effective complaints management can provide valuable
suggestions from the client for the improvement of products and service concepts.
The rapid concept development method is a market research approach that combines the qualitative and
quantitative approaches. This method seeks to obtain substantial information about the needs of customers in a short period of time complementing qualitative elements, such as Focus Groups, with quantitative elements such as telephone surveys for market research.
The product clinic concept is based on the analysis of the companys own products and the competitors
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working group comparative evaluation and a practical test of the different products will be conducted.
To determine the company demands, we must analyze the long-term business strategies of the company,
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JRDOV DV ZHOO DV RWKHU W\SHV RI REMHFWLYHV LQ HDFK VSHFLF FDVH 7KHUHIRUH LW ZLOO EH QHFHVVDU\ WR EH FOHDU
on what the product represents for the company in strategic terms in the present and the future. Thus, we
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in question.
The tools that contribute to this analysis are:
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For the portfolio analysis, the matrix of the Boston Consulting Group is a very useful tool. Developed
some years ago in order to analyze products from the point of view of their market growth and the partiFLSDWLRQ WKDW WKH FRPSDQ\ KDV LQ WKH SURGXFW PDUNHW WKH PDWUL[ SURYLGHV DQ RYHUYLHZ RI WKH SURWDELOLW\
of the companys product groups (portfolio) and the ability of each product or service to generate cash.
Portfolio analysis models are directly related to the future performance of the products or services in the
market.
99
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The experience of the authors and the good results obtained with the application of certain tools has been
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the process, four tools have been selected: Personas, QFD (Quality Function Deployment), FMEA, and
the Scenarios Technique.
Idea generation
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the right ideas. Ideas do not come by themselves in the process of innovation. Key people, methods and
other elements are necessary for moving ideas forward.
Intuitive methods are those that allow to reach a broader range of ideas, because they are usually not
limited by reason and logic. Therefore, special precautions should be taken. Among these techniques we
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On the other hand, systematic-analytical methods require staff with a deep knowledge of the product or
the service that will be the object of the development process, as they closely involve the rational characWHULVWLFV RI WKH SURGXFWVHUYLFH $PRQJ WKHVH DUH
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7KH XVH RI D PHWKRG RU DQRWKHU GHSHQGV RQ WKH FRQGLWLRQV WKHUHIRUH LW LV VXJJHVWHG WR GHQH ZKLFK DSplication to use considering the situation of the company and the availability of relevant information. The
requirements for the development of a new product or service are also different from those related to the
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7KH WKHRU\ RI LQYHQWLYH SUREOHP VROYLQJ 75,= LV D PHWKRGRORJ\ WKDW FRQWDLQV D VHW RI WRROV WR JHQHrate ideas for solving a given problem. This methodology provides methods that facilitate the problem
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patterns. This systematic process has been generated in the area of engineering, but can be applied in
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and a modelling representation of a current technological system, generating in this way ideas to solve
problems and make innovations.
For this part of the process, the authors chose to explain the following tools in detail:
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Idea evaluation
A simple method for the assessment of ideas is the clustering and prioritization of ideas. This consists
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be evaluated according to the existing activities in the company that can generate synergies, the radical
nature of the idea, the business opportunity of the idea and the perceived potential threat if the idea is
implemented.
In the process, the alignment of the external and internal assessment criteria with the business strategy of
the company is very important. The external and internal demands must be prioritized.
The assessment of ideas considering the internal and external aspects can also be performed through two
basic methods: Scoring and evaluation.
The scoring method is based on the weighting and rating assigned to selected criteria according to fun-
101
ding requirements, the ease of implementation, degree of customer acceptance, usability and originality,
and so on of the new ideas.
This method assigns a weight to each criterion of the product or service depending on their importance
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Finally, the sum of all the weighted values must be calculated and compared to those of the other ideas,
choosing the one that obtained the highest value.
The evaluation method involves assigning a value to the different properties of the service, of the market, competencies and ability to manage expected risks, and then comparing these values with the other
options. The following group of criteria is taken into consideration:
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Market attractiveness
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Competence and technology
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Ability to manage risks
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The optimal scenario would be that representatives of strategic planning, marketing, development, sales,
distribution and service were present in the assessment rounds. Once the evaluation of ideas has been
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If at this point ideas have been evaluated and selected according to the key criteria outlined above, it
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stage of the product or services, since the ideas with low commercialization potential are dismissed in
the beginning.
Definition of the concept

Once the ideas with potential for innovation have been evaluated and selected, the planning process
must be completed preparing the conditions for the management of the project implementation and deWHUPLQLQJ LWV ORFDWLRQ DORQJ WKH OLQH RI WKH WHFKQRORJLFDO DQG VFLHQWLF GHYHORSPHQW 7KH FRQFHSW RI WKH
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7KH GHQLWLRQ RI WKH FRQFHSW RI SURGXFWV VHUYLFHV RU QHZ RU PRGLHG SURFHVVHV LV RQH RI WKH PRVW LPportant stages of the innovation planning. The importance lies on the coherence that the innovation result
must have regarding the set objectives.
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them graphically, it is possible to understand which goals are developed from others and which are more
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of people, the motivations and the rationale for decisions, including the timeframe. Of course, the objectives must be determined with a strict market orientation.
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model, which allows the categorization of the attributes of products and services into three groups (basic,
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The functional analysis allows analyzing the interaction of the components of a system. This tool analyzes the functions performed by these components and is useful for checking the coherence of the attriEXWHV WKDW DUH PHDQW WR EH JHQHUDWHG LQ WKH SURGXFW RU VHUYLFH LQ UHODWLRQ WR VSHFLF JRDOV 6LPLODUO\ WKH
functional analysis allows checking the interrelationship of the components of a system that complies
with certain process.
A very useful tool for generating innovative concepts of services is the Service Blueprinting, which is a
method of analysis, visualization and optimization of service processes. With the use of Service BlueSULQWLQJ WKH OD\RXW RI WKH VHUYLFH LV GHVFULEHG LQ D RZFKDUW $V D UHVXOW ZH REWDLQ WKH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI
the chronological sequence of activities in the service process (in the horizontal plane). Each individual
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method, both the customer's point of view as the provider's with respect to the process is evident. The
strength of using Blueprinting is on the detailed structuring of service provision processes with the aim of
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One of the most important criteria in the development phase of the innovative product or service concept
is the commercial feasibility. To avoid going through the whole process and reaching in the end a product
or service for which costs and prices are beyond what the market is able and willing to pay, it is essential
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Considering their great usefulness and versatility, the Service Blueprinting and the Target Costing have
been selected to be explained in more detail later on.
104
Project planning
Core elements of project planning are:
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The planning of activities allows describing people in charge, important aspects and dates for each
required activity. The structure plans and the task lists are usually ready at the beginning of an orderly
project planning process. On the other hand, a PERT chart or network diagram does not only denote the
sequence of activities; this can also show the critical route of the project by clarifying which activities
are prerequisites of others and which resources are involved. To visually show the duration and temporal
interdependence relationship among the different activities, the GANTT chart, or bar chart, is an appropriate tool for easy reading.
It is important to strike a reference in the time space and the development of science and technology for
the innovation project. To achieve this, a very suitable tool is the Roadmapping, which articulates the
foresight, the management and the strategic planning in a comprehensive manner in terms of aggregation levels (corporate, industrial) as well as in terms of time (extrapolation, retrospective). Additionally,
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through the collaboration and integration of relevant actors. Roadmapping is a wonderful tool for planQLQJ DQG DOORFDWLQJ UHVRXUFHV LQ WKH VKRUW PHGLXP DQG ORQJWHUP IDFLOLWDWLQJ WKH H[LELOLW\ DQG DGDSWDELOLW\ WKURXJK WKH LGHQWLFDWLRQ DQG GHOLQHDWLRQ RI DOWHUQDWLYH SDWKZD\V
There are different methods to establish the requirements and to allocate resources to different activities
of an innovation project. In case of having the project blueprint, this can be complemented with the alORFDWLRQ RI UHVRXUFHV IRU HDFK VSHFLF DFWLYLW\ ,W ZLOO DOVR EH QHFHVVDU\ WR SHUIRUP DQ DGHTXDWH UHVRXUFH
analysis, comparing different options to choose the most economic and safe ones in terms of availability
and quality.
With the purpose of allowing an appropriate management of the project, the structure of the project must
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of the innovation project in different hierarchical and approximation levels.
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105
tasks, indicating their roles, their authority and the necessary and conferred competences. The analysis
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Since the information management is crucial for the success of the innovation projects, it is recommenGHG WR SODQ WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ RZV WKDW ZLOO EH QHHGHG 7KH LQIRUPDWLRQ PDWUL[ FDQ LGHQWLI\ ZKR WKH NH\
people are and what information they should receive. This instrument can still be used later in the project
management phase.
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can determine any time the balance between what has been planned, what has been executed and the variations. This will allow taking timely preventive and corrective actions and redirecting the capture and
allocation of the project resources.
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We will present below detailed explanations or implementation guides for certain rules that can be also
applied in this phase of the innovation process in its early stage:
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Feasibility assessment
It is necessary to include a feasibility assessment in the plan for several reasons, for example to present
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and the internal rate of return (IRR). These investment evaluation methodologies are also used to show
customers the additional value created by introducing a new product, an innovative service or process
innovation in into their activities. The time required for the return of the investment is another very
important indicator of innovation projects. Later on in this book, we present the dynamic methods of
investment appraisal.
106
Intangible aspects of the Management

of the front end of innovation
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the organizational culture and the way in which this promotes or inhibits the establishment of a favourable environment for innovation. Behavioural barriers hinder the understanding and cooperation necessary
to pursue successful innovation projects.
The methodologies for measuring the cultural disposition towards innovation and for identifying barriers
and their solutions will be further addressed in this book. In order to enable the change in the culture
towards innovation, besides the elimination of barriers, it is necessary to perform an analysis of the
stakeholders involved and include innovation drivers within the organization itself. For this purpose,
methodologies and explanations are given below.
The innovation plan

The central document in which all essential information from the early stage of innovation management
converges is the innovation plan. The importance of writing a good document lies mainly on the need for
systematic information that enables to maintain the focus and pace during the project implementation.
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related to the dispersion of efforts, to distant perceptions among members of the organization regarding
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among other problems. In a nutshell, a good documented innovation project contributes to reduce the risk
of project failure by providing good information for the implementation. On the other hand, it allows the
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be used to monitor and control the advances and partial results during the implementation with regard
to what was originally planned. In this way, the document greatly facilitates timely corrective decisions.
The innovation plan is structured as follows:
Part 1
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is, all the concepts and existing and proposed elements to be taken into account to achieve the desired
impact. In contrast, the second part contains all the planning to implement the new concept, including
everything needed to make things happen in such a way as to obtain the change and impact foreseen in
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The document structure is designed in a way that responds certain key questions when it comes to elaborate the project innovation:
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To answer these questions it is necessary to perform an analysis of the internal and external demands that
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that result from the above, to determine how the innovation will be achieved.
Analysis of external and internal demand

The internal demands are mainly related to needs or motives within the company or the organization
that could trigger an initiative to innovate in something. Internal cost pressure or the need to achieve the
targets of the companys strategy can generate some of these internal demands. On the other hand, continuous improvement practices and the observation of our customers portfolio, their needs and satisfaction are often among the most important demands. Of course, problems and risks generated in production
108
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safety of these processes often represent an internal demand as well.
Conversely, external demands come from those actors and forces surrounding the company in its context.
External demand is most commonly generated by competitors, which constantly produce challenges
when they innovate and grow in number. Similarly, potential clients and new markets also trigger external demands that motivate innovation. Many demands are generated by external regulations and other
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necessary to generate an innovation project in order to adapt the company and its production to the new
requirements of existing and new markets. The increasing resource constraints and, consequently, the
rising prices of inputs and raw materials are other external factors that often generate demands.
Additionally, the strategic foresight of the company enables the visualization of demands that will appear
in the future, from both external and internal sources.
Analysis of technological options

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meet the innovation project objectives. Monitoring technology is a very important source of information
and often can help to trigger a new innovation project, just because of the impulse caused by a new technology that opens new possibilities to enhance or create products, services or processes.
Here, important features of technologies must be analyzed by comparing them with each other, whether
it is production technologies, machinery, component options, alternative forms of communication and
distribution, etc.
New product, service or process idea and its value proposition

In this chapter of the innovation plan, the management of the ideas generated after identifying internal
and external demands must be clearly documented. Sometimes, ideas come from the analysis of the
technological available options. These ideas are possible solutions to those problems or possible ways to
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risks, etc.
Moreover, this chapter should document in a very precise way the value proposition related to the chosen
109
ideas. For this purpose, it is advised to compare the current reality of the products, services or processes
with different scenarios that could happen if the ideas proposed were implemented.
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any other fact that allows the appreciation of the generated value.
Concept of new product, service or process

This chapter is intended to describe as clearly as possible the concept of the new product, service or process. Certainly, this also applies to incremental innovations that simply introduce improvements in the
products, services or processes.
All tools that help describe in detail the design, form, composition, physical-chemical characteristics,
times, quantities and all other measurable variables relevant to the new concept should be included in
this section of the document.
In addition to the detailed description of the new concept of product, service or process, it is necessary to
incorporate those aspects that will affect the new concept. Changes or new strategies in communication,
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and production lines, input supply strategy, infrastructure and permanent changes in the organization
and staff. In this way, the unit costs of products or services as well as the cycle costs of processes can be
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legal issues must be also stated in this part of the document, as same as the risks and corrective measures
related to the new concept.
Impact on firm performance

Since innovation only counts as such when it generates value and has an economic impact. This section of
the document is the one that contains the indicators that show the convenience of carrying out the project.
Here should be expressed all expected changes in terms of sales, market share, growth, cost reduction,
time reduction, risk reduction, positioning in relation to competitors or corresponding variables according to the nature of the project.
It is of utmost importance to quantify the expected impact. For this purpose, different tools can be used
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At this point, another very important question arises, and will be answered in the following paragraphs:
How will the innovation project be managed?
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Key activities for project implementation and timetable

Once the new concept and its impact are clearly documented, it is necessary to also document the activities that will make possible the achievement of the goals. All tasks to be done must be listed and described here, as well as the responsible actor and the temporal project structure needed to carry out these
tasks. This will provide clear milestones to assess the implementation progress.
Key resources
Normally there are certain key resources for project implementation. These can be human resources,
experts, new facilities, machinery and specialized information. In that regard, these resources should be
described in detail on this chapter, including their costs and the ways to access to those resources.
Key partners in project implementation

Certain resources, knowledge and key relationships for the project are often in the hands of third parties
and this generates the need of cooperation for implementation. This section of the document describes
the partners, the mechanisms used for keeping the relationship and the transactions with them. The resSRQVLELOLWLHV DQG EHQHWV WKDW HDFK RI WKH SDUWLHV LQYROYHG ZLOO JHW ZKHQ SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ WKH SURMHFW PXVW
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Cost and feasibility of the project

