Grape Production Guide PDF

Bulletin 919 For-sale publication
Copyright 2005, Ohio State University Extension

OSU Extension embraces human diversity and is committed to ensuring that all educational
programs conducted by Ohio State University Extension are available to clientele on a nondiscriminatory basis without regard to race, color, age, gender identity or expression, disability,
religion, sexual orientation, national origin, or veteran status.
Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Agricultural Administration and Director, Ohio State
University Extension
TDD No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868
5/053Mxxxxxx
Authors
Imed Dami
Assistant Professor and Viticulture Specialist
Department of Horticulture and Crop Science
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center
The Ohio State University
Bruce Bordelon
Associate Professor and Viticulture Specialist
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture
Purdue University
David C. Ferree
Professor Emeritus
Maurus Brown
Assistant Professor and Extension Educator
Department of Extension
Michael A. Ellis
Professor and Extension Specialist
Department of Plant Pathology
Roger N. Williams
Professor
Department of Entomology
Douglas Doohan
Associate Professor and Weed Specialist
Acknowledgments
Editing
Joy Ann Fischer, Communications and Technology
Graphic Design
Tim Bowman, Communications and Technology
Jesse R. Ewing, Communications and Technology
Photography
Bruce Bordelon, Ken Chamberlain, Imed Dami, David C. Ferree, Jodi Miller, Gene Sigel,
Tom Zabadal
Illustrations
Imed Dami, Department of Horticulture and Crop Science
Jesse R. Ewing, Communications and Technology
The authors wish to thank the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University, for
supplying some of the gures used in this publication. Appreciation is also extended to the Ohio
Wine Producers Association for providing some photographs used on the cover.
Additional Copies
Additional copies of this handbook can be purchased from Ohio State University Extension,
Media Distribution, 385 Kottman Hall, 2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1044.
Phone: 614-292-1607. Fax: 614-292-1248. E-mail: pubs@ag.osu.edu.
References to products in this publication are not intended to be an endorsement to the exclusion
of others that may be similar. Any person using products mentioned in this publication assumes
full responsibility for their use in accordance with current directions of the manufacturer. The
authors and Ohio State University Extension assume no liability resulting from the use of these
products.
Midwest Grape Production Guide

Bulletin 919
Contents
Introduction and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Grapevine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Winter Temperatures and Spring Frosts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Soils and Water Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cultivar Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Key Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Special Cultural Practices Necessary for Vinifera Cultivars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Grapevine Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Field (Nursery) Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Greenhouse Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Grafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Vineyard Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Site Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Vineyard Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Polyethylene Mulch Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Vine Preparation and Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Trellis Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Pruning and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Pruning and Training Young Vines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Pruning Mature Vines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Training Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Crop Control and Canopy Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Concept of Crop Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Crop Control on Young Vines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Canopy Management of Mature Vines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Integrated Management of Grape Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Identifying and Understanding the Major Grape Diseases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Use of Resistant Cultivars for Grape Disease Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Cultural Practices for Disease Control in Grapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Using Fungicides for Controlling Grape Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fungicide Use Strategies for Grapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fungicides for Controlling Specic Grape Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Grape Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Insects That Attack Grape Buds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Insects That Attack Grape Flower Clusters and/or Berries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Insects That Attack Grape Foliage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Insects That Attack the Roots and Crown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Mites That Attack Grapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Wildlife Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Wild Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Weeds and Weed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Establishing New Vineyards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Nurturing a Newly Planted Vineyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Maintaining Weed Control and Clean-Up Practices in Established Vineyards . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Controlling Specic Perennial Weeds with Systemic Herbicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Injury From Herbicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Soil Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Cultivation Plus Cover Crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Permanent-Sod Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Mulching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Liming and Soil Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Soil Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Plant Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Primary Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Secondary Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Harvesting and Marketing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Harvest Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Publications for Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Introduction and History

Grape production in the United States is
expanding rapidly as new growers are starting
vineyards in all regions of the country.
Commercial wine grape production in the
Midwest, along with production in California,
Oregon, and New York, has increased with the
demand for high-quality wine.
During the last seven years (19972004) in
Ohio, the number of licensed and bonded
wineries has increased from 43 to more than
80. Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Missouri
are experiencing similar expansion as more
people are becoming familiar with the wines
produced from grapes grown in the Midwest.
Commercial wine-grape production has a long
history in the Midwestern states. Some of the
earliest work with grapevines occurred in Ohio
and Indiana.
A Swedish immigrant, John James Dufour,
worked diligently on improving grape growing
in Indiana during the early 19th century. He
settled in the prairie town of Vevay, Indiana,
shortly after returning to the United States in
1816. Dufour chose the most suitable location
available to start his new vineyards and begin
making wine. He brought with him from
Sweden considerable experience in growing
grapes and making wine.
In addition to Dufour, Jean Daniel Morerod
was well known in Vevay for his grape-growing
ability. Morerod helped to pioneer some of the
earliest wine making in southern Indiana.
Another great gure in American viticulture
was a young Cincinnati attorney, Nicholas
Longworth, who moved from New Jersey
in 1803. His interest in growing grapes and
making wine gave him notoriety in the United
States as an important viticulturist. By the
1820s, Longworth was seeking out sources of
various grape cultivars to grow in his newly
8
established vineyards, cultivars that included

the Catawba grape.
John Adlum, District of Columbia, was noted
as the person from whom Longworth obtained
the original Catawba vines. As the Catawba
grape became more popular for making wine,
Longworth quickly became an important
spokesperson for the Cincinnati grapegrowing area. The Ohio River Valley developed
a national reputation for growing grapes,
which led to it being nicknamed the Rhine of
America.
For more than three decades, grape production
around Cincinnati increased until grapevines
began to experience serious decline due to the
diseases of downy mildew, powdery mildew,
and black rot (Figure 1). As grape diseases
became more widespread, insects caused
additional problems that resulted in a decrease
in grape production in southwestern Ohio.
Southern Ohio grape growers abandoned their
vineyards and looked for other areas of Ohio
to grow grapes.
Although the Lake Erie grape-growing area
is much farther north than Cincinnati, its
weather patterns are moderated by a large
body of water. The Lake Erie area has been a
good location for grape production and wine
making because of the favorable attributes of
an extended growing season and well-drained
sandy soils. The Lake Erie grape-growing
region has been a strong production area for
more than 100 years and is still a strong viable
area for growing American, French hybrid,
and Vinifera wine grapes.
Northern Ohio grape production increased
rapidly through the mid-1860s. Early success
stories of grape growing along Lake Erie and
on the islands led several individuals to start
growing grapes in this region (Figure 2). By
1874 Ohio grape acreage totaled more than
FIGURE 1. Bordeaux application to control diseases in the early 1900s.
10,000 acres and grew to a peak of 28,000 in

1889.
Unlike the level of attention given to the
production of Catawba around Cincinnati,
most grape production in northern Ohio was
devoted to the American varieties, Concord
and Niagara, in the mid- to latter 1800s. From
the early 1900s through today, the Concord
and the Niagara grapes have been the most
widely grown grape varieties.
In 1919, Ohio was the rst state to vote against
the sale and the consumption of alcohol,
ushering in the era of Prohibition. After Prohibition was enacted, Ohio grape production
declined dramatically from a high of 32,000
acres, which was mostly planted to Catawba.
FIGURE 2. Grape harvest in the Lake Erie Region

in the early 1900s.
During Prohibition, grapes were only used

for juice and fresh consumption and thus
the demand for Concord and Niagara grapes
increased. Some sacramental wine was
produced for religious purposes, and home

wine making was common. It was not until
after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 that
grapes were once again used for commercial
wine making.
Since the mid-1970s, increased attention
has been paid to growing French hybrid and
Vinifera grapes for making high-quality wine.
Of the 2,000 acres of grapes grown in Ohio
today, some 300 to 400 acres are devoted to
French hybrid and Vinifera production.
Missouri is a grape-producing state with a
great history of wine making. Some of the rst
grape and wine producers in Missouri, as in
Indiana, were from Sweden. In the town of
Hermann, Missouri, in the early 1840s, a man
by the name of Jacob Fugger became known
for growing some of the earliest wine grapes
including Isabella, Cynthiana (Norton), and
Catawba. Until Fugger began growing grapes
for commercial wine production, Jesuit priests
had made wine in the early 1820s from locally
grown wild grapes.
Charles Riley worked on grafting European
vinifera onto American grape species in the
1870s. His use of native rootstocks was helpful
in controlling phylloxera in Europe. Grape
production in Missouri consists of predominantly red and white American varieties and
to a lesser extent French hybrid and Vinifera
varieties.
Illinois, although known for corn and
soybeans, is becoming a popular region for
wine-grape production. Early wine production
started in Navoo, in western Illinois, by
German settlers. Grape and wine production
10
was limited until the 1990s at which time

several growers started vineyards, and new
wineries opened for business.
Today Illinois has more than 40 licensed and
bonded wineries and more than 200 vineyards
with some 1,000 acres. Most of the grape
production is in the southern part of the
state, but more vineyards are being planted in
central and northern Illinois.
Grape production is an intensive cropping
process. Maintaining modern vineyards in the
Midwest requires recruiting migrant labor to
accomplish certain tasks. As vineyard mechanization became more prevalent in the late
1960s, the number of migrant laborers needed
dropped to only a few individuals who prune
and tie vines in the juice-grape vineyards. Most
of the grape harvest is done mechanically in
juice-grape vineyards, with a few of the larger
wine-grape growers using machines to harvest
their vineyards.
Table grapes are produced on a very small scale
in the Midwest. Most of the dessert grapes are
imported from California or Chile. Some effort
has been given to developing a seedless tablegrape industry in Ohio and Indiana. For the
most part, production and shipping costs have
limited the desire for planting large numbers
of acres of table grapes in the Midwest.
Some growers have planted one to two acres of
table grapes as an alternative crop to diversify
an established fruit farm. Most of these grapes
are sold through roadside or farm markets.
One reason for growing seedless table grapes
locally is the fresh home-picked avor that
cannot be duplicated with imported grapes.
The Grapevine
The growth habit of the grape is in many ways
similar to that of other fruit crops. Yet it is
sufciently different to warrant special study
to understand the application of many cultural
practices.
Grape owers and fruit clusters are borne only
on new shoots arising from dormant buds.
These buds are formed in the axils of leaves
the previous season and are called compound
buds. This compound bud or eye contains a
group of three separate buds.
When growth starts in the spring, the primary
or central bud breaks dormancy and produces
the fruiting shoot (Figure 3). On young vines,
this shoot may remain entirely vegetative and
produce no fruits. Grape shoots do not form
terminal buds, and the tip typically dies back
in the winter to the lignied or ripened portion
of the cane.
Spring frosts may occasionally kill the tender

primary shoot in its early stages of growth. In
this case, the secondary or tertiary buds in the
eye develop shoots that mayor may not
bear fruit (Figure 4). This shoot normally
is less vigorous and less productive than the
primary shoot. However, this characteristic
of the grape permits development of a partial
crop even though the primary shoots are lost.
Severe spring frosts may kill both primary and
secondary buds. In such cases, fruit production
is lost for that season, and the remaining shoot
growth may be extremely vigorous.
FIGURE 4. Frost injury to the primary shoot

results in new shoot growth from a secondary or a
tertiary bud.
Cluster initiation for next years crop begins

during mid-summer in the developing buds,
which are in the leaf axils of the current
seasons shoots. By the end of the growing
season, the buds are fully developed and
contain leaf and cluster primordia.
FIGURE 3. The fruiting shoot grows from the
primary bud.
The following spring as these buds begin

growth, nal development of the owers
occurs. By this time, shoots are 6-inches long,
and clusters are clearly visible. Flowering or
bloom occurs after the shoots reach 18 to 24
inches, or about four weeks after bud break.
11
Morphologically, the grape fruit cluster is

a modied tendril. Whether a tendril or a
ower cluster, development is determined
by the vines genetic code. The number of
ower clusters that may develop from a single
dormant bud is determined to a great extent by
vine vigor and growing conditions, especially
exposure to sunlight during the previous
season.
Each grape species has a denite number of
ower clusters per shoot. Location of these
clusters on the shoot also is specic. The
location and number of fruit clusters on the
shoot are factors to consider in determining
the vine training and pruning system. The
American grape (Vitis labruscana) characteristically forms two to four ower clusters
per shoot located at nodes 2, 3, 4, and 5 from
the base of the shoot. Many species of grape,
including most cultivars of V. vinifera, form
only two ower clusters per shoot.
French hybrids as a group tend to ower
prolically, have four or more clusters per
shoot, and produce owering shoots from
buds at the base of shoots and latent buds in
the cordon as well as count buds in the canes.
Grapes ower later than most tree fruit and
are mostly pollinated by wind. Fruit set is
inuenced by the weather, being greatest under
sunny, warm, dry conditions.
Berry growth and development occurs in
three stages. Rapid cell division and growth
begin in the berries following pollination at
Stage I, followed by Stage II of slow berry
growth, while rapid shoot and leaf growth
occurs. Veraisonsoftening of the berry and
development of berry colorsignals Stage III,
where acid levels decrease and sugars increase
until the grapes are mature and harvested.
12
Frequently during the growing season, a short,

weak shoot is produced in the axil of the leaf
adjacent to the bud and is known as a summer
lateral. These lateral shoots can be important
sources of photosynthetically active new
leaves. However, they often do not mature well
enough to survive the winter and are usually
removed in dormant pruning.
After the leaves drop in the fall, the term cane
is applied to the mature, dormant shoot. It is
from these canes that next years fruiting wood
is selected at pruning time and from which
propagation wood is taken.
The grapevine root system has important
functions of moisture and nutrient element
absorption as well as anchorage of the vine and
production of plant hormones. In addition,
the root system serves as the primary storage
organ for the carbohydrate and nitrogen
reserves required for early spring growth of the
vine.
The root system is concentrated in the wellaerated upper 18 to 24 inches of soil but can
penetrate deep into soil if not impeded by
a hard pan or a high water table. By proper
selection of rootstocks, grapevines can be
grown in a wide range of soil types.
Grapevines require some kind of structural
support for commercial and home production.
The trellis or arbor provides support so the
vine can be managed efciently. This support
exposes more foliage to sunlight, which
increases bearing surface and improves fruit
color and quality.
Wire trellises, arbors, or other structures
desired for a specic purpose or design may be
used. Grapevines must be pruned annually to
maintain productivity and fruit quality.
Site Selection
Climate
General climatic conditions in many sections
of the Midwest are favorable for growing
grapes. Most American and French hybrid
grapes can be grown where the frost-free
period is from 150 to 180 days. The longest
frost-free growing seasons in the region are
found along the shores and islands of the Great
Lakes and in the southern areas bordering the
Ohio River Valley.
Information presented in climatological charts
is general, so specic sites that have more or
less desirable conditions can be found within
any general area. Sites should be evaluated
individually, and cultivars should be selected
according to the length of the sites growing
season and the expected minimum winter
temperatures.
If the growing season is too short for a
particular cultivar, fruit may not mature
completely and may be poor in quality and
low in sugar content at harvest. In addition,
the vines may not mature properly in the fall,
leading to possible winter injury. If the cultivar
is not hardy enough to survive the winter, vine
performance would be unsatisfactory.
Vineyard disease problems may be related
in part to climate, especially humidity and
temperature. Diseases such as black rot and
downy mildew are more frequent under
warmer temperatures and high humidity than
in cooler, drier areas. Consequently, diseasecontrol programs may need altering from one
climatic region to another, as from northern to
southern parts of the region.
Winter Temperatures
and Spring Frosts
The Concord cultivar is generally one of
the most cold-hardy grapes commercially
grown in the Midwestern United States.
Other cultivars often are damaged more than
Concord in any particular season. Some of the
other cultivars commonly produced commercially are signicantly less winter hardy than
Concord. A relative rating of winter hardiness
for the various cultivars is provided in the
section on Cultivar Selection beginning on
page 18.
Vines begin to acclimate or harden off to cold
temperatures as they go dormant in the fall.
Early in the winter months, vines may not
have achieved adequate hardiness to withstand
temperatures below 0F. However, by the rst
week of January, vines have usually achieved
maximum winter hardiness and may be able to
withstand temperatures as low as -10F to
-30F, depending on the cultivar. Consequently,
the extent of cold damage that may occur is
dependent on the time of the year and the level
of cold (Figure 5).
In addition, the pre-freeze conditions can also
affect the amount of damage that occurs. This
is especially true if there are warm periods
(January thaws) followed by rapid drops in
temperature. In many years, it is not the midwinter cold that is responsible for cold injury
but the uctuating temperatures that occur in
late winter.
By late winter, the rest requirement of the vine
also has usually been achieved. After the winter
rest period is completed, the vine is ready
to grow, and only cold temperature keeps it
dormant. Any signicant warming can cause
the vine to deacclimate (lose cold hardiness).
If subsequent cold temperatures occur, vines
13
FIGURE 5. Riesling vine with top killed by -22F temperature with regrowth from the base.
can be damaged. When injury occurs, it is

frequently difcult to determine exactly when
or how a vine was damaged unless it is periodically examined throughout the winter.
Once growth starts in the spring and the buds
have extended to approximately 2 inches
in length, they are susceptible to damage
from temperatures below 28F. Temperature
variations caused by mesoclimates within a
vineyard usually exist; temperatures usually are
lowest near the ground, and they increase with
elevation. Therefore, when possible, growers
should establish vines on a trellis and grow
them at a height of 5-1/2 to 6 feet.
Once primary buds are dead or damaged,
various effects will result, depending on the
variety (Figure 6). Although secondary buds
generally will produce fruit, the crop will be
signicantly reduced. This subject is discussed
further under Selection of Cultivars, Pruning
and Training, and Cultural Practices That Aid in
Disease and Insect Control.
14
FIGURE 6. Bud cross section showing dead

primary (dark tissue in the center), but live
secondary and tertiary buds on either side.
Topography
Selection of a site with desirable climatological characteristics helps to reduce cultural
problems and assure success of the vineyard.
The best vineyard sites are those with full
sunlight, freedom from frost injury, and good
soil drainage.
The most frost-free sites are those higher than

the surrounding areas. Cold air drains from
higher sites into lower areas. Avoid low areas
where cold air may settle, because injury is
likely to be greater and yields are likely to be
lower where low-temperature injury occurs.
Sites south and east of the Great Lakes often
provide favorable temperature conditions in
both spring and fall. Even in these locations,
vineyards on higher elevations are less subject
to frost damage than those in low areas.
Generally, sites with steep slopes (15% or
more) should be avoided in commercial
plantings because of soil erosion and difculty in operating vineyard equipment. Cool
temperatures on northern slopes often delay
vine growth enough in the spring to aid in
avoiding frost damage. However, these slopes
may be subject to harsher winter conditions.
The opposite effect may occur on a southern
slope, resulting in earlier spring growth and
increased risk of frost injury. A western slope
may have the disadvantage of exposure to
prevailing winds that, in some areas or seasons,
could be strong enough to damage vines and
cause special trellising problems. On the other
hand, movement of prevailing winds through
a vineyard helps dry dew and rain from the
foliage and helps reduce disease problems.
Monitoring or mapping of site conditions
before planting is very desirable. Any prior
knowledge of an areas elevation effects and
other conditions may help producers locate
their vineyard above certain critical levels and
avoid damaging seasonal frosts. Advice from
those who have grown fruit trees or vines in a
given area can help potential producers nd
the elevation or location of the thermobelt and
thus avoid undesirable areas.
Soils and Water Drainage

Grapes can be grown on a variety of soil types.
However, the highest vine vigor and yield and
the most efcient production are achieved
on soils with good internal drainage. Water
drainage means surface removal of water as

well as percolation or internal movement of
water. With good management, vineyards have
produced satisfactorily on soils ranging from
gravelly loams to heavy clay and silt clay loams.
Producers should avoid soils that are consistently wet during the growing season (Figure
7). These soils may have an impervious
subsoil or other drainage problems. In poorly
drained soil, roots may penetrate only 2 feet
or less, whereas on a deep, well-drained soil,
they will penetrate 6 feet or more. Soils with
only fair drainage require more intensive soil
management (e.g., tiling), and yields may not
be satisfactory (Figure 8).
FIGURE 7. Poor drainage with standing water

should be avoided.
Just as cold air should not be allowed to

stagnate on a vineyard site, neither should
water be allowed to accumulate. The vineyard
must be arranged so that no ponding or
puddling of water will occur for extended
periods following a rain. This is especially
crucial during the growing season.
Subsoil characteristics are important when
choosing a vineyard site because they often
indicate the nature of internal drainage. For
example, a bright, uniformly yellowish-brown
subsoil indicates good internal drainage.
Subsoils showing slight mottling of yellow,
gray, and orange indicate only moderate
drainage. Poorly drained subsoils are characterized by greater mottling or, in some cases, a
uniform dark-gray color.
15
FIGURE 8. Equipment used to install drain tile between rows in a vineyard with imperfect soil drainage.
Photos courtesy of Gene Sigel.
The USDA Natural Resources Conservation

Service (NRCS) has mapped most of the soils
in the Midwest. Before producers establish
a planting, they should contact the local
NRCS ofce to obtain county soil surveys and
examine the soil conditions in the proposed
vineyard site. Soil maps are helpful in determining soil-drainage characteristics and in
evaluating potential sites. However, maps
are not substitutes for taking soil borings on
the site and making visual evaluations of the
subsoil.
Internal water drainage is extremely
important, especially for the more coldtender French hybrid or vinifera grapes. A soil
prole, as shown in Figure 9, can allow water
to move freely through it. However, many
Midwestern soils have fragipans, impermeable
layers or texture changes that prevent free
downward movement of water following rain
or irrigation.
Lateral movement of water at a given depth
below the surface can result in overly wet
conditions, harming the vines. Therefore, even
a sloped vineyard can have problems with
internal drainage. Operating equipment in wet
vineyards in early spring or late fall can also
cause compaction and create serious problems.
16
FIGURE 9. Example of soil prole with adequate

drainage.
Producers should note that general soils and

topographic maps that give the major soil
types and conditions for an area are not sufcient to determine the best location for the
vineyard.
Specic sites for small acreage may be found
that are considerably more favorable than
the general map would indicate. Therefore,
potential growers should not be discouraged
based upon this general information, but
should request detailed topographic and soils
maps from their local NRCS ofce. These
maps provide more information on the conditions for a specic site.
If the general topography (elevation, slope,
etc.) is favorable but the internal drainage is
imperfect, tile drains should be considered.
Tile drainage generally improves most sites for
the production of grapes and other fruit crops.
Producers should carefully examine these
conditions before the vineyard is planted.
Although grapevines grow and produce best

on fertile, well-drained soils, naturally high
fertility is not essential. Through proper
fertilizer applications and soil management
practices, even low-fertility soils can be
improved to grow high yields of quality fruit.
Thus, drainage considerations usually are more
important than soil fertility when selecting a
vineyard site. Improving soil fertility generally
is more economical than compensating for
poor water and air drainage on the site.
Because erosion is a major concern, most
vineyard rows should be planted perpendicular to the predominant slope. Row directions running up and down slopes should
be avoided. Contour plantings should also
be avoided as they may introduce cultural
or management problems and may result in
weaker trellising.
17
Cultivar Selection
Selection of the proper cultivars to plant is a
major step toward successful viticulture. Before
planting, commercial growers should give
serious thought to the market outlet and the
requirements of the processor or consumer
who will purchase the crop. Cultivars that are
in greatest demand or sell for the highest price
also are often the most difcult to produce.
Key Factors
Choosing a grape cultivar is based primarily
on two major factorsmarket outlook and
viticultural characteristics. Some important
considerations are listed here, and these factors
should be studied prior to planting. These
considerations are listed in the order of importance:
Vine Hardiness: Tolerance to low winter
temperatures and/or spring frosts is often
the limiting factor in cultivar selection in the
Midwest.
Fruit Characteristics: For a new grape
cultivar to have real commercial value, it
must rst produce fruit that results in wine,
juice, or eating quality that is superior or
equal to the quality of available cultivars.
Season of Ripening: Selected cultivars
should be able to ripen their fruit and wood
(hardening off) prior to the rst killing frost
in a given site. Late cultivars, for example,
require a long growing season.
Tolerance of Diseases and Insects:
Resistance to the most common and
18
destructive diseases and insect pests

generally is not available in the present
commercial cultivars. New cultivars that
exhibit at least limited tolerance to some
diseases or insects are highly desirable.
Susceptible cultivars require more expensive
cultural practices and in many cases should
be avoided.
Vine Characteristics: In addition to fruit
quality, vine characteristics and productivity
also must be superior to those of the cultivar
being replaced. It is difcult to obtain a new
cultivar with both fruit and vine characteristics superior to one already established, but
this is the objective of the grape breeders.
If the new cultivar has not been thoroughly
evaluated by experiment stations or established with growers in similar climates
and soil conditions, a trial planting should
precede any extensive commercial planting.
Three basic types of grapes are grown in the
MidwestAmerican, Hybrids, and European.
The characteristics of cultivars in each type
that have proven adaptability or have shown
promise and potential in university and
industry tests in the Midwest are presented in
the tables on the following pages. Although
many factors inuence winter hardiness, as
previously described, generally the temperature ranges assigned to the hardiness classes
are based on maximum cold hardiness in midwinter and are ranked as follows: tender, 0F to
-10F; slightly hardy, -5F to -15F; moderately
hardy, -10F to -20F; hardy, -15F to -25F;
and very hardy, -25F to -35F.
American Cultivars
The American type (e.g., Vitis labrusca, Vitis
aestivalis, Vitis riparia) has the widest distribution throughout the northern half of the
United States. Major producing areas include
the Great Lakes region, the Pacic Northwest,
the Midwest, and eastern states from Delaware
to New England.
Examples of important cultivars include
Concord, Catawba, Delaware, Niagara, and
Norton. Most American-type grapes are slipskinnedthat is, the esh separates readily
from the skin. Generally, they are processed
into juices, jams, jellies, wine, or sherry. Wellmanaged vineyards have high yields of six to
12 tons per acre. American-type cultivars are
generally hardy and widely adapted in the
Midwest. (See Figure 10 and Table 1.)
Figure 10. Norton (Cynthiana) is an Americantype cultivar widely grown in the lower Midwest.
Table 1. American Cultivars for the Midwest.