All calculations of costs emerging from the implementation of the project must be shown and described
in detail. Here it is important to clarify that this is about the costs related to the implementation of the
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on the chapter dedicated to the new concept.
Finally, the feasibility can be determined by analyzing the data of this chapter in comparison with the
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the convenience of implementing the project instead of another will be clear.
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The innovation project canvas

One very useful tool for presenting the most important aspects of the proposed innovation project in a
summarized and integrated way is the innovation project canvas. In this canvas, all the information from
the early stage of innovation management converges and is synthesized. This tool serves as an executive
summary and greatly facilitates the visualization of the innovation project.
Inspired by a similar canvas used for business plans development (Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010), the
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Given the qualities of the innovation project canvas, this tool is ideal for communication within the company and among the members of the project team. Moreover, it allows comparison of different versions
from an innovation project, facilitating the analysis and discussion of alternatives.
112
Personas
To develop products and services in a customer oriented way, the analysis of the needs and requirements
of the customers is mandatory. The customer requirements should be the basis for all tasks related with
the development of new products. Hence they have to be extracted, documented, stored and presented
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possible approach to represent all the information collected about the customer.
The method introduced and described in this handbook aims at transforming information about the customer into a form, which is easy and accessible for the innovation team. The suggested solution is the
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product, which has to be developed.
Description
Personas are detailed, accessible archetypes, which are representative for actual groups of users and their
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people, but not directly based on individual people.
The Persona-and-Scenario method was developed by Alan Cooper, a Visual BASIC developer. Cooper
believed that it was essential to have empathy with users in product design, and used a persona in the
product development of Visual BASIC. The Persona-and-Scenario method is a design technique to help
to provide the product that users really want to use.
Personas humanize usually big quantity of customer information, which exists within a company, in
a way, that the fuzzy customer is transferred into concrete users, which represent the focused target
groups. The advantage of this tool is that it is much easier to keep information in mind and refer to them
during the innovation process, which is related to people (in our Personas case), then remembering hard
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for the user.
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user research like observational studies, contextual inquiry, interviews, etc.
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Why Personas?
The development of new services or products is usually structured in projects, which are performed by
a more or less open and interdisciplinary team. Normally each team member has at the beginning of the
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the most fundamental bases for a successful development is a common and data-based understanding of
the user within the team. This is important for a focused and aligned cooperative team work. Personas
can transport this conform view into all by the innovation process connected departments in a company.
So other departments like the marketing department target the same customer groups and can comply
with the work of the innovation team.
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interpretation by all team members is not guaranteed. Personas offer an elegant way to escape from this
dilemma.
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and internet surveys, hotline tracking, etc. The data gained through these tasks are processed, analyzed and
generally afterward provided in form of reports, consisting of big piles of papers. These extensive reports
gain most of the time not the attention in innovation processes they deserve. Mainly this is because they
are not usable for the work within these kinds of projects. During the development process of services or
products there are hundreds of decisions to be made where the customer reports mentioned above play ofWHQ QR UROH DW DOO 7KH PDMRULW\ RI WKH GHFLVLRQV DUH EDVHG RQ VRPH IDFWV DQG D ORW RI XQVSHFLF DVVXPSWLRQV
about the customers and their needs. Besides the imparting of knowledge about customer groups, personas
are also valuable for the evaluation of design decisions, where market research reports in general fail.
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to focus on the relevant aspects and leads often to products or services with a vast of complexity, because
features are implemented for almost every imaginable customer in the world. The development of products or services for markets is problematic because they are consumed by individual customers and not
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from the limitation of features or options.
Product attributes and features which satisfy one customer can annoy other customers (e.g.: a disco with
loud music in a holiday complex). A customer satisfaction level of 50% will not be reached if we satisfy
all customers up to 50%. The customers should be separated into groups and solutions should be developed which satisfy single groups 100%. Personas are in these circumstances an optimal way to do so.
114
The following Persona is an example for a product development project. You should keep hereby in mind
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Lets assume there is a company from the electronics industry, which offers shavers and the management
has decided to innovate in their premium product. To do so, they decided to use Personas as a tool to keep
the innovation process customer focused. The following Persona is an example how one of the target
customers might be described.
Example of Personas: Tom Jones

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in an international marketing company, where he is the Branch manager for
Great Britain. His responsibilities reach from human resources up to key
account managing for customers all over Great Britain. He is the face of the
branch and has to meet regularly with the main customers.
Most of the time he manages to return home from his business meetings late in the evening, but from
time to time it happens that he has to stay overnight in a hotel.
As the representative of his company for Great Britain he also has to regularly go to the Headquarter in
New York. Because of his job and position he has to wear suits and ties every day.
His annual income was 70.000 pounds last year.
His job also takes most of his time at weekdays, but he spends most of his free time at weekends with his
family. He lives 30 miles outside of the city with his wife and two children in a suburban detached house.
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3 days. When he comes back from his trips, you would not recognize him as a manager of a marketing
company.
Tom shaves his beard every morning, but it is a must for him and no pleasure at all. At the weekends or
at holiday seasons he prefers to wear a three day beard. Some years before he used to shave his beard
wet. This took him up to ten minutes every morning. Nowadays he uses an electronic shaver, because it
is quicker and it stresses his skin not so much, but he is not highly pleased with the shaving results of his
actual model..
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Types of Personas
Personas can be separated into different classes, which are introduced in the next paragraphs.
Primary and Secondary Personas

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attract the most of the attention during the development process. They are the main focus the service or
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future users. If the developers just consider the Primary Personas the result will also match the most of
the requirements of the Secondary Personas. The other way around it can be this way but doesnt have
to be. Primary Personas have attributes which are shared by a big part of the target groups. Secondary
Personas instead incorporate characteristics of smaller parts of the potential customers which are maybe
also rated as relevant for the project.
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Personas. They represent requirements of customers which could not be incorporated into Primary Personas. Secondary Personas should enrich the development process and not restrict or hinder it.
As an example, a public transportation system would be examined. The goal is to provide the customers
with information about the time schedule of the busses. As Primary Persona in this case a retired woman
is selected and as Secondary Persona a teenager. Why is it this way and not vice versa? From the primary
Persona we can get, that the schedule attached to the bus stop has to have big letters and should be easy
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to all target groups and excludes none by its attributes. If we had chosen the teenager and his requirePHQWV DV SULPDU\ IRFXV WKH UHVXOW FRXOG EH QRW VXIFLHQW IRU RWKHU WDUJHW JURXSV OLNH WKH HOGHUO\ SHRSle. Nevertheless, the teenager as a Secondary Persona can add value to the solution. Perhaps it implies
additional information at the bottom of the schedule with a link to the online timetable with additional
features, which is accessible via mobile phones.
Descriptive vs. Individualized Personas

3HUVRQDV FDQ EH GLIIHUHQWLDWHG E\ WKH SHUVSHFWLYH WKH\ DUH GHVFULEHG 'HVFULSWLYH 3HUVRQDV SUROHV LQclude mainly data how the Persona is seen by others like the marketing department. On the other hand,
116
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Special form: Assumption Personas

Assumption Personas are Personas which are developed without any prior market studies or other information basis. They are just based on assumptions the stakeholders have about the target group. These
assumptions are different for each person, because they were developed from individual experiences and
information which was processed, internalized and consolidated.
Although we strongly recommend to develop Personas on a basis of data and information, Assumption
Personas can also contribute to the development process. The collective development of Assumption Personas shows gaps in the common understandings about the target group within the development team. It
also reveals missing information about the target group, which have to be raised. Assumption Personas are
mainly used for communication within the team. If there is no available data to create original Personas and
the information cannot be raised, Assumption Personas can also be used in the regular way.
Personas development process

Personas underlie a life cycle which consists of four phases.
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117
Project preparation and data collection

Team building
The core team should consist of people from different departments, which can contribute to the Personas development. Of course you should include staff who are already involved in user research, market
research, business analysis, task analysis, or any other user or customer focused research. In addition
it might be helpful to integrate some advisory members like data mining experts, graphic designers, or
software developer.
The number of the core team members depends strongly on the structure and size of your organization.
In general the core development team should include at least two and maximum ten members.
Activity planning
You should plan your activities before you start the development process and keep a regularly updated
activity plan.
The activity plan should contain at least the following points:
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core team
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Personas method and how to use them)
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follow a strict time schedule to align with the global business and product planning)
Data collection
Personas are all about customer orientation.
A deep and profound understanding of the customers requirements is necessary for the development of
3HUVRQDV 3HUVRQDV VKRXOG EH GHYHORSHG LQ D VFLHQWLF ZD\ DQG EDVH RQ FRQFUHWH IDFWV +HQFH WKH VWDUting point of the true development should be the creation of a user information database. The data in the
database has to be collected and transformed into an adequate uniform format. To keep the costs of the
Personas development in strict boundaries, it is advisable to use already existing data as far as possible.
These existing data can come from in-house or external sources like market research companies. A list of
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potential data sources follows. The list makes no claim of completeness.
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Additionally the following data sources can be helpful to:
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sales staff, business plan.
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the most of the cases. During the composition of the data base you should consider to use quantitative
as well as qualitative data. In general, data from several resources deliver better results than from one
single resource.
The next step after the collection of the instantly available data is the development of a data-themematrix. This is a view of the relevant themes of the project scope and the according data which support
them. As a result gaps within the data base will be discovered, which lead to a data collection plan. To
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Additional data
A direct survey with the future users of the service or product is the best method to obtain all the necesVDU\ LQIRUPDWLRQ WR OO WKH GLVFRYHUHG JDSV )RU D TXDOLWDWLYH TXHVWLRQQDLUH WKH IROORZLQJ WRSLFV FDQ EH
valuable:
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the service
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This information enriches your personas and helps your team to understand how people think, act and
behave without the product or service, which has to be developed.
If there is no possible access to the customer, a stakeholder approach can be helpful. It also contributes
to the quality of the Personas as an additional procedure beside a direct questionnaire. Interviews with
business stakeholder, which interact with customers regularly, can get you a good insight into the behaviour and thoughts of the customer. These stakeholders in general have developed a keen sense for the
requirements of the customer.
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of ignoring them.
Restaurant Example
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about the customers a survey was performed. The following questions are a sample from the questionnaire.
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o Reasonably-priced food
o Quite environment
o Quality of food
o Outdoor seats
o Selection of food
o Accessible via public transport
o Selection of drinks (wine, beer, liquor)
o Child friendly
o Special food (vegan/vegetarian/low-fat)
o Free parking
o Buffet style
o Cleanliness
o Romantic setup
o Politeness of staff.
o Trendy place
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Persona conception and creation

The goal in the second phase is to create a set of Personas, which is
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7KH UVW VWHS LV WR LGHQWLI\ JURXSV RI XVHUV ZKLFK DUH LPSRUWDQW IRU WKH EXVLQHVV DUHD 7KH HDUO\ GHYHlopment of categories, although they are based on assumptions, helps to structure the data analysis and
creates a link between the present view on the customers and the data driven Personas, which have to
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which are important for the business.
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into the more bottom up based method. It also makes it simpler to process the information to Personas.
Restaurant Example
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groups of people, who want to have fun and families. This raw division represents groups of users and no
single user at all.
Data analysis
The data analysis step processes the raw data collected previously and extracts the relevant information
for the user and service or product domain. There are different ways to perform the data analysis. The
121
appropriate methods and tools depend on the structure of the available data. There are two major goals in
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Grouping of customers by hand

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RU QRW )XUWKHUPRUH \RX VHH ZKHWKHU WKH\ DUH GLVWULEXWHG KRPRJHQHRXVO\ EHWZHHQ WKH SUHGHQHG JURXSV
,I \RX GRQW QG DQ\ FXVWRPHU IRU VRPH JURXSV RU WKHLU GLVWULEXWLRQ LV YHU\ XQHTXDO \RXU JURXSV UHSUHsent perhaps not the reality of your customer basis. You should consider to redesign your groups. In a
further step you can examine how alike the people within a group are or how much they vary. Similarities
within the attributes you can search for are areas like age, sex or job description. If the groups are not
homogeneous, you should separate them again by additional attributes. It is not easy to name a number
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manual approach is well suited if the data source allows no statistical examination.
Restaurant Example
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asked about their companion when they visit a restaurant and use this information to separate the whole
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Statistical data analysis

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statistical tools like correlation analysis, cluster analysis, or principal component analysis on your data.
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For example, with correlation analysis you can receive the information, that there is a dependency between the number of children a person has and the frequency of visiting restaurants or bars. If a strong
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our example it would be appropriate that a Persona without children goes twice a week for dinner in a
122
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Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that observations in the same cluster are similar in some sense. In our case these observations are the customers with
their attributes, which have to be analyzed. As a result of the Cluster analysis you get groups of users
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one Persona skeleton, or take one of the persons as a development base for the next steps.
Additionally to the Cluster analysis, you can perform a principal component analysis. With this analysis
you limit the number of possibly correlated variables (attributes of the customers) to a smaller uncorrelated number of variables. Using this smaller number of variables a complexity reduction of the Cluster
analysis takes place. This method may or may not lead to better results. After the clustering of the customer you use the original attributes for further analysis instead of the principal components (smaller
number attributes).
Restaurant Example
The analysis of the collected data from the restaurant survey showed, that the cleanliness of the restaurant and the quality of the food was important for all the customers. Hence these aspects can be
seen as preconditions and can t support the clustering of customers. So they were excluded from further
analysis. In some of the points there were common feelings within the whole sample but there were also
mixed feelings about several features as the buffet style, the selection of food and drinks or the location.
These varied feelings indicate the presence of different customer groups. For the next step a correlation
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numbers below.
In the following table (see table 9) the cells with a grey background, for example, can give some impliFDWLRQV IRU WKH 3HUVRQD GHYHORSPHQW 7KH UVW RQH VKRZV D FRUUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH H[SHFWDWLRQ WR KDYH
a romantic surrounding and the expectation to have a wide selection of drinks (wine, etc.). The small
number in the cell child-friendly vs. romantic setup shows that there is no dependency between these two
aspects. On the other hand, the expectation to have a child-friendly environment correlates strong with
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description of the Personas.
123
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25 16 05
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07 26 14 16 14
25 31 22 12 44 17
15 05 12 20 13 23 30
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124
Its important to remember that the data analysis aggregates information about the customers. From a
customer survey you can get, that 50 percent of the railway travellers would like to have a coffee during
their journey. If your sample is big enough, you can get representative predictions about the amount of
coffee you can sell if you offer this kind of service. Personas on the other hand are not representative.
From the Persona which likes to drink coffee you can deduce that a coffee offer would make a train trip
more comfortable and based on this you can make a design decision. But you cannot predict any future
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Development of Persona skeletons

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step. Persona skeletons are lists of basic characteristics which you derive from the users in each category.
You can pick one single customer of the group and orientate your proceeding on him. But do not use him
in general, because he might not represent the group with each of his characteristics.
Examples for basic Persona characteristics are:
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or product
Restaurant Example
For our example we can set up three Persona skeletons (because of the three user groups). A very limited
skeleton would be the following.
Name: Paul Alan, 29 years
Family: single, has a girlfriend
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Wants to relax and have a good time with his girlfriend.
He goes out for Dinner two times a week and spends $80 each time.
I want to have an excellent service and I m poised to pay for it
125
Select the most valuable skeletons

The goal of this step is, to select a subset of skeletons which is most valuable for the development project.
To set up a decision basis you can gather feedback from the stakeholder. The priority of these Personas
can be determined by frequency of use, the market scale, purchasing power and strategic importance. The
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goal. With this prioritization you can make a selection of skeletons, which will be developed towards
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With the decision which Personas are most valuable for the company and the project also the number
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SURMHFW \RX SODQ WR GR ,I \RX SODQ WR GHYHORS YHU\ VSHFLF VRIWZDUH IRU DFFRXQWLQJ \RX QHHG MXVW D IHZ
Personas, because there is probably no big variation in the usage of the software or the requirements of
the users. On the other hand, if you plan to innovate in a mass customer service like public transportation,
you probably need quite a lot of Personas to cover all of your target groups. In general, you should choose
between three and seven skeletons to develop Personas in detail. You should try to limit the number as
much as possible, to focus your further work.
Example of Personas: Restaurant

Here we have to decide which of the customer groups are more important for our business. As you can
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and the romantic customers both 100 percent. In this stage, the value of the customers was calculated
(frequency of visit, spending during one visit and size of the target group.
In our case, the company decides to focus on the romantic and the fun in a group customers. Hence,
in the next step two Personas were developedin detail.
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Add more detailed information to the skeletons to form complete Personas. Individualized details and stoU\WHOOLQJ HOHPHQWV JLYH 3HUVRQDV UHDO SHUVRQDOLW\ DQG FRQWH[W 3HUVRQDV EHFRPH VSHFLF ZLWK GHWDLOV WKDW
make them real: names, families, pet peeves, homes, jobs, type of computer used, goals, tasks, needs, etc.
126
Additional information
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and idiosyncratic like life is.
Example: Tom Jones

The following example shows a scenario of a Persona, created for a development project for a new electric shaver. The Persona is Tom a 40 year old manager, who lives with his family in the suburbs and works
in the inner city. One possible scenario could be: Tom is late for work because his youngest child cried all
night long and he could not sleep until 4 am. When he wakes up this morning, it is just 7:45 am. He has an
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minutes almost every day.
Everyone can picture the morning of the manager in his mind and deduce that time plays an important
role for Tom, especially on this morning when he is late. On the one hand, 30 minutes time is lost in the
car (an implication for mobility use of the shaver?) and on the other hand less time is left to shave at home
(fast shaving).
Select a picture for the Persona that feels right. Add additional pictures which show the persona in
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You can also show other relevant details like: pets, car, friends, favourite magazine, favourite places or
technology the Persona uses.
Every detail which is added to a Persona limits the degree of freedom in the development process. With
strict orientation on the Personas during the development process, also the overload of the product or
service with innumerable features and decision options will be prevented. For example, if we design for
a Persona which has overweight, some sport offers of a holiday resort are inappropriate or some design
options and materials for a product are obsolete.
127
Sharing Personas
There are three mayor areas to share the developed Personas within your Organization:
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The most common way to introduce Personas in your organization is through formal presentations or
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working space. So they are always close to the team. The Persona descriptions should be on the team
website or easily available to all organizational members via intranet.
A more informal way is, to use them in stories and scenarios or referring to them during meetings. You
can also introduce your Personas using them for design reviews. To include Personas as the starting point
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to keep the Personas in mind of the organization.
Using Personas
There is a huge number of ways to use Personas. To keep the customer and its needs in the focus of the
development process, Personas can be used in almost every stage within the development process of a
product or service. The fact, that Personas can be used for communication purpose within the development
team was already mentioned above. With Personas, the vision of the service or product and how it matches
the requirement of the customer can be visualized. In this context one of the most important cases used
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the Personas services and products can be developed with attributes that contribute perfectly to customer
satisfaction. A set of Personas can also be used to test whether the developed service or product is adequate
for all of the target groups or whether eventually some variants should be developed.Personas can be used
as templates for usability reviews. The team overtakes the position and mindset of a Persona and uses
the service or product in that way the Persona would do. This is also a good basis to setup scenarios to test
the conformity of the service or the product and its attributes with the customers expectations.
Based on Personas a day in the life experience can be established for the stakeholders of the development process. The day in the life experience is a method where the participants reconstruct a day in the
life of a Persona. Especially the situations in which the service or the product is used by the Persona are
in the focus of the tool and are examined. With the application of this tool a much deeper understanding
for the problems, which should be solved by the product or service, and requirements of the customer can
be raised. The method takes a look at the socioeconomic environment the customer lives in and uses the
product or service.
128
Quality Function Deployment

(QFD) of products and services
Definition
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QFD is a methodology that goes along the whole product or service development process and translates
the clients requirements into product or service characteristics (Schmidt & Steffenhagen, 2007).
QFD is not only a quality tool, it is also an important planning tool that allows taking the voice of the
costumer through the product development until market entry.
The QFD Approach

Among the main advantages of the QFD is that it allow us to understand the clients requirements. This
tool transforms the qualitative terminology in which products and services characteristics are described
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QFD for products

In order to undertake the product development, it is necessary to translate these fuzzy requirements
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Figure 35: The QFD approach for products.
129
The requirements analysis allows to understand what the client wants. While the design requirements
show the functions of the product. These, in turn, will be the base for the characteristics of the product
components.
QFD for services

Just like with products, the QFD for services starts with understanding the clients requirements. This
will be then converted into quantitative design requirements.
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Services are not developed as a whole; instead, they are developed through the integration of different
components. The component features are what provide the functionality that in turn satisfy client requirements.
Firm organization is another factor that effects service development. Unfortunately, the importance of the
service development process is not known by all the employees. For this reason, the establishment of an
appropriate communication system is particularly important. This system must keep the meaning of the
clients requirements during the development process.
Methodology of QFD
The QFD development methodology is based on a series of matrices called house of quality. The structure of these matrices is described in the following sections.
130
House of Quality (HOQ)

The matrix is called the house of quality, due to a roof-like structure in its top. This house can be divided
into rooms. A tour through the different rooms is described below.
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Voice of the customer - VOC (What?)

QFD starts by establishing objectives (called What?). The objectives normally derive from client requests and are called the voice of the costumer.
Clients requirements (What?)
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the functionality of the product or service.
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However, some other wants cannot be or are not verbalized by the clients, but are important parts of the
product because they perform basic functions, which the customer expects. These basic functions are
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need the client has not appreciated before. Figure 38 depicts the sorts of quality in a client satisfaction
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Design requirements (How?)

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the How are the requirements of the products design. These are the measurable features that will be
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132
Design requirements (HOW?)
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Relations
However, relations between the client and customer are not always 1:1, there are more complex relations
and with varying strength levels. In table 3, a matrix shows the relations between What and How. In
this matrix, the determinations of the relations will be carried out taking into account 3 strength levels:
weak relation, medium relation and strong relation.
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133
This representation makes possible to revise the analysis. An empty column indicates no relationship
between the client and design requirements..
Indicators (How much?)

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order to achieve the clients satisfaction. How much must consist of measurable elements that provide
a wider analysis and optimization chance.
A new opportunity to assess the analysis appears here: if most How much-s are not measurable, then
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Correlation matrix
The correlation matrix is a triangular table. How is integrated by establishing the correlation between
all these elements. This matrix describes the strength of the relations between the design requirements.
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7KH SRVLWLYH FRUUHODWLRQV DOORZ IRU LQFUHDVLQJ WKH SURGXFW GHYHORSPHQW HIFLHQF\ ZLWKRXW ULVN RI GXplicate effort for the same result. Negative correlations are important because they help identify design
features where it is necessary to decide which features are most important for the product.
If there are no negative relations, there could be a mistake.
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135
Benchmarking
The QFD technique allows for a competitor assessment based on benchmarking. The competitors products are compared to the companys offer. Benchmarking is carried out for What and How.
The competitors What-s assessment is called consumers competitive evaluation. For that reason, client oriented criteria must be taken into account. This means: Consumers perception of our products will
be assessed with regard to the competitors.
Competence assessment of How-s is called technical competitive evaluation. It is recommended that
personnel in charge of the product or service design (engineers, consultants, etc.) make this evaluation.
The benchmarking is, basically, a technical comparison with competing products.
If How-s are developed from What-s properly, the competitive assessments should be reasonably
consistent. This means that clients requirements strongly inter-related should have a similar competitive
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For the evaluation, scores between 1 (very poor) and 5 (very good) could be used.
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Importance level
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(5 or 10 being the best rating).
How-s are assessed giving weight to the relations. The next table shows the weight given to each relation:
Weak relation
Medium relation
Strong relation
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makes a value for each relation. The importance of How is computed adding these values.
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The importance level of the How-s is an approximation for the most important design requirements for
clients satisfaction. However, it is important to mention that the obtained numbers should help and not limit the design process. The relative values of the results must be questioned using other existing criteria .
Case Study
For a better understanding of this management tool, a case study is used. This enables step-by-step explanation as well as illustrates its use in the real world.
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Our company has world-class competitors and new competitors in the same region. Nevertheless, our
company prides itself on the innovative capabilities of our service staff. Our CEO has set forth an ambitious innovation plan for the entire line of furniture products. Initial SWOT analysis results (Strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats) have shown that the marginal utility per invested dollar in the
furniture industry is the highest. Besides this fact, the company has gone against the economic vein and
hired (or rather stole) two of the top strategists from some of its world-class competitors. Our aim is to
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The Service Manager determined, based on a feasibility study, that this methodology, helped with BrainVWRUPLQJ DQG 3DUHWR DQDO\VLV FRXOG VKRZ WKH HDUOLHVW UHVXOWV 4)' LV HQYLVLRQHG WR DLG LQ WKH LGHQWLFDWLRQ RI WKH FXVWRPHUV XQVDWLVHG DQG XQVSRNHQ QHHGV
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Project team
Before the QFD starts, a multidisciplinary team should be established with members form different departments like marketing, product development, etc. Another important point is that the team members
should have a similar level of position in their departments. Furthermore it is necessary to choose a team
leader. Finally, rules to encourage teamwork should be established: a meeting timetable, responsibilities,
approach to the topic, etc.
138

The company s organization is as follows: service and staff functions are together in the service area. In
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process mapping are under the service function umbrella.
A committee led by a high-level manager was created to pursue the QFD effort. The effort and work of
this committee are subject to review by the CEO once every month.
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A similar determination was established for home furniture products. When applied to its fullest potenWLDO 4)' SURFHVVHV JURZ UDSLGO\ (YHQ ZLWK UHDVRQDEOH HOLPLQDWLRQ RI FKRLFHV DW HDFK VWDJH QDO 4)'V
have a large number of process attributes to control. For this reason, only partial results of the QFD
project undertaken by company will be presented
The product: the chair
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17 back inclination was a result of a one-year long study. This chair had also other features that provided more physical comfort and physical wellness. With 17 inclination, it was not only comfortable, but
it was also good for keeping blood pressure low under prolonged use. An appropriate QFD statement
would be therefore:
To develop a new height-adjustment mechanism or to modify the existing one to optimize user physical wellness
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Clients requirements determination

Key to the QFD process is listening to the voice of the customer. Unfortunately, there is no unique
method to determine the voice of the customer. Each client has an individual way to appreciate product
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and the emotional. Both are important. The easiest features to identify and to measure are the technical
ones. In spite of this, the emotional can become the deciding factor for the buyers selection. Hence, it is
imperative to pay attention to the customer in order to understand their emotional response.
Some of the best methods to hear the voice of the customer are:
139
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groups. This step can be performed by using vicinity diagrams.
Additionally, there are some requirements that the consumer never mentions. Normally, these can be
regulation issues or special requirements from the company side. It is important to consider these needs
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Voice of the Customer
In this case, customers needs or requests regarding to the chairs heightadjustment mechanism were
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the former managers from the competition, and an external consultant that played the role of facilitator.
Fishbone, Pareto and vicinity diagrams were used to generate and extract the customer requirements
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Costumer requirement
Adjustment range
Speed of adjustment
Easy adjustment
Customizable
Safe
Comfortable
Interchangeable
140
Importance level
Once the voice of the customer is determined, it is important to quantify the importance of these features
for the consumer. The most used technique for doing this is to ask clients to score these features in 1 to
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The same client and expert group used to determine clients requirements determined the importance
level. First, this group rated (1-5 scale) the relevance of each requirement, as shown on the right column
of the table below.
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Adjustment range
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Speed of adjustment
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appropriately performed, one can be sure the voice of the consumer has been heard. To carry out this
activity, it is recommended to conduct a brainstorming session and then to organize the ideas. This can
141
be made with an Ishikawa diagram (see Figure 40). This kind of diagram allows dividing elements in
groups: design requirements, parts and parts characteristics.
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142
Completing the matrix of relationships between client requirements and design

requirements/product characteristics, and setting target values
In this step, direct relations between How and the satisfaction of customer needs are in a strong (9),
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step, those values for design requirements that achieve consumers satisfaction are determined.