Cultivar
Color
Average
Cluster
Wt.
(lbs)
Winter
Hardiness*
Days
from
Bloom
to Harvest**
Ripening
Date
Concord
Blue
0.30
Hardy
115
Late
Standard of juice quality and most

commonly grown backyard grape.
Van Buren
Blue
0.30
Hardy
80
Early
Vigorous Concord type.
Buffalo
Blue
0.31
Hardy
85
EarlyMidseason
Concord type; distinct avor; table

use.
Fredonia
Blue
0.28
Hardy
95
Midseason
Earlier Concord type; vigorous.
Alden
Blue
0.48
Moderately
Hardy
100
Midseason
Adherent skin; productive; muscat

avor; mostly table use.
Steuben
Red
0.32
Hardy
100
Midseason
Catawba
Red
0.26
Hardy
120
Late
Used for wine and sherry.
Delaware
Red
0.16
Hardy
100
Midseason
Used for wine; stores well.
White
0.35
Hardy
110
Late
Midseason
Used for wine and white juice.
Niagara
Norton
(Cynthiana)
Blue
0.16
Hardy
125
Very late
Remarks
Spicy avor; non-uniform color.
Used exclusively for wine; long

season; only adapted to long
frost-free sites (180+ days). While
classied as an American-type,
Norton is a selection of V. aestivalis
and lacks the foxy avor associated
with V. labruscana cultivars.
* Winter hardiness rating: tender, 0F to -10F; slightly hardy, -5F to -15F; moderately hardy, -10F to -20F; hardy, -15F to -25F; and very hardy,
-20F to -35F.
** Bloom occurs four to six weeks after bud break.
19
Table Grape Cultivars
Since fruit appearance and berry size greatly

inuence marketability, special cultural
practices, such as application of gibberellic
acid sprays, girdling, and thinning, must be
used to produce table grapes commercially.
Each cultivar demands a special mix of these
practices for optimum marketability.
Vinifera table grape cultivars, such as

Thompson Seedless or Flame Seedless, do not
have sufcient cold hardiness to be grown in
the Midwest. Although Concord and many
other seeded grapes such as Buffalo, Alden,
Steuben, Seneca, Golden Muscat, Edelweiss,
Swenson Red, Yates, and others are grown
and consumed fresh, berries without seeds
are most in demand for table use, and these
will be listed separately (Table 2) due to their
uniqueness. (See Figure 11.)
A recent publicationGrowing Table Grapes in

a Temperate Climate, Michigan State University
Extension Bulletin E2774describes the
cultural practices and special management
needed to successfully produce table grapes in
the Midwest.
Table 2. Seedless Table Grape Cultivars for the Midwest.

Winter
Hardiness*
Days
from
Bloom to
Harvest**
Ripening
Date
Cultivar
Color
Average
Cluster
Wt.
(lbs)
Canadice
Red
0.28
Moderately
Hardy
75
Very Early
Productive; good clusters.
Einset
Red
0.20
Hardy
75
Very Early
Slip skin; mild strawberry avor; may

shatter.
Himrod
White
0.22
Moderately
Hardy
75
Very Early
High quality; straggly clusters.
Marquis
White
0.50
Hardy
105
Midseason
Highly productive; high quality;

loose clusters; resists cracking;
susceptible to downy mildew in wet
years.
Mars
Blue
0.29
Hardy
80
Early
High productivity; medium clusters;

disease resistant.
Reliance
Red
0.33
Hardy
90
Early
Midseason
High quality; productive; uneven

color; susceptible to berry cracking.
Vanessa
Red
0.24
Hardy
105
Midseason
Adherent skin; compact clusters;

rm, crisp esh; requires girdling for
berry sizing.
White
0.50
Moderately
Hardy
80
Early
Adherent skin; rm esh.
Blue
0.29
Moderately
Hardy
85
Early
Muscat avor; oval berries; large, 4.3

g; very susceptible to downy mildew.
White
0.53
Moderately
Hardy
97
Midseason
Compact clusters; low vigor;

adherent and thick skin; oval berry,
3.2 g.
Red
0.24
Moderately
Hardy
90
Midseason
Loose clusters; good avor.
Lakemont
Jupiter
Neptune
Suffolk
Red
Remarks
* Winter hardiness rating: tender, 0F to -10F; slightly hardy, -5F to -15F; moderately hardy, -10F to -20F; hardy, -15F to -25F; and very hardy,
-20F to -35F.
20
Figure 11. Marquis (A) and Jupiter (B) are new promising high-quality seedless table grape cultivars.
21
Hybrid Cultivars
The French-American hybrids have been
widely planted in the Midwest since the mid1940s. This group includes new cultivars or
interspecic hybrids produced by crossing
European or Vinifera grapes with one of the
American species. Many were introduced from
French breeding programs, and the cultivar
name often includes the name of the breeder
for example, Vidal (Vidal 256).
In addition to the hybrids developed in France,

many newer hybrids have been developed
by breeders in the United States. These new
cultivars are being widely planted in the
Midwest. Hybrids are generally used in wine
production and possess more winter hardiness
and disease resistance than most of the
V. vinifera parents. The most widely planted
hybrids have a wine avor close to European
grapes. (See Figure 12 and Table 3.)
Figure 12. Chambourcin (A) and Traminette (B) are grown successfully in the Midwest.
22
Table 3. French-American Hybrid Cultivars for the Midwest.

Cultivar
Color
Average
Cluster
Wt.
(lbs)
Cayuga
White
White
0.33
Moderately
Hardy
100
Midseason
Chambourcin
Blue
0.42
Moderately
Hardy
115
Late
Moderate vigor; large clusters;

needs thinning; high-quality wine.
Chancellor
Blue
0.25
Hardy
100
Early
Midseason
Thinning necessary; good vigor;

fruit susceptible to downy mildew;
susceptible to crown gall in low
wet sites.
Winter
Hardiness*
Days
from Bloom
to Harvest**
Ripening
Date
Remarks
Fully ripened produces labrusca
character; susceptible to
anthracnose.
Chardonel
White
0.36
Moderately
Hardy
110
Late
Midseason
Requires no thinning; loose

clusters; less susceptible to bunch
rot than Seyval; more cold hardy
than Chardonnay but less than
Seyval.
DeChaunac
Blue
0.24
Hardy
105
Midseason
Moderate red wine quality; good

vigor and productivity; requires
thinning.
Frontenac
(MN 1047)
Blue
0.27
Very Hardy
100
Late
Midseason
Productive; loose clusters;

requires thinning; high acid,
requires malolactic fermentation;
very resistant to downy mildew;
bird predation a problem.
GR-7
Red
0.31
Hardy
100
Midseason
Productive; moderately
susceptible to downy and
powdery mildew and botrytis.
LaCrescent
(MN 1166)
White
0.24
Very Hardy
105
Late
Midseason
Loose clusters; small berries, 1.5 g;

susceptible to downy mildew;
fruity wine.
LaCrosse
White
0.25
Very Hardy
104
Late
Midseason
Fruity wine; hardier than Seyval;

moderate vigor and productivity.
Leon Millot
Blue
0.18
Very Hardy
85
Early
Small, loose clusters; small berries;

Marechal
Foch
Blue
0.20
Very Hardy
90
Early
Small, tight clusters; low vigor;

St. Croix
Blue
0.24
Very Hardy
99
Early
Midseason
Vigorous; cluster thinning

required; wines lack tannin; low
productivity.
Seyval blanc
White
0.43
Hardy
100
Early
Midseason
Moderate vigor; requires thinning;

clusters susceptible to bunch rot.
Traminette
White
0.24
Moderately
Hardy
110
Late
Midseason
Vigorous; hardier than

Gewurztraminer but similar wine.
110
Late
Midseason
Good vigor; late budbreak;

requires thinning; loose clusters;
adaptable to many wine styles,
including ice wine; best if grafted
for virus protection.
105
Midseason
Small tight clusters; moderate

yields and vigor; very susceptible
to bunch rot; high-quality wine.
Vidal blanc
White
0.34
Moderately
Hardy
Vignoles
White
0.17
Hardy
* Winter hardiness rating: tender, 0F to -10F; slightly hardy, -5F to -15F; moderately hardy, -10F to -20F;
hardy, -15F to -25F; and very hardy, -20F to -35F.
23
European Cultivars
European-type (Vitis vinifera) cultivars are
most widely produced in warmer regions
of the world such as California, Mediterranean countries (e.g., France, Italy, Spain,
North Africa), and Australia. Examples of
widely grown vinifera cultivars are Thompson
Seedless, Riesling, Chardonnay, Cabernet
Sauvignon, Cabernet franc, and Merlot. (See
Figure 13.)
Although cultivars vary slightly, fruit buds of
most vinifera are injured at temperatures of
-10F, and vines are often killed if the temperature reaches -15F or lower.
Since the Midwest experiences these temperatures during many winters, V. vinifera should
be grown only on the very best sites, and
special cultural practices should be used to
lessen vine injury. Even if special practices are
used and all precautions are taken, vine injury
and death can occur during exceptionally
cold winters. (For example, in February 1994,
temperatures dropped to between -20F and
-30F over much of the Midwest.)
A description of several vinifera cultivars
grown on the best sites in the Midwest is
presented in Table 4.
FIGURE 13. Vinifera cultivars such as Cabernet franc (A) and Riesling (B) are grown successfully only in
the best sites in the Midwest or in proximity to the Great Lakes. (Photos courtesy of Dr. Tom Zabadal.)
24
Table 4. Vinifera Cultivars Grown on the Best Sites in the Midwest.

Cultivar
Color
Average
Cluster
Wt.
(lbs)
Cabernet
franc
Blue
0.23
Cabernet
Sauvignon
Blue
0.18
Days
from
Bloom to
Harvest**
Ripening
Date
Slightly
Hardy
115
Late
Loose clusters; vigorous; easily

over cropped.
Tender
120
Very Late
Needs a very long season; less

hardy than Cabernet franc.
Susceptible to all diseases and
cluster rot; must have good
control program; breaks bud
early.
Winter
Hardiness*
Remarks
Chardonnay
White
0.23
Tender
110
Late
Midseason
Lemberger
Blue
0.30
Slightly
Hardy
110
Late
Midseason
Large clusters; medium-sized

berries; productive; vigorous.
Pinot gris
Pink
Gray
0.22
Tender
105
Midseason
Tight clusters of small berries;

variable color development;
moderate vigor.
Small clusters; clones vary
greatly in cluster architecture
and characteristics; crop must
be controlled to produce quality
wine.
Pinot noir
White
Riesling
Blue
0.16
Tender
110
Late
Midseason
White
0.18
Slightly
Hardy
110
Late
Must avoid over cropping;

susceptible to cluster rots at
harvest; high-quality wine.
* Winter hardiness rating: tender, 0F to -10F; slightly hardy, -5F to -15F; moderately hardy, -10F to -20F;
hardy, -15F to -25F; and very hardy, -20F to -35F.
Data shown here came from trials by Lake Erie in Ohio. Growers should consult with viticulture specialists about
the best sites for vinifera in their states.
Special Cultural Practices

Necessary for Vinifera Cultivars
1. Rootstocks: Vinifera cultivars are all susceptible to grape phylloxera (root form), which
is endemic on wild grapes in the Midwest.
Phylloxera feeds on the roots, weakening the
vines, reducing yield and berry quality, and
rendering the vine more susceptible to winter
injury. Rootstocks resistant to phylloxera must
be used and the selection based on the cultivars vigor and soil conditions. (See Table 5.)
2. Protection of Graft Union: Hilling or
mounding soil over the graft union and several
inches up the trunk each fall can help protect
the graft union even if cold injury or death

occurs in the top of the vine (Figure 14). A
new trunk can be initiated from this protected
area, and production is lost for only one year.
Recent work in Michigan demonstrated that
a heavy application of straw was nearly as
effective as soil. The soil or mulch must be
removed in the spring to avoid rooting of the
scion and losing the phylloxera resistance and
growth inuence of the rootstock. Un-hilled
vines in areas with no snow cover were killed
in 1994, while hilled vines survived to produce
a new trunk.
25
Table 5. Rootstocks Commonly Used in the Midwest.

Relative
Scion
Vigor
Phylloxera
Resistance
Nematode
Resistance
Drought
Resistance
Lime
Resistance
V. riparia
6%
Rupestris
St. George
V. rupestris
15%
5BB
V. riparia x
V. berlandieri
20%
SO4
V. riparia x
V. berlandieri
17%
5C
V. riparia x
V. berlandieri
17%
3309 C
V. riparia x
V. rupestris
11%
101-14
V. riparia x
V. rupestris
9%
1616 E
V. riparia x Solaris
11%
Rootstock
Species
Riparia
Gloire
Soil Adaptability
Wet
Clay
Information adapted from Galet, 1979; Howell, 1987; Pongracz, 1983. Scale: 5 = best or highest to 1 = worst or
lowest.
FIGURE 14. Hilling-up of European grape cultivars is a common practice in the Midwest. Hydraulic grape hoe
(A) during hilling in the fall; hilled-up vines (B) protect graft unions and trunks from cold injury during winter.
26
3. Crop Management: Many vinifera cultivars

have the potential to crop heavily and if crop
load is not controlled, the vine carbohydrate
reserves are not restored. Vines with inadequate reserves of carbohydrates stored in the
canes, cordons, trunk, and roots are more
susceptible to injury from cold and will be
injured at milder temperatures than vines with
adequate carbohydrate reserves. Vines carrying
an excessive crop also are delayed in hardening
off in the fall.
4. Leaf Quality: Most vinifera are susceptible to disease such as mildews that reduce
leaf photosynthesis and impair carbohydrate
production. Thus, a more thorough spray
program should be used to prevent leaf
diseases.
5. Multiple Trunks: Since winter injury is
probable, it is advisable to have multiple
trunks (two to four) of different ages for
vinifera. Often one trunk will be injured and
develop crown gall, while another may escape
(Figure 15).
FIGURE 15. Having multiple trunks is benecial should winter injury occur. One trunk has been injured
and has developed crown gall at the base, while the other trunk is still alive.
27
Grapevine Propagation
In most instances, grape growers should
purchase planting stock from nurseries
or commercial propagators. Occasionally,
however, it is necessary or desirable for
growers to produce their own vines. For
instance, it might be desirable to increase
a new cultivar before a supply of plants is
commercially available or to produce replacements for missing vines in an established
vineyard. Growers should be aware that many
new cultivars are patented, and propagation
may be restricted.
Cultivars of grapes, like many other fruits,
can be reproduced or propagated asexually.
Grapes do not grow true from seed; that is, the
seedlings will not be genetically identical to the
cultivar that produced the seeds. Most grapevines are reproduced by hardwood cuttings
or by layering of canes. These methods of
asexual propagation ensure that the plants are
genetically identical to their parents. In some
instances, scions of healthy cultivars are grafted
upon specic rootstocks. Cuttings or scions
should always be taken from vines known to be
true to name. Methods of asexual propagation
are described in the following sections.
Field (Nursery) Propagation

The most common way to propagate grapes
is by hardwood cuttings. Almost all commercially grown cultivars are easy to propagate
from cuttings. Cuttings should be made from
well-matured dormant canes of the preceding
years growth. The preferred cane size is 1/4
inch to 3/8 inch in diameter with 4- to 6-inch
internodes.
Cuttings usually are made in late fall or early
winter. Each cutting should contain three
to four buds, although two-bud cuttings are
satisfactory in mist or greenhouse propagation.
Make the basal cut just below the lower bud,
28
and the upper cut 1 to 2 inches above the top

bud. Make cuts so that the upper and lower
ends of the cutting can be easily identied.
The cuttings may be sorted into uniform
lengths and bundled for convenience in
handling. Place the cuttings in cold storage
(32F to 35F). Cuttings can also be stored by
burying them in a well-drained trench and
covering them with up to 3 inches of soil until
spring. Buried cuttings should be mulched
with 8 to 12 inches of straw for protection
against severe cold.
As soon as the soil can be worked in spring,
remove cuttings from storage or the trench and
plant them in nursery rows (Figure 16). The
rows should be located on deep, well-drained,
fertile soil that is in a good state of tilth. Space
rows 3 to 4 feet apart and make a furrow 6
to 7 inches deep. Set cuttings vertically in the
furrow about 5 inches apart and rm soil with
the top bud just above the soil surface.
It is critical that the cuttings are set in the same
direction that they were growing so that the
basal end of the cutting is down and the distal
end is up. The polarity must be maintained
for the cuttings to root. Cuttings also can be
planted through black plastic mulch to help
control weeds and to retain heat and moisture.
As the season advances, shoots will develop
from the above-ground bud, and roots will
develop from the nodal regions below ground.
Vines should be maintained in the nursery
row in a high state of vigor during the growing
season. Control of diseases, insects, and weeds
in the nursery row is critical. Regular watering
and application of fertilizer will ensure
adequate growth. New vines will be ready for
planting in the vineyard early the next spring.
To compensate for cuttings that do not survive,
start about twice as many cuttings as vines
required.
FIGURE 16. Grapevine propagation in the eld (nursery).
Greenhouse Propagation
To produce new vines for spring planting
during the same year, hardwood cuttings can
be rooted during late winter under a mist
system in the greenhouse (Figure 17). This
method saves one year in the propagation of
new vines over conventional outdoor rooting
methods.
For greenhouse propagation, take cuttings
from healthy vines of the desired cultivars
in early December before any major winter
damage has occurred to the wood or buds.
Make two- to four-node cuttings as described
in the previous section, then tie the cuttings
in bundles, wrap in damp burlap or place in
polyethylene bags, and store at 32F to 33F.
In early February, cuttings are removed from
storage and inserted into a suitable rooting
medium in the greenhouse (Figure 17).
Vermiculite or peat/perlite is excellent for
rooting because of their freedom from weed
seeds and diseases. Sand or mixtures of sand
and peat are also satisfactory.
Before insertion into rooting media, the

lower ends of the cuttings can be dipped in a
commercial rooting hormone such as indolebutyric acid. However, rooting hormones are
generally not needed. A at or greenhouse
bench should be lled with media to a depth of
6 to 8 inches. Cuttings are planted so that the
lower cut and node are pushed down to near
the bottom of the at or bed with the upper
bud extended just above the media surface.
FIGURE 17. Grapevine propagation in a

greenhouse mist bench.
29
Space cuttings 1 to 2 inches apart in rows 2 to

3 inches apart.
As soon as the cuttings are in place, mist them
intermittently to maintain a high and constant
relative humidity during the rooting period.
A mist system that operates automatically for
approximately 6 seconds every 6 to 10 minutes
during the day is satisfactory. The duration
and frequency of the mist may need to be
adjusted as the cuttings begin to grow shoots
and to account for sunny or cloudy conditions.
The mist can be turned off at night.
Bottom heat provided by heating cable
under the ats or in the bottom of a bench
hastens rooting. Rooting is most satisfactory
if day temperatures in the greenhouse are
maintained between 65F and 70F and night
temperatures around 60F.
Usually, the cuttings develop roots and leaves
within four to six weeks (Figure 18). At this
time, the rooted cuttings can be transplanted
into one- to two-gallon pots for easy transplanting to the eld later. A suitable mixture
for lling the pots is 1/3 peat, 1/3 sand, and
1/3 soil. Another alternative is a premixed
commercial potting soil. Steam sterilization of
the soil mixture before lling the pots prevents
weed growth and diseases.
After the rooted cuttings have been potted,
place them back under the mist for a few days
to allow the roots to become established in
the new medium. Once established, the plants
should be moved to a conventional area in the
greenhouse. Moderate temperatures of 70F to
75F encourage growth of new vines.
The vines must be watered regularly and
receive weekly applications of a dilute fertilizer
solution to maintain growth. The fertilizer
solution should contain nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium. Minor elements are also
desirable, depending on the potting mix used.
Slow-release fertilizer mixes are also available
and can be incorporated into the soil before
transplanting.
30
FIGURE 18. Potted grapevine progagated from

hardwood cutting in the greenhouse.
Plants are ready for setting in the vineyard

when new shoots are about 12 inches long. If
plant growth becomes excessive in the greenhouse, lower temperatures must be used to
slow growth and harden the vines before they
are taken to the eld. During the hardening-off
period, maintain night temperatures at 40F
to 45F and day temperatures at 65F to 70F.
Regardless of the state of growth, new vines
should not be transplanted until all hazard
of frost is past. Greenhouse-grown plants are
extremely sensitive to frost.
The entire process also can be carried out in
individual pots or elongated rooting containers
by using peat and perlite or a commercial
potting mix and placing the cuttings directly in
the containers under mist as described earlier.
Regularly inspect cuttings in the greenhouse for insects and diseases. Whiteies and
powdery mildew can be troublesome pests.
To eliminate these pests, use an appropriate
pesticide according to label directions.
Layering
All grape cultivars can be propagated by
layering. This method is used primarily
for replacing missing vines in established
vineyards. However, it is too cumbersome for
production of large numbers of plants.
Layering is done in late winter or early spring.
Vigorous one-year-old canes are used. The
canes remain attached to the mother plant.
This supports the establishment of a wellrooted plant during the rst season. Lay the
canes in a shallow trench dug in the desired
location of the new vine. Place a two- to threenode section of the cane at the bottom of the
trench. At least two distal buds should extend
above the soil surface. Cover the part of the
cane in the trench with 3 or 4 inches of soil
and tamp rmly.
Roots normally develop from the covered
nodes in a few weeks. Leaves and new shoots
will develop from exposed terminal buds.
During the growing season, any shoots developing between the layered area of the cane and
the mother vine should be removed.
New plants produced in a vacancy in the
vineyard are left in place, and the connecting
cane is cut off the following spring after the
new vine is well established. If the layered vine
is to be moved, it should be dug and transplanted after one years growth.
Grafting
Grafting allows growers to propagate grape
cultivars on a special rootstock, such as
one resistant to certain root parasites. The
European (vinifera) grape, for example, is
highly susceptible to a destructive insect
pest known as grape phylloxera or root

louse. Consequently, cultivars of this species
cannot be grown on their own root systems
in phylloxera-infested soils. Therefore, it
is necessary to graft European cultivars on
phylloxera-resistant rootstocks to grow them
successfully on many U.S. soils and those in
other parts of the world. Experience indicates
that rootstocks with high phylloxera resistance are also resistant to certain parasitic
nematodes.
The use of resistant rootstocks for European
cultivars is more important than for American
and French hybrid grapes, with some exceptions. Therefore, most U.S. vineyards have been
established with own-rooted vines, especially
Concord. The root systems of these cultivars
apparently carry considerable tolerance to
phylloxera and other soil-borne parasites.
However, differences in tolerance have been
found in some American grape cultivars.
Delaware, for example, has performed better
on tolerant rootstocks than on its own roots.
Where vigor of own-rooted vines is characteristically low, favorable results can be
expected from using resistant rootstocks.
Poor vine vigor and productivity often occur
on sites where old vines were removed and
the vineyard replanted. In replant situations
such as this, resistant rootstocks may prove a
distinct advantage with American cultivars or
with French hybrids.
Among the rootstocks carrying high resistance
to phylloxera, nematodes, and possibly other
soil-borne parasites are Couderc 3309, 5BB,
and SO4. These rootstocks are conventionally
propagated by cuttings or layering. Once
rooted, the stocks can be used for grafting to
any desired cultivar.
Bench grafting is commonly used in propagating grape cultivars (especially vinifera) on
special rootstocks. This operation is conducted
indoors and involves grafting of single bud
scions onto rootstock cuttings (Figure 19).
Grafting is done in early spring before growth
31
FIGURE 19. Bench grafting: Grafting machine

with grafted and waxed cuttings. Insert: Omega
cut graft. Scion (left); disbudded rootstock (right).
starts. Once callusing is complete, the grafted