The same group was used to assess the strength of the relation between each customer requirement
part and product characteristic (9 x 7). A three-point scale was used to assign the numbers to each matrix
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Customer benchmarking
The costumer benchmarking evaluates the behaviour of our product or service in comparison with the
competing products or services concerning the ability to satisfy the costumers requirements.
143

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the level of satisfaction for their respective products. These assessments are located in the next three
columns.
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taking into account each requirement importance rating, future objectives for our outputs for each request were determined and were written in the our company in the future column. For example, on the
second request, for adjustment speed, our competitors get 2 or 3 points, which means that there is a lot
to gain by doing this better than competitors, since clients perceived this request as very important (4 in
a 5 scale).
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the customer need appropriately. Thus, an objective of 5 was chosen to maximize customer satisfaction
with this requirement.
Continuing to the right, the next column indicates the improvement ratio. This is computed as the ratio
of where the company wants to be versus where it is right now in terms of each customer requirement
satisfaction. Then, for the second request, the ratio is calculated as 5/2 = 2.5.
144
Technical Benchmarking
In this step, the companys technical assessment should be performed with its strong competitors. This
can be performed, when possible, by buying or renting competitors products. The QFD team must try to
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The same group used to determine product requirements (engineering, sales, marketing staff and the
external consultant) was used to carry out competitors technical comparison. Our competitors were
evaluated regarding to how they managed in each feature in a 1 to 5 scale (see rows below)..
Correlation matrix
This is the roof-like looking part of the House of Quality. The objective of this matrix is to determine
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145

The QFD team evaluated which chair features were related and how strong these were. To determine
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Importance level calculation

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requirements.
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147
Scenarios
Introduction
The scenario method is a tool for decision making inherent to the strategic management of organizations,
business units, of technology, innovation, products, etc., mainly used to support processes or prospective
projects and strategy development (search, formulation or design, implementation and control).
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decision making concerning complex systems (complex adaptive systems or CAS), especially in environments of high uncertainty. Theory and practice in the successful management of complex systems
such as innovation have shown that it is imperative to: a) use systemic analysis, b) recognize that while
the future is unpredictable (it is plural and indeterminate), it can be constructed, and c) have strategic
thinking skills. These are the key premises of the scenario-based strategic management.
The scenario method consists basically of simulation games based on the deliberate combination of
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RI DQWLFLSDWRU\ TXDQWLWDWLYH DQG TXDOLWDWLYH HOHPHQWV GLIFXOW WR IRUPDOL]H IRU H[DPSOH IDFWV RU HYHQWV
WUHQGV FKDQJHV DQG GLVUXSWLRQV LQ HOGV VXFK DV GHPRJUDSKLFV SROLWLFV VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ HFRQRmy, society, environment, laws and regulations. In other words, the scenario method enables decision
makers to design and explore the universe of possible futures for a given set of constraints in order to
think and act strategically and in advance accordingly. When exploring the future of complex areas such
as innovation, one faces a vastly broad universe of possible solutions. As a working and analysis method,
the important thing is not to recreate a situation, but several situations, in order to be able to compare,
discern and decide. It is certain that a future will happen, but as no one knows which one, an honest way
to deal with the uncertainty is to propose several possible situations. The scenarios are not a means of foretelling the future, but are used to systematize the hypotheses about the future optimistic, pessimistic,
trending, extreme, to deepen in them and make better decisions. The prospective approximation allows
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From the perspective of strategic management of innovation and technology, the scenario method conWULEXWHV PDLQO\ WR WKH HDUO\ LGHQWLFDWLRQ RI RSSRUWXQLWLHV DQG FUHDWLYH LGHDV IRU LQQRYDWLRQ FXVWRPHU
needs and demands and future technological developments) as well as the strategies to capture such
opportunities.
The following pages describe the main aspects that compose the implementation of the scenario method,
including a process outline of an exercise for the design and implementation of scenarios.
148
History
The term scenario comes from the performing arts, where it refers to the physical environment in which a
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the scenes that take place during the play. In fact, Peter Schwartz (1991), former scenario planner at the
Royal Dutch Shell and founder of the think tank GBN based in California, compares the initial process of
creating a scenario with writing the screenplay for a movie. Every representation describes the environment in which it is located and how the story goes (its characters or actors, the costume design, furniture,
etc.) as thoroughly as possible so the viewer can feel immersed in that imaginary world.
As in the performing arts, in planning or in studies of the future, it is about imagining and presenting
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introduced the term scenarios in the defense strategic studies directed by the Rand Corporation for the
government of the United States in the 50s. During the 60s, H. Kahn and A. Wiener (1967) consolidated
the concept through strategic planning studies. In successive exercises of scenarios they foresaw the loss
of control of the Soviet Union by the communist movement, described the hardware technology of the
future that included banks with the centralized computer and personalized information of the individuals, and predicted that parents would be capable of selecting the sex and personal traits of their children
through genetic engineering.
In industry, the Royal Dutch Shell was the pioneer in applying the scenario method. The management
based on scenarios allowed Shell to anticipate the great oil crisis in 1973 and take actions that turned it
into the second largest oil company in the world. In the mid-80s, the scenario method allowed Shell to
identify the Soviet Union as the biggest competitor in the European gas market.
The success of Royal Dutch Shell quickly aroused the interest of others, such as General Electric and
the Batelle Institute, to develop and implement the scenario method. Today, private, public and mixed
organizations in virtually every sector of the academia, the industry and the government, sophisticated
scenario techniques are developed and applied for a broad range of purposes. In Siemens AG in Germany, or Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V., in the Netherlands, for example, the scenario method is
a central part of strategy design processes and technology planning, as well as in the ideation of new
products, services and business models.
Despite the many success stories, the spread of the scenario method is still limited, probably for two
reasons, namely: the lack of knowledge or misinterpretations of the method on the one hand and on the
other, the fact that applying the prospective method is not an easy task, even when the application of
individual techniques is.
149
Key considerations for scenarios

Definition
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forces that shape it, and also because of the complexity and diversity of the interactions among these
forces, it is imperative to dismiss the idea that strategic planning should be directed to a single most
likely image of the future. On the contrary, decision marking relative to complex systems must be based
on a broad spectrum of future possibilities, including its eventualities and implications.
Scenarios, as a tool is a method developed to design, select and evaluate situations and options regarding
a topic of a complex system. The scenarios, as a product (output) of an analysis process, are an instrument for communicating information about complex situations.
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complex system and, eventually, the process of causal relationships that lead to this situation, for its
proper understanding and analysis. In other words, a scenario is a conjecture about a particular condition
that a system under study (e.g. an organization, a knowledge area, a market, customer preferences) will
possibly acquire in the future. The scenario represents therefore, a set or sequence of scenes of a reality
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so it can be understood and the given situation can be analyzed in a concrete way.
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therefore, implicitly, a scenario is commonly a formal prose narration about a possible future. However,
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and charts or tables and journalistic articles, among other forms.
Constituent elements of scenarios

A complex system can be explained through the combination of the particular conditions of four essential
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(in domains such as politics, economy, society, technology and environment) that
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150
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different in nature, meaning and magnitude. In this way, different types of variables
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and shape effects and degree of overlapping in the group.
Social stakeholders: changes of a systems state are the result of state of the forces
that affect it, induced at the same time by direct or indirect actions of social actors that
operate in the middle of the variables. Social actors are monolithic agents
(e.g. individuals, organizations, groups) holders of goals and interests or means and
resources that motivate them and enable them to operate on the variables, respectively.
Space: UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH FDVH HDFK VFHQDULR H[HUFLVH UHIHUV VSHFLFDOO\ WR D GHOLPLWHG
DUHD 6SDFH LV WKH SODFH ZKHUH WKH V\VWHP REMHFW RI VWXG\ RSHUDWHV DQG PD\ EH GHQHG
geographically, as a market or as a forum.
Time: every planning exercise responds to a work time horizon, determined both by
the will of the organization or time frame as by the time horizon
Key requirements that scenarios must satisfy

The term scenario is frequently used in the media (newspapers, radio, television, magazines) or in the
workplace (meetings, memos, reports, conferences). However, while although scenarios are descriptions
of situations, not every description of a situation is a scenario. Clearly, in most cases, it is not about
scenarios as a formal method for analysis and decision-making process, but about the use of the term as
a mere synonym of option, alternative or situation. Assiduously, there are three scenarios, typically, the
trending scenario, the optimistic and the pessimistic in reference to the mathematical projection or extUDSRODWLRQ RI WKH VDPH VLWXDWLRQ VOLJKWO\ PRGLHG E\ D JHQHUDOO\ PXOWLSOLFDWLYH FRHIFLHQW $W WKH VDPH
time, there are also three scenarios, of high, medium and low probability, when we are strictly speaking
about the same situation in which only the crude odds ratio has been changed with some objectivity.
The mathematical accuracy (e.g. probability of occurrence) is not the unit of measurement of the quality
of a scenario, on the contrary, the main requirement that scenarios must satisfy are:
151
Plausibility: to be possible
Internal consistency: to be free of contradictory or illogical conjectures
Description of casual processes: to explain why they could happen
Utility: relevance for the achievement of strategic objectives
Exhaustiveness: to reliably explore the universe of possible solutions.
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Types of scenarios
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system, the greater the universe of possibilities and, therefore, the uncertainty. Conceptually, the future
adopts a conical shape; the cone represents the space of what is possible, in which each point represents
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due to internal inconsistencies.
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study of this space. There are four different types of scenarios and different ways to classify them. In
practice, it is important to explore the space.
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152
The most commonly used types of scenarios are shown in Figure 40 are explained below:
Exploratory scenarios vs. normative scenarios: the scenario method can be

used as an exploratory or normative mechanism of the space of what is possible
(or impossible) to determine how to reach a desired future from the present.
Diachronic scenarios vs. synchronic scenarios: in order to know the path to a

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the time horizon. It is mostly required to know the possible futures in a given time
(snapshot scenarios).
Trending: it is a scenario that could occur if nothing changed which means that the
same situation that keeps happening.
Ideal: it is the best scenario that the planner would like to have, although it is
rarely feasible.
Extreme (s): totally different to the trending scenarios. They are in the periphery of
the space of what is possible, and by convention, the superior is called optimistic and
the inferior pessimistic.
Target: it is that which the planner aims to reach (goal or target scenarios); generally,
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goals and means over the system object under study.
In the management of innovation and technology, especially when the possibility of radical innovations
or technological disruptions want to be considered, it is particularly advisable to implement methods that
allow taking the extreme exploratory scenarios into account.
The scenario method

Scenarios are primarily a method: a set of organized techniques shaping a process to systematically
achieve the design of scenarios. Over the past three decades, theorists and practitioners of different
schools of thought have resulted in different design processes (and techniques) of scenarios (Godet,
2001; Schwartz, 1991; Reibnitz, 1992; Geschka, 2001; Gausemeier, 1996). Differences in the organization, types of techniques, necessary resources and operating conditions among design processes of
scenarios naturally produce different results. However, any of the known scenario methods can respond
to the three-phase structure (preparation, development and transfer) and three steps (analysis, survey and
construction) as shown in Figure 41.
153
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The design process of scenarios in a strict sense, takes place mainly in the second phase, while the
phases of preparation and transfer relate to the establishment of an analysis framework of the exercise
(objectives, goals and purposes) and to the implementation of the results (communication, evaluation and
decision-making), respectively.
Preparation or (pre-prospective): beyond the issues of project management such as planning, fund raising, organizational support, etc., every design exercise of scenarios is preceded by a phase of strategic
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scenarios and what the needs or the prospective questions are.
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boundaries or limits and interesting aspects of it.
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the scenarios.
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space (recent past included in the analysis) on the other.
This current phase will be conclusive regarding the type of scenarios that will be
designed and the suitability of the particular scenario method that will be implemented.
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it is important to have a previous analysis and a strategic diagnosis of the situation of
the topic under study. For this type of analysis, the tools available in the organization,
i.e. SWOT, can be used.
154
Development or (prospective): strictly speaking, this is the phase in which the design of the scenario
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simple techniques such as brainstorming, 6-3-5, cognitive-maps, system-sketches.
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select key variables it is useful to construct a map of activities (the extent to which a
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Once the key variables have been selected it is possible to deduce what social stakeholders have created
interests and means or resources to act on each one of them. Therefore, it results feasible to design action
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end of the process.
155
Prospection scenario: the challenge at this stage of the process is to determine different
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horizon. Every variable has measurable characteristics (qualitative or quantitative) that
determine their state; the attractiveness of a technology as a variable, for example,
can be measured by metrics such as its performance (functional performance), market
potential, operational and maintenance costs, price, availability, etc. Magnitude changes
in the metrics of the variables lead to changes of state (of the system) and, consequently,
changes of scenarios.
7KH IXWXUH FRQJXUDWLRQV RI WKH NH\ YDULDEOHV WKHUHIRUH GHWHUPLQH WKH VSDFH RI SRVVLEle futures. The more dynamic the planning environment (e.g. with rapid technological
development or economic or political instability) or the higher the planning horizon
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greater the space of possible future will be. The challenge lines in creatively imagining
the universe of what is possible, only this way we can be sure that the space of possible
futures has been explored. Creativity techniques and consultations experts such as brainVWRUPLQJ DQG GHOSKL DUH XVHIXO WR LGHQWLI\ EHWZHHQ WZR DQG YH SRVVLEOH FRQJXUDWLRQV
clearly distinct and relevant for each key variable.
Construction scenario: it is a scenario that results from the combination of a future

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The purpose of this step of the process is to identify and select a set of three to seven
scenarios (solutions) more consistent and relevant.
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variables can be established. However, not all combinations are solutions, only the combinations free of inconsistencies can be considered solutions (possible scenarios).
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cross-impact-matrix, cross-consistency analysis and morphological analysis. Low complexity exercises can be performed by manually using morphological analysis.
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and the implications for the system should be interpreted based on each combination of
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to make it understandable, feasible, communicable and vivid.
156
Transfer (or post-prospective): the post-prospective stage covers the implementation of the exercise
results, that is, the use of scenarios. The ultimate goal of any scenario exercise is decision-making. This
will require then to communicate and validate the results, analyze the implications of the designed scenarios and search for and implement initial strategic solutions.
Final remarks
The concrete reality is not isolated but relative and complex (frequently social), which should be viewed as a whole (system), because otherwise there would be a risk of leaving something important out of
the explanation, description or in the consequences. The complexity of the concrete reality leads to the
paradoxical notion that the future possibilities are endless, but the future will be only one. Hence, the
scenario method should lead to select only a few but important possibilities (scenarios) - either because
WKH\ DUH YHU\ VLJQLFDQW RU TXDOLWDWLYHO\ GLIIHUHQW WKDW ZLOO QRW RQO\ EH FRPSDUHG ZHLJKWHG DQG HYHQWXally be considered for the decision-making, but also, and most importantly, because their consequences
and implications will be evaluated. That means a scenario should deepen in the true meaning of each one
of its implications. Only such scenario illuminates the decision-making.
The design of scenarios is a creative process about what would happen if ... restricted to show the logic
that suggests that it would happen. The design of scenarios is to selectively conjecture about the future
of what is possible and then discern on its anomalies and solutions.
In summary, the nature of the process, together with the design and transfer possibilities offered by the
scenarios themselves, make of scenarios a tool that:
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of long-term strategies.
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work and the creation of a common language.
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(creating knowledge and memory of the future).
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expressed in the scenarios (it creates census and shared visions).
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by other means for the dissemination and promotion of complex contents.
157
The scenario method is one of the most sophisticated tools for strategic management, and that is perhaps,
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from other methods by its exhaustiveness on the one hand, and its versatility on the other; emphasizing
its capacity to integrate quantitative and qualitative information through a wide variety of techniques and
a great diversity of internal and external actors to the organization.
158
Creativity methods
Stimulating creativity
Creativity as well as memory and other human capacities can be developed. For this, various means
which contribute to the solution of problems that require creativity have been developed. There are
different terms to refer to these means, for example, techniques, methods and tools. The techniques are
sometimes referred to as brief indications that help to organize information such as cards or sticky notes
to collect ideas. By the concept of creative methods we mean a systematic procedure with several steps
that can also be supported on diverse techniques.
The different creativity methods can be divided into intuitive and systematic-analytical methods (Winkelhofer, 2006) (see Fig. 43). The intuitive methods seek to generate perceptions that lead immediately
to ideas. We can distinguish three types of intuitive methods, the methods of intuitive association, of
intuitive guidance and of intuitive confrontation.
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Within the methods of intuitive association, there can be methods such as brainstorming in which ideas
and associations are developed in a discussion without criticism. Similarly, the brainwriting method is
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paper that are passed on to the other members of the group.
159
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WKH SUREOHP IRU H[DPSOH WKH HOG RI QDWXUH LQ RUGHU WR UDLVH LGHDV WKDW FRQWULEXWH WR GHYHORS WKH GHYHlopment of solutions.
The methods of intuitive confrontation take an object of stimulus without any direct relation to the
problem (e.g. a word) and it is confronted with the problem to derive ideas from it. An example is the
synectics method through which general analogies are made in different areas to, ultimately, come up
with ideas.
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problems or circumstances that lead to ideas that can solve problems or proposed challenges.
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structured, combined, varied and consolidated in a joint solution. An example of these methods is the
morphological method.
The following category is the systematic-analytical methods of confrontation. As in the systematic-analytical methods of association, the problem is divided into parts, but in this case, based on analogies. An
example of these methods is the morphological matrix.
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and arranges them into hierarchies in order to make the main problem visible and based on that, to develop a solution to it. An example of these methods is the relevance tree analysis. In the literature there is
a large number of creativity methods. Some of them are designed to be used individually, others in small
groups and others in bigger ones. A description of several creativity methods is given below.
Brainstorming
This is perhaps the best known and the most used creativity method (not always used in the most appropriate way). This method consists in generating ideas through the interaction of an interdisciplinary
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association and the interaction of different points of view; the generation of new ideas proliferates.
Steps:

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2.
Collection of ideas. The use of a board to present ideas allows the participants to see
them and get inspired to generate new ones.
3.
Presentation and grouping of ideas.
4.
Evaluation of ideas
160
For the development of brainstorming, it is recommended to have a moderator. During the course of
brainstorming, the moderator must ensure that each idea is taken into account without being criticized,
regardless of how silly it may sound. Jokes or satires against members of the group must not be allowed
either; this could lead members to feel self-conscious and, consequently, will refrain from expressing an
idea that could result in a solution. The selection of participants is essential to obtain different points of
view, and for this reason, the moderator must involve all participants.
Checklist (Osborn)
This method is based on the principle that the solution to a problem may arise from the structuring of
ideas around the formulation of it. With this principle, Alexander Osborn, also known for developing
the brainstorming technique, created a checklist to be used to solve problems. Each of the items on the
checklist does not need to have an answer but each one must be considered as it may possibly lead to
some idea.
Steps:

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3.
Development of solutions to the problem, starting with the items on the checklist.
If at some point an idea cannot be generated, we should move on to the next one.
4.
Evaluation of the generated ideas and, if necessary, case development for some of them.
The following table shows the checklist.
161
What is similar?
What function? Similar? Similar material? What parallels are

there?
What other utilization options?
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tions through changes on the object?
Adapt?
What is it like? What other ideas does the object suggest? Are
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Change?
Can the object be given a new shape? Can the purpose be chan
ged? Can the color, tone, smell or resemblance be changed? Are
there any other possible changes?
Enlarge?
What can be added? Should more time be employed? Can fre

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ger, fatter, and thicker? Can it be given additional value? Can
the number of parts be increased? Can it be duplicated or mul
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Minimize?
What is unnecessary? Can it be small, more compact, shorter,

lower, flatter? Can it be miniature? Can it be aerodynamic,
slighter? Can it be divided into parts?
Replace?
Who or what can replace it? What other pieces or parts are
possible? What other materials, production processes, energy
sources or places are possible? What other solutions are possi
ble? What other sound?
Deform?
Is it possible to regroup the parts? Is it possible to develop new

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effect? Can the speed be changed?
Change to the opposite?
Is it possible to take what is positive instead of what is negati

ve? Achieve the opposite? Bring the bottom up? Change roles?
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Combine?
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new selection? Join multiple objects into one? More action
fields instead of just one? More goals? Less goals?
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162
Morphological analysis
The morphological analysis consists in the collection and systematic analysis of parameters and their
possible values or characteristics, from which possible solutions or ideas are developed. The selection of
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in groups.
Parameter
Possible values or characteristics of the parameter
Light source
Candle
Bulb
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Fluorescent tube
Diffusion of
light
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3DSHU
Natural fibers
Indirect lighting
Energy
source
Electricity
Batteries
Solar energy
Material
Madera de
Cedro
Aluminum
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plastic
Style
Medieval
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In the example of the table above (see Table 19) there is a description of parameters of a lamp and possible characteristics that each of these parameters could have. For example, as light source, it is possible
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the selection within the possible characteristics of each parameter
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4.
Preparation of the parameter matrix and its values or characteristics.
5.
Selection of the characteristics of each parameter and development of the concept or
solution to the problem.

6.
Evaluation of the idea or solution.
Below are some examples of different levels of the morphological analysis through the use of matrices.
163
Two-dimensional matrix
A company that produces umbrellas wants to expand their range to include more specialized and unusual
products. The company is looking for new ideas.
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mind that the goal is to discover opportunities and not reach an immediate solution. In this case, the axes
could be called, one as accessories (additional characteristics that consumers could appreciate and that
could be incorporated to the umbrella), and the other as scenarios (places or situations in which the umbrella could be used). If these two axes were selected, the appearance of the matrix could be as follows:
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This example shows an 11x11 matrix (121 items) and it is clear that it is possible to add more items to
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increase greatly.
164
The three-dimensional matrix

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on determining axes that are relevant to the problem and that are appropriate. For example, a three-dimensional matrix would look like the Figure 45. With those three axes (content, material and shape) 448
(8x8x7) combinations or ideas generated. Moreover, in this example, the simple addition of a new item
in the axis of the shapes would generate other 64 ideas. But even if we limit ourselves to the 448 original
ideas, it is possible to expect, statistically, that from them around seven or eight potentially winner
ideas will arise.
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Ideas evaluation
Due to its enormous potential to generate ideas, the morphological analysis sometimes poses a serious
problem for those who must evaluate its results. It is obvious that dealing with computer lists with 10.00
combinations or ideas is a discouraging task. Fortunately, there are two methods to simplify this task.
165
Grouping ideas
Instead of focusing on one idea at a time, they can be analyzed in groups; for example, we can evaluate
the combination paper-ball-coffee against each of the scenarios. This approach reduces to a manageable
size the extension of the lists. The fact of evaluating the groups of ideas against the items in a column
tends to focus the attention on that column and often, in the evaluation session new approaches or items
arise; for example, would it be possible to use this combination in the military service?, in an airline?, etc.
Multi-stage sieving
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presented in the form of a cube. In this visual representation, the best ideas are selected and evaluated in
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them in combination with the two remaining axes.
Analogies (Synectics)
The use of analogies consists in taking the problem that needs to be solved to other knowledge areas or
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facilitating linkages to generate new ideas. The essential part of this method is the selection of the analoJ\ ,W LV SRVVLEOH WKDW D JURXS FDQQRW QG D VXLWDEOH DQDORJ\ RU WKDW WKH IRXQG DQDORJ\ GRHV QRW OHDG WR WKH
generation of good ideas. We should also take into account the knowledge of the selected area. Although
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associations and understandings. A good analogy may be done with nature, therefore it is recommended
to have at least one participant who is an expert on the selected area, in this case, a biologist.
An example could be network intelligence: one of the problems with the proliferation of communication
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path to go somewhere, for example, where their food is. In this way, we can also think about leaving a
mark or sign on information packages, for instance in emails, that could be read and interpreted by other
166
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Steps:

2.
Search for the analogy
3.
Analysis of the selected analogy
4.
Search for the analogy elements that are linked to the problem.
5.
Generation of ideas from the analogies.
6.
Evaluation and development of ideas.
Hat exchange method (6 thinking hats by Edward Bono)

This method involves the systematic analysis of a problem or situation from different points of views.
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perception and the feelings should be expressed without being criticized by other mem
bers of the team.
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look at the solution of a problem or the implementation of an idea.
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generated by complementing the already existing ones.
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Although the method offers some variations, we usually follow the sequence in which each of the roles
or hats has been described, documenting each of the results under each point of view. This method can
be used individually, but also in groups, for which it is advisable to have a moderator who can maintain
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168
Service Blueprinting
Description
Service blueprinting is a service planning help tool. It can be used for developing new innovative services as well as for improving existing services. The method is also appropriate for ensuring the quality of
service processes. It can also be used for new employee training or for showing clients a service cycle
overview.
The service blueprinting output consists of a graphically-presented overview of the service process and
its activities. Service blueprinting allows for visualization of the service development process in its early
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service) become visible. It is possible to identify failure points and discover areas for innovation as well.
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service process management.
Objectives
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the services and their basic processes. The objective is to establish the activities of the service production
in a graphical representation. Service blueprinting with its strong client-focus differs from other methods
of process analysis; service blueprinting supports client satisfaction. Service blueprinting considers not
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Information requirements
Before starting the service blueprinting, preliminary information is required.
Service blueprinting is a complete service production process that summarizes points of client interaction
as well as the invisible client process steps.
169
The following information should be provided:
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Especially for new developments, some information may not be available, take care to note it when it is
discovered during the process.
Identification of the relevant target groups

and their requirements
A successful service development requires the determination of relevant target groups and identify their
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requirements is not part of the service blueprinting; rather it takes place in the requirement analysis
phase.
Process
The service blueprinting is based on the separation of the service into individual processes that can be
assumed separately. The process progress chart is depicted horizontally. Each single component is on a
different plane, ordered vertically. Each plane represents a level of closeness to the client, the higher the
level the closer the interaction level is to the client.
Planes
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7KH client interaction line separates the process steps of the service activities that
the client carries out independently.
170
7KH visibility line separates the service activities that the client can see from the
service activities which are hidden from view. Above the line, the process components
that can be seen, heard, smelt or perceived are ordered.
7KH internal interaction line separates activities that imply immediate relation to the
clients order from support activities. Support activities serve as the preparation for the
primary activities but do not belong to the clients order. Examples are the maintenance
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7KH control line separates the preparation activities from the general management
activities.
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Service-blueprinting differs from other approaches of process modelling and analysis, in that the vertical
distribution is related to the responsible areas of each division. Assignment of responsibilities for each
process step is also not shown visually. Here the client focus is to be considered; for many clients it is
unimportant which divisions they need to be in contact with to get their service order properly accomplished.
171
Participants
The development team for a service blueprint should be represented by different service departments
such as service development, service provision and service support. In some cases, the inclusion of the
client is also useful. Before starting, the objectives of the service blueprinting process must be clear for
each participant. Normally, it is not useful to follow every possible application from the beginning; focusing on one or two possibilities typically leads to better results.
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special case is counter-productive and eventually does not contribute to the accomplishment of the
objectives and hinders the service blueprinting process.
Service blueprinting for new services

The development of a service blueprint for new services is carried out in four steps:
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the end of service interaction

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This includes all client-perceivable process steps performed by the service

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Depiction of the service process from the clients point of view

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modelled as it is perceived by the client. Keeping in mind optimal client satisfaction, the process is arranged
so that it represents an optimal course for the client. It is important to consider that a service blueprint is va-
172
lid for only one target group. For multiple target groups, the optimal service processes are often dissimilar.
Therefore, an additional service blueprint should be considered for any additional target groups.
Example: Household appliance maintenance

Different groups conduct household appliance warranty registration and repair in different ways. Older
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DUH UHSUHVHQWHG E\ DUURZV 6WDUW(QG SRLQWV DUH URXQGHG UHFWDQJOHV DQG GHFLVLRQVUDPLFDWLRQV DUH GLDmond shaped.
Start and end points
Activity
Process transition
Decision/ ramification
Ideally, software can assist in creating a service blueprint. In its simplest form, the presentation is a linear
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outputs, must be represented.
Identification of client contact points

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steps that are performed exclusively by clients are placed above the client interaction line. Process steps
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contact, are included in the service blueprint.
173
Example: Restaurant
Meal selection is a client-concerning process. Meal ordering is a direct interaction between client and
service provider. In the case of visible meal preparation (i.e. system gastronomy), there is no direct interaction between the client and the service provider, but is perceivable by the client.
Identification of front and back-end integration

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process steps will be placed between the visibility line and the interaction line. Depending on the objectives of the service blueprint, the processes of the two lower planes (support and control) may be included.

Washing machine repair and maintenance is not always possible at the client s address. For some models,
it is necessary to pre-order the required spare parts. The acquisition stages are usually invisible to the
client, but are part of a normal repair process for a business.
Resource definition, time standards and tolerance

Next, it is necessary to determine the process time frame. To do this, the estimated labour time, the relaWHG FRVWV DQG WKH QHFHVVDU\ HPSOR\HH FRXQW DUH UHTXLUHG $SSURSULDWH SURFHVV GXUDWLRQV DUH GHQHG IRU
each activity and enable the proper resource-use-calculation. The time standards must include possible
deviations in order to obtain a realistic calculation. Thus, it is possible to test time-critical services and
determine if they can be provided according to the client requirements.

For each process step, time and resources used for the repair service were determined based on experience. This information is used afterwards for the simulation of the operation. It is possible to establish
the ideal employee workload and optimal employee count for various service-order scenarios.
174
Service blueprinting for existing services

The service-blueprinting procedure is also appropriate for existing services. By illustrating and analyzing
the current status of the service process, it is possible to see areas of improvement within the service
VHTXHQFH &UHDWLQJ YLVXDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV VXSSRUW SURFHVV LPSURYHPHQW E\ VKRZLQJ WKH RZ DQG KLJKlighting potential points for incremental adjustment.
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Service documentation and decomposition into component processes

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transactions monitoring are adequate. From the clients point of view, the process course can be carried
out using the critical incident method. Appropriate methods for the internal service processes component
documentation are structured interviews and workshops.
Service Blueprinting presents the process steps in a chronological order; therefore the process depiction
must be synchronized with service process decomposition.
Depiction of the service process

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it must be converted to the service blueprint. This can be performed with an adequate software package.
175
Determination of resources and time standards

During the third step, the real process roles must be transferred to the service blueprint. In the simplest
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Model (responsible, accountable, consulted and informed) is recommended for bigger service organizations. In addition to having responsibility for the process step or component process, the advisor and information provider role should be established. Finally, the service blueprint is completed by sequencing
the process step resources and measuring the time for process completion.
Analysis and service improvement

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Service-blueprinting example
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176

Figure 49 illustrates a service blueprint for household appliance maintenance service. There are two
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the second is to have a map that enables better estimation of the typical costs and time needed for perIRUPLQJ RI WKH VHUYLFH GHOLYHU\ SURFHVV )RU WKH SXUSRVH RI VLPSOLFDWLRQ WKH WZR GHHSHVW OHYHOV RI WKH
blueprint were not included.
The starting point of the service process is the breakdown of the machine. The client at this stage contacts the service company. Typically, the clients will describe the problem from their perspective and
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client is not there, a second appointment has to be made. After speaking with the client about the problem, the mechanic examines the appliance and makes a repair cost estimate. For repairs that require no
additional parts, the estimate is given to the client and once the terms are agreed to, repair can begin
immediately. If the mechanic has to order parts or secure special tools, a follow-up appointment with
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considered a separate service function.
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the arrangement of the appointment, and the payment of the invoice are not conducted by the service
provider. For these steps of the process, the client is responsible. The steps that appear in the onstage
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part ordering, mechanic travel, invoice preparation, etc.) are not perceivable by the clients.
Further applications of service-blueprinting