cuttings are planted into the nursery.
Although top-working is not a common mode
of propagation, it is possible to change over a
grapevine or vineyard to another cultivar by
using chip, cleft, or whip grafting techniques
(Figure 20). Dormant scions must be used in
all instances. Such grafting is most successful
in midsummer. However, American cultivars
are among the hardest to top-work.
32
FIGURE 20. Side whip grafting technique.
Vineyard Establishment
Site Preparation
Preparation of the proposed vineyard site is
important and should begin the year before
planting. A soil test should be conducted the
season before planting to provide information
on soil pH status, liming, and fertilizer requirements.
If soil pH is below 5.5, apply agricultural
ground limestone to raise the pH to a more
desirable level (5.5 to 6.8). The application
should be made well before planting time
and the limestone incorporated into the soil.
For highly acidic subsoils, deep-plowing with
limestone is recommended.
Soil testing also will provide information on
soil fertility and fertilizer needs for the rstyear vineyard. Animal manures, when available,
may be applied in the fall before spring
planting of the vines. A suitable application is
10 to 12 tons of horse or cow manure per acre
or 50 to 75 pounds per 100 square feet.
Site preparation in the year prior to planting
should include land leveling, drainage tile
installation (when needed), and fertility
adjustments based on a soil test (Figure 21).
At this time, growers also must pay special

attention to controlling persistent weed pests
such as thistle, Johnsongrass, quackgrass, dock,
or woody species such as brambles.
Several safe and effective herbicides are
available to control such troublesome weeds
in the preparation period, but they cannot be
used after the vines are planted. If possible,
avoid sites that are severely infested with such
weeds until the weeds have been eradicated.
If the available site has internal drainage
problems or areas where water will pond,
install drainage tile and waterways before
planting (see the section on Soils and Soil
Drainage).
If the area to be planted is in sod and free of
weeds, at least two options are open to the
grower, depending on the topography of the
site. If the proposed vineyard is on a hillside or
sloping ground and erosion is a consideration,
an approved systemic herbicide can be applied
in the fall while the vegetation is actively
growing. Herbicide is applied to the row area
where the vines are to be established. The row
middles will remain in sod. In fall or early
spring, these row areas are tilled so the sod
mat or ground cover is destroyed and a friable
planting soil is established.
Figure 21. Site preparation in the fall prior to planting in the following year. (A) Site subsoiled, plowed, and
leveled. (B) Perennial grass established as permanent cover crop.
33
If the proposed vineyard site is located on

relatively level or gently sloping ground so
that erosion is not a serious consideration, or
if it is necessary to apply lime, the site should
be plowed in the fall to incorporate the lime
and seeded to a suitable winter cover crop.
One week before plowing, apply a systemic
herbicide to kill spreading roots and rhizomes
of perennial weeds (see the section on Weeds
and Weed Control).
Vineyard Design
Most grasses establish better if sown between

mid-August and mid-September, rather
than during the spring. An application of 35
pounds of actual nitrogen per acre at the time
grass is sown will stimulate growth. Ordinary
perennial ryegrass at 80 to 120 pounds per
acre, Kentucky bluegrass at 20 pounds per
acre, or a mixture of ryegrass and fescue, such
as Companion grass at 20 pounds per acre,
have proved to be adequate ground covers for
vineyard row middles.
Facilitate management and equipment

operation.
If ample time is available, the best results

are achieved by applying lime and fertilizer,
plowing, and growing a cultivated crop
on the site the season before planting the
vines. However, you must be certain that the
herbicide used will not carry over and affect
the grapes the following year. When the crop is
removed, drill the grass cover crop in the row
middles.
Final site preparation should be made as
early in the spring as the soil can be worked,
preferably in late March or early April. After
plowing or tilling, apply and disk (or till) the
required fertilizer into the soil before setting
the vines.
Even though early spring preparation is
advisable, it should not be done until the soil is
dry enough to work properly. If soil is worked
too wet, the advantages of early preparation
will be lost because soil structure may be
damaged. The effects of a puddled soil, particularly one with high clay content, may result in
poor vine growth for a number of years.
34
The vineyard should be designed to achieve

the following goals:
Prevent soil erosionthe most important
goal.
Use land area efciently.
Optimize vine performance.
Vineyard rows need to be straight for trellis

strength. On sloping land, rows should be
across or perpendicular to the slope. It may be
necessary to divide the vineyard into blocks to
accommodate depressions or other characteristics. If erosion control can be accommodated,
it is preferable to orient rows north-south. This
orientation provides the most even distribution of light in the canopy and has been
associated with improved yields and berry
quality.
Row spacing depends in part on the
proposed training and trellising system and
the equipment to be used in the vineyard,
such as a mechanical harvester. Nine- to
10-foot spacings between rows are common
and generally ample, but 11 or even 12 feet
between rows may be needed to accommodate
divided training systems (e.g., Geneva Double
Curtain), large equipment, or steep slopes. An
8-foot spacing between rows is satisfactory
for small plantings, but this is considered too
restrictive for most commercial operations. In
general, as distance between rows increases,
yield per acre decreases.
Spacing vines in the row at 8-foot intervals
has proved satisfactory for average conditions.
However, closer spacings have produced higher
yields under certain conditions. Cultivars
that produce less vigorous growth, such as
Delaware, some French hybrids (Seyval and
Chambourcin), and some vinifera, may be
set closer together than Concord or others of
similar vigor. Highest yields generally have

been obtained from vineyards containing 600
or more vines per acre.
To create conventional, straight rows,
establish a baseline along the edge of the eld.
Drive a stake at each end of the proposed
line. Generally, these stakes are located by
measuring a desired distance in from the
edge of the eld to allow turning space for
equipment. By sighting from one stake to
the other, additional stakes are placed on the
baseline to mark it. A careful tractor operator
can plow a furrow along the baseline, which
also serves as the rst row of grapes.
There are several ways to establish rows parallel
to the baseline or rst row. A simple way is to
establish a perpendicular line at each end of
the row. First, set a stake on the baseline 30
feet from the end. Then, place a stake 40 feet
from the end of the baseline on the assumed
perpendicular line.
Measure the angular distance between the
30- and 40-foot stakes. If the distance is 50
feet, the assumed line is correct and can be
extended by sighting. If it is not, move the 40foot markernot the 30-foot markeruntil
there is 50 feet between the two stakes. Stakes
can be driven on this second base at the proper
intervals to indicate the row ends.
The procedure used to mark the baseline is
repeated until the required number of rows
has been marked. A pole the length of the
desired interval between vines can be used
to space vines in the row as they are planted.
However, a planting chain with lead markers at
designated intervals is much more accurate.
It is important to leave enough space at the
end of rows for machinery to turn. A 25- to
30-foot headland at each end of the vineyard
should be adequate. It also is important
to leave sufcient space on the sides of
the vineyard to allow easy movement of
equipment. If rows are long, 20- to 25-footwide crossing alleys at about 500-foot intervals
will ease vineyard management.
Polyethylene Mulch Application

Black polyethylene mulch has been used
successfully in establishing new vineyards.
However, the introduction and the availability
of approved pre-emergence herbicides and
the increased cost of plastic have reduced its
use. Its popularity may return if herbicides are
withdrawn or become unavailable to growers.
The planting procedure begins with thorough
tillage of the row areas. One week before
tillage, or earlier, apply a systemic herbicide to
kill spreading roots and rhizomes of perennial
weeds. A rotary-type tiller is recommended
for soil preparation. Fertilizer and/or lime can
be incorporated into the soil during tillage, as
recommended by soil test results.
When the row is properly prepared and the
fertilizer thoroughly tilled in, roll black plastic
over the row, pull it tight, and hold the edges
down with a small ridge of soil. Laying the
plastic mulch is easy with modern equipment
and requires little or no hand labor. In small
plantings, lay the plastic by hand in a similar
manner. Ordinary black plastic, 3- to 4-feet
wide and 1.5 millimeters thick, is satisfactory.
After the mulch is in place, mark off the plant
spacings and set vines through the plastic.
Plastic should be laid down well ahead of the
planting. It is advisable to lay plastic when soil
moisture conditions are near ideal because the
soil dries slowly beneath the plastic. As soon as
mulch is laid on some of the rows, planting can
proceed as rapidly as possible, even on days
when mulch laying or tilling is not advisable.
Vine Preparation and Planting

Handle young vines carefully to prevent drying
out or other damage after they have been dug
or received from the nursery. If dormant vines
are not planted immediately, place them in
cold storage (32F with high relative humidity)
until planting time.
35
If proper facilities are not available, carefully

heel-in vines in a sheltered location. To heelin plants, dig a shallow trench and place vines
in the trench so the tops are exposed. Cover
the roots with soil and rm the soil. If the soil
is not moist enough, water newly set vines to
prevent the roots from drying out.
Vines should be transplanted to their
permanent location as soon as possible.
Soaking dormant vine roots in water two to
three hours before planting also will increase
their chance of survival.
with a few inches of topsoil, and tamp rmly.

A plow or disk may be used to nish lling
the furrow. A short, 9- to 12-inch diameter,
tractor-powered posthole auger also can be
used for planting. In small plantings, the entire
operation can be done by hand. In large operations, a commercial vine-planting machine
often is used. (See Figure 22.)
Early spring is the most suitable time for

planting grapevines in the Midwest. Fall
planting generally is not recommended
because fall-set plants are likely to be lost to
heaving during the rst winter. If plants must
be set in the fall, plow a 4- to 6-inch mound
of soil around the base of the young vines,
or mulch them with straw to protect against
heaving and severe cold.
Do not prune roots except to remove broken
or dead portions. Plant as much of the root
as possible, ensuring good distribution in the
trench or hole. Most of the reserves of the vine
are stored in the roots and to ensure maximum
growth, plant as much of the root system as
possible. Normally vines purchased from a
commercial nursery have been pruned, but if
not, they should be pruned to a single cane.
It is critical to keep vine roots moist during
planting and transporting to the eld. Grafted
grapevines should be set in the hole with
the graft union several inches above the soil
line and soil rmed around the roots. After
soil settling, the graft union should be 2 to 3
inches above the soil line. Setting too deep will
result in scion rooting and loss of phylloxera
resistance of the rootstock. Non-grafted vines
should be set with the junction of the older
wood and new canes at the soil line.
To plant, plow a straight furrow 10 to 12 inches
deep for the row. This depth will accommodate
a large root system without packing a mass of
roots into a small hole. Spread roots well, cover
36
FIGURE 22. A tree planter is best used in large

planting operations.
When planting is completed, the node from

which the lowest cane will arise should be at or
just above the soil level. Prune the single cane
remaining after planting so that only two or
three live buds remain. Some growers prefer to
leave ve or six buds. As these shoots develop,
all but two of the most vigorous are removed
when about one-inch long. This pruning
provides two shoots to develop into vigorous
new canes. (See the Pruning and Training
section on handling young vines and the use of
grow tubes.)
If polyethylene mulch is used, a common
planting procedure is to force the long, narrow
blade of a tilling spade through the plastic
into the soil to a depth of 10 to 12 inches.

The opening is widened by a back-and-forth
motion, leaving an open hole. Insert the
dormant vine and tamp soil rmly around
the new plant. When vines are grown in pots
or similar containers, an ordinary hand-type
posthole digger is useful. After planting, pull
the plastic closed around vines and place a
small amount of soil on the surface.
Trellis Construction
Constructing the trellis can be the greatest cash
expense in vineyard establishment, and it must
be strong enough to carry heavy fruit loads
and withstand strong winds. The trellis must
be durable, and its real cost is determined by
years of service, rather than initial cost. The
physiological function of the trellis is to expose
foliage and fruit to sunlight, and generally,
the higher the trellis, the more foliage will be
exposed and the more productive the vineyard.
The best time to construct a trellis is during
the rst growing season or the following spring
before growth begins. Waiting beyond this
time will result in delayed harvest of protable
crops.
End posts should be large (4-1/2- to 6-inches
diameter) and longer than line posts (9 to 10
feet instead of 8 feet) because they must serve
as anchor points as well as wire supports.
Copper-salts-treated pine, locust, and other
suitable posts are commonly used. Posts
should be pressure-treated as they will last 10
to 15 years longer than posts dipped in the
same preservative. Set end posts about 3 feet in
the ground and at a slight angle with the top
leaning away from the direction of the row.
The top should extend at least 6 feet above
ground level after setting to support the top
trellis wire at the desired height.
End posts can be braced in several ways. A
common method is to set a screw anchor a
few feet outside the end post. The angle of the
wire attaching the anchor to the post should be
about 34 degrees (Figure 23).
FIGURE 23. End posts are set 3 feet in the

ground at a 60-degree angle and anchored with a
screw-type steel anchor.
Another bracing method uses a brace wire

from the top of the end post to a dead-man
anchor in place of the screw anchor. The dead
man is buried 36 to 48 inches from the post.
A double-wire brace extends around the post
near the top and to the anchor. The brace is
tightened against the anchor by twisting the
wires together. Other types of braces with the
guy wire are available.
Line posts generally are cut 8- to 9-feet long
with a minimum of 3-inches diameter at the
top. They are set 24 to 30 inches deep and
spaced 20 to 24 feet apart in the row. The
exact spacing depends on vine spacing. It is
suggested that posts be driven with a post
pounder because it takes less installation time,
and a driven post is more stable than a post set
in an augured hole.
37
High-tensile-strength steel wire is becoming

popular in newly set vineyards. Its strength
and durability are in several ways superior to
conventional wire. Because this wire has much
greater tensile strength (200,000 psi), it must
be handled differently than regular iron or
galvanized wire.
Galvanized 9-gauge wire was the standard
for many years. While high-tensile steel wire
is initially more expensive than galvanized
wire, it is more durable and may be the most
economical over a long period. Rusted wire
can seriously chafe vines. High-tensile-strength
steel wire should have Class III galvanizing,
and a wire gauge of 11 to 12.5 is acceptable,
with 12.5 gauge most commonly used. The
number of wires and their location depend on
the training system.
The length of wire needed for an acre of grapes
depends on row spacing, the gauge of wire
used, and the training system. Wire is generally
sold by weight, and the length in feet for 100
pounds of the following gauge wire is: 11
gauge = 2,617 feet; 12 gauge = 3,300 feet; 12.5
gauge = 3,846 feet. The weight of wire needed
for a single wire at various row spacings is
shown in Table 6. The weight needed for
additional wires required by the training
systems can be multiplied using the weight for

a single wire.
Wires may be secured to end posts in various
ways. A common method for galvanized or
iron wire is to wind the wire around the post
once or twice and then twist the end several
times around the wire as it is stretched to the
next post. Special devices also are available to
attach the wires to the posts. These devices
simplify adjustment of the wires by using
a crank or a cinch that eliminates removal
of wires from end posts when tightening or
loosening. If high-tensile-strength steel wire is
used, a special wire-crimping tool is required.
There are also several types of wire anchors
and connectors specically designed for hightensile wire.
Wires are fastened to line posts with ordinary
staples or inserted in holes drilled in wooden
line posts. The staples must be driven deep
enough to hold the wires close to the post,
but with enough play that the wire will slip
through when tightening is needed. Staples
are less likely to pull out if wires are hung on
the windward side or the uphill side of posts.
With steel posts, regular fence wire fasteners
are used.
Table 6. Pounds of Wire Needed for a Single Wire per Acre as Inuenced by Row Spacing and
Gauge of Wire Used.
Pounds of Wire for a Single Wire/Acre
Vineyard
Row Spacing
(Ft)
Trellis
Length /Acre
(Ft)
11
12
12.5
7,260
276
215
190
6,223
237
185
163
5,445
207
162
143
4,840
184
144
127
10
4,356
166
129
114
Adapted from Zabadal, T. S. 1997. (Vineyard Establishment II). Michigan State University Extension Bulletin
E-2645.
38
Pruning and Training

Pruning and training are perhaps the most
important cultural management practices
for grapes. A thorough understanding of the
concepts of pruning severity and crop load is
critical to sustained production of high-quality
fruit.
Pruning and Training

Young Vines
(See centerfold.)
Pruning and training of young grapevines
are done to establish a vine form that meets
the requirements of the training system. The
grower should decide which training system to
use prior to planting the vineyard. The information presented here will assume that the
vines will be trained to a high cordon (HC)
system, the most common training system for
American and French hybrid wine grapes in
the Midwest. Growers planning to use other
training systems will need to make modications to these directions.
Good vine growth during the rst two
years is critical to the future performance
of the vineyard. Vines that do not establish

well due to poor cultural management are
usually set back several years. One main goal
is to establish a large healthy root system by
promoting maximum amounts of healthy,
well-exposed foliage. To accomplish this goal
during the rst two years, care must be taken
to train vines properly, control weeds, provide
necessary nutrients, and control diseases and
insects.
Once vines are planted, the grower has several
options for pruning and training the vines.
Support should be provided for young vines
to keep them off the ground. This will greatly
reduce disease problems and provide full sun
exposure for maximum growth.
The trellis can be established soon after
planting to provide this support. If the trellis
cannot be established during the planting year,
then a single stake should be driven next to
each plant, and the shoots tied to the stake.
Though it is not necessary to establish the
trellis during the planting year, doing so greatly
facilitates vine training. (See Figure 24.)
FIGURE 24. Establishing the trellis during the planting year facilitates vine training.
39
First-Year Management
Proper training begins during the year of
planting, and the goal is to develop strong,
straight shoots that are long enough to be
retained as trunks for the second growing
season. Shoot vigor is directly related to
management of weeds and fertility. If weeds
are controlled and if the vines receive adequate
nitrogen fertilizer, then they should produce
several shoots capable of reaching the top wire
of the trellis system.
In this case, the vines can be left unpruned,
or pruned to six to eight buds after planting.
Vines left unpruned will develop more
functional leaf area and larger root systems
than vines pruned to a small number of
growing shoots.
If, however, the grower is not prepared to
adequately control weeds and provide needed
nutrients, then unpruned vines are likely to
produce several short shoots, none of which
will be long enough to retain as trunks at the
start of the second year. In this case, vines

should be pruned to a few buds and all growth
removed, except the two strongest shoots. This
should assure that at least one shoot will be
long enough to retain as a trunk.
Generally, mistakes are made by rushing
vineyard establishment when growers are
not fully committed to good vineyard
management. In this case, it is recommended
that vineyard establishment be delayed until a
commitment can be made.
Grow Tubes
In recent years, grow tubes, or vine shelters,
have become popular for vineyard establishment (Figure 25). These plastic tubes create
a greenhouse-like environment around the
plant that promotes rapid shoot growth early
in the season. This early rapid growth usually
results in a single dominant shoot that has
long internodes and is very straight.
FIGURE 25. Grow tubes used after grapevine planting during the establishment year.
40
Proponents claim increased rst-year vine

growth and subsequent earlier production,
with vines being capable of producing a crop
in the second growing season. However, little
scientic evidence supports these claims.
Research in the Midwest has not shown an
overall growth increase in vines from using
grow tubes. Though tubed vines grow faster
early in the season, by the end of the season
there is no difference in vine size between
tubed and un-tubed vines. In addition,
research has shown that restricting growth to
a single shoot, whether by use of a grow tube
or by pruning alone, also reduces overall vine
growth.
In a recent study, we found that vines left
unpruned and allowed to develop six to eight
shoots developed three times more total
leaf area than vines trained to a single shoot
(tubed or un-tubed) and, more importantly,
had at least twice as much root dry weight.
The difference in root system size is especially
critical since one of the primary goals in
vineyard establishment is development of a
large healthy root system.
A strong correlation was shown between total
leaf area and root dry weight, which suggests
that growers should try to maximize leaf area
during vineyard establishment. In most cases,
the use of grow tubes will lead to reduced leaf
area during the rst growing season.
The primary advantage of using grow tubes
in the Midwest appears to be protection from
broad-spectrum contact herbicides, such as
glyphosate and paraquat, and animal depredation and a reduction in the time needed for
early-season vine training. However, the time
saving is generally offset by the labor required
to install and remove the tubes.
Protection of vines from post-emergent
herbicides allows the grower to apply broadspectrum herbicides easily and safely with
conventional spraying equipment. Good weed
control is critical for achieving acceptable vine
growth, so this offers an advantage.
Grow tubes also keep the vines off the ground

with minimal tying required during the rst
few weeks of growth. However, once the shoots
grow out of the top of the tube, they must be
tied to a string or a stake to prevent damage
from wind blowing them across the top of
the tube. Grow tubes must be removed in
mid-August to early September to promote
hardening of the new growth and aid in winter
survival.
Second-Year Management
During the second year, the primary goal is
much the same as the rst yearmaximizing
vegetative growth. Weed management and
nutrition are again critical for acceptable vine
growth.
At the start of the second year, canes of the
previous years growth will be retained to be
the trunk(s). It is important to retain only
healthy canes that are free of mechanical
damage or winter injury, if the vine is to have
good strong trunks that will be productive
and healthy for several years. Additionally, the
straightness of the trunks is determined at
this time. Not only are straight trunks more
esthetically pleasing, they are also easier to
manage, especially if mechanized pruning and
harvesting are planned.
One method to ensure straight trunks is to
cut the cane off about 4 inches shorter than
the top wire, tie a short piece of twine to the
end of the cane and secure it tightly to the
tensioned top wire. (Note: The top wire must
be tensioned at the start of the second season).
A second method is to tie a piece of twine
from a spur at the base of the vine to the top
wire. The cane is then gently wound around
the piece of twine and tied to the top wire.
Bamboo or wood stakes can also be used to
train straight trunks, but they increase cost.
If a double trunk system is desired, then
two canes are retained as trunks. If possible,
the two canes should originate from below
41
ground. Proper planting depth of own-rooted

vines will encourage development of shoots
from below the ground surface. On grafted
vines (all European vinifera cultivars are
grafted onto Phylloxera-resistant rootstocks
and some hybrids are grafted to increase
vigor), the shoots must originate from above
the graft union, and the graft union must
remain above the soil line to prevent scion
rooting.
If double trunks are desired, but there is only
one cane of sufcient length and quality to
retain as a trunk, then a shoot can be retained
from the base of the vine during the second
growing season. If none of the rst-year canes
is of sufcient length to reach the top wire,
then the vine should be cut back to six to eight
buds and handled as a rst-year vine.
In addition to establishing the trunks, the
cordons will be developed during the second
season. Shoots are retained at the appropriate
position and trained along the top wire. On
moderately vigorous vines, thin to the best
two to four shoots at the top of the trunks.
On more vigorous vines, several shoots can
be retained above the middle wire to increase
the total leaf area. All shoots below the middle
wire should be removed unless one is to be
retained as a second trunk.
The new cordons should be loosely wrapped

about one full turn over the top wire. Securely
attach the end of the cordon to the top wire
with wire twist ties and loosely attach the
base of the cordon to the top wire with plastic
chain-lock or similar ties that are strong but
loose. The cordon should be wrapped loosely
around the top wire so there is room for it to
expand over time.
Many growers reverse the direction that they
wrap the cordon on each side of the vine to
reduce the chances that the vine will unwind.
That is, the cordon on one side of the vine is
wrapped over then under the wire, and the
cordon on the other side is wrapped under
then over the wire.
Some growers like to pinch the tips when these

shoots reach the appropriate cordon length (4
ft. for 8-ft.-spaced vines). This promotes lateral
branching and early development of spurs on
the future cordon. However, some growers
prefer to let the shoots grow full length and
cut them back to the appropriate length at the
beginning of the third season.
Pruning Mature Vines