The service blueprint of an existing service displays the real moments of the service provision. It is
possible to have a better understanding of the process and service success factors. Further analysis of
the service can be done with different goals in mind. Possible objectives could be to increase client
satisfaction, to diminish the process step times, to reduce costs, or to increase the service quality. The
service blueprint can also be used as a starting point for process cost analysis. Service blueprint-based
simulations can support service analysis. Some examples are service simulation and FMEA.
177
Service simulation
Further service process analysis is conducted by using simulations. Depicting a service with the service
blueprinting does not automatically guarantee its validity. With help of simulations, trouble spots in the
process design can often be exposed.
In order to determine the minimum and maximum service achievement times, the individual process
steps must have their times established beforehand. The time at which an event takes place must be
differentiated from the events duration. Potential waiting times, which can often take up a large portion
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process. Waiting times typically appear where processes are blocking or competing with one another.
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resources and help order the process steps appropriately. With the use of simulations, it is possible to test
time and quality distributions of the service-related demand to determine the optimal solution.
Some results of service simulations:
Times
1.
Times of individual process steps
2.
Duration of complete transactions
3.
Waiting times of processes
4.
Waiting times of single process steps
5.
Resource idle time
Costs
6.
Process costs
7.
Process step costs
8.
Resources costs
Work load
9.
Resource work load
This information can be used after the adjustment of the service-blueprint. By conducting repeated siPXODWLRQV LW LV SRVVLEOH WR YDOLGDWH SURFHVV PRGLFDWLRQV 6HUYLFH VLPXODWLRQ LV DQ HIIHFWLYH PHWKRG IRU
iterative improvement of the service blueprint and the service processes.
178
FMEA Failure mode and effect analysis

In addition to service process simulation, service blueprints are a good starting point for identifying possible failures in the service provision process. The critical points in the service provision are typically
client contacts. These contact points are easy to identify with service blueprinting because of the interaction and visibility lines.
The FMEA method has three phases:
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For this phase, valuable information can be obtained by means of service blueprinting; developed solutions should also be documented in the service blueprinting.
A detailed description of this method can be found in the chapter on FMEA.
Target costing for services

Definition
Target costing is a cost management strategy instrument, which was developed by the Japanese auto producer, Toyota.
According to Syska (2006), a high pressure on prices and costs characterizes intensively competitive marNHWV +HQFH SULFHV EDVHG RQ FRVWV FDQ EH IRUFHG WR GHFUHDVH FRPSURPLVLQJ WKH EHQHWV 7KH WDUJHW FRVWLQJ
tool is an instrument that helps to manage this problem.
According to traditional costing, costs generated during the products fabrication or service delivery procesVHV FRQVWLWXWH WKH EDVLV IRU GHQLQJ WKH QDO SURGXFW RU VHUYLFH SULFH 7DUJHW FRVWLQJ HOXGHV WKLV SDUDGLJP DV
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7KH VRRQHU WKH FRVWV FHLOLQJ LQ WKH PDUNHW DUH GHQHG WKH EHWWHU EHFDXVH WKH LQXHQFH RI WKH FRVWV LQ SUHventive measures offers more promising results and with less expenses than during subsequent adjustments.
179
Target costing process

The Figure 50 shows the target costing process.
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180
The following detailed explanation of the process is based on the analysis made by Fischer (2008) and
Buczkowski (2007). An example of the application will be also included in the explanation.
Step 1: Product/Service design

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tools seek to integrate the voice of the costumer and his needs and recommendations. In the case of
an anonymous market, it is possible to identify the clients requests through market research tools such
as interviews, focus groups discussions and available information (client complaints, suggestions, etc.).
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these sets of properties and functions.
Case study: In-house engineering project management training

Service planning
The following example shows the analysis of the price setting process for a training service in topics
related to engineering project management. After an interview with the main customers of this type of
training, we determined the characteristics of the courses to be offered. These characteristics provided
the basis for conducting a second market research focused on the competitor analysis. This study showed that, on average, customers used to pay between 150 and 220 Euros per day/ assistant. Based on this
information, we set a base price of 185 Euros per day/assistant.
Given that in average 15 people participate in this course and that it lasts for 8 days, the potential market
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15 people x 8 days x 185 / person per day = 22.200
Step 2: Defining the target costs

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new product is rooted in its accountable characteristics).
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company).
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costs, i.e. the attained costs under actual procedures).
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The overall costs should be established in such a way, that they sustain an optimal service design, i.e. satisfying quality demands and guaranteeing a competitive cost situation at the same time. In consequence,
this document uses the market into company method for the overall cost calculation. This method
shows a higher degree of reference to the market, which well suits the fundamental principle of target
costing.
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called allowable costs. This technique is based on the target price which represents the value for our cliHQW LQ RXU VHUYLFH 7KHQ WKH WDUJHW SURW PXVW EH VXEWUDFWHG IURP WKH WDUJHW SULFH LQ RUGHU WR REWDLQ WKH
allowable costs. This allowable costs must be compared to the standard (drifting) costs. The (standard)
drifting costs describe the costs that arise from services designed under already planned, installed and
potential technologies, as well as under the already adopted processes.
If the drifting (standard) costs are below the allowable costs, there is no need to adjust the former. If the
drifting (standard) costs are higher, adjustments must be made.
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182

Target costing
)RU WKH FDOFXODWLRQ RI WDUJHW FRVWV UVW ZH PXVW GHQH WKH WDUJHW SURW PDUJLQ WKDW WKH FRPSDQ\ H[pects to have. Within the company s service portfolio, the training courses belong to those services that
generate a continuous income stream. As the strategy in this type of services is the customer loyalty
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15%. On this basis, we performed the following calculation formula for the purpose of determining
the allowable costs:
22.200 - ( 22.200 x 15%) = 18.870
Drifting costs optimization

ccording to Fischer (2008), allowable costs used to be much lower than the drifting (standard) costs
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costs and the drifting (standard) costs. The target costs must be optimized. However, in spite of recognizing the need of optimization, a problem remains open: the way the difference between target costs and
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the original price be increased?). It will be necessary to deploy a procedure with consistency and transparency. When the allowable costs are not reachable, the possibility to abate the original target emerges,
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schematic character; practical cases show an iterative process with kickbacks to the individual steps.
Similarly, the decision to launch the product can also be preceded by a particular combination of the
individual activities.
183
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184

For the calculation of the standard costs, we used the Service Blueprinting technique (this book provides
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calculate the total costs incurred during its provision. The simulation showed that the total costs were
19.922,39.
When compared to the allowable costs of 18.870, one can conclude that it is necessary to adjust the
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Step 3: Division of target costs

The standard cost optimization should be performed through a comparison of the target costs. However,
the comparison of total costs will not allow us to identify components or sub-processes of our services,
making it necessary to conduct these cost optimizations. Additionally, each component will have an inXHQFH RI GLIIHUHQW LQWHQVLW\ RQ WKH FXVWRPHU
185
Therefore, it is necessary to divide into target costs and standard costs. In the case of products, this diviVLRQ FDQ EH EDVHG RQ LWV PDLQ FRPSRQHQWV ,Q WKH FDVH RI VHUYLFHV WKLV GLYLVLRQ LV D PRUH GLIFXOW WDVN
Their intangible nature allows only the division based on the sub-processes that are part of the service.
7KH 6HUYLFH %OXHSULQWLQJ LV D WRRO WKDW ZLOO JUDSKLFDOO\ GHQH WKH GLIIHUHQW SURFHVVHV RI WKH VHUYLFH *Lven that such processes can include activities developed by different departments of the company, it is
necessary that the Blueprint is conducted by a multidisciplinary team.
Categorization of processes
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the service and, hence, on the target costing procedure. The total target costs for rendering the service are
calculated for each successfully created part of the process. For this purpose, the parts of the process are
categorized according to their closeness to the set of assigned activities, forming the following system:
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with the clients. For example, the assembling of a machine by clients through service
personal of the provider.
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DQG RIWHQ VHUYH DV VXSSRUW RI UVW JUDGH SURFHVVHV HJ WKH SUHSDUDWLRQ RI WKH DVVHPEO\
rout planning and staff assignment.

Categorization of processes
With the help of the Service Blueprint developed for the calculation of
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Write and send the proposal
Send materials
Training
Internal control during the training
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'HQH PDWHULDOV DQG VFKHGXOH
Arranging travel plans
186
Process cost calculation

Target Costing is a market oriented tool. The costing bases on the relevance of each part of the process
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part of a process is, the higher the estimation of maximum costs for that part of the process.
Buczkowski (2007) introduced the process costing matrix (see table 20) to determine the percentage
share of the total costs for each process. The level of contribution to the total costs is mainly based on
each one of the processes involved in the customer satisfaction.
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satisfaction (second row of table 20).
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each of the processes, according to the level of participation of the process when
covering the respective requirement.
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satisfaction. These rows will be the percentage shares out of the total costs for each
process.
Functions
Clients
requirement 1
Clients
requirement 2
Functions
contribution
to total use
(in %)
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Process 4
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187
Clients
requirement 3
Clients
requirement 4
Total
(in%)
100

Process costing matrix
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standardized materials, short length. The process-costing matrix is done based on these requirements
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Affordability
Good
Reputation
Short
length
Standardized
Materials
Total
(in %)
Functions contribution to
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30
50
10
10
100
Training
20
30
60
Functions
Write and send

proposals
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and schedule
Internal control
Submitting material
2
10
7
3
10
21
10
188
The comparison between target costs and standard costs, which is possible with help of the function-cost
matrix and the previously established standard costs, reveal if and in which quantity the real costs differ
from the market permitted costs. For this purpose, the target costs index is calculated for each function.
TC Index =
Target costs fraction

Standard costs fraction
An index value over one means that the target costs are higher than the standard costs, i.e. clients estiPDWH KLJKHU XVH WKDQ WKH FRVW VKDUH LQ WKDW SDUW RI WKH SURFHVV VR WKDW WKH UP FRXOG SRWHQWLDOO\ FRQGXFW
quality enhancements. In contrast, an index value under one means that the target costs exceed the
standard costs, i.e. clients estimate less use of the part of the process than its fraction of costs, so that a
reduction of costs is necessary. However, the statements should be taken as reference, since the absolute
need to reduce costs was not considered (Buczkowski ,2007).
Process
Share in the target

costs (in%)
Share in the drifting

costs (in%)
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Process 4
Process 5
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189
T C Index

Process costing: costs comparison matrix
7KH SURFHVVHV LGHQWLFDWLRQ LQ ZKLFK D FRVW DGMXVWPHQW LV QHFHVVDU\ LV FDUULHG RXW WKURXJK WKH FRPparison of target costs and standard costs. The standard costs can be calculated thanks to the service
simulation process. The obtained results were the following:
Process
Standard costs
Percentage
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%DFN RIFH 3UHSDULQJ WUDYHOV

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19.922,39
100%
Total
Following the model presented above, the target cost indexes were calculated for each of the processe
Share in target
costs
Share in Standard
Costs
Target costs
Index
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0,95

0,11
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proposal

0,58
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schedule

5,23
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training

3,33
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0,00
Process
190
Step 4: Simultaneous attainment of target costs and quality costs

7KH QDO VWHS RI WKLV PHWKRGRORJ\ ZLOO EH WKH DFKLHYHPHQW RI DQ RSWLPXP FRVWLQJ VWUXFWXUH RI RXU VHUvice. This should allow satisfying the customer needs with the resources available to the company. According to Fischer (2008), its scope is different depending on whether is about the development of new
products or services or the improvement of the mimes to follow the changing market cycles.
Attainment of target costs in the frame of new service development

In this case the process will have less trouble if adjustments are made during the product or service
design stage. The attainment of the target costs takes place in an iterative process, in which the service
processes are revised as long as the target costs are attained
Here, the use of tools like service-blueprinting and service simulation is recommended.

Target costs achievement
The achievement of the Target costs is related to the analysis of the Target costs Index. This analysis is a
benchmark to identify the processes that need to be adjusted. The cost adjustment does not imply achieving an exact match of the obtained percentages, but achieving an equilibrium between these.
Thus, the cost in which, according to their target cost index a reduction on the standard cost is needed, are:
Training
Preparing travels
Write and send proposal
The processes in which the standard costs are below the target costs, and hence, more investment could
be done in these processes to improve their quality are:
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Internal control during training
The process of submitting material is dismissed from the analysis,
because its costs are very low.
191
For the analysis, the responsible people for marketing and training met and jointly decided the following
activities:
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more customized way the offers to the clients. This reduced the costs related to preparing
the proposal.
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to prepare the travels. This leads to a reduction in the costs of preparing travels.
5HJDUGLQJ WKH SURFHVVHV RI FRQWHQW GHQLWLRQ VFKHGXOH DQG LQWHUQDO FRQWURO GXULQJ WKH WUDLning, even when they do not involve hig costs, currently are processes carried out with a
high involvement from the clients. It has been decided to invest in e-learning tools in order
to have a closer internal control during the face-to-face training and once this will be over.
:KLOH QHZ 6WDQGDUG FRVWV GRQ W PDWFK H[DFWO\ WR WKH WDUJHW FRVWV SUHYLRXVO\ GHQHG WKH FRVWV SHU REMHFtive tool has allowed to recognize the points in which improvements were handed, both from the points
of view of costs and quality. Once this analysis was completed, this technique was able to establish key
activities, which allowed the service to be provided according to customer needs.
Process
Standard costs
Percentage
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18.875,00
100%
Total
192
Attainment and improvement of target costs during the market cycle

Here is the last element of target costing. The target costs for the service processes serve now as a paUDPHWHU IRU QHZ VWDQGDUG FRVWV ZLWK ZKLFK FRPSOLDQFH LV VRXJKW DQG PRQLWRUHG LQ WKH UHOHYDQW UPV
area. At this point, after rendering the service, the accomplishment of the obtained target and standard
costs (as result of the division of costs) is carried out in a continuous improvement process in order to
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and experience curve effects are present. It is possible to incorporate costs for future support or measures
for adapting to the market or follow up cycle activities.
An array of instruments can be applied in the frame of target costing processes in addition to the market
research instruments; e.g. quality function deployment as a concept for the coverage of quality and clients requirements in the design process. The respective standard costs of the components, and the other
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193
Project management
Reasons for a good project planning
Given the incessant shortening of product and technology life cycles, competition in terms of time grows
and becomes more intense. Time has become a crucial success factor for companies and projects, as
launching new products and services as soon as possible is worthwhile in most markets. This is because
the early entry to the market allows to set higher prices, to catch more customers and to produce larger
quantities, therefore, reducing unit costs. Consequently, the invested capital is recovered faster, its use
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focus the innovative potential in other areas.
This motivates to accelerate innovation processes. However, this often leads to higher development costs
and to face higher risks and acceptance barriers due to the early introduction of the products and services
to the market. Determining the optimal time to enter the market (time-to-market) is a result of marketing
and project management. This will determine the duration that the project can afford and the starting
point, progress and completion deadlines, meeting the companys internal conditions and the external
market requirements.
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of goals. The objectives related to the costs, time, and desired results must be formulated in a realistic,
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the course of the project. In this way, resources and time periods can be allocated. This makes it possible,
in turn, to distribute scarce resources among different projects. The time planning of a project consists of:
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events (milestones).
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duction of measures to shorten the total project duration according to the objectives.
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recourses as well as the achievement of balance in the workload.
194
Time planning provides the shortest possible time for implementing a project and ensures that there are
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To achieve the expected results, it is necessary to follow the steps of time planning:
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and isolated procedures (activities).
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of professions and the requirements of equipment and material.
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workload distribution.
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account the internal and external demands
The project planning process

In order to reduce complexity, the project must be divided into tasks (work packages), and for this, it is
necessary to identify the work packages that can be left under the responsibility of certain areas for their
implementation. This can be done through the brainstorming technique or with the help of a mental map.
7KH SXUSRVH RI WKLV GLYLVLRQ LQWR WDVNV LV WKH SUHSDUDWLRQ RI SODQQLQJ WKH VHTXHQFH WKURXJK WKH LGHQWLFDtion of actions or activities which, in turn, are necessary to complete the tasks. Another result of the division is the determination of the precedence conditions (predecessor-successor relationships) between tasks.
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The instruments for the division of the project into tasks are the project structure plans and activities listings-
195
Project structure plans and activities listings

The project structure plan is a task allocation tool. The major tasks are distributed between tasks and
work packages. They form a hierarchical structure of tasks, which may have several levels of division.
How detailed should the division be, depends on the size magnitude of the project.
Experience has shown that it is very practical to try the following sequence:
1.
First, one makes a division by objects (e.g. components or parts what may be listed
separately).
2.
Then, a division by functions (division into work packages that may be included in
separate areas or functions)

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The preparation of activities listings increase the level of detail of a project structure plan by putting the
activities in a sequence. An activity must be understood as the smallest unit that contributes to the implementation of at least one task.
An activity is an event that requires time, has a start and an end point, lasts at least a unit of time, demands certain skills, generates costs and can be clearly assigned to an organizational unit.
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196
precedence between activities must be conducted in a way that becomes clear which activities can be
started after the previous one has been completed. Here, the predecessor-successor relationships are inspected. There are different types of precedence relationships, for instance:
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The implementation timelines for each activity must be set in the following step with the help of standard
values or time estimates (which should be as accurate as possible) and those responsible for accomplishing such activity.
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No.
Activity
Responsible
Managers
Predecessor
(No.)
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setting
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development
Development of the solution

to the problem by establishing
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Development of algorithms
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Implementation: translation
into a programming language
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grammers
Correction of errors through

the comparison between what
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mers
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dure for the user

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mers, Customer support
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the practical application
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197
Duration
Bar chart
The most common tool used in practice is the bar chart, also called Gantt chart. From the beginning of
the project structure plan or the activities listing, to each activity is assigned a starting point, a duration
and an end. In this matrix form of representation, time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, etc.) is
presented on the horizontal axis, while the activities are listed on the vertical axis eventually with the
corresponding people responsible for them. The activities represented by charts are subject to the precedence relationships.
This tool can be complemented with the introduction of milestones, which are nothing more than checkpoints to compare the situation that should be with the real situation. Then, corrective decisions are made
or actions are taken to complement, enhance or modify the process of the project. This tool is suitable for
rather small projects, with a low level of interconnection among its activities.
Network maps
Another possibility to graphically present a project is the network map, which contributes to the project
planning process and contains events, timelines and precedence relationships. The strength of this tool is
that it makes evident the dependence and chronological sequence of the activities.
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predecessor activities from the successors and which activities can be parallel executed.
Each box shows the following information:
Name of the activity

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3UHGHFHVVRU DFWLYLW\
Start date
Start date
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198
This tool can also set buffer times and the critical path. Buffer times are understood as a kind of time
reserve. It is the amount of time an activity can be delayed without extending the total duration of the
project. Instead, the critical path (generally represented by thicker lines or of another color) shows the
activities that cannot be delayed or take longer than planned, because if they do, they can prolong the
total duration of the project.
This method is very useful for more complex projects and with a greater degree of interaction between
its activities. Among the most commonly attributed advantages for the project are the visualization of
complex dependencies, parallel activities and the sequence of the entire project. It is also an advantage
UHJDUGLQJ WKH QHHG RI PRUH SUHFLVLRQ LQ SODQQLQJ DFWLYLWLHV ZKLFK OHDGV WR D JUHDWHU HIFLHQF\ 7KH FKDQges that are intended to be introduced into the project become clearly visible together with their consequences and implications. The latter, allows, in turn, developing different versions for comparison. By
presenting the precedence relationships so clearly, this tool increases the sense of responsibility of those
who have been assigned to perform the task and thus, fosters teamwork and a stronger coordination.
199
Technology Roadmaps
Definition
Roadmaps were originally developed by MOTOROLA in the 70s in order to align the development of
their products and their supporting technologies.
The technology roadmaps (TRM) are part of a methodology that guarantees the alignment of investments
in technology and the new development of capabilities, so that they are able to make capital out of future
market needs.
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technological evolution in advance. The tool takes the relationship between technologies, their products
and services as well as the relationship with the target markets into account.
Fields of use
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Planning of products:
This is the most common technology roadmap. In this case, the different generations of manufactured
products are tied to the necessary technologies for their development.
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200
Planning of services and capabilities:

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Strategic planning:
This kind of Roadmap assesses the different opportunities that markets and business tendencies can offer,
at strategic level.
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201
Long run planning:

In this case, roadmaps are often used at regional and national levels, where planning is projected
long-term.
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Capabilities and knowledge planning:

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202
Project planning:
The roadmap can also align the different project activities, e.g. R&D projects with technological
development.
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Process planning:
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Integration planning:
Through this roadmap, it is possible to have a vision about integration and evolution of the technology,
and how they combine with products and systems in order to create new technologies.
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204
Innovation roadmaps development process

The objective of this subchapter is to illustrate the methodology for developing technology roadmaps. As
previously seen, there are different kinds of roadmaps; nevertheless, this guide will focus on the design
of a technology roadmap for planning products, which will be named innovation roadmap because of its
capital use. These roadmaps are formed by six core steps (Nippa & Labriola, 2008):
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The following description of the model is based on Nippa & Labriola (2008) and Specht & Behrens
(2008).
205
Step 1: Restricting the scope of research

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analysed with the roadmapping methodological framework. The object to be analysed will be linked to
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the future.
Step 2: Development of the Technology Roadmap

The technology roadmap shows the most relevant technologies that permit the development of the analyzed object, while taking the time factor into account.
For this analysis, technologies must be taken into account, especially the ones available within the
Roadmap's time scope (Specht & Behren, 2008). Accordingly, future developmental approaches must be
established for three technological categories (Nippa & Labriola, 2008):
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or which are part of previous innovation plans.
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In addition, dynamics of technology development, like technologies life cycles, must be taken into account. Particularly, relevant tendencies of the market as well as the tendencies of consumers needs are
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206
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Step 3: Development of the roadmap for products

Because of their closeness to the market, the sales and marketing department must adopt the leading role
for the development of roadmap for products (Nippa & Labriola, 2008), which will be simultaneously
developed with the technology roadmap.
Conversely, as in the technology roadmap, where the presence of an expert in marketing accompanying
the development is necessary, the roadmap for products must have an expert in technology for collaborating with the development of the roadmap.
According to Nippa & Labriola (2008), in the development of the future scenario for the product analysis, two groups must be considered:
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result of some related technological development? The products' use is based on
the concept of incremental innovation.
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This kind of product use is related to radical innovations.
207
The dynamics of the market is another factor to think about when developing the roadmap for products.
Although this dynamic depends on several factors, the development of clients is the most important one.
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Labriola (2008) showed that the market launch of products based on incremental innovations must be
faster than products based on radical innovations. This happens because this kind of innovation is being
waited for by consumers, thus, they must be immediately available for the clients.
As in the technology roadmap, it must be considered that the products could merge or separate for forming different categories of products (see Figure 65)
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Step 4: Generation of a provisional Innovation Roadmap

In this step, the synchronization of the technology roadmap and the roadmap for products is accomplished. Generally, this task must be carried out by the marketing department or any equivalent area.
According to Nippa & Labriola (2008), there are two ways of synchronization:
208
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products. Then, products and technologies that do not have a technological complement
must be found, and respectively eliminated.
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ment of technologies, to the planned point of launch to the market of the related
products. In the case that the time for developing the technology that supports the
product to be launched is not enough, the development of this product can be eliminated or market launch can be postponed to the future.
According to Labriola (2007), the synchronization of these two roadmaps can result in the following
consequences:
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occurred before it was expected.
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which will be developed and acquired later than expected.
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it is necessary to have the T1, T5, and T6 technologies ready. Technology T1 is necessary for generating
the FP4 function, and T5 and T6 technologies are necessary for generating the FP4 function.
209
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Step 5: Analysis of the competitors technology and innovation

This analysis intends to identify the time point in which the competitors will probably launch innovaWLRQV WKDW DUH VLPLODU WR WKH RQHV SODQQHG E\ WKH UP ,Q VRPH HFRQRPLF VHFWRUV LW LV YHU\ GLIFXOW WR QG
information related to the time points for the launch of innovative products. Therefore Nippa & Labriola
GHQHG VRPH VLJQDOV ZKLFK FRXOG EH GHWHFWHG ZKLFK LQGLFDWHV LQ DQ LQGLUHFW ZD\ KRZ WKH FRPpeting technology is developing:
Patents published by competitors or the presentation of their products prototypes.
Another source of information is formed by the mutual providers and clients. A lot of times, competitors
conduct customer and provider surveys in order to identify the right point to launch their innovative
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can indirectly access this data.
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their technology development plans as an instrument of their marketing strategy. In addition, information
210
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standards is an important source of information for the analysis of technological competition, especially
in products that are developed in networks (e.g. in the telecommunication sector).
Step 6: Generation of the final Innovation Roadmap

With the collected information from the competitors technology and innovation analysis, it is possible
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the provisional roadmap.
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211
Failure Mode Effect

Analysis (FMEA)
Definition
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Given the high involvement of the customers and the constant contact with them during the serviceproviding process, failures in the developing the process of addressing the customer requirements may
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positive experience with maximum to 5 other potential customers. This highlights the importance of the
attention that must be paid to taking care of the quality of the service provision (Eversheim et al., 2006).
Here, the Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) is presented as one of the most suitable tools for the
detection of potential failures in complex systems. According to Stamatis (2003), the FMEA in services
is a method to identify potential or known failures and makes it possible to implement corrective actions
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Application fields
Overall, the FMEA in services can be applied to any type of service. As examples, we can mention the
following areas:
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this is precisely the type of companies where the concept of zero defects is essential
or the success in the provision of services.
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based on the machinery failures analysis.
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analyze the possible failures in the different type of monetary transactions made by customers.
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D SRLQW LQ ZKLFK WKLV PHWKRGRORJ\ FDQ EH HIFLHQWO\ LPSOHPHQWHG
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the serious consequences they could bring.
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of the service makes the possible failures analysis indispensable.
Phases of the FMEA

The development process of and FMEA in services is developed in two phases: the preparation phase and
the application phase.
The preparation phase

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features of the service are based on the customer needs, the lower the probability of their un-satisfaction
during the service provision process. In addition to this factor, there is the need for proper understanding
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focused approach, these processes must be based on the analysis of the voice of the customer (VOC).
These initial processes can be implemented with the help of other tools such as the benchmarking and the
quality function deployment (QFD) for the customer requirement analysis and the service blueprinting
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must be formed. This team must be multidisciplinary and must involve between 4 and 6 people. The roles
and functions to be distributed are:
213
Team leader: the principal function is to coordinate the participation of the whole
FMEA team. The person performing this role must have good management skills
and must be able to lead the team without being authoritarian.
Champion or sponsor: the person who allocates the resources and the support necessary to
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members, shares the authority with them and does the necessary tasks in the preparation stage.
Facilitator: the most knowledgeable person in the development process of the FMEA.
Among the responsibilities are keeping the team members informed about the
procedures to follow and ensures that all participants are involved.
Recorder: the person leading the documentation of the team work. Primary
responsibility is keeping the FMEA table up to date.
Once the FMEA team has been established, the next step is to determine its scope. In this way, the analysis can be limited to a particular sub-process of the service, for example, the process of initial contact
with the customer, the service provision process and the process of handling customer complaints, etc.
This scope must be made very clear to all the FMEA team members.
Implementation phase of the tool

Once the requirements of the preparation phase have been covered, we proceed to apply the FMEA tool.
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results and the severity, occurrence and detection rating. In the case of the rating presented in this guide,
it only exposes an initial reference provided as an example. The rating can be subsequently adapted for
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Actions taken
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New severity rating
Actions taken to reduce RPN
Responsible person for action execution
Recommended
actions
RPN
Risk priority number
Actions to reduce RPN
DET
Current controls
OCC
Potential Causes
SEV
Potential effect of
failure
Potential failure
mode
Process
Function
Probability of failure detection

through the use of controls
Controls implemented to prevent

failures in the processes.
Frequency of failure occurrence
Possible causes of failures
Severity of the failures
Impact of failures on customers
Possible failures of the processes
Processes to be reviewed
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Table 23: Form to develop the FMEA.
216
Development process of the tool

Each one of the 7 steps shown in Figure 68 will be explained in detail in the following paragraphs.
Step 1: Determining the process functions

This step consists on identifying the different roles involved in the processes to be analysed. This can be
carried out using tools such as the service blueprinting. The objective is to identify those functions in which
the process could fail. This requires an analysis of the process as it really is and not how it should be.
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seek to use active verbs and appropriate nouns whose combination can adequately describe the service to
be provided, for example:
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Step 2: Determining the potential failure modes

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factors that must be taken into account when making the failure analysis in services. In this situation
there are two types of failure modes (Stamatis, 2003):
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,W VKRXOG EH SRVVLEOH WR LGHQWLI\ WKH SRWHQWLDO IDLOXUHV RI HDFK IXQFWLRQ LGHQWLHG LQ WKH SUHYLRXV VWHS $V
D VXSSRUW WKH IXQFWLRQ FDQ EH GHQHG LQ D QHJDWLYH IRUP IRU H[DPSOH
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Step 3: Determining the potential effects of failure

When we speak of potential effects, we refer to the consequences of failures that can occur during the
service provision. If the service under analysis is already in progress, the effects can be found in documents such as the suggestions form and customer complaints.
Typically, this is a very sensitive topic in companies because many employees do not want to admit their
errors in the processes. For this reason, it is necessary to maintain an open and truthful communication
during the development process of the FMEA. The multidisciplinary and multifunctional character of the
FMEA team facilitates this task (Stamatis, 2003).
Severity of effect
Rating
Extreme
The failure is serious and will lead to an irremediable loss of

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10
High
The customer is greatly annoyed by the failure, he will com

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7
6
Moderate
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5
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Low
The customer will identify the failure but will not feel unsa
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None
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:KHQ GHQLQJ WKH HIIHFWV WKHLU VHYHULW\ PXVW EH GHWHUPLQHG DV ZHOO 7KH VHYHULW\ LV D VXEMHFWLYH PHDsurement of how bad or serious is the effect of the failure (El-Haik and Roy, 2005). The severity
degrees can be calculated with the help of a 10 level scale measurement (see Table 24.).
218
Step 4: Determining the failure modes