(See centerfold.)
Third-Year Management
Pruning modies the size and form of the vine,

making it possible to produce more highquality fruit. At the same time, pruning helps
the vine maintain adequate vegetative vigor for
high yields in future crops. If training efforts
during the rst two years have been successful,
the third-year vine is fully formed and trained
At the beginning of the third season, the

best canes are retained to be the cordons.
Other canes are cut back to renewal spurs
or completely removed. If pencil-size
lateral shoots are present on the cane and
have persistedare healthy and not winter
42
damagedthey can be cut back to one- to

two-node spurs. If laterals are not present or
are too small, the canes to be cordons should
be cut back to two-feet long (for a four-foot
long cordon) or a 10-node cane (whichever
is the shortest). This practice minimizes the
negative impact of apical dominance, which
thus promotes uniform bud break and shoot
growth along the cordons. It also reduces the
frequency of blind nodes on cordons in subsequent years. The extension of the cordon is
established in the following season.
The primary purpose in pruning mature

grapevines (four years and older) is to balance
the amount of crop produced to the vines
capacity to ripen the crop. Understanding the
relationship between pruning, yield, and vine
vigor is a necessity for the grape grower.
for the desired training system. Consequently,

the pruning procedure for a three-year-old
vine is essentially the same as for a mature
vine.
The wood remaining after pruning in the
third season is used to produce the crop.
The amount or extent of pruning is done in
proportion to the amount of wood produced
in the second growing season, or vine vigor.
The same principle applies in the fourth and
all consecutive seasons. Additional information
is presented in Balanced Pruning on page 44.
By todays standards, a good mature Concord
vineyard is capable of producing six or more
tons of grapes per acre. If the vines are planted
8 feet apart in the row with 10 feet between
rows, there will be 545 vines per acre. This
means the average yield must be at least 22
pounds per vine. An average cluster of grapes
usually weighs 3 to 4 ounces. Therefore, 80 to
100 clusters per vine are needed to produce
22 pounds of fruit. Because each fruit-bearing
shoot produces one to three clusters, 40 to 50
shoots per vine can produce the crop.
The mature grapevine will have several

hundred buds before pruning, and more than
half are capable of producing fruiting shoots.
If all buds remain, the vine will overcrop,
resulting in delayed fruit maturity, small
berries, and small clusters. More important,
the vine will not produce enough good fruiting
wood for the next years crop. On the other
hand, if the vine is over-pruned, the current
seasons crop will be reduced, and new growth
may be overly vigorous. Excessively vigorous
growth produces poor fruiting wood for the
following season.
Time of Pruning
Grapevines can be pruned throughout the
dormant season. However, fall-pruned vines
are more prone to winter injury than those
left unpruned. Growers should wait until
late winter or early spring to prune so that
uninjured canes can be selected for fruiting.
Some cultivars are much more prone to
winter injury than others, so if time is limited,
growers can prune their hardiest cultivars rst
and the least hardy cultivars last.
A single shoot arises from a bud, but not all

shoots ower and set fruit. Consequently,
more than 50 buds per vine may be necessary
to produce the 6-ton crop. French hybrids
and vinifera cultivars differ from Concord;
however, the principles are the same. Refer
to Table 7 for average cluster weight so that
adjustments can be made in cluster number
and, subsequently, bud number.
Delaying pruning until later in the dormant

season also tends to hold back growth that
may be affected by untimely frosts. However,
pruning should be completed before bud swell
since cane removal may cause bud breakage,
especially on vines trained with catch wires
such as the vertical shoot-positioned system
(VSP). Bleedingow of sap from the
woundsmay occur when vines are pruned
late, but this does no harm to the vine.
Table 7. Approximate Number of Clusters per Vine for Different Cluster Sizes and Crop
Yields. (Based on 8 x 10 spacing, 545 vines/acre).
Cluster Size
4 Tons /Acre
6 Tons /Acre
8 Tons /Acre
Large Clusters (1 lb)
15
22
30
Medium Clusters (1/2 lb)
30
44
60
Small Clusters (1/4 lb)
60
88
90
43
Types of Pruning
There are two basic types of pruningcane
pruning and spur pruning. These differ only in
the length of the one-year-old fruiting wood
that is retained. Cane pruning requires that
long, 10- to 20-node fruiting canes be retained
for fruiting. Spur pruning utilizes short, 2- to
6-node canes (called spurs) for fruiting.
Most cultivars will perform well using either
cane or spur pruning. Some training systems
employ both types of pruning. Some cultivars
have been reported to perform better when
cane pruned because the buds that are four to
12 nodes from the base of the cane are more
fruitful than at the basal two or three nodes.
Proper shoot positioning should improve
fruitfulness of the basal nodes and make spur
pruning feasible.
Some cultivars have a tendency to push many
secondary and tertiary buds from canes and
latent buds from cordons. Short spur (two
node) pruning seems to exacerbate this problem
whereas long spur (six node) or cane pruning
seems to reduce this tendency. Whichever type
of pruning is performed, the training system
must effectively display the fruiting wood.
Characteristics of Retained Wood

at Pruning
Grapevines produce fruit only from one-yearold wood, called a cane; thus, long or short
canes should be retained during pruning.
These canes are selected based on the following
criteria:
1. Good sun exposure of shoots and leaves
during the previous growing season. Sun
canes from well-exposed shoots should be
retained. Shade canes that do not have good
sun exposure should be removed.
2. Canes should be healthy and free from
diseases, such as powdery mildew and/or
Phomopsis.
44
3. Canes should be at least 1/4 inch in

diameter (pencil size) at about the fth and
sixth buds and nearly the same thickness at
the 10th bud. Large-diameter (more than
1/2 inch) canes, called bull canes, should be
removed because they are more susceptible
to cold injury.
4. Canes should originate from arms near
the main trunk (Umbrella Knifn) or near
the cordon (Bi-lateral cordon or Geneva
Double Curtain).
5. Cane bark should be a bright and uniform
reddish-brown color.
6. Internode length (distance between two
buds or nodes) should be 5 to 8 inches
(generally closer for non-Concord types).
Balanced Pruning
Although 60 or more buds can easily be left on
a grapevine, a crop of 6 tons per acre cannot
be expected unless the vine has sufcient vigor
to support such a fruit load. To determine the
potential fruit capacity of a vine at pruning
time, growers can use the concept of balanced
pruning. The principle is valid for all grapes
in general, but varies in magnitude from one
cultivar to another. The procedures outlined in
this section have been developed for Concord.
Also discussed are modications of the
principle to apply to other cultivars.
Balanced Pruning Procedures

1. Estimate the amount (weight) of oneyear-old wood; select the fruiting canes to
be retained; and remove all other oneyear wood (leaving a margin of error).
2. Weigh the one-year-old prunings from the
vine to determine vine size. Weight of the
one-year-old prunings is highly correlated
to the total leaf area the vine possessed the
previous season and, thus, its potential to
mature a crop. After pruning and weighing
a few vines, growers will make more
accurate weight estimates. Only periodic
weighing is necessary afterward. Note that

wood older than one year, if removed,
should not be counted as part of the
pruning weight (Figure 26).
3. Apply the vine size value to the pruning
formula to determine the total number of
buds to leave.
For best results with Concord, use the (30
+ 10) formula. This means that 30 buds
are left for the rst pound of prunings
plus 10 buds for each additional pound
of wood removed. If the prunings weigh
1 pound, leave 30 buds; if 2 pounds, leave
30 + 10 = 40 buds; if 2.5 pounds, leave 30
+ 10 + 5 = 45 buds; and so on.
Pruning formulas vary depending on
the type of grape or cultivar. See Table
8 for suggested pruning formulas for
commonly grown cultivars.
For example, if a Concord grapevine has a

vine size of 3 pounds, then prune so that
30 + 10 + 10 = 50 buds remain on the
vine.
Using a cane-pruned training system
(such as the Umbrella Kniffen), the
grower would leave ve or six canes,
each with 10 to 12 good buds, plus some
renewal spurs.
Using a spur-pruned training system
(such as the bi-lateral cordon), the grower
would leave 10 or 12 fruiting spurs, each
with 5 or 6 buds plus some renewal spurs.
Leaving 10% to 20% more buds than
called for by the balanced pruning
formula will adjust for lack of fruitfulness. If winter injury is signicant, then
adjustment can be made for percentage
live (or dead) buds.
Evaluating and Adjusting

for Winter Injury
Cold injury to grape buds is relatively easy to
detect. Using a sharp razor blade, make a series
of cross-sectional cuts across the buds, getting
deeper with each cut until the primary bud
is exposed. Cutting too shallow reveals only
the brown bud scales, and cutting too deeply
misses the center of the bud and reveals the
basal tissue, which may appear alive even if the
bud is not. Live buds appear bright green while
dead buds appear brown or black.
It is important to thoroughly sample the
vineyard and properly handle the canes prior
to evaluation of cold damage. Collect canes
with 100 or so buds from each cultivar. A
sample of ten 10-bud canes is usually sufcient. Samples should be collected after the
end of the cold period has occurred, brought
indoors, and allowed to warm for 24 to 48
hours to make the damaged buds easier to
differentiate from live buds.
FIGURE 26. Balanced pruning consists of
weighing the pruned wood from one-year-old
canes to determine the number of buds to retain
for optimum cropping.
Samples should be representative of the type

of wood that will be left at pruning in terms of
the node position on the canes. For instance,
45
Table 8. Suggested Pruning Formulas for Various Grape Cultivars.

No. of Buds
for 1st Pound
of Prunings
No. of Buds
for Each
Additional Pound
Maximum
No. of Buds
Concord
30
10
60-70
Catawba
25
10
40-50
Delaware
25
10
40-50
Niagara
30
10
60-70
Norton (GDC)
60
10
80-90
Foch
30
10
60-70
Leon Millot
30
10
60-70
Baco Noir
20
10
50-60
Vignoles
15
15
60-70
Vidal
15
5*
30-40
Chelois
10
10
30-40
Chambourcin
20
20*
30-40
Chancellor
20
10*
30-40
DeChaunac
20
5*
30-40
Seyval
20
10*
30-40
Villard blanc
20
10
30-40
Chardonel
20
20?
40-50
Traminette
20
20?
40-50
20
20*
40
Canadice
30
10*
50
Himrod
30
10*
50
Mars
30
10
60-70
Reliance
30
10*
50
Vanessa
30
10*
50
Grape Cultivar
American Cultivars:
French-American Hybrids:
European (Vinifera) Cultivars:
Seedless Table Grape Cultivars:
* Requires cluster thinning.

? Tentative formula.
46
if you normally spur prune to ve or six node

spurs, then you will want to pay particular
attention to damage to the basal ve or six
buds. Depending on the circumstances, there
can be considerable difference in cold damage
to buds from the base to the tip of a cane. Keep
track of the position of the buds as you cut and
record the damage so you will know what part
of the cane has the most damage.
Adjusting Pruning Level

to Maintain Vine Balance
For American cultivars in which secondary
buds are not very fruitful, the general rule of
thumb is as follows:
If less than 15% of the primary buds have
been killed, then prune as normal.
If 15% to 50% have been killed, then adjust
the pruning formula proportionally to the
bud kill to account for the dead buds.
For instance, if you have 30% bud kill
on Concord, you will want to leave 30%
more buds than is called for by the 30 + 10
formula. For a vine that produced 2 lbs. of
prunings, you would leave 40 + (30% x 40) =
40 + 12 or 52 buds. The extra buds retained
should make up for the percent that has been
killed and should produce fruit that will help
keep the vine in balance.
It is important to determine if there is a
relationship between bud kill and node
position. If most of the damage is conned
to basal buds (because they were shaded and
did not acclimate well), then you would want
to leave longer spurs rather than more short
spurs to account for the total number of
buds.
If more than 50% of the primary buds have
been killed, then do not prune, or only
prune to eliminate the canes close to the
ground or out of the vine space. Wait until
growth begins in the spring to prune these
cultivars so that a more accurate assessment

can be made.
For French hybrid cultivars that have fruitful
secondary buds, the increase in number
of buds to retain may not be proportional
to bud damage. There is no exact formula
to determine the number of extra buds to
retain, but realize that some adjustment is
necessary. It is always best to leave more buds
than needed, rather than fewer. Final adjustments can be made by removing shoots after
bud break.
Pruning to Avoid Frost Damage

Frost is another possible time of cold injury
to buds following budbreak. Pruned vines
tend to bud out earlier than unpruned
vines. However, delaying pruning until after
budbreak is not practical in most cases because
cane removal may cause a signicant amount
of bud breakage. On cold tender cultivars and
cultivars that bud out early (such as Marechal
Foch), the best approach may be to do a rst
rough pruning, leaving considerably more
buds than required (long spurs), then follow
up to adjust bud number after budbreak. This
approach, often called double pruning, can
sometimes delay budbreak of the desired basal
buds by up to two weeks (Figure 27.) It is most
practical on spur pruning systems such as high
cordon or VSP.
Other Pruning Considerations

Pruning and cluster thinning: In general,
pruning formulas work well for American
and vinifera varieties. However, some French
hybrids tend to overcrop (very fruitful buds)
and using the pruning formula alone to
control yield is not adequate. In this case,
balanced pruning should be followed by
cluster thinning (Table 8). Examples of
varieties that require cluster thinning include
Chambourcin, Chancellor, Seyval, and Vidal.
Pruning and shoot thinning: Under conventional trellising systems, if more than 60 buds
47
This means that vines spaced at 8 feet apart in

the row will have the best sunlight distribution
with about 50 shoots. Leaving an additional 10
buds can make up for blind nodes. Pre-bloom
shoot thinning can be used to make the nal
adjustment in shoot number.
FIGURE 27. Double pruning delays bud break of

basal buds, thus minimizing crop loss from frost
injury. A follow-up pruning is necessary to adjust
bud count.
should be left on a pruned vine, considerable

shading may occur. A general rule of thumb
is that six shoots per foot of row are about the
maximum that can be left and still achieve
good sunlight distribution on the leaves. This
varies somewhat with cultivars, but it is a good
rule to follow.
Assessing vine balance and crop load: Each

vine must be pruned according to its own
individual capacity. If the crop was large last
year, the vine may not have produced enough
growth this year to mature a similar amount of
fruit. Nutrition and moisture may have been
limiting factors. If the yield was low, examine
and evaluate the canes of the previous season
according to the guidelines given for size, color,
and internode length. (See Characteristics of
Retained Wood at Pruning.)
Table 9 lists guidelines for growers to assess
whether their mature vines are balanced. This
balance is gauged by vine size, crop size, and the
ratio between the two called crop load.
Vine size is measured by weighing cane
pruning per vine (in pounds) during the
dormant season. Crop size is the fruit weight
per vine (in pounds) measured at harvest. Crop
load is the ratio of crop size/vine size.
Table 9. Assessing Grapevine Balance Based on Vine Size, Crop Size, and Crop Load.
Class
of Vine Size
Vine Size
(Lbs/ft of Canopy)
Vine Size (lbs/vine)

On 8-Ft Vine Spacing
Crop Load
(Crop Size / Vine Size)
Small
Less than 0.25
Less than 2
More than 15
Comments and Recommendations: Overcropped vines. Vines produce too much fruit and not
enough shoots. Should reduce crop by cluster thinning and fertilize to restore vine size.
Medium
0.3 0.4
2.4 3.2
5 - 12
Comments and Recommendations: Balanced vines. This situation is optimum. Should keep the
same vineyard practices.
Large
More than 0.4
More than 3.2
Less than 3
Comments and Recommendations: Vigorous vines. Vines produce too many shoots and not enough
fruit. Reduce or withhold fertilization; practice canopy management; may convert to a divided training
system if none of the short-term remedies work.
48
Optimum crop load ranges between 5 (for

low-yielding vinifera) and 12 pounds of fruit
or higher (for high-yielding vinifera and
hybrids). This means that for every pound of
prunings produced, 5 to 12 pounds of goodquality fruit can be produced by the same vine.
For example, if a grapevine has a vine size
of 2.5 lb. (pruning weight), then in order to
achieve a balanced vine, the optimum crop size
for this vine should range between 5 x 2.5 =
12.5 lbs. and 12 x 2.5 = 30 lbs. of fruit.
Disposal of Prunings
After the vine or vineyard section has been
pruned, the prunings are placed between the
rows. Prunings should be removed carefully
from the trellis to avoid breaking those canes
retained for production. The prunings may
be removed from the vineyard or chopped
between the rows with a heavy-duty rotary
mower or ail mower. Most commercial
vineyards chop the prunings, which reduces
labor for this operation while adding a small
amount of organic matter to the soil.
Training Systems
(See centerfold.)
Training is the arrangement of the vine on
the trellis. There are many different types of
training systems for wine grapes, but all have
the same goals:
To position the annual shoot growth so
that the fruit and leaves receive optimum
exposure to light.
To position the fruit for ease of pest control
and ease of harvest.
To facilitate pruning and other vineyard
management operations.
Optimum sunlight exposure of leaves and fruit
ensures good fruit quality and bud fruitfulness.
Without adequate exposure, fruit quality
suffers and vine productivity is reduced.
The most efcient training systems provide

well-spaced, evenly distributed fruiting wood
along the trellis to promote maximum interception of sunlight and provide optimum sun
exposure for clusters and shoots. In addition,
a well-designed training system will produce
a high canopy surface area and low canopy
density. This encourages high production of
sugars with minimal effects of shading.
Researcher and grower experiences have shown
that shoot density of about six shoots per foot
of canopy is optimal. This should provide a
canopy that has one to two layers of leaves and
minimal shading. As shoot density gets higher,
leaf layers increase and shading occurs.
Shading has detrimental effects on fruit
quality, such as lower soluble solids; higher
total acidity; higher pH; reduced color, anthocyanin, and phenolic content; and increased
potassium content. Wine quality can be
adversely affected by each of these changes.
Understanding that sunlight exposure is
necessary for good fruit quality is the basis of
training and trellising system selection.
Choosing a Training System

Growers are advised and cautioned that there
is no universal training system. One-sizets-all does not apply in choosing a training
system. With this in mind, a grower should
realize that choosing a training system depends
on several factors, including the anticipated
vigor of the vineyard, cultivar to be planted,
capital and annual labor cost, equipment used,
and the potential to mechanize the vineyard.
Trellis construction is one of the most
expensive components of vineyard establishment. It makes sense to carefully consider
the reasons for choosing a particular training
system.
Anticipated Site Vigor

Anticipated or potential site vigor is probably
one of the most important factors in selecting
49
Eventually, growers should be able to rank

their new vineyard sites as low, moderate,
or high vigor. In general, in a low-vigor site,
choosing a non-divided canopy training
system (e.g., VSP) is the most adequate,
whereas in a high-vigor site, choosing among
divided canopy training systems (e.g., GDC) is
recommended (Table 10).
a training system, but it is difcult to assess.

The selection of a training system and vine
spacing should be based on the anticipated
vigor of the vineyard.
In the Midwest, many vineyards are being
established for the rst time, thus predicting
vine vigor prior to vineyard establishment is
challenging. Table 10 provides guidelines for
selecting the proper training system and vine
density based on vine vigor and potential site
vigor.
Cultivar Characteristics
The choice of the training system must take
into consideration cultivar and rootstock
vigor, growth habit, cold hardiness, and disease
susceptibility. The choice of the training
system is often dependent on the growth habit
of the cultivar being grown.
Vine vigor is affected by rain, soil type, depth,

fertility, water-holding capacity, and cultivar.
Thus, information on these factors should
be gathered to assess the anticipated vigor of
the site as accurately as possible. New growers
should check neighboring vineyards to have a
general idea about vigor potential in their area.
Most American and French hybrid cultivars

tend to have a downward, or procumbent,
Table 10. Guidelines to Matching Training Systems with Potential Vineyard Vigor Based on
Anticipated Site Vigor, Variety Vigor, and Row and Vine Spacing.1
Training System
Selection
Scion
and
Rootstock
Vigor 2
Anticipated
Site Vigor 2
Row
Spacing
Selection3
Vine
Spacing
Selection4
High
Moderate
Low
High
Moderate
Low
Narrow
Wide
Narrow
Wide
Vertical Shoot
Position
++
++
++
++
High Cordon
++
++
++
++
Smart Dyson
++
++
++
++
++
++
Scott Henry
++
++
++
++
++
++
Geneva Double
Curtain
++
++
++
++
Lyre or U
++
++
++
++
++
Non-Divided Canopy
Divided Canopy
Anticipated Site Vigor Ranking: High = deep and fertile soil, abundant water availability, and high water-holding
capacity; Moderate = moderately deep and fertile soil, moderate water availability, and moderate water-holding
capacity; Low = shallow and low fertility soil, scarce water availability, and low water-holding capacity.
++ Most appropriate match; + Appropriate match; - Least appropriate match (not recommended).
Row spacing: Narrow = 8 to 10 ft; Wide = 11 to 12 ft.
Vine spacing: Narrow = 4 to 6 ft; Wide = 7 to 10 ft.
50
growth habit. Therefore, a high training

system, which allows ample distance for shoots
to grow downward, is recommended. On the
other hand, European, or vinifera cultivars,
have a strong upright growth habit, especially
early in the growing season. This growth habit
is best managed with a low training system,
which allows upward vertical shoot growth.
Common Training Systems

(See centerfold.)
To date, there are more than a dozen training
systems used throughout the world. In the
Midwest, training systems used for wine
production range from single to divided
curtain systems with the High Cordon
system being the most common. Although
the High Cordon system is commonly used,
it is not always the most adequate. A general
description of each system and its pros and
cons is presented here.
High Bi-Lateral Cordon (HC)

The HC or single curtain is the most
commonly used training system in the
Midwest. Two cordons extend along the top
wire (5.5 to 6 feet above ground) of the trellis
in each direction and meet cordons half way
from adjacent vines. The cordons remain
as semi-permanent extensions of the trunk,
though they may need replacement every ve
or so years.
A second training wire may be used at 36" to
42" above ground to provide extra support
for young and mature vines and minimize
breakage from strong winds. This system can
be cane- or spur-pruned; however, the latter
is more common. Fruiting spurs two- to
six-nodes long are spaced along this cordon.
Shorter renewal spurs are left to provide
fruiting wood for the next season.
The primary advantages of HC are low
establishment and production costs and ease
of mechanization, including mechanical
harvesting and pre-pruning. The high location
of the fruit and renewal zones improves

sunlight penetration, which thus has the
potential to increase yield. Wildlife depredation (deer) and frost injury may also be
minimized.
This system is best suited for use under
moderate vigor conditions, which are the
conditions most common in the Midwest.
Most of the Hybrids and American cultivars
with procumbent growth habits are adapted to
this system.
Umbrella Knifn
Umbrella Knifn (UK) used to be the most
popular and common system in the Midwest
and the East. This system utilizes long canes
(10 to 20 buds each) that originate from
renewal spurs at or near the top of the trunk.
Four to six canes are retained, bent over the
trellis wires, and tied securely.
Mechanical damage to the tender buds during
the tying process can be a problem, so pruning
and tying must be nished before bud swell
begins. Other drawbacks of this system include
extra time and effort for tying, and difculty in leaving extra buds to protect against
damage from spring frosts (double pruning).
Additionally, cane pruning cannot be mechanized. In recent years, UK has been used less in
newly established vineyards.
Vertical-Shoot Position
This Vertical-Shoot Position (VSP) system is
also called low- or mid-cordon system and is
the most commonly used trellis worldwide on
vinifera cultivars. Trunks are trained to a low
(12") or mid wire (up to 42") with cordons
or canes extending along this wire. Shoots are
positioned vertically upward between two to
three pairs of catch wires.
The rst pair of catch wires is positioned about
10" above the cordon wire; the second and
third at 12" and 24" above the rst catch wires.
Shoot positioning is done by either moving
51
catch wires or by manually tucking shoots

between xed catch wires.
The advantage of this system is that the
distance between rows can be reduced,
allowing more efcient vineyard design
and improved productivity. It is also easy to
manage and mechanize. This system keeps the
fruiting wood close to the ground to allow easy
renewal of trunks in case of winter injury.
The disadvantages of VSP are lower light
exposure than HC since the fruiting zone is at
the base of the canopy; thus, lower yields than
HC are expected. Furthermore, the proximity
of the fruit zone to the ground makes it more
susceptible to wildlife depredation and frost
injury.
VSP is normally used under low- to moderatevigor conditions. This system is most suited to
cultivars with upright growth habit, including
most vinifera cultivars and some hybrids (e.g.,
Chancellor, Seyval, and Vignoles).
The Fan System

The Fan System (FS) is often used with cold
tender cultivars to assure some live buds each
year. This is a spare-parts approach in which
several trunks of different ages are retained
and spread out across a multiple wire trellis.
Older trunks are often more susceptible to
winter injury than young trunks but are also
more fruitful, so trunks of different ages are
saved to provide for continuous renewal of
fruiting wood.
Fruiting wood is selected from canes on the
different trunks. In case of winter injury to
one trunk, additional buds are retained on the
remaining trunks to balance the bud number.
Fruiting wood may be pruned as long canes
or short, depending on the degree of winter
injury and available buds.
52
Geneva Double Curtain