This step will establish the causes that have produced a certain failure. Each cause is associated to an
effect produced by the failure. The sources of theses causes may be diverse. However, they can be clasVLHG LQWR FDWHJRULHV
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normal development of the service.
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made to an online store. In this case, the effect of the failure is the delay in the delivery of the order.
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Regarding the causes, our main concern is their probability of occurrence in order to avoid them. To do
so, we will use a 10 level scale (see table 25).
219
Probability of occurrence
Rating
10
Very high
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9
8
High
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7
6
Moderate
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5
4
3
Low
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2
Remote
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Step 5: Determining the controls

When we speak of current controls, we refer to the different procedures established in the company to
detect the causes of failures or the failure itself, before or after the provision of the service.
The controls can be as simple as checklists of activities or labeling systems for materials or as complex
as temperature control systems for food or data control computer systems.
The evaluation of the probability that these controls detect the causes of failures is associated to the
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Probability of detecting the cause of failure

(Detection)
Very low
Low
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The controls have a remote probability of detecting the fai
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Rating
10
9
8
7
Moderate
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6
5
4
High
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3
2
Very high
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1
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Step 6: Calculation and evaluation of risks

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using the following formula:
This simply makes it possible to classify the failures, in order to have a reference point (the highest RPN
indicates a greater preference) to initiate improvements to the process.
At this point, we can start determining the activities that must be carried out to eliminate the detected
failures with a higher RPN and those that have a simple and inexpensive solution. The action plan to be
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221
Step7: Development and implementation of the Action Plan

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changes during the implementation of the plan, we must keep a track of the activities that were really
undertaken and the date they were completed on.
Once the action plan has been fully implemented, the severity, occurrence and detection ratings for each
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until the FMEA decides that all the necessary corrective actions have been taken.
This chapter presented in detail the process to implement the FMEA in services. As we could see, the
active involvement of all the FMEA team members is very important. However, it is even more important
that the process is not conducted only once, the team should meet regularly to reassess the new possible
failures that may arise, whether it is in services already or new services that could be developed by the
company.
222
Investment evaluation methods

Net Present Value method
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will be included in a mathematical model in a differentiated manner, taking into account the time in
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The discount rate used is not equivalent to the real interest rate in the market, but it represents a minimum
rate of return desired by the entrepreneur. The observation of annual periods is very common. However,
with the use of standard software like Microsoft EXCEL, it is possible to have an accurate estimate, daily
if desired, of the impact that income and expenses can have at any given time.
The basic principle of the net present value (also simply referred to as NPV in the literature and software
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due to the action of the discount factor:
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of years) and the interest rate and represent the degree of the loss of advantages due to the time elapsed.
The formula for the Net Present Value C0, referred to as NVP is:
Where:
223
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Here, it is important to note that P and I are liquidity variables and are in the formula exactly at the time
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applies to paid interests, because the formula already comprises and interest rate, and with an eventual
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The net present value is easily calculated with Microsoft Excel using the NPV function included in it. It
applies the following formula:
It is important to make a correct interpretation of the NPV: the monetary advantage of the investment
from the perspective of the present time or time 0 (that is, the time of purchase of the product) compared
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This interpretation is somewhat abstract and hinders the correct understanding of the method. FurtherPRUH WKHUH DUH RIWHQ HUURUV LQ WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ LQ WKH VHQVH WKDW LW LV FRQVLGHUHG DV D UHVXOW RI WKH SURW
generated by an investment. However, it is only about the additional advantage that the investment
offers compared to an investment of the same amount in the capital market.
In any case, the net present value is an indicator through which we can compare very well different products or variants of products from a supplier and its competitors from the perspective of the customer. In
any case, it is evident that a purchase by the customer offers and additional monetary advantage, compared to savings, when the NPV result is greater than 0.
We must put ourselves in the place of the buyers or the customers and get to know or calculate their
incomes and payments.
Another method, the internal rate of return, shows how high the return on the invested capital is in the
example.
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

The return on an investment can be calculated on the same mathematical basis: by equating the NPV
formula to zero and developing the equation, we obtain the interest rate based on the same assumptions
and the same principle, to value less payments and subsequent returns than those that occur earlier.
224
The term on the right side implies a number of roots, the longer we use a product, the more roots it will
have and therefore, some of a higher degree. This can lead to the lack of a mathematical solution for
the formula, or that the solutions are not easy to calculate. In this case, the solutions will have to be determined by interpolation. But, also here, Microsoft EXCEL provides a function that makes it easier to
calculate the internal rate of return (IRR).
225
Elimination of behavioral barriers

Barriers to innovation
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of innovation and thus, represent impediments to innovation itself.
These constraints may be originated within the entity or outside of it. Examples of external barriers are
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To overcome these exogenous barriers, the company must adapt itself to the environment and seek for
solutions using different strategies. However, internal barriers are obstacles that impede or hinder innovation to a large extent. Many of these barriers are rooted in the culture within the organization, and this
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Barriers within the organization are usually interrelated and interact with each other, forming a complex
interweaving of obstacles that can result in vicious cycles of repetitive behaviour, trapping the organization into a status quo that impedes, decelerates or remove effectiveness of the innovation processes.
This is why it is so important to generate changes in the culture of the organization through the removal
of the behavioural barriers.
There are three main types of internal barriers: those related to an organization that is not favourable to
innovation, the inadequate allocation of resources and most importantly, the barriers related to behaviour. This guide aims to solve the latter. For this, we present tools for the measurement of the cultural
disposition to innovation, which will help to identify behavioural problems that must be overcome. Then,
it will indicate concrete actions to overcome these barriers.
Importance of culture of innovation

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tasks, set their goals, design their strategies and cooperate or compete to materialize them. In simple
words, the culture is derived from the way of doings things beyond the quality and the relevance of the
226
formal rules that the organization has, as these will be ultimately interpreted and assumed within the
cultural framework of the organization.
The direct relationship between organizational culture and climate affects factors such as trust, not so
much in terms of the security regarding the capabilities of those involved, but rather in terms of the
expectation that they have about the opportunistic behaviour from other members, or about internal
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determines the levels of cooperation and commitment in the organization and its sub-structures, whether
they are permanent as the departments or temporary as the teams formed for a project.
On the other hand, culture has a temporal dimension as it originates from recognizable patterns in the history of the organization, for example, from the way of exercising authority and communication, from the
readiness to accept changes, challenges and commitments and from the importance attributed to certain
areas, among others. It is not surprising that this impulse of the past tends to outline the future path, and
this often results in barriers to innovation. Culture determines therefore, behaviours and intangible factors inherent to innovation such as the predisposition to creativity, lateral thinking limits or the tolerance
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staff and the attribution of greater or lesser importance to innovation activities.
The links between the culture and the dimensions and elements that promote or, at least, make innovation
possible within an organization are complex. To give some structure to this multiplicity of factors and
behaviours that make part of the culture of the innovation topic, a three-point model gathers them and
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Behavioral barriers
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elimination and impact of other barriers such as the inadequate allocation of resources and the inappropriate design of the structure. These barriers are usually found in all the levels of the organization and
especially, between levels, departments and teams.
In the chapter, culture for innovation, there is a more detailed explanation of the different types of behavioural barriers. However, it should be noted that most of these barriers have effects on the resistance to
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of groups and individuals.
The behavioural barriers can and must be overcome in order to pave the way for innovation. This can be
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two critical factors to be able to conquer these obstacles.
This tool for the elimination of behavioural barriers and the encouragement of a culture for innovation
assumes a sequence of actions to achieve this:
1.
Measurement process of the innovation cultural disposition towards innovation.

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3.
Analysis of stakeholders.
4.
Incorporation of innovation promoters.
Step 1: Measuring the cultural disposition

towards innovation
7KH UVW VWHS WRZDUGV LPSURYLQJ WKH FXOWXUH DQG RYHUFRPLQJ WKH EDUULHUV LV WKH PHDVXUHPHQW RI WKH FXOWXral disposition to innovation. This will achieve transparency and a common understanding of the barriers
that must be eliminated taking into account their relative importance and the time frames in which they
have to be overcome.
Preconditions for a successful change are the willingness of the managers to change and the real disposition to support initiatives to systematically remove barriers, taking into account the social characteristics
of the organization, because the company, as any other organization, is composed of people. It is for this
reason that many internal barriers are based on behaviour.
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The following table is a questionnaire which displays the evaluation of the companys cultural disposition to innovation within the company:
Criteria
The organization encourages the staff to be

creative
The managers support the initiatives suggested by the staff
The organization carries out observations to
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The staff is ready to accept changes in how the
work is done
229
Very
Someti-
often
mes
Rarely
Never
The organization has not been able to successfully introduce new things in the past (e.g. ISO
9002, etc.)
There is constant communication between the
managers and the staff
The work culture support the implementation
of new ideas
Managers do not like to implement new things
The Status Quo is more important to the organization than the constant change
The team cohesion is promoted more by the
staff than by the managers
Managers do not communicate with each
others
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Step 2: Simultaneous identification of

barriers and solutions
The best way to identify barriers is through working sessions in which those involved are participating.
The goals of this activity are the following:
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For this, it is recommended to organize a workshop with the following stages:

1.
Introduction to the objective of the workshop

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3.
Barrier analysis
4.
Determine the required interventions
Given that many times the participants need to be motivated to comment on problematic issues, the moderator or facilitator of the workshop should be a neutral person. If there are internal political tensions
or intense rivalries in the company, it convenient to hire a consultant specialized in the facilitation of
workshops.
Step 2.1: Identification and definition of the behavioural

barriers to be changed
Based on the results obtained from the questionnaire applied, we can start by suggesting behavioral barriers that are evident. Qualitative interviews can also be carried out; that is individual conversations in
advance with the employees. The results of these interviews must be summarized and systematized to be
presented at the workshop. However, participants should be asked to suggest or name the barriers that
they consider important at the time. This can be done through the use of cards that will be deposited into
a box, in that way, if it is necessary, the suggestions can even be anonymous.
Step 2.2: Barrier analysis

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interviews and the applied questionnaires. It is advisable to lead the participants to discuss on the following aspects or topics:
231
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It is necessary to allow reasonable time for discussion and questions as we follow the material. The example below gives an idea of how to show the barriers and the information related to it:
Barrier: the need of being recognized and having a god network leads to poor results and a weak discipline
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the barrier they contribute to, as it is shown in the following example which analyzes the problem of a
short-term vision:
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To conclude this part of the workshop, it is necessary to determine the cause-effect relationships of the
barriers, in other words, the why of these barriers and their consequences.
At the time of giving instructions for this part of the session of the analysis, it is convenient to form
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The teams must analyze the reasons of the barriers. However, to understand the cause and the effect can
be complicated and requires repetitive steps. The material is complex and is not obvious to customers.
Metaphors and other elements can be used to describe the causes and effects.
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problems and not on trying to solve them. This is done at a later stage of the process.
The teams can employ the brainstorming technique for the reasons, writing them on cards and then putting them together.
Finally, to close the analysis section of the workshop, the information generated by the groups is systematized and the results are shown in front of all the participants. In order to move to the next stage of the
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233
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Step 2.3: Determining the required interventions

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measures to address the prioritized behavioural barriers.
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After completing this activity, the workshop must be concluded, and the part of the process in which the
company is at the moment should be explained to all the participants.
234
Step 3: Stakeholder analysis

As previously explained, companies are often faced with resistance to change, which in turn is based on the
behavioural barriers. To analyze the reason and source of these barriers, all the stakeholders involved in an
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in the workshop will help to identify the stakeholders that are connected with those barriers and solutions.
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a structure to systematize the information required for the analysis.
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The analysis should be focused on the attitude of the stakeholders towards change and their base of poZHU DQG LQXHQFH ZLWKLQ WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ )RU WKLV LW LV QHFHVVDU\ WR NQRZ LQ GHSWK WKH DWWLWXGH RI HDFK
stakeholder towards other members. One of the critical factors for a good evaluation and analysis is the
good knowledge of the informal structures of an organization, because in many cases the power and inXHQFH RQ SHRSOH DUH EDVHG RQ WKHVH VWUXFWXUHV EH\RQG WKHLU IRUPDO SRVLWLRQV DQG UROHV 7KLV PHDQV WKDW
some relationships have more to do with the sympathy and antipathy among members, common personal
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individuals towards others.
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this purpose, e.g. a new workshop or session.
It is very important to visualize the relationships of the stakeholders, because these are the limitations to
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these relationships and their nature.
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Actions of the drivers of innovation

The drivers of innovation are individuals or groups of individuals that facilitate the removal of barriers
to innovation and in doing so raise the level of motivation and increase the chances of a successful implementation of the changes and hence, the innovation projects.
These drivers are committed to the innovation process at a very personal level and their role inspires
other members of their organization to assume changes in behaviour, improving in this way the innovation culture.
The drivers of innovation usually have strong leadership skills and personal traits that turn them into
people that are very respected and listed to more due to their ability of persuasion, their argumentation,
and knowledge than just by the mere exercise of authority. In this way, they achieve results and assume
key roles such as:
236
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opening the way for building positive relationships
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and structures.
The main challenge of the driver is to facilitate an open discussion about the barriers and the reluctance
of employees regarding the innovation processes.
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Among the critical factors of a driver or a team of drivers are their willingness and their ability to support
the innovation process and reduce concerns. This requires that the driver or drivers have well developed
communication skills, an abstract reasoning ability and a temperament that generates sympathy but that
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innovation process allows the integration of drivers. This depends more on the decisions, the conviction
and the commitment of the senior management. From there, the driver or teams of drivers of innovation
will achieve, step by step, the removal of behavioral barriers, then the unfavorable organizational barriers
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238
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MANAGING The Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

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Managing the

iN4iN & Partners

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

+49 341 9737 039

+49 341 9737 048

Prof. Dr. Utz Dornberger

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

List of contributing authors

Part one - Concepts

Jos Isaac Yrigoyen Montestruque, MBA

J. Alfredo Suvelza G., MBA

Dipl. Kfm. Uwe Becher

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Part two - Tools

Prof. Dr. Utz Dornberger

Dipl. Wirt. Inf. Maik Seyring

Luis Bernal, MBA

Fernando Lizaso, MSc.

Alexander Hernndez Valencia, MBA

Dipl. Wirt. Inf. Maik Seyring

Luis Bernal, MBA

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Luis Bernal, MBA

Luis Bernal, MBA

Dipl. Kfm. Uwe Becher

J. Alfredo Suvelza G., MBA

Christian Hauke, M.A.

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

International SEPT Program Leipzig University

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

J. Alfredo Suvelza G., MBA

Carlos Andrs Palacios Valds, MSc.

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Alexander Hernndez Valencia, MBA

Eng. Jos Isaac Yrigoyen Montestruque, MBA

Luis Bernal, MBA

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Dipl. Kfm. Uwe Becher

Dr. Dirk Bessau

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Fernando Lizaso, M.Sc.

Omar A. Torres Z., MBA

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

Managing the Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation

The innovation process and its

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can be understood as a market-oriented economical use of an invention.

The dimensions of innovation

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Stages of innovation process

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