As the name indicates, Geneva Double Curtain
(GDC) was developed at the New York
Agriculture Experiment Station in Geneva,
New York, by the late Dr. Shaulis. This system
is similar to HC but instead of having a single
curtain of shoots, there are two horizontally
divided curtains. These curtains are supported
by fruiting wires that are separated by cross
arms that are usually 4-feet wide.
Since the two curtains extend 2 feet on each
side beyond the vine row, row spacing should
be wider than other systems. Row spacing
of 11 to 12 ft is generally recommended.
Vines can be trained either with two cordons
(bilateral) on one side of the canopy, or four
cordons (quadrilateral), with two on each
side of the canopy. At the same vine spacing,
the bilateral cordons are twice as long as the
quadrilateral cordons.
Field observations indicate that GDC with
quadrilateral cordons produces more uniform
bud break and shoot growth; cordons have
less blind nodes and are quicker to replace in
case of disease or winter injury than GDC with
bilateral cordons.
The GDC system supports more growth
and yields (30% or more, higher than HC)
since shoot number and leaf surface areas
are doubled (Table 11). Thus, GDC is more
suitable under high-vigor conditions where
soils are deep and fertile. This system is also
suitable to vigorous cultivars such as Concord,
Frontenac, Norton, and Traminette and some
table grapes.
GDC produces higher fruit quality, higher
yields, and less disease incidence than other
systems. Although GDC has a high establishment cost due to more trellising materials,
the long-term benets from higher revenues
exceed the initial costs. A potential drawback
of GDC under a hot climate is excessive
fruit exposure to sunlight and heat, which
may result in sunburn and may negatively
affect avor components, especially of white
varieties.
Table 11. Exposed Canopy Surface Area for Different Training Systems (Smart, 1996).
Trellis System
Surface Area
for 12-ft. Row Spacing (m 2/ha)
VSP
8,500
HC
12,500
SH
13,100
SD
13,100
SD Ballerina
13,700
GDC
20,000
Scott Henry
The Scott Henry (SH) system is similar
to VSP, but curtains are vertically divided
upward and downward. Vertical curtains are
formed by alternating the fruiting zone height.
Shoots from the upper canes (or cordons)
are positioned vertically upward, while
shoots from the lower canes (or cordons) are
positioned downward, leaving an open space
or window 8" to 10" wide between the two
curtains.
SH is best adapted for moderate to highvigor conditions. The SH trellis system uses 8
wirestwo cordon wires, two pairs of catch
wires for the upper curtain, and one pair for
the lower curtain. Therefore, SH is more labor
intensive than the previous trellising systems.
Advantages include higher yields and quality
than VSP. Thus, the high establishment and
production costs may prove to be worthwhile in the long-term. Another signicant
advantage of SH is reduction in bunch rot,
which causes yearly crop losses for several
cultivars grown under wet and humid conditions. Cultivars prone to bunch rot, such as
Pinots and Vignoles, can benet from this
system.
Originally, Oregon grower Scott Henry
developed this system to overcome two
problems in his Pinot noir vineyardexcessive
vigor and bunch rot. The SH system has
promise, but there is limited commercial

experience in the Midwest, and more research
is needed for long-term evaluation of this
system.
Smart-Dyson
This Smart-Dyson (SD) system is similar
to SH where curtains are vertically divided.
Thus, SD has similar advantages to SH. The
only difference with SH is that shoots in SD
originate from the same cordon or fruiting
zone. Also, SD requires one type of pruning
called spur pruning, which is easier and
less labor intensive than SH. This system is
adaptable to machine harvesting, pre-pruning,
and leaf removal.
Smart-Dyson Ballerina is a modication of the
SD system, with very similar training except
that the Ballerina is used more often in cases of
retrotting existing vineyards from VSP in case
of excessive vigor.
As with SH, there is limited experience and
research with SD, and further evaluation of
this system is needed.
Lyre or U-System
The Lyre or U-System (U) is similar to VSP but
with two curtains divided horizontally. Thus,
this system is adapted to upright growing
cultivars and is suitable to moderate and high53
vigor conditions. As with other divided canopy

systems, yields are increased due to increased
shoot number and leaf area per acre.
However, the U system is the most expensive to
build among all training systems. Furthermore,
this system is difcult to mechanize. Because
of the extensive cordon development required,
this system is difcult to maintain in areas
where cold injury is common. Therefore, this
system is generally not recommended in the
Midwest.
Other Innovative Pruning

and Training Systems
Another trend that has developed in recent
years is the use of mechanical pruning, or
minimal pruning, techniques. Much work
has been done in New York and Arkansas to
mechanize all aspects of grape production.
54
Training systems employed are usually High

Bilateral Cordon or Geneva Double Curtain.
Pruning severity can range from closely
approximating hand pruning to only minimal
skirting of canes in the lower section of the
trellis. These systems are probably best suited
for juice grapes, but wine grapes are increasingly being grown using these systems.
More research is needed to evaluate minimal
pruning under high disease pressure and
extreme low temperature conditions characteristic of the Midwest.
Crop Control and Canopy Management

Concept of Crop Control
Crop control is a vineyard practice that
includes the physical adjustment of the vine
as needed to balance the amount of fruit with
the growth of foliage. This practice adjusts the
crop level so there will be sufcient growth
of shoots with leaves on each vine, and each
shoot will be capable of maturing the fruit
retained.
Growers often experience the adverse effects
of allowing vines to overproduce and lose
vigor. This leads to improper maturation
of the crop and causes the vine to enter the
winter in a weakened condition. Growers then
realize that an effective crop control program
for each cultivar must be developed to keep
the vineyard productive and healthy over an
extended period. As more cold-tender cultivars
are planted and the need for high quality
increases, growers more than ever must use
other methods in addition to balanced pruning
to control the crop in a given year.
Crop Control on Young Vines

It has been shown that cropping of young
vines can reduce the size of the root system
and overall vine vigor. Unless vines are
vigorous, fruit should not be retained during
the rst and second growing season. Remove
owers and fruit early in the season, when
shoots are about 12-inches long. If the vines
exhibit high vigor, a small amount of fruit can
be left during the second season, but it should
be only one or two clusters per plant.
Leaving a small amount of fruit helps the
grower check for off-type vines early in the life
of the vineyard so they can be removed and
replaced. Additionally, the presence of fruit on
vigorous vines helps slow vine growth in the
fall and promotes shoot maturation.
Since the rst three seasons are used to

establish the vine form, there is usually a
considerable amount of fruitful wood retained
during the second and third seasons. This can
lead to a crop potential that will exceed the
capacity of the vine to support the fruit load in
the third year.
About one half of a full crop of fruit can be
retained during the third season if vine vigor
is sufcient. Heavy fruiting of young vines will
result in small vine size and reduced yields,
and vines may need several years to recover
and regain vigor. It is best to be patient and
crop vines only after they are well established.
Canopy Management
of Mature Vines
With the tremendous vineyard expansion in
the Midwest during this decade, production
is estimated to increase exponentially in the
coming years. Winery owners and managers
will be more selective and demand highquality grapes. Winemakers unanimously agree
that quality grapes is the No. 1 criterion.
The recognition of the important role of
viticulture in the production of premium
wines has led to considerable interest in
viticulture practices that can improve wine
quality. Among these practices, canopy
management has made one of the biggest
impacts in world viticulture in the last 20
years.
Therefore, to ensure the production of highquality grapes, growers in the Midwest should
embrace canopy management practices. These
practices are usually conducted in ne-wine
regions to produce premium fruit and wine.
However, they are becoming a routine practice
for vineyards seeking maximum wine quality.
55
In order for the wine industry in the Midwest

to continue to be successful, it is critical
that high-quality grapes be produced on a
consistent basis. Some of the ways to achieve
that goal are described here.
and fruit production (Figure 28.) The benets

of CM include:
Concept
Improved spray penetration and disease

control.
According to Dr. Richard Smart, author of

Sunlight into Wine: Canopy management
is the practice which results in the modication of position or amount of leaves,
shoot, and fruit in space to achieve a desired
arrangement.
Vine canopy is the shoot system, which
includes the stem, the leaves, and fruit clusters.
In the viticulture world, canopy is described
by its length, height, width, leaf area, number
of leaf layers, and shoot density. Shoot density
refers to the number of shoots per foot of
row or foot of canopy. Table 12 describes the
characteristics of an ideal canopy.
Benets
Canopy management (CM) has several
viticulture advantages, such as maximizing
sunlight interception, which means
minimizing shading, and very importantly,
maintaining a balance between shoot growth
Increased air movement, which leads to

faster drying time from rain and dew, and
thus less disease pressure.
Improved fruit composition and varietal

character.
Increased bud fruitfulness.
Improved winter hardiness.
Steps During the Growing Season

There are ve major steps or practices that
growers should follow and apply to their
vineyards. Some grape cultivars require all
ve steps; others require fewer; and certain
cultivars require a repeat of some of the ve
steps.
The growing season also has a major impact
on CM. Dry summers require fewer CM
practices than wet summers. Growers have
to follow the basics and ne-tune the steps
according to cultivar, site, season, and their
own experience. The ve CM steps are listed
Table 12. Ideal Vine Canopy.
56
Canopy Characteristic
Optimum Values
Shoot density
4 to 6 shoots per foot of canopy
Number of leaf layers
1 to 1.5
Number of nodes per shoot
12 to 15
Canopy gaps
40% to 50%
Cluster exposure
50% to 75%
Ratio of leaf area to fruit weight (sq. inches per oz.)
44 to 53
Ratio of leaf area to fruit weight (cm2 per gram)
8 to 12
Vine size (pruning weight in lbs. per ft. of canopy)
0.3 to 0.4
Ratio of fruit produced (lbs.) for each pound of prunings removed.
5 to 12
FIGURE 28. Canopy management enhances sunlight exposure of leaves, clusters, and basal buds which
will bear fruit the following year.
here in chronological order of vine development throughout the growing season:
Step 1Shoot Thinning (Suckering)

Suckering Trunks and Cordons: This consists
of removal of suckers (unwanted shoots that
grow on the trunk or cordon). One or two
suckers are left at the base of the trunk only
if a new trunk needs to be trained in secondand third-year vines, or if trunk replacement
is deemed necessary due to injurycold,
disease, or mechanical injury. On the cordons,
unfruitful shoots are removed rst unless they
are needed for spur renewal.
Once all shoot thinning is done, shoots should
be spaced evenly along the cordon length and
have a density of four to six shoots per foot of
cordon or canopy. With 8-foot vine spacing,
this corresponds to 32 to 48 shoots per vine on

a single curtain/high cordon (HC) system, and
64 to 96 shoots per vine on a Geneva Double
Curtain (GDC) training system. Note that with
a divided canopy (e.g., GDC and Scott Henry),
there are two feet of canopy for each foot of
row.
When: This is best done early in the season
when shoots are about 1 to 3 inches (trunk
suckering) to 6 to 12 inches (cordon suckering)
long. At this stage, shoots are easily rubbed off;
fruit clusters are visible to distinguish between
fruitful and unfruitful shoots; and less labor
is involved. Suckering may require more than
one pass. Growers with frost-prone vineyard
sites should plan to thin shoots after the spring
frost threat has passed.
57
Step 2Shoot Positioning

The best scenario is when shoots grow vertically (parallel to the trunk), either up or
down, depending on the training system. In
the real world, however, shoots tend to grow
sideways and attach to the cordon wire with
their tendrils. This is why shoot positioning
(Figure 29) is conducted to disallow lateral and
horizontal shoot growth. Shoot positioning
also allows the spread of shoots to promote an
open canopy, improve spray penetration, and
adhere to the shape of the given trellis system.
Combing: This is the generic term for
positioning shoots downward. Combing is
conducted on high training systems such
as High Cordon (HC) and Geneva Double
Curtain (GDC). Shoots are combed in a
vertical downward position.
Tucking : This is the generic term for
positioning shoots upward and is used on
low training systems such as Vertical Shoot
Position (VSP). Shoots are held upright by
using two or three pairs of moveable catch
wires, 10 to 12 inches apart. Sometimes extra
tying with tape is needed in order to keep the
shoots upright.
Combing/Tucking: Both practices are required
in vertically divided canopies such as Scott
Henry and Smart Dyson training systems.
The upward growth of both systems is tucked
between catch wires, and the downward
growth is combed.
When: Timing is critical for reducing the

amount of shoot breakage and ease of
positioning. Growers should realize that the
most important aspect is to reduce shading as
soon as possible after bloom as fruit bud development begins about that time and sunlight
exposure is critical for bud fruitfulness.
Step 3Cluster Thinning

Growers are sometimes tempted to take the
risk and avoid cluster-thinning altogether for
quick vineyard production. Others do cluster
thin and have in mind the long-term benet of
this practice for the well-being and life span of
the vineyard.
Cluster thinning is a MUST for some cultivars
that have very fruitful primary buds and tend
to produce three or more clusters per shoot.
Examples include Seyval, Chancellor, Vidal,
and Chambourcin.
Among these cultivars, some also have fruitful
secondary and base buds, which in turn
produce several clusters per shoot. Seyval and
Chancellor are good examples. These two
varieties still produce a normal crop after
losing their primary buds to cold injury.
When: There are two periodsbefore bloom
(pre-bloom) and after fruit set (post fruit set).
Pre-Bloom Thinning: This consists of the
removal of ower clusters. This practice can be
done at the same time as shoot thinning.
FIGURE 29. Shoot positioning: Canopy before (A) and after (B) combing shoots downward. Note fruit exposure
after combing.
58
The advantage of this timing is that clusters

are easy to see; thus, thinning can be done
quickly. By removing ower clusters this early,
several things happenberry set is improved
(more berries per cluster as a result of less
competition with fewer clusters), and berries
are bigger at harvest. Other advantages include
increased yield, increased sugars and avors of
the fruit, improved vine size and hardiness.
Disadvantages of early thinning include
tighter clusters (as a result of increased fruit
set and larger berries); thus, bunch rot can
be a problem. Seyval produces large and
tight clusters and is susceptible to bunch
rot. Therefore, thinning before bloom is
not recommended for Seyval. However, this
practice is benecial to cultivars that have
loose clusters and are not susceptible to bunch
rot, such as Chambourcin and Chancellor.
Post Fruit Set Thinning: In this case, berry set
is less than that of pre-bloom thinning. There
are fewer berries per cluster; thus clusters are

looser, and bunch rot incidence is reduced.
This practice is more common and recommended for cultivars susceptible to bunch
rot, such as Seyval. (See Figure 30.) With this
method, yield, sugars, vine size, and hardiness
are improved.
This method, however, is more timeconsuming, hence more expensiveit is
more difcult to see the fruit due to a more
developed canopy. At this stage of shoot development, the vine canopy is about 75% formed.
The following rule of thumb for cluster
thinning can be used as a general guideline:
Remove all clusters from shoots less than 12
inches long.
Leave one cluster per shoot for shoots 12
inches to 24 inches long.
Leave two clusters per shoot for shoots more
than 24 inches long.
FIGURE 30. Post fruit set thinning is recommended for cultivars susceptible to bunch rot, such as Seyval.
59
Special Cases: In almost all commercial

vineyards, there are always some vines that
seem to fall behind in growth and production.
They look like one- or two-year-old vines in a
ve-year-old vineyard.
In this case, these undersized vines should be
cluster thinned heavily, sometimes completely.
This will allow the vines to recover by diverting
the carbohydrates to trunks and roots.
Follow the same procedure with vines that
have not lled the trellis yet.
Step 4Leaf Removal (Pulling)

Leaves, and sometimes lateral shoots, are
removed in the fruiting zone in order to
accomplish two goals. First is to improve
air movement and spray penetration, thus
reducing bunch-rot infection. This is especially
critical for cultivars susceptible to botrytis
bunch rot such as Pinot noir, Pinot gris, Pinot

blanc, Riesling, Vignoles, and Seyval.
Second is to improve sunlight exposure of fruit
and basal buds. This results in better color for
red wine varieties, and lower potassium and
pH in the juice.
Leaf pulling is done on the shade side of the
canopy, which is either the east side of a northsouth row or the north side of an east-west
row. One to three leaves are removed at the
base of each shoot and around clusters. (See
Figure 31.) Leaf pulling is either minimally
done or completely avoided (depending on the
canopy thickness) on the sun side of a canopy
in order to avoid sun burning of fruit.
A disadvantage of leaf pulling is increased bird
damage as result of exposed berries.
When: Leaf pulling is rst performed after
fruit set. One more cleanup pass may be
FIGURE 31. Leaf pulling consists of removing one to three leaves at the base of each shoot and around
clusters between fruit set and veraison but not after. Picture taken after veraison of Norton, but leaf
pulling was conducted after fruit set.
60
necessary before veraison by removing old and

yellow leaves. Leaf pulling should be avoided
at or after veraison as this may lead to fruit
sunburn.
Step 5Shoot Hedging and Skirting

Shoot hedging consists of cutting shoots that
grow beyond the allocated space in a given
trellis system in order to control shoot length.
It is called hedging for upward shoot training,
such as on a VSP system (Figure 32), and
skirting for downward shoot training, such as
on a high cordon (HC) system.
Shoot hedging may be required for VSP
systems and upper canopies of Scott Henry
(SH) and Smart Dyson (SD) systems. High

cordon (HC) and GDC systems do not usually
require skirting unless shoot tips interfere with
trafc in row middles. In general, a minimum
of 12 to 15 leaves per shoot should be left after
hedging in order to mature the fruit and wood.
When: Shoot hedging is performed when
shoots grow beyond the trellis space and
desired lengthabout 3.5 feet for VSP and
about 5 feet for HC and GDC. The amount
of summer rain will determine the number of
hedging passes (typically one to three passes).
However, do not hedge shoots after veraison,
since this may result in delay of fruit maturity
and reduces wood maturity and thus winter
hardiness.
Figure 32. Shoot hedging of VSP-trained vines. Before (A) and after (B) hedging. Note fruit zone is exposed after
hedging.
61
Integrated Management of Grape Diseases

Diseases represent a major threat to the
commercial production of grapes in the
Midwest. Climatic conditions are conducive
to the development of several major grape
diseases, including black rot, downy mildew,
and powdery mildew. Each of these diseases
has the potential to destroy the entire crop
under the proper environmental conditions.
In addition, there are several other diseases
(Phomopsis cane and leaf spot, Botrytis gray
mold, Eutypa dieback and crown gall) that can
also result in economic loss. It is important
to note that most of these diseases can occur
simultaneously within the same vineyard
during the growing season.
The development and implementation of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs
for grapes has great potential for improving
our current pest control strategies and
reducing our use of pesticides in general. Much
of the potential for reducing pesticide use will
be in the area of insect control. Many of the
IPM methods for monitoring and controlling
insects give the grower more exibility in the
decision-making process as to whether insecticides are needed, which insecticides to apply,
and when to apply them.
Our currently available disease-management
programs and recommendations have much
less exibility, and the level to which we will
be able to reduce fungicide use is largely
limited by the degree of susceptibility of the
cultivars being grown and environmental
conditions during the growing season
(the most important of which is wet rainy
weather). The introduction of new fungicide
chemistry, such as the sterol inhibitors or
SIs (Bayleton, Rubigan, and Nova), and the
strobilurin fungicides (Abound, Sovran, and
Pristine), as well as new information related
to the disease cycles of the various pathogens
are providing opportunities for new disease
62
control strategies that can be implemented in

IPM programs.
Developing a disease-management
program that successfully controls all of
the important grape diseases simultaneously presents a unique challenge. In order
to accomplish this, all available control
methods must be integrated into one overall
disease-management program. The disease
management program should emphasize the
integrated use of disease resistance, various
cultural practices, knowledge of disease
biology, and the use of approved fungicides
or biological control agents or products when
necessary.
Identifying and Understanding

the Major Grape Diseases
It is important for growers to be able to
recognize the major grape diseases. Proper
disease identication is critical to making
the correct disease-management decisions.
In addition, growers should develop a basic
understanding of pathogen biology and
disease cycles for the major grape diseases. The
more one knows about the disease, the better
equipped one is to make sound and effective
management decisions. Color photographs of
disease symptoms on grapes, as well as indepth information on pathogen biology and
disease development, can also be found in
these publications:
Compendium of Grape DiseasesPublished
by the American Phytopathological Society,
3340 Pilot Knob Rd., St. Paul, MN 55121.
Phone: 612-454-7250, 1-800-328-7560. This
is the most comprehensive book on grape
diseases available. All commercial growers
should have a copy.
Midwest Small Fruit Pest Management

Handbook. Bulletin 861, Ohio State University
Extension. Can be obtained from Ohio State
University Extension, Media Distribution,
2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1044.
Phone 614-292-1607.
A description of symptoms and disease cycles
for the most common grape diseases in the
Midwest is presented here.
Black Rot
Symptoms and Disease Cycle (Figure 33)
Black rot is caused by the fungus Guidnardia
bidwellii. The fungus overwinters in
mummied fruit on the vine or on the
ground. Spring rains trigger the release of
airborne ascospores and/or rain splashed
conidia from the mummies. Primary infections occur on green tissues if temperatures
and duration of leaf wetness are conducive
(Table 13). Recent research indicates that the
majority of ascospores from mummies on the
ground are discharged within a time period
from 1-inch shoot growth to two to three
weeks after bloom. If mummies are allowed
to hang on the vines, they can discharge
ascospores and conidia throughout the
growing season.
In conventional production systems, black
rot is controlled primarily through the use of
effective fungicides combined with various
cultural practices. Black rot may be particularly important in organic production systems
because the organically approved fungicides
(copper and sulfur) are not very effective for
black rot control. Growers should develop
a thorough understanding of the black rot
FIGURE 33. Black rot disease cycle. Used with permission of the New York State Agricultural Experiment
Station, Cornell University. Figure taken from Grape IPM Disease Identication Sheet No. 4.
63
Table 13. Grape Black Rot. Leaf Wetness Duration-Temperature Combinations

Necessary for Grape Foliar Infection by Black Rot.
Temperature F
Minimum Leaf Wetness

Duration (Hr) for Light Infection
50
24
55
12
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
12
* Data represent a compilation from several experiments with the cultivars Concord, Catawba,
Aurora, and Baco noir.
disease cycle and the cultural practices used to

control it.
Lesions on canes from the previous season can
also produce conidia for a period of at least
one month starting at budbreak. Cane lesions
are probably most important in mechanically pruned or hedged vineyards that have an
abundance of canes in the canopy. All green
tissues of the vine are susceptible to infection.
Leaves are susceptible for about one week after
they reach full size.
Brown circular lesions develop on infected
leaves about nine to 11 days after infection
(Figure 34). Within a few days, black spherical
fruiting bodies (pycnidia) form within the
lesions (Figure 35). The pycnidia are often
arranged in a ring pattern just inside the
margin of the lesion. Each one of these
pycnidia can produce a second type of spore
(conidium). These conidia are spread by rain
splash and can cause secondary infections of
leaves throughout the growing season and on
fruit through about two to four weeks after
bloom.
FIGURE 34. Black rot lesions on grape leaf.
FIGURE 35. Close-up of black rot leaf lesions

showing fungal fruiting bodies (pycnidia).
64
It is important to emphasize that a single

ascospore can cause a primary infection
(leaf lesion). Within each leaf lesion
(primary infection), many pycnidia form.
Each pycnidium can produce hundreds of
thousands of conidia, each of which can
cause another infection (secondary infection)
later in the season. Therefore, it is extremely
important to control the early season primary
infections caused by ascospores. Infection by
one ascospore can result in the development of
millions of secondary conidia in the vineyard.
Lesions may also develop on young shoots,
cluster stems (rachis), and tendrils. These
lesions are usually purple to black, ovalshaped, and sunken. Pycnidia also form on
these lesions.
The fruit infection phase of the disease can
result in serious economic loss (Figure 36).
Berries are susceptible to the infection from
bloom until shortly after bloom. Older literature reports that berries become resistant
when they reach 5% to 8% sugar. Research
in New York indicates that berries become
resistant to black rot much earlier (three to
four weeks after bloom). Therefore, the most
critical time to control black rot fruit infections with fungicide is from immediately prior
to bloom through three to four weeks after
bloom.
FIGURE 36. Black rot symptoms on berries.
An infected berry rst appears light brown in

color. Soon the entire berry turns dark brown,
and then black pycnidia develop on its surface.
Infected berries eventually turn into shriveled,
hard, black mummies (Figure 37). These
mummies also serve as a source of secondary
inoculum later in the growing season and
are the primary means by which the fungus
overwinters.
The Bottom Line for Black Rot Control

Sanitation is critical to successful black rot
control. Mummies are the most important
overwintering source of the black rot fungus. If
all mummies and infected canes are removed
FIGURE 37. Close-up of black rot mummy.

65
from the vineyard, there is no source of

primary inoculum in the spring and, thus, the
disease is controlled. Any practice that removes
mummies and other infected material from
the vineyard will be benecial to the diseasemanagement program.
If all mummies cannot be removed from the
vineyard, it is extremely important that they
are not left hanging in the trellis. As mentioned
previously, mummies on the ground appear
to discharge their ascospores early in the
season, while those hanging in the trellis may
discharge ascospores and conidia throughout
the growing season. The most critical period
to control black rot with fungicide is from
immediate prebloom through three to four
weeks after bloom.
Powdery Mildew
Powdery mildew is caused by the fungus
Uncinula necator. If not controlled on suscep-
tible cultivars, the disease can reduce vine

growth, yield, quality, and winter hardiness.
Cultivars of Vitis vinifera and its hybrids
(French hybrids) are generally much more
susceptible to powdery mildew than are native
American cultivars such as Concord (see Table
14 on page 84-85). On susceptible cultivars, the
use of fungicides to control powdery mildew is
an important part of the disease-management
program. Failure to provide adequate control
of powdery mildew early in the growing season
can result in increased levels of other fruit rots
such as Botrytis bunch rot and sour rot.

The fungus can infect all green tissues of the
grapevine. Disease losses due to fruit infection
can be severe and can result in complete loss of
the crop (Figure 39). It was previously thought
that the fungus overwintered inside dormant
buds of the grapevine. Research in New York
FIGURE 38. Powdery mildew disease cycle. Photo used with permission of the New York State
Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University. Figure taken from Grape IPM Disease Identication
Sheet No. 2.
66
has shown that almost all overwintering

inoculum comes from cleistothecia, which
are fungal fruiting bodies that overwinter
primarily in bark crevices on the grapevine.
In the spring, airborne spores (ascospores)
released from the cleistothecia are the primary
inoculum for powdery mildew infections.
NOTE: Ascospore discharge from cleistothecia
is initiated if 0.10 inch of rain occurs at an
average temperature of 50F. Most mature
ascospores are discharged within four to eight
hours. These conditions can occur very early
in the growing season. Thus, on highly susceptible cultivars, control needs to be initiated
early in the growing season.
Ascospores are carried by wind. They
germinate on any green surface on the developing vine, resulting in primary infections.
The fungus grows and another type of spore
(conidium) is formed over the infected area
after six to eight days. The conidia and fungal
mycelia give a powdery or dusty appearance
to infected plant parts (Figure 40). Severely
affected leaves may curl upward during hot
dry weather. Young expanding leaves that are
infected may become distorted and stunted
(Figure 41). The conidia serve as secondary
inoculum for new infections throughout the
remainder of the growing season.
FIGURE 39. Powdery mildew symptoms on grape

berries (top) and Rachis (cluster stem) (bottom).
It is important to note that a primary infection

caused by one ascospore will result in the
production of hundreds of thousands of
conidia, each of which is capable of causing
secondary infections. Therefore, early season
control of primary infections caused by
ascospores is necessary. If primary infections
are controlled until all the ascospores have
been discharged, the amount of inoculum
available for causing late-season (secondary)
infections is greatly reduced. On young shoots,
infections are more likely to be limited, and
they appear as dark-brown to black patches
that remain as dark patches on the surface of
dormant canes.
67
season. Therefore, a full-season fungicide

program is generally required for powdery
mildew control on susceptible cultivars.
Conditions That Favor

Disease Development
Although infection can occur at temperatures

from 59 to 90F, temperatures of 68 to 77F
are optimal for infection and disease development. Temperatures above 95F inhibit
germination of conidia and above 104F they
are killed. High relative humidity is conducive
to production of conidia. Atmospheric
moisture in the 40% to 100% relative humidity
range is sufcient for germination of conidia
and infection. Free moisture, especially rainfall,
is detrimental to the survival of conidia. This is
in contrast to most other grape diseases, such
FIGURE 40. Powdery mildew. Primary infections

of powdery mildew on grape leaf (A) and powdery
mildew covering grape leaf surface (B).
Most economic losses from powdery mildew

result from fruit infection. Infected berries
often are misshapen or have rusty spots on
the surface. Severely affected fruit often split
open. When berries of purple or red cultivars
are infected as they begin to ripen, they fail to
color properly and have a blotchy appearance
at harvest. Research in New York has shown
that berries are susceptible to infection from
bloom through a few weeks after bloom.
Berries of Concord grapes are quite resistant
within two to three weeks after bloom.
Therefore, the most critical time to control
fruit infection with fungicide is from immediately prior to bloom through two to four weeks
after bloom. Even though the berries become
resistant with age, cluster stems (rachis) and
leaves remain susceptible throughout the
68
FIGURE 41. Powdery mildew infections on young

grape leaves can result in distortion of the leaves.
as black rot and downy mildew, that require

free water on the plant surface before the
fungal spores can germinate and infect. Low,
diffuse light seems to favor powdery mildew
development. Under optimal conditions, the
time from infection to production of conidia is
only about seven days.
where infections give rise to black spots or

elliptical lesions that are most numerous
on the rst three to four basal internodes.
Although this phase of the disease can appear
quite severe, crop loss due to shoot infections
has not been demonstrated. Heavily infected
shoots are more prone to wind damage.
It is important to remember that powdery

mildew can be a serious problem during
growing seasons when it is too dry for most
other diseases, such as black rot or downy
mildew, to develop. Thick canopies that retain
high levels of relative humidity are highly
conducive to infections in the center of the row
canopy.
Although shoot infections may not result in

direct crop loss, lesions on shoots serve as
an extremely important source of inoculum
for cluster stem (rachis) and fruit infections
in the spring. Rachis and fruit infection is
the phase of the disease that causes most
economic loss.
Cleistothecia are formed on the surface of

infected plant parts in late fall. Many of them
are washed into bark crevices on the vine trunk
where they overwinter to initiate primary
infections during the next growing season.
Phomopsis Cane and Leaf Spot

For many years, the Eastern grape industry
recognized a disease called dead-arm, which
was thought to be caused by the fungus
Phomopsis viticola. In 1976, researchers
demonstrated that the dead-arm disease was
actually two different diseases that often occur
simultaneously. Phomopsis cane and leaf spot
is the name for the cane-and-leaf-spotting
phase of what was once known as dead-arm.
Eutypa dieback is the name for the cankerand-shoot-dieback phase of what was also
once known as dead-arm. The name dead-arm
has been dropped. Growers should remember
that Phomopsis cane and leaf spot and Eutypa
dieback are distinctly different diseases and
their control recommendations vary greatly.
Disease incidence of Phomopsis cane and
leaf spot appears to be increasing in many
vineyards throughout the Midwest. Crop losses
up to 30% have been reported in some Ohio
vineyards in growing seasons with weather
conducive to disease development. The most
commonly observed symptoms are on shoots
Phomopsis cane and leaf spot is caused by

the fungus Phomopsis viticola. The fungus
overwinters in lesions or spots on one- to
three-year-old wood infected during previous
seasons. It requires cool weather and rainfall
for spore (conidia) release and infection.
Conidia are released from pycnidia (fungal
fruiting bodies) in early spring and are spread
by rain to developing shoots and leaves. Shoot
and leaf infection (Figures 43 and 44) is most
likely during the period from bud break until
shoots are 6 to 8 inches in length. Lesions
appear three to four weeks after infection.
The critical period for fruit and rachis
infection (Figure 45) is also early in the season.
The rachis and young fruits are susceptible
to infection throughout the growing season;
however, most infections appear to occur
early in the growing season. The fungus does
not appear to be active during warm summer
months, and most or all of its primary
inoculum is probably released and expended
early in the growing season. Thus, the critical
period to provide fungicide protection for fruit
and rachis infection is probably from when
the clusters are rst exposed until two to four
weeks after bloom.
The tiny green fruits that are infected during
this critical period may appear to remain
69
FIGURE 42. Phomopsis cane and leaf spot disease cycle. Used with permission of the New York State
Sheet No. 6.
normal. The fungus remains inactive in these

fruits as a latent infection. Not until the fruit
starts to ripen near harvest does the fungus
become active and cause the fruit to rot.
Therefore, fruit rot that appears at harvest
is probably due to infections that occurred
during or shortly after bloom.
Fruit rot rst appears close to harvest as a
light-brown color. Black, spore-producing
structures of the fungus (pycnidia) then break
through the berry skin, and the berry soon
shrivels.
At this advanced stage, Phomopsis fruit rot
can be easily mistaken for black rot. Growers
should remember that the black rot fungus
does not infect berries late in the growing
season, and black rot symptoms develop long
before harvest. Berries become resistant to
black rot infection by three to four weeks
after bloom. Fruit rot symptoms caused by
Phomopsis generally do not appear until
harvest. Although the fungus does not appear
70
FIGURE 43. Phomopsis cane and leaf spot

symptoms on internodes and rachis.
FIGURE 44. Phomopsis symptoms on young

grape leaf (A) and old grape leaf (B).
to be active during the warm summer months,

it can become active during cool, wet weather
later in the growing season.
Downy Mildew
Downy mildew is a major disease of grapes
throughout the eastern United States. The
FIGURE 45. Phomopsis rachis infection (A) and

fruit rot (B) on grape.
fungus causes direct yield losses by rotting

inorescences, clusters (Figure 46), and shoots.
Indirect losses can result from premature
defoliation. Premature defoliation is a serious
problem, because it predisposes the vine to
winter injury. It may take a vineyard several
years to fully recover after severe winter injury.
In general, vinifera (Vitis vinifera) cultivars are
71
much more susceptible than American types;

the French hybrids are somewhat intermediate
in susceptibility (see Table 14 on page 84-85).
FIGURE 46. Downy mildew fruit infection.
Downy mildew is caused by the fungus

Plasmopora viticola. The causal fungus
overwinters as tiny oospores in leaf debris on
the vineyard oor. In the spring, the oospores
serve as primary inoculum and germinate
in water to form sporangia. The sporangia
liberate small swimming spores, called
zoospores, when free water is present. The
zoospores are disseminated by rain splash to
grape tissues where they swim to the vicinity
of stomata and encyst. Stomata are tiny pores
through which the plants exchange air, and
transpiration occurs. Stomata are concentrated on the underside of the leaves. Encysted
zoospores infect grape tissues by forming germ
tubes that enter stomata and from there invade
inner tissues of the plant. The fungus can
FIGURE 47. Downy mildew disease cycle. Used with permission of the New York State Agricultural
Experiment Station, Cornell University. Figure taken from Grape IPM Disease Identication Sheet No. 5.
72
infect all green, actively growing parts of the

vine that have mature, functional stomata.
Infected leaves develop yellowish-green lesions
on their upper surfaces (Figure 48) seven to
12 days after infection. As lesions expand,
the affected areas turn brown, necrotic, or
mottled (Figure 49). At night, during periods
of high humidity and temperatures above
55F, the fungus sporulates by forming
sporangia on numerous branched structures,
called sporangiophores, that protrude out
through stomata on the undersides of the leaf.
Sporulation only occurs on plant surfaces
that contain stomata, such as the underside of
leaves, and it gives the surface of the lesion its
white, downy appearance, which is characteristic of the disease (Figure 50). The sporulation
(downy growth) generally occurs directly
below the yellowish-green spots that develop
on the upper surface of the leaf.
FIGURE 49. Downy mildew-affected areas turn

brown, necrotic, or mottled with age later in the
growing season.
Sporangia are disseminated by wind or rain

splash. On susceptible tissue they liberate
zoospores into water lms formed by rain or
FIGURE 50. Downy mildew symptoms on lower

leaf surface. The patches of downy growth are
usually directly beneath the yellowish-green spots
observed on the upper leaf surface.
FIGURE 48. Downy mildew symptoms on upper
leaf surface.
73
dew. These zoospores initiate secondary infections, which can occur in as little as two hours
of wetting at 77F or up to nine hours at 43F.
Infections are usually visible as lesions in about
seven to 12 days, depending on temperature
and humidity. The number of secondary
infection cycles depends on the frequency of
suitable wetting periods that occur during the
growing season and the presence of susceptible
grape tissue. In general, Catawba, Chancellor,
Chardonnay, Delaware, Fredonia, Ives, Niagara,
White Riesling, and Rougeon are highly
susceptible cultivars (see Table 14 on page
84-85).
Severely infected leaves may curl and drop
from the vine. The disease attacks older leaves
in late summer and autumn, producing a
mosaic of small, angular, yellow to red-brown
spots on the upper leaf surface. Lesions
commonly form along leaf veins, and the
fungus sporulates in these areas on the lower
leaf surface. When young shoots, petioles,
tendrils, or cluster stems are infected, they
frequently become distorted, thickened, or
curled. White, downy sporulation can be
abundant on the surface of infected areas.
Eventually, severely infected portions of the
vine wither and die.
Infected green fruit turn light brown to purple,
shrivel, and detach easily. White, cottony
sporulation is abundant on these berries
during humid weather. The fruits remain
susceptible as long as stomata on their surfaces
are functional. After that, new infections and
sporulation do not develop.
Recent research indicates that fruit become
resistant to infection by downy mildew about
three to four weeks after bloom. Although fruit
become resistant shortly after bloom, cluster
stems (rachis) and leaves remain susceptible
throughout the growing season. Later in the
season, some berries that were infected earlier
in the growing season may turn dull green to
reddish purple, remain rm, and are easily
distinguished from non-infected ripening
berries in a cluster. Infected berries are easily
74
detached from their pedicels leaving a dry stem

scar.
Throughout most of the Midwest, downy
mildew symptoms often do not appear until
after bloom. This is why we often refer to it as
a late-season disease. The role of oospores in
causing early season primary infections is not
clearly dened. Although we emphasize the
use of fungicides for downy mildew control
after bloom, early season fungicide applications are very important. Especially on highly
susceptible cultivars, the early season fungicide
program should contain a fungicide effective
against downy mildew. As with black rot and
powdery mildew, the period from immediate
prebloom through three to four weeks after
bloom is critical for controlling fruit or cluster
infections by downy mildew.
Botrytis Bunch Rot

Botrytis bunch rot (gray mold) is caused by
the fungus Botrytis cinerea. The fungus causes
blight of leaves, shoots, and blossom clusters
and occurs throughout the viticultural world.
The fungus causing the disease grows and
reproduces on senescent or dead plant tissue.
Botrytis bunch rot is especially severe in grape
cultivars with tight, closely packed clusters of
fruit. Botrytis is also responsible for storage
losses of grapes picked for fresh market.
Symptoms
Botrytis infection of leaves begins as a dull,
green spot, commonly surrounding a vein,
which rapidly becomes a brown necrotic
lesion. The fungus may also cause a blossom
blight or a shoot blight, which can result in
signicant crop losses. However, the most
common phase of this disease is the infection
and rot of ripening berries (Figure 51).
Fruit rot can spread rapidly throughout the
cluster. Infected berries of white cultivars
often become brown and shriveled, and
those of purple cultivars develop a reddish
color. Under proper weather conditions, the
FIGURE 52. Close-up showing the Botrytis

fungus sporulating on infected berries.
FIGURE 51. Botrytis bunch rot of grape.
fungus produces a uffy, gray-brown growth

containing spores (Figure 52).
Botrytis Bunch Rot Disease Cycle

(Figure 53)
The fungus overwinters on debris in the
vineyard oor and on the vine. The fungus
produces small, dark, hard, resting structures called sclerotia. Sclerotia are resistant
to adverse weather conditions and usually
germinate in spring. Germinated sclerotia
produce conidia, which spread the disease.
Sporulation may also occur on debris left
on the vine during the previous growing
season, such as cluster stems remaining after
mechanical harvest or mummied fruit.
The fungus usually gains a foothold by

colonizing dead tissue prior to infection of
healthy tissue. Tissue injured by hail, wind,
birds, other diseases or insects is readily
colonized by Botrytis. Ripe berries that split
because of internal pressure or because of
early season infection by powdery mildew,
are especially susceptible to infection by
Botrytis. Botrytis conidia are usually present
in the vineyard throughout the growing
season. Moisture in the form of fog or dew
and temperatures of 59F to 77F are ideal for
conidia production and infection. Rainfall
is not required for disease development,
although periods of rainfall are highly
conducive to disease development.
75
FIGURE 53. Botrytis bunch rot disease cycle. Used with permission of the New York State Agricultural
Experiment Station, Cornell University. Figure taken from Grape IPM Disease Identication Sheet No. 3.
Eutypa Dieback
Eutypa dieback is caused by the fungus Eutypa
lata. Eutypa dieback is the name for the
canker-and-shoot-dieback phase of what was
once known as dead-arm. The name dead-arm
should be dropped.
Symptoms
The earliest symptom to develop is a canker
that generally forms around pruning wounds
in older wood of the main trunk (Figure
54). These cankers usually are difcult to
see because they are covered with bark. One
indication of a canker is a attened area on
the trunk. Removal of bark over the canker
reveals a sharply dened region of darkened
or discolored wood bordered by white, healthy
wood. Cankers may be up to three-feet long
and extend below the soil line (Figure 55).
76
FIGURE 54. Canker on Eutypa-infected vine.
When the trunk is cut in cross-section, the

canker appears as darkened or discolored
wood extending in a wedge shape to the center
of the trunk (Figure 56).
The most striking and obvious symptoms
of Eutypa dieback are the leaf-and-shoot
symptoms (Figure 57), which may not develop
for two to four years after the vine was rst
infected. These symptoms are most obvious
in spring, when healthy shoots are 12- to 24-
FIGURE 55. Eutypa canker extending the entire

length of the trunk.
FIGURE 57. Close up of Eutypa symptoms on

grape leaves (A); leaf symptoms on a Eutypainfected grape vine (B). Note that symptoms
may occur on some shoots, while others appear
normal.
FIGURE 56. Eutypa-infected trunk cut in cross

section.
inches long. Spring shoot growth on diseased

canes is weak and stunted above the cankered
area. Leaves are at rst smaller than normal,
cupped, distorted, and yellow. These leaf
and shoot symptoms may not be as obvious
later in the season (mid July). Leaf and shoot
symptoms are more pronounced each year
until the affected portion of the vine nally
dies.
77
FIGURE 58. Eutypa dieback disease cycle. Photo used with permission of the New York State
Sheet No. 1.
Eutypa Dieback Disease Cycle (Figure 58)

The fungus survives in infected trunks for long
periods, whether as part of the in-place vine or
as old, dead grape wood in the vineyard. The
fungus is generally present in older wood, such
as vine trunks, but generally not in younger
wood, such as one- or two-year-old prunings.
The fungus eventually produces reproductive structures (perithecia) on the surface
of infected wood. Spores (ascospores) are
produced in these structures and discharged
into the air. Ascospore discharge is initiated
by the presence of free water (rainfall or snow
melt). Most spores appear to be released
during winter or early spring; few are released
during the summer.
Unfortunately, most spores are released
at about the same time pruning is being
conducted. Air currents can carry the
ascospores long distances to fresh wounds on
78
the trunk. Pruning wounds are by far the most

important points of infection. The ascospores
germinate when they contact the newly cut
wood, and a new infection is initiated. Stunted
shoots and small, cupped leaves appear two to
four years after infection. After approximately
ve years, the fungus produces perithecia and
ascospores in the dead wood on cankers.
Control of Eutypa Dieback

The primary control method is removal
of infected trunks from the vineyard. The
vine must be cut off below the cankered or
discolored wood. If the canker extends below
the soil line, the entire vine must be removed.
If the canker does not go below the soil line,
the stump can be left and a new trunk formed.
The best time to identify and remove infected
vines is in early spring (May and June) when
leaf and shoot symptoms are most obvious.
In addition, large wounds are less susceptible
to infection at this time of year, and fewer

ascospores are present to cause reinfection. If
trunks cannot be removed in the spring, they
should be marked for easy identication and
removal later in the growing season.
Sanitation is critical. All wood (especially
trunks and stumps) from infected plants must
be removed from the vineyard and destroyed
(either buried or burned) as soon as possible.
An old infected stump or trunk lying on the
ground may continue to produce spores for
several years.
The double trunk system of training, where
each trunk is pruned to carry half the number
of buds, may help reduce crop loss caused by
Eutypa dieback. If a diseased trunk must be
removed, the remaining trunk can be pruned
to leave the full number of buds until a new
second trunk can be established.
FIGURE 59. Anthracnose symptoms on grape

cane.
Fungicide recommendations currently are not

available for control of this disease.
A slightly raised area may form around the

edge of the lesion. Infected areas may crack,
causing shoots to become brittle. Anthracnose
lesions on shoots may be confused with hail
injury; however, unlike hail damage, the edges
of the wounds caused by the anthracnose
fungus are raised and black. In addition, hail
damage generally appears on only one side
of the shoot, whereas anthracnose is more
generally distributed. Anthracnose on petioles
appears similar to that on the shoots.
Anthracnose
Anthracnose of grape was rst detected in the
United States in the mid 1800s. The disease
was probably introduced into this country by
grape plant material imported from Europe. It
quickly established in American vineyards and
became a signicant disease of grape in rainy,
humid, and warm regions of the United States.
Anthracnose reduces the quality and quantity
of fruit and weakens the vine. Once the disease
is established in a vineyard, it can be very
destructive.
Symptoms
All succulent parts of the plant, including fruit
stems, leaves, petioles, tendrils, young shoots,
and berries, can be attacked, but lesions on
shoots and berries are most common and
distinctive. Symptoms on young, succulent
shoots rst appear as numerous small, circular,
and reddish spots. Spots then enlarge, become
sunken, and produce lesions with gray centers
and round or angular edges (Figure 59).

Dark reddish-brown to violet-black margins
eventually surround the lesions. Lesions may
coalesce, causing a blighting or killing of the
shoot.
Leaf spots are often numerous and develop in a

similar manner to those on shoots. Eventually,
they become circular with gray centers and
brown to black margins with round or angular
edges. The necrotic center of the lesion often
drops out, creating a shot-hole appearance
(Figure 60). Young leaves are more susceptible
to infection than older leaves. When veins are
affected, especially on young leaves, the lesions
prevent normal development, resulting in
malformation or complete drying or burning
of the leaf. Lesions may cover the entire leaf
blade or appear mainly along the veins.
On berries, small, reddish circular spots
initially develop. The spots then enlarge to an
79

berry. Note that the lesion resembles a birds eye.

leaf.
may also form on infected canes and berries

left on the ground or in the trellis from the
previous year. The importance of ascospores
in disease development is not clearly understood.
average diameter of 1/4 inch and may become

slightly sunken. The centers of the spots turn
whitish gray and are surrounded by narrow
reddish-brown to black margins (Figure 61).
This typical symptom on fruit often resembles
a birds eye, and the disease has been called
birds eye rot. Acervuli (fungal fruiting structures) eventually develop in the lesions. A
pinkish mass of fungal spores (conidia) exudes
from these structures during prolonged wet
weather.
Conidia are by far the most important source

of primary inoculum in the spring. In early
spring, when free moisture from rain or
dew is present, conidia germinate and infect
succulent tissue. Conidia germinate and infect
at temperatures ranging from 36F to 90F.
The higher the temperature, the faster disease
develops. Disease symptoms start to develop
approximately 13 days after infection occurs
at 36F and at four days after infection occurs
at 90F. Heavy rainfall and warm temperatures
are ideal for disease development and spread.
Causal Organism
Anthracnose of grape is caused by the fungus
Elsinoe ampelina. The fungus overwinters
in the vineyards as sclerotia (fungal survival
structures) on infected shoots. In the spring,
sclerotia on infected shoots germinate to
produce abundant spores (conidia) when they
are wet for 24 hours or more and the temperature is above 36F. Conidia are spread by
splashing rain to new growing tissues and are
not carried by wind alone.
Another type of spore, called an ascospore, is
produced within sexual fruiting bodies and
80
Lesions may extend into the pulp and cause

the fruit to crack. Lesions on the rachis and
pedicels appear similar to those on shoots.
Clusters are susceptible to infection before
owering and until veraison.
Once the disease is established, asexual fruiting
bodies called acervuli form on diseased
areas. These acervuli produce conidia during
periods of wet weather. These conidia are the
secondary source of inoculum and are responsible for continued spread of the fungus and
the disease throughout the growing season.
Disease Management
1. Sanitation is very important. Prune out
and destroy (remove from the vineyard)
diseased plant parts during the dormant
season. This includes infected shoots,
cluster stems, and berries. This should
reduce the amount of primary inoculum
for the disease in the vineyard.
2. Eliminate wild grapes near the vineyard.
The disease can infect wild grapes, and
infected wild grapes have been observed
near diseased vineyards in Ohio. Wild
grapes provide an excellent place for the
disease to develop and serve as a reservoir
for the disease. It is probably impossible
to eradicate wild grapes from the woods,
but serious efforts should be made to at
least remove them from the fence rows and
as far away from the vineyard as possible.
Remember, the spores are spread over
relatively short distances by splashing rain
and should not be able to move over long
distances by wind into the vineyard.
3. Cultivars differ in their susceptibility. In
Ohio the disease has been observed on
Vidal and Reliance. Vinifera and French
Hybrid cultivars may be more susceptible
than American grapes, such as Concord and
Niagara.
4. Canopy management can aid in disease
control. Any practice that opens the
canopy to improve air circulation and
reduce drying time of susceptible tissue
is benecial for disease control. These
practices include selection of the proper
training system, shoot positioning, and leaf
removal.
5. Fungicide use. Where the disease is
established, especially in a commercial
vineyard, the use of fungicides is recommended. Fungicide recommendations for
anthracnose control consist of a dormant
application of Liquid Lime Sulfur in early
spring, followed by applications of foliar

fungicides during the growing season.
Crown Gall
Crown gall is caused by the bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The disease infects
more than 2,000 species of plants. Crown gall
of grape is a major problem in cold climate
regions. Wounds are necessary for infection to
occur. Observations suggest that freeze injury
wounds are highly conducive to infection. The
disease is particularly severe following winters
that result in freeze injury on cold-sensitive
cultivars, such as those of Vitis vinifera.
Crown gall is characterized by galls or
overgrowths that usually form at the base of
the trunk. Galls form as high as 3-feet or more
up the trunk (aerial galls). Galls generally do
not form on roots. The disease affects all grape
cultivars. Vines with galls at their crowns or
on their major roots grow poorly and have
reduced yields. Severe economic losses result
in vineyards where a high percentage of vines
become galled within a few years of planting.
Symptoms
The disease rst appears as small overgrowths
or galls on the trunk, particularly near the soil
line. Early in their development, the galls are
more or less spherical, white or esh-colored,
and soft. Because they originate in a wound,
the galls at rst cannot be distinguished from
callus. However, they usually develop more
rapidly than callus tissue. As galls age, they
become dark brown, knotty, and rough (Figure
62).
When galls are numerous on the lower trunks
or major roots, they disrupt the translocation
of water and nutrients, which leads to poor
growth, gradual dieback, and sometimes
death of the vine. In some cases, infected vines
appear stunted and as if they are suffering
from nutrient deciency.
81
Control of Crown Gall

Examine new plants before planting and
discard any that have galls. Wounding by
freeze injury appears to be important in the
development of crown gall. If winter injury
is controlled, crown gall may not be an
important problem. Prevent winter injury
to vines. Practices, such as hilling or burying
vines of cold-sensitive cultivars, is benecial.
Proper pruning practices and proper crop
loads for maximum vine vigor will result
in stronger plants that are less susceptible
to winter injury. Controlling other diseases,
such as downy and powdery mildew, is also
important in preventing winter injury and
crown gall.
FIGURE 62. Crown gall symptoms on grape

trunk.
Life Cycle
The causal organism, a bacterium, is soil borne
and persists for long periods in plant debris in
the soil. Fresh wounds are required to infect
and initiate gall formation. Wounds that
commonly serve as infection sites are those
made during pruning, machinery operations,
freezing injury, or any other practice that
injures the vine.
In addition to the primary galls, secondary
galls may also form around other wounds and
on other portions of the plant, even in the
absence of the bacterium. Crown gall bacteria
also survive systemically within grapevines and
probably are most commonly introduced into
the vineyard on or in planting material.
82
The double-trunk system of training, in which

each trunk is pruned to carry half the number
of buds, may help reduce crop loss caused
by crown gall. If a diseased trunk must be
removed, the remaining trunk can be pruned,
leaving the full number of buds until a second
trunk is established. Galls on arms or the
upper parts of the trunk can be removed by
pruning.
There are no current chemical or biological
control recommendations for crown gall on
grapes.
Use of Resistant Cultivars

for Grape Disease Management
In an integrated disease-management program
where emphasis is placed on reducing overall
fungicide use, it is essential that any available
disease resistance be identied and used. If
resistance is not available, we should at least
identify and avoid those cultivars that are
highly susceptible to important diseases.
A few grape cultivars have high levels of resistance to most diseases. Norton (Cynthiana) is
a cultivar that has great potential for organic
production in the southern portion of the
Midwest. It has good resistance to most
diseases, and in several commercial plantings,

growers rarely apply fungicides. It is hoped
that new cultivars with improved levels of
disease resistance will be introduced in the
near future.
Unfortunately, resistance to most of the major
diseases is not available in most commercially grown grape cultivars in the Midwest.
Thus, the disease-management program must
rely heavily on the use of cultural practices
and efcient use of approved fungicides
or biocontrol agents or products. Whereas
resistance is generally not available for most
diseases, some grape cultivars are known to be
much more susceptible to certain diseases than
others (Table 14). For example, the cultivar
Chancellor is highly susceptible to downy
mildew, whereas downy mildew is seldom a
serious problem on Concord and several other
cultivars.
Growers should consider disease susceptibility
before establishing the vineyard. Segregating
highly susceptible cultivars into blocks that
can be easily treated separately allows growers
to apply more fungicide or other control
agents when needed for highly susceptible
cultivars while reducing their use on less
susceptible cultivars. In addition, cultivars
differ greatly in their sensitivity to copper and
sulfur fungicides. When planting the vineyard,
it is important to isolate blocks of sensitive
cultivars from those that will be sprayed with
these materials.
Cultural Practices
for Disease Control in Grapes
The use of any practice that reduces or eliminates pathogen populations or creates an
environment within the planting that is less
conducive to disease development should be
used. Certain diseases, such as viruses, Eutypa
dieback, and crown gall, cannot be directly
controlled with pesticides at the present
time. Therefore, cultural practices are the
major means for their control. When fungicides or other control agents are required,
any practice that opens the plant canopy,
such as shoot thinning, leaf removal, berry
and cluster thinning, and pruning and shoot
positioning, can greatly increase the efcacy of
the fungicide program by allowing better spray
penetration and coverage. These practices also
have a direct effect on vine microclimate.
Vine Microclimate
Vine microclimate refers to the climate within
the leaf canopy of the vineyard. In relation
to disease management, the most important
elements of the vine microclimate are relative
humidity, ventilation, the temperature of
the air and of vine tissues, and the intensity
and quality of light. In general, factors that
increase relative humidity also increase fungal
diseases. Factors that increase ventilation
(air movement) of the vine canopy generally
reduce disease incidence and severity by
lowering the humidity, shortening periods
of leaf and fruit wetness, and aiding spray
penetration and coverage. Cultural practices
should be carefully considered and implemented into the disease management program
whenever possible. Here are some cultural
practices to consider.
Use Virus-Indexed Planting Stock

Always start the planting with healthy virusindexed nursery stock from a reputable
nursery. The importance of establishing
plantings with virus-indexed nursery stock
cannot be overemphasized, since the selection
of planting stock and planting site are the
only actions a grower can take to prevent or
delay the introduction of most virus diseases.
Plants obtained from an unknown source or a
neighbor may be contaminated with a number
of major diseases that reputable nurseries work
hard to avoid.
83
Table 14. Relative Disease Susceptibility and Sulfur and Copper Sensitivity Among Grape
Cultivars.
Susceptible
or Sensitive to
Cultivar
BR
DM
PM
Bot
Phom
Eu
CG
ALS
S1
C2
Aurore
+++
++
++
+++
+++
++
+++
No
++
Baco noir
+++
++
++
++
+++
++
No
Cabernet Franc
+++
+++
+++
+++
No
Cabernet Sauvignon
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
No
Candice
+++
++
++
++
++
Cascade
++
++
++
No
Catawba
+++
+++
++
+++
No
++
Cayuga White
++
++
++
No
Chambourcin
+++
++
++
++
Yes
Chancellor
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
Yes
+++
Chardonel
++
++
++
++
++
++
No
Chardonnay
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
++
No
Chelois
+++
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
No
Concord
+++
++
+++
+++
Yes
++
Yes
Cynthiana/Norton
DeChaunac
++
++
+++
+++
++
+++
Yes
Delaware
++
+++3
++
+++
No
Dutchess
+++
++
++
++
++
No
++
++
+++
++
++
No
++
+++
++
+++
++
+++
++
++
No
Elvira
Einset Seedless
Fredonia
Frontenac
Gewurztraminer
Himrod
Ives
Jupiter
LaCrosse
++
++
No
+++
+++
+++
+++
No
++
++
No
+++
++
Yes
++
+++
+++
++
++
+++
++
Leon Millot
++
+++
Yes
Limberger
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
No
++
++
+++
Yes
+++
+++
Marchal Foch
Marquis
Mars
Melody
Merlot
84
++
+++
+++
++
No
++
+++
+++
++
+++
+++
No
++
Moores Diamond
+++
+++
++
++
No
Muscat Ottonel
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
+++
No
Table 14 (Continued). Relative Disease Susceptibility and Sulfur and Copper Sensitivity Among
Grape Cultivars.
Susceptible
or Sensitive to
Cultivar
BR
DM
PM
Bot
Phom
Eu
CG
ALS
S1
C2
Niagara
+++
+++
++
+++
++
No
Pinot gris
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
+++
No
Pinot Meunier
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
No
Pinot blanc
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
No
Pinot noir
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
No
Reliance
+++
+++
++
++
No
Riesling
+++
+++
+++
+++
++
++
+++
No
Rosette
++
++
+++
++
++
++
++
No
+++
Rougeon
++
+++
+++
++
+++
++
+++
Yes
+++
++
++
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
No
Seyval
++
++
+++
+++
++
++
++
No
Steuben
++
++
No
Saint Croix
Sauvignon blanc
++
++
Vanessa
+++
++
++
Ventura
Traminette
++
++
++
+++
No
Vidal blanc
++
+++
++
No
Vignoles
++
+++
+++
++
++
++
++
No
Villard noir
+++
Key to susceptibility or sensitivity: BR = black rot; DM = downy mildew; PM = powdery mildew; Bot = Botrytis;
Phom = Phomopsis; Eu = Eutypa; CG = crown gall; ALS = angular leaf scorch; S = sulfur; C = copper.
Key to ratings: + = slightly susceptible or sensitive; ++ = moderately susceptible or sensitive; +++ = highly
susceptible or sensitive; No = not sensitive; Yes = sensitive; ? = relative susceptibility or sensitivity not
established.
Slight to moderate sulfur injury may occur even on tolerant cultivars when temperatures are 85F or higher
during or immediately following the application.
Copper applied under cool, slow-drying conditions is likely to cause injury.
Berries not susceptible.
85
Select the Site Carefully

Site selection can have a direct effect on
vine microclimate. A site that provides for
maximum air drainage, which promotes faster
drying of foliage, can substantially reduce the
risk of black rot and downy mildew. In the
northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes
receive less light than south-facing slopes.
Therefore, vineyards on north-facing slopes
may dry more slowly and be at a higher risk
for disease development.
Avoid planting the vineyard adjacent to woods
that will prevent sunlight from reaching the
vines during any part of the day. Woods act as a
windbreak that may be benecial in preventing
shoot breakage in high winds, but woods may
also reduce air movement (ventilation) in the
vineyard which results in prolonged wetting
periods. Close proximity to woods can also
increase the risk of introducing certain diseases
and insect pests into the vineyard.
Planting rows in a north-south row orientation should be the growers rst choice for
maximum light penetration. However, rows
planted in the direction of prevailing winds
will promote better air movement, which
results in faster drying of foliage and fruit.
Rows should never be planted parallel to a
steep slope where erosion could be more of a
problem than pests.
Good soil drainage is also extremely
important. Avoid sites that are consistently wet
during the growing season. These soils may
have an impervious subsoil or other drainage
problems. Such sites will usually result in
unsatisfactory vine growth and yields, in
addition to providing a humid microclimate
that is conducive to disease development.
In some situations poor drainage can be
corrected by tiling prior to planting.
If nematodes have been a problem in
previous crops or nematodes are suspected
to be a problem on the site, a soil analysis to
determine the presence of harmful nematodes
86
should be conducted. Nematodes are most

likely to be a problem on lighter (sandy) soils.
Nematode sampling kits and instructions for
taking samples can be obtained through your
county Extension ofce.
Avoid Excessive Fertilization

Fertility should be based on soil and foliar
analysis. The use of excessive fertilizer,
especially nitrogen, should be avoided. Sufcient fertility is essential to produce a crop, but
excessive nitrogen can result in dense foliage
that increases drying time in the plant canopy.
Control Weeds in
and Around the Planting
Good weed control within and between the
rows is essential. From a disease control standpoint, weeds in the planting prevent air circulation and result in the fruit and foliage staying
wet for longer periods. For this reason, most
diseases caused by fungi are generally more
serious in plantings with poor weed control
than in those with good weed control.
Manage the Canopy

Any cultural practice that alters vegetative
growth and canopy density has an effect on
vine microclimate. Most cultural practices
are chosen primarily to enhance yield or fruit
quality rather than to inuence the microclimate. However, practices, such as shoot
thinning, pruning, and positioning, have a
direct impact on vine microclimate. Increasing
cluster thinning and decreasing pruning
stimulates vegetative growth and hence
reduces light exposure and ventilation within
the canopy.
Shoot thinning, leaf removal, and summer
pruning are frequently done specically
to reduce canopy density, so as to increase
fruit exposure to light, improve ventilation,
and aid spray coverage. Leaf removal in the
fruiting zone of the canopy is important for

optimal control of Botrytis bunch rot. This
is a common practice in California vineyards
and has been shown to be effective in Midwest
vineyards as well. Shoot positioning is usually
done to ensure canopy separation of divided
canopies or to enhance light exposure of the
renewal zone of the vine; it also decreases
vegetative growth and canopy density and
increases light exposure of fruit.
Avoid Winter Injury

Wounding by freeze injury is important in the
development of crown gall. If winter injury
is reduced, crown gall may not become an
important problem. Practices such as hilling
or burying vines of cold-sensitive cultivars
are benecial. Proper pruning practices and
proper crop loads for maximum vine vigor
will result in stronger plants that are less
susceptible to winter injury. Controlling other
diseases, such as downy and powdery mildew,
is also important in preventing winter injury
and crown gall.
Practice Sanitation (Removal

of Overwintering Inoculum)
Vineyard sanitation is an extremely important
part of the disease-management program.
Most pathogens overwinter (survive from
one season to the next) in old diseased plant
material, such as mummied fruit, leaves, and
infected canes or trunks, within the vineyard.
Removal of old, infected wood, tendrils, and
clusters with mummied berries from the
vines and wires greatly reduces overwintering
inoculum of several diseases.
Wild grapes in nearby woods and fence
rows also are sources of disease inoculum
and insects. Removal of these wild hosts
is benecial to the disease-management
program. This especially applies to abandoned
vineyards adjacent to managed sites with
respect to contamination from powdery and
downy mildews.
Using Fungicides
for Controlling Grape Diseases
Fungicides are an important part of the grape
disease-management program. Due to the lack
of disease resistance in most of our currently
grown cultivars combined with our environmental conditions (abundant moisture) that
are highly conducive to disease development,
successful commercial grape production in the
Midwest is highly unlikely without the use of
at least some fungicide.
While fungicides are important, growers need
to recognize that they are only one part of
the overall integrated disease-management
program. The effectiveness of the fungicide
program is greatly inuenced by use of the
various cultural practices described previously and the level of disease susceptibility of
the cultivars being grown. For example, given
a poorly pruned (dense canopy) vineyard of
Chancellor grapes (highly susceptible to downy
mildew) planted on a poor site (little air circulation) and with poor weed control, the chance
of any reasonable fungicide program providing
an acceptable level of downy mildew control is
highly unlikely.
To use any fungicide effectively, consider the
following points:
Identify the Disease Correctly

If you do not know what disease or diseases
are present in the vineyard, you cannot choose
the most effective fungicide or fungicides for
their control. Correct disease identication is
essential for selecting the proper fungicide or
fungicide combinations to use in the vineyard.
Select the Proper Fungicide

Fungicides differ greatly in their spectrum
of activity (which fungi they can control).
Selection of the wrong fungicide for use on a
specic disease can result in nancial loss and
no control. For example, if a grower misiden87
tied downy mildew for powdery mildew and

sprayed Nova or Bayleton to control it, neither
of these fungicides would have any effect
on the downy mildew, although they would
provide excellent control of powdery mildew.
sulfur or copper to some extent for disease

control. Sulfur, lime-sulfur, and copper are
fungicides. Growers who choose not to use
fungicides must rely completely on cultural
practices and disease resistance for disease
control.
Time the Application Properly

For most diseases it takes at least a week from
the time the fungus enters the plant until the
symptoms appear. In the case of Phomopsis
fruit rot, the fungus enters the fruit during
bloom, and symptoms do not appear until
the fruit begins to ripen (harvest). Depending
upon the weather, it may take two weeks for
black rot symptoms to appear. Once symptoms
appear, it is too late to control the disease;
therefore, proper timing of the application is
critical. The fungus must be controlled before
or shortly after it enters the plant.
Cover All Susceptible Plant Parts

Thoroughly
In a protectant program, fungicides are used to

form a protective barrier on the plant surface.
This chemical barrier prevents the fungus from
entering the plant. It works much like paint on
a piece of wood to keep out water. Protectant
fungicides are not systemic and cannot move
into plant tissues. Once the fungus penetrates
into the plant, protectant fungicides will not
control it. As the protective barrier breaks
down or new foliage is produced, additional
applications are required to maintain the
protective barrier.
If the fungicide is not on or in susceptible

plant parts, it cannot control the fungus.
Cultural practices that open the plant canopy
greatly improve fungicide coverage. Proper
calibration and use of the sprayer is also
critical to good coverage.
Protectant fungicide programs have been and

still are very effective; however, they generally
result in a fairly intensive use of fungicides.
Protectant fungicides are usually applied on
a 7- to 10-day schedule early in the growing
season and on a 10- to 14-day schedule later in
the season. Obviously, maintaining a protective
barrier on the plant surface throughout the
growing season requires many applications.
Fungicide Use Strategies

for Grapes
Use a Post-Infection
or Curative Fungicide
Unfortunately, there are not many options to

choose from when one considers our current
fungicide-use strategies. The current options
are:
Do Not Use Fungicides

This is always an option, but it is not recommended for commercial plantings. This
option should not be confused with organic
production. Grape growers in organic
production systems will most probably use
88
Use a Protectant Fungicide
The development and introduction of new

systemic fungicides allows the use of a postinfection or curative fungicide-use strategy.
In a post-infection program, fungicides are
applied only after infection periods occur.
The systemic properties of the fungicide allow
it to move into plant tissues where it stops
further development of the fungus after it has
penetrated the plant. In the post-infection
program, the fungicide is applied after the
initiation of an infection period, but before
symptoms develop. Thus, the fungicide must
be applied within three to four days (72 to
96 hours) after the initiation of an infection

period in order to be effective.
The sterol-inhibiting (SI) fungicides (Bayleton
and Nova) have excellent post-infection
activity against black rot and powdery mildew.
Ridomil and Aliette have excellent postinfection activity against downy mildew. In
dry growing seasons, with few or no infection
periods, a post-infection program should
result in reduced fungicide use.
There are several important points to
remember about the post-infection program.
In order to use a post-infection program, you
must:
Monitor the environment to determine
when infection periods occur. If growers do
not have the capability to accurately monitor
the environment, they should not use a postinfection program.
Know what an infection period is for a
specic disease. This requires a great deal
of knowledge about the biology of the
pathogen. At present, we have this information for black rot (Table 13 on page 64).
There are also predictive capabilities for
powdery mildew and downy mildew, and
Botrytis bunch rot. Predictive programs are
currently being developed and evaluated for
these diseases.
Timing is critical. Post-infection applications must be made as soon as possible, but
no later than three to four days (72 to 96
hours) after the initiation of an infection
period and before symptom development. In
most situations, once symptoms develop, the
damage is done.
If these criteria cannot be met, growers should
use a protectant fungicide spray program.
Fungicides for Controlling

Specic Grape Diseases
Specic fungicide recommendations cannot be
made in this publication because of constantly
changing regulations and recommendations

regarding their agricultural use. For specic
fungicide recommendations, consult your local
Extension service. Most Midwestern states
have a small fruit and grape spray guide that is
revised annually. General information about
fungicides that were available at the time this
bulletin was published is presented here.
Fungicides for Controlling Black Rot

Protectants
Mancozeb, Ferbam, and Ziram are all highly
effective against black rot (Table 15 on page
96). Because these fungicides are strictly
protectants, they must be applied before the
fungus infects or enters the plant. They protect
fruit and foliage by preventing spore germination. They will not arrest lesion development after infection has occurred.
Mancozeb provides an excellent foundation
for a protectant spray program for grapes in
the Midwest. It is a good protectant fungicide
that will provide good to excellent control
of downy mildew and Phomopsis cane and
leaf spot in addition to black rot. The major
problem with Mancozeb is a 66-day preharvest
interval (PHI) on grapes. It cannot be
applied within 66 days of harvest. Mancozeb
is available under many trade names and
formulations. Some common trade names
are Manzate 200, Penncozeb, Dithane M45,
Dithane F45, and Dithane Rainshield DF.
Some food processors may not accept
Mancozeb-treated fruit or may have special
restrictions on its use. This also applies to
Captan. Prior to initiating a control program
in the spring, growers need to know where
they will sell their fruit and if the buyer has any
restrictions on pesticide use.
Ziram is similar in efcacy to Ferbam. It is
highly effective against black rot and provides
moderate control of downy mildew and
Phomopsis cane and leaf spot.
89
Growers of processing grapes who cannot

apply Mancozeb past the initiation of bloom
could use Ziram during this period. Ziram can
be applied up to 21 days before harvest.
Ferbam will provide excellent control of black
rot but is not highly effective against the other
grape diseases. In addition, there are restrictions on the number of applications that can
be used. Always read and understand the label
before using or purchasing a pesticide.
Captan and copper fungicides (xed copper
or Bordeaux mixture) are only slightly to
moderately effective against black rot and will
probably not provide adequate control under
heavy disease pressure.
Sterol Inhibiting (SI) Fungicides

The locally systemic fungicides, Bayleton, Nova,
Elite, and Procure, are also highly effective
against black rot and will provide some postinfection (curative) activity of the disease if
applied at the higher labeled rates within 72
to 96 hours after the initiation of an infection
period. Post-infection or curative control must
be achieved prior to symptom development on
leaves or fruit. Once the symptoms are present,
these fungicides will not eradicate or burn out
the fungus. Bayleton, Nova, Elite, and Procure
also appear to provide good protectant activity
against black rot if applied at the lower labeled
rates in a protectant program. These fungicides
also have excellent activity against powdery
mildew as well.
Rubigan is another SI fungicide that is registered for use on grapes and will provide
moderate control of black rot if applied in a
protectant program. This fungicide is in the
same general class of fungicides as Bayleton,
Nova, Elite, and Procure; however, it does not
provide adequate curative or post-infection
control of black rot. Nova, Elite, Procure, or
Bayleton are the preferred SI fungicides for
black rot control.
90
Strobilurin Fungicides
Abound, Sovran, Flint, and Pristine are locally
systemic fungicides that are all highly effective
for control of black rot. They do differ in their
efcacy against some of the other important
grape diseases.
Note: Flint or Pristine cannot be applied on
Concord grapes or phytotoxicity (damage)
could occur. Always read the fungicide label
carefully.
Fungicides for Powdery Mildew

Protectants
Sulfur is highly effective against powdery
mildew if used in a protectant program with
a minimum of seven to 14 days between
applications (see Table 15 on page 96). There
are many formulations of sulfur (wettable
powders, dusts, dry owables, and owables).
The owable formulations appear to be most
effective and result in much less applicator
exposure when preparing sprays.
Note: On sulfur-tolerant cultivars that are
susceptible to powdery mildew (Table 14),
sulfur will probably be a major component of
the fungicide program. On highly susceptible
cultivars, spray intervals shorter than 14 days
(7 to 10 days) will probably be required with
sulfur. Although sulfur is highly effective for
powdery mildew control, it has little or no
effect on the other grape diseases (Table 15).
It is important to remember that sulfur will
cause severe injury on some grape cultivars.
Sulfur should only be used on cultivars known
to be sulfur tolerant (Table 14).
Note: Chancellor, Concord, DeChaunac,
Foch, Norton, and Rougeon grapes are highly
sensitive to sulfur. Sulfur injury may occur
even on sulfur-tolerant cultivars when temperatures of 80 to 85F or higher are experienced
during or immediately after application.
Copper fungicides (xed coppers or Bordeaux

mixture) have been rated moderately effective
against powdery mildew; however, care
must be taken when using copper due to
the danger of foliage injury (phytotoxicity).
Grape cultivars differ in their sensitivity to
copper fungicides (Table 14). Under heavy
disease pressure, copper fungicides may not
provide adequate control. Copper is not the
preferred fungicide for powdery mildew
control. However, if copper is applied for
downy mildew control, it will provide some
protection against powdery mildew. On less
susceptible cultivars, such as Concord, copper
fungicides may provide satisfactory control.
Sterol Inhibiting (SI) Fungicides

Nova, Elite, Procure, and Rubigan are locally
systemic and highly effective for control of
powdery mildew. They will also provide good
to excellent control of black rot, but they will
not control downy mildew. Bayleton was
highly effective against powdery mildew when
it was rst introduced; however, due to development of fungicide-resistant strains of the
powdery mildew fungus, Bayleton is no longer
recommended for powdery mildew control.
Strobilurin Fungicides
Abound, Sovran, and Flint are locally
systemic, and all were good to excellent for
control of powdery mildew when they were
rst introduced. Fungicide resistance development in powdery mildew has been observed
in strobilurin fungicides. At present, it may be
necessary to combine the strobilurin fungicides with a fungicide of different chemistry
with activity against powdery mildew in order
to achieve acceptable control.
Pristine 38WG Fungicide is a combination of
pyraclostrobin (a strobilurin fungicide) and
Boscalid (Endura). The addition of Boscalid
(Endura) gives Pristine activity against strains
of the powdery mildew fungus with resistance
to the strobilurins (Abound, Sovran, and Flint).
Note: Flint or Pristine cannot be applied on

Concord grapes or phytotoxicity (damage) can
occur. Always read the fungicide label carefully.
Other Fungicides
For Powdery Mildew Control
Endura 70WG Fungicide is new fungicide
chemistry and is highly effective for control of
powdery mildew and provides good control
of Botrytis bunch rot. It is different chemistry
from the sterol-inhibiting and strobilurin
fungicides; therefore, it is an excellent material
to use in rotation with these materials in a
fungicide resistance management program.
Quintec 2.08SC is new fungicide chemistry
that is very effective for control of powdery
mildew, but it has no activity against the other
grape diseases. It is a protectant fungicide so
it must be applied before infection occurs. It
does not have curative activity. It is registered
for use at the rate of 3 to 4 uid ounces per
acre on a seven- to 14-day schedule. Because it
is new chemistry (not related to other fungicides), it will control strains of the powdery
mildew fungus that are resistant to the strobilurin fungicides (Abound, Sovran, Flint, and
Cabrio) and the sterol-inhibiting fungicides
(Nova, Elite, Procure, and Rubigan). Quintec
has a 12-hour re-entry interval and a 14-day
preharvest interval.
JMS Stylet-Oil is a highly rened petroleum
distillate that is registered for use on grapes
in the United States. It has provided excellent
powdery mildew control in fungicide tests in
Ohio and New York and is currently being
used rather extensively by California grape
growers for powdery mildew control. It is
registered for use at the rate of 1 to 2 gallons
oil per 100 gallons water (1% to 2% concentration). The label states on grapes: Make rst
application pre-bloom and continue sprays
every two to three weeks depending on level of
disease pressure. Use higher rates and shorter
spray interval when disease conditions are
severe.
91
Although this fungicide has not been used

on grapes extensively in the Midwest or
northeastern United States, it appears to have
good potential as an alternative fungicide for
powdery mildew control on grape.
Note: One potential problem with stylet oil is
that it removes the bloom or waxy coating
from the grape berry. This apparently has no
effect on quality of wine or juice grapes, but
it does affect the appearance of the berry and
probably should not be used for fresh-market
table grapes.
Note: DO NOT use CAPTAN or SULFUR
within two weeks after applying JMS STYLETOIL. Mixing Captan or Sulfur with oil could
result in severe damage to the vine. In addition,
repeated use of oil during the growing season
has been shown to be phytotoxic to vines.
Potassium Salts
Armicarb 100 (potassium bicarbonate) and
Nutrol (manopotassium phosphate) have been
reported to provide fair control of powdery
mildew on grape but provide no control of
the other grape diseases. It is assumed that
they provide control through limited eradication and antisporulant activity. They do not
provide protectant activity.
Fungicides for Phomopsis Cane

and Leaf Spot
At present, Mancozeb, Captan, or Ziram are
the fungicides recommended for control of
this disease (Table 15). They are ranked as
moderately to highly effective.
Fungicide test results indicate that the sterol
inhibitors are not effective and the strobilurins
only provide moderate control. Copper and
sulfur fungicides appear to be ineffective.
Note: Especially where Phomopsis is a
problem or a concern, Mancozeb, Captan, or
Ziram should be included in the early-season
fungicide program.
92
Fungicides for Downy Mildew

Protectant Fungicides
Mancozeb, Captan, and Copper fungicides
(xed coppers and Bordeaux mixture) are
highly effective for control of downy mildew
(Table 15). Ziram is moderately effective. All of
these fungicides are effective only when used
in a protectant spray program. They will not
provide post-infection or curative activity and
will not eradicate or burn out the fungus after
symptoms appear.
Of the protectant fungicides currently
available, Mancozeb is an excellent choice.
Mancozeb is highly effective against downy
mildew, black rot, and Phomopsis cane and
leaf spot. One problem with Mancozeb is that
it cannot be applied within 66 days of harvest.
Even with this restriction, Mancozeb is an
excellent protectant fungicide for early-season
disease control and can also be used on latermaturing cultivars for post-bloom disease
control (prior to 66 days of harvest).
Captan is also excellent for downy mildew
and Phomopsis cane and leaf spot but is weak
for controlling black rot. A good approach
to using Mancozeb and Captan for downy
mildew control is to use Mancozeb early in
the season then switch to Captan within the
66-day preharvest interval for Mancozeb.
Currently Captan does not have a preharvest
interval for grapes.
Note: Although Captan has no preharvest
interval on grapes, it does have a three-day
reentry restriction. The following information
is taken from the Captan label: Do not allow
persons to enter treated areas within four days
following application unless a long-sleeved
shirt and long pants or a coverall that covers all
parts of the body except the head, hands, and
feet, and chemically resistant gloves are worn.
Conspicuously post reentry information at site
of application. Remember, always read the
label.
Ziram is similar in efcacy to Ferbam. It

provides only moderate control of downy
mildew, and excellent control of black rot and
Phomopsis cane and leaf spot. Under heavy
disease pressure, Ziram may not provide
adequate control of downy mildew.
Locally Systemic Fungicides

Ridomil Gold MZ and Ridomil Gold/Copper
are by far the most efcacious fungicides
available for control of downy mildew. Ridomil
is locally systemic and has good post-infection
or curative activity. If used in post-infection
control programs, it should be applied as soon
as possible, but within two to three days after
the initiation of an infection period. Ridomil
should not be applied after symptom development (sporulating lesions). Use of Ridomil
in this manner (as an eradicant) will probably
lead to a rapid buildup of Ridomil-resistant
strains of the downy mildew fungus in your
vineyard. If resistance develops in the vineyard,
the use of Ridomil as a tool for downy mildew
control is lost.
Ridomil also has excellent protectant activity
against downy mildew. It should provide at
least two weeks of protection, and in some
tests in Ohio, it has provided up to three weeks
of protection.
As mentioned previously, Ridomil Gold has
a strong potential for fungicide resistance
development by the downy mildew fungus. For
this reason, the manufacturer (Syngenta) has
registered its use only as a Package Mix with
a protectant fungicide. The two formulations
available for use on grapes are Ridomil Gold
MZ (4% Ridomil and 64% Mancozeb) and
Ridomil Gold/Copper (5% Ridomil and 60%
copper hydroxide). The purpose of the package
mix (at least in theory) is to delay the development of strains of the downy mildew fungus
with resistance to Ridomil. Both formulations
are equally effective for controlling downy
mildew. The Ridomil Gold MZ formulation
should be used on copper sensitive cultivars.
Although Ridomil is very effective, the current

label use recommendations restrict the timing
of its use on grapes. Ridomil Gold MZ cannot
be applied within 66 days of harvest, and
Ridomil Gold/Copper cannot be applied
within 42 days of harvest. Based on these long
preharvest intervals, Ridomil will be of limited
use for late season downy mildew control in
the Midwest.
In seasons when downy mildew is a problem
and on highly susceptible cultivars, pre-bloom
and post-bloom applications of Ridomil
will aid greatly in disease control. However,
additional fungicide protection may be
required within the 66-day preharvest interval
on late-harvested, highly susceptible cultivars.
The alternative fungicides for use during
this period are Captan, copper fungicides,
phosphorus acid fungicides, or the strobilurin
fungicides Abound or Pristine.
Strobilurin fungicides are also locally
systemic, and some have good to excellent
activity against downy mildew. Whereas the
strobilurins (Abound, Sovran, Flint, and
Pristine) all have good to excellent activity
against black rot and powdery mildew, they
vary greatly in their efcacy against downy
mildew. Abound and Pristine have excellent
activity and are the most effective for downy
mildew control. Sovran is moderately effective
if used at the highest labeled rate, and Flint is
registered for suppression of downy mildew,
not control.
Phosphorous Acid
(Agri-Fos, ProPhyt, Phostrol)
Several products containing phosphorous acid
(PA, also called phosphite or phosphonate)
are sold as nutritional supplements and plant
conditioners. Several of these materials have
been registered in the United States as fungicides for control of downy mildew on grape.
In multiple New York trials, PA has provided
excellent control of downy mildew but has not
controlled any other grape disease.
93
Australian experience suggests that PA

provides most control on foliage when it is
applied within a few days after the start of an
infection period, providing only a few days
of additional residual (protective) activity.
Experience in New York suggests that spray
timing is less critical for control of downy
mildew on fruit, perhaps because this highly
mobile chemical (which is exempt from
residue tolerances) accumulates in these
organs. When applied in a seven- to 10-day
protectant program, they appear to provide
good to excellent control of downy mildew.
Copper fungicides are highly effective against
downy mildew and are moderately effective
against powdery mildew. Copper fungicides
are weak for controlling black rot. A major
concern with the use of copper fungicides is
the potential they have for phytotoxicity or
vine damage. Grape cultivars differ in their
sensitivity to copper fungicides (Table 14).
Note: Certain food processors, such as the
National Grape Cooperative, will not accept
grapes treated with Mancozeb past the initiation of bloom, and the use of Captan is not
permitted at any time. If growers cannot use
Mancozeb or Captan, alternatives for downy
mildew control include Ridomil Gold/Copper,
copper fungicides, a phosphorous acid
fungicide, or a strobilurin fungicide. Thus,
copper may be an important fungicide for
producers of processing grapes that have these
fungicide use restrictions.
Botrytis Bunch Rot

Vangard, Elevate, Endura, Scala, and Rovral
all have excellent activity against Botrytis
bunch rot on grapes and are the fungicides of
choice for control of Botrytis bunch rot. The
strobilurins are moderately effective against
Botrytis. Botrytis bunch rot is most commonly
a problem on tight-clustered French hybrids
and Vitis vinifera cultivars.
94
Proper timing and thorough spray coverage

are essential for good control. Make at least
two applications:
When the disease is rst observed or when
the rst berries reach 5Brix (5% soluble
solids/sugars), which ever comes rst.
Fourteen days after the rst application.
A third spray may be necessary on late
cultivars, e.g., White Riesling, if the interval
between the second spray and harvest is
greater than four weeks.
Field experience suggests that effectiveness
of the fungicide is reduced following a heavy
prolonged rainfall. If such conditions occur
after the last intended spray has been made,
an additional application may be necessary. If
only one application can be made, wait until
the crop average is 5Brix. Direct the spray
toward the fruit; use a minimum of 100 gal/
acre of water.
The importance of bloom sprays for control
of Botrytis bunch rot is not clear; however,
during seasons with wet conditions during
bloom, fungicide application during bloom
is probably benecial. Research in New York
has shown that the strobilurin fungicides have
moderate to good efcacy for Botrytis control.
The use of a strobilurin fungicide during the
bloom period may be benecial for Botrytis
control, especially on highly susceptible
cultivars. In addition, a strobilurin fungicide
such as Abound or Pristine during bloom will
provide excellent control of black rot, powdery
mildew, and downy mildew as well.
Note: Growers in Europe and Canada have
experienced loss of disease control due to the
development of fungicide resistance when
more than three sprays per year of Rovral were
applied over a period of three to ve years. It is,
therefore, strongly recommended that the use
of Rovral, Endura, Vangard, Scala, or Elevate
be limited to a maximum of two to three
applications per year to reduce the probability
of developing strains of Botrytis that are
resistant to this material. In addition, alter-
nating these fungicides during the growing

season or from season to season should be
helpful in fungicide-resistance management.
Note: Removal of leaves around clusters on
mid- or low-wire cordon-trained vines before
bunch closing has been shown to reduce losses
caused by Botrytis due to improved air circulation and improved spray penetration and
coverage.
Post-Harvest Applications
On cultivars highly susceptible to downy
mildew and powdery mildew, some post
harvest application may be required to protect
foliage and prevent premature defoliation. This
is especially true on early harvested cultivars in
southern regions of the Midwest.
Fungicide Resistance Management

The development of strains of the powdery
mildew fungus with resistance to the sterolinhibiting (SI) fungicides (Bayleton, Nova,
Procure, and Rubigan) or the strobilurin
fungicides (Abound, Sovran, and Flint) is
a serious threat to their continued use for
powdery mildew control on grapes. There is
good evidence that strains of the fungus with

resistance to Bayleton and reduced sensitivity to other SI fungicides have developed in
several areas.
Other grape diseases (fungi) and fungicides
that are at high risk for fungicide resistance
development include Botrytis bunch rot
(Vangard, Elevate, Rovral, Endura, and Scala)
and downy mildew (Ridomil Gold, Abound,
Sovran, and Pristine). In order to prevent or
delay the development of fungicide resistance,
these fungicides should not be used alone for
season-long control and should be used as
little as possible. This means another fungicide
with good activity against the disease should
be incorporated into the spray program at
some point during the growing season.
A good strategy for resistance management
is to use one or two spray blocks of different
fungicides. For example, a grower could
start the season with two applications of a
sterol-inhibiting fungicide, then switch to a
strobilurin fungicide for two sprays. Other
materials, such as a protectant fungicide, can
be used in an alternating program such as this.
The important thing is not to use one material
season-long. Check with your local Extension
service for the most current fungicide recommendations.
95
Table 15. Effectiveness of Fungicides for the Control of Grape Diseases.

Phomopsis
Cane and
Leaf Spot
Black
Rot
Downy
Mildew
Powdery
Mildew
Botrytis
Rot
Abound
+++
+++
+++
++
Bayleton
+++
+++
Captan
+++
+++
Elevate
+++
Elite
+++
+++
Endura
+++
++
Ferbam
+++
Fixed Copper and Lime
+++
++
Flint
+++
+++
++
JMS Stylet Oil
+++
Fungicide
Mancozeb
+++
+++
+++
Nova
+++
+++
Phosphorous acid
+++
Potassium salts
++
Pristine
++
+++
+++
+++
++
Procure
+++
+++
Quintec
+++
Ridomil Gold MZ
++
+++
Ridomil Gold Copper
+++
Rovral
+++
Rubigan
++
+++
Scala
+++
Sovran
+++
++
+++
++
Sulfur
+++
Vangard
Ziram
+++
++
+++
++
+++ = highly effective, ++ = moderately effective, + = slightly effective, 0 = not effective, ? = activity
unknown.
Note: These ratings are intended to provide the reader with an idea of relative effectiveness. They are
based on published data and/or eld observations from various locations. Ratings could change based
on varietal susceptibility and environmental conditions for disease development, or changes in fungal
sensitivity to specic fungicides.
96
Grape Insect Pests

Many of the same insect and mite species that
damaged grapes late in the 1800s continue
to cause economic injury today. Damage
is direct to the berry clusters or indirect to
vines, shoots, roots, or leaves. In this section,
the life histories of 10 of the most damaging
arthropod (insect and mite) pests of Ohio
grapes are described, including a new pest
the multicolored Asian lady beetle. Growers
should keep in mind there are more than 50
insect and mite pests of grapes, and some can
cause signicant injury. Many of the pests
are found only in certain regions; others only
occasionally reach damaging population levels.
Periodic vineyard inspections for grape pests
will reduce the risk of arthropod damage.
3/16-inch long (Figure 63). It is occasionally a

serious pest of grapes in the Midwest, feeding
on grape buds in the early spring.
For accurate identication of grape pests,

growers should obtain a copy of Insect and
Mite Pests of Grapes in Ohio, Bulletin 730, Ohio
State University Extension. This bulletin has
76 photos of the most common pests of Ohio
grapes and includes descriptions of pest life
cycles and damage. There is a charge for this
publication, which is available from Ohio State
University Extension, Media Distribution,
2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1044.
Current pesticide recommendations and spray
schedules in Ohio are available from Ohio
State University Extension.
FIGURE 63. Grape ea beetle adult.
Insects That Attack Grape Buds

Grape Flea Beetle
Altica chalybea, Order Coleoptera, Family
Chrysomelidae
Description and Life Cycle
The grape ea beetle is a dark metallic
greenish-blue or steel-blue beetle about
Female beetles lay eggs mainly under loose

bark of the grapevine. Larvae hatch and crawl
to the developing grape leaves, where they
feed. Adult beetles and larvae also feed on the
foliage, but the injury they cause usually is
negligible.
Newly hatched larvae of the grape ea beetle
are dark blackish purple and approximately
1/16-inch long. As they grow, their color
lightens and they reach a length of almost
1/3 inch (Figure 64). The head is black, and
there are six or eight shining black dots on
each of the other segments of the body, each
dot emitting a single brownish hair. The
under surface is paler than the dorsum. Its
legs, six in number, are black, and there is a
eshy, orange-colored proleg on the terminal
segment.
When they are fully developed, the larvae
drop to the soil, burrow one inch or less, and
pupate. They emerge later as adults. There may
be a partial or full second generation each year.
97
FIGURE 64. Flea beetle larva feeding on leaf.

Note damage.
FIGURE 65. Flea beetle damage to a swollen bud

early in the season.
Damage Symptoms
grape foliage, may help to control an outbreak

the following year.
Flea beetles cause two types of damage

feeding directly on the buds and feeding on
the foliage. The most serious damage occurs
in the spring as the adults emerge from overwintering sites and feed on slightly swollen
grape buds (Figure 65). They chew holes in the
sides and ends of the newly developing buds,
damaging primary and occasionally secondary
and tertiary buds.
If all three growing points are destroyed,
no grapes will be produced. If secondary or
tertiary buds are not destroyed, a partial crop
may develop, allowing subsequent clusters
to form. These beetles do not cause major
damage once the buds have surpassed a half
inch in length. Both larvae and adults feed
on the upper and lower leaf surfaces, causing
some damage, although this injury is usually of
little consequence.
Management/Control
The adult beetles eat the contents of the buds,
destroying foliage and fruit that normally
would develop. Fortunately, the beetle attacks
usually are conned to limited areas of the
vineyard. If growers are aware of these infestations, they can make an early-season insecticide application the following year to keep
populations in check. Another application of
spray in June, when larvae are feeding on the
98
Wood lots and wasteland areas near cultivated vineyards are a possible source of ea
beetles and should be cleaned up if possible.
This will help to reduce overwintering sites
for the beetles. Cultivating between rows may
contribute to control by exposing the delicate
pupae to desiccation and death. Cultivating
helps but does not completely eliminate
emerging beetles from under the trellis and
adjoining wood lots.
Grape bud damage caused by the grape ea
beetle is often concentrated in vineyard
borders near wooded areas. Early vineyard
monitoring and past history of beetles in the
vineyard will help determine the need for
an early-season application of insecticide.
Scouting of the vineyard for grape ea beetle
should begin in April and continue until bud
development is past the critical stage.
These shiny metallic beetles are easily spotted
on grape canes and buds on warm, sunny days
in the spring. Scouting for adult beetles should
be conducted along the vineyard perimeter, on
all sides, and near the center of the vineyard.
At least 25 vines should be surveyed at each of
the ve locations.
If bud damage averages 4% or more, one
should apply an insecticide to prevent further
bud damage. Timing is critical. For specic
insecticides used in the control of the grape

ea beetle, see annual recommendations.
Insects That Attack Grape Flower

Clusters and/or Berries
Grape Berry Moth
Endopiza viteana, Order Lepidoptera,
Family Tortricidae
This is the major insect pest of grape berries in
the eastern United States and Canada. When
vineyards are left unmanaged, up to 90%
of the fruit often is destroyed by the larvae
and accompanying diseases facilitated by the
damage inicted upon the fruit. Infestations
vary greatly from vineyard to vineyard, from
year to year, and within a vineyard. However,
vineyards bordering wooded areas are most
vulnerable to infestation.
The adult is a mottled brown-colored moth
with some bluish-gray on the inner halves of
the front wings (Figure 66). The larvae of this
small moth are active, greenish to purplish
caterpillars about 3/8-inch long when fully
grown. Grape berry moths overwinter in
cocoons within folded leaves in debris on the
vineyard oor and within adjacent woodlots.
After emerging in the spring, the adults mate
and the females lay eggs on or near owers or
berry clusters. Newly hatched larvae feed upon
the owers and young fruit clusters. Larvae
that hatch in June make up the rst generation
of grape berry moth and will mature from
mid- to late July or August.
After mating, females lay eggs on developing berries, and this second generation
matures in August or September. Larvae
of the second generation, after completing
their development, form cocoons in which
they overwinter. A third generation occurs
FIGURE 66. The adult grape berry moth is

mottled brown with bluish-gray on front wings.
commonly in the southern range of the pest

and occasionally in the northern tier of states.
Damage Symptoms
First-generation larvae web small ower buds
or berries together in early June and feed
externally on them or on tender stems. Larvae
that attack grape bunches during this time are
difcult to see.
Second generation larvae tunnel directly
into the green berries and feed internally.
Conspicuous reddish spots develop on the
berries at the point of larval entry. Berries
affected in this manner are known as stung
berries (Figure 67).
The second generation is more damaging than
the rst. A single larva may destroy two to six
berries in a cluster, depending on berry size,
and several larvae frequently inhabit a single
cluster. At veraison the damage is easiest to see
on white grapes.
99
FIGURE 67. Stung berries have a reddish color

where the larvae tunnel directly into the green
berries and feed internally. Stung berries are easy
to spot.
At harvest, severely infected bunches may

contain many larvae, and most of the berries
may be completely hollowed (Figure 68). In
many cases, bunches are covered with bunch
rot fungi and infested with Drosophila fruit
ies and often have an unhealthy appearance.
Management
An insecticide may be needed to prevent
damage in areas heavily infested by grape
berry moth. The number of spray applications
depends on the infestation level and the type
of productionwine, juice, or table grapes.
Table grapes that are inspected by consumers
in the market place require more attention
than grapes grown for juice.
Corrective measures are usually suggested if
more than 5% of the clusters are injured. To
determine the percentage of clusters damaged,
randomly inspect 100 clusters along the
perimeter of the vineyard and 100 clusters
toward the center of the vineyard. This method
will tell you if treatment of the entire vineyard
is necessary. Treatment of perimeter rows may
be all that is necessary to control this pest.
Control of second generation larvae in mid- to
late July is particularly important.
Cultural controls can be used to kill the
overwintering pupae in leaves. Leaves can be
gathered and destroyed in the fall, or leaves
100
FIGURE 68. Berries may be completely hollowed.
can be buried within the soil in the spring, two

weeks before bloom, by rototilling or cultivating.
An alternate method of control using
pheromone rope ties to disrupt the males of
the grape berry moth was approved by the
EPA in 1990. Following that sprayable pheromones were tried with some success. However,
the sprayable pheromone must be applied
several times in order to eliminate the threat.
Neither of these approaches is being practiced
at present.
Monitoring Male Moths

Pheromone traps are available to monitor the
emergence of male grape berry moths during
the season. This information may be useful for
optimal spray timing; sprays should target egg
hatch and young larval activity, which occurs
shortly after the rst moths are trapped.
A minimum of three traps for monitoring a
single block of approximately 10 to 15 acres
is recommended. Traps hung from the top
wire of the trellis should be placed around the
perimeter of the vineyard before bloom and
should be at least 100 feet apart. Sticky trap
bottoms should be checked weekly for moths,
and pheromone caps should be changed
monthly to obtain accurate ight information.
Every vineyard location is unique, and growers

should not rely entirely on pheromone trap
data especially from other vineyards for
timing insecticide sprays. Visual inspection of
ower and grape clusters should be conducted
throughout the season in order to be aware of
any stung berries.
applications. Growers using the grape berry

moth pheromone should continue to scout
their plantings in the same manner as previously mentioned. If thresholds are reached,
the decision to apply an insecticide should be
considered.
Rose Chafer
Control
Pheromone traps should be used in vineyards
with a history of grape berry moth problems.
Trapping of adult male moths indicates the
beginning of ight activity. Mating and egg
laying will occur over a two- to three-week
period following the rst detection of ight
activity. A protective cover spray may be
required during this period to prevent egg
laying and hatch. Early-season control of this
pest may prevent it from becoming well established within the vineyard and may eliminate
the need for control later in the season.
It should be noted that the second ight
activity period occurring in late July and
August is the most important. These adult
moths in late summer produce the eggs that
hatch into larvae capable of causing major
damage to the maturing fruit. One should
not depend solely upon a pheromone trap
for detecting this late-season threat. Scouting
should be implemented on a weekly basis after
bloom.
If berry cluster damage reaches 6% in grapes
used for processing or 3% in those grown
for fresh market, a protective cover spray
should be applied. Most growers are using a
pyrethroid insecticide with very good results
in this situation. Remember that pyrethroids
have a short residual, usually no longer than
seven to 10 days, and reapplication may be
necessary, especially if above-average precipitation occurs.
Studies indicate that vineyards in close
proximity to external berry-moth sources,
such as wood lots, may require an application
of insecticide in addition to the pheromone
Macrodactylus subspinosus, Order

Coleoptera, Family Scarabaeidae
Rose chafer adults attack grapes at bloom as
the chafers emerge from the soil. Not only do
they destroy the fruit at blossom, they also
frequently skeletonize the leaves, leaving only
the large veins intact. This insect is especially
abundant in areas of light, sandy soil where
beetles may appear suddenly as grapes begin to
bloom.
The ungainly beetles have a straw-colored
body, reddish-brown head and thorax with
a black undersurface. The adult rose chafer
is about 1/2 inch in length with long, spiny,
reddish-brown legs that gradually become
darker near the tip (Figure 69). As they age,
hairs are worn off the head and thorax with
normal activity, revealing the black color
below. Thus they become mottled in color
as they mate and move around in the ower
clusters, making it possible to distinguish
newly emerged adults from older specimens.
FIGURE 69. Adult rose chafer.

101
Females frequently lose more hairs, particularly on the thorax, in the mating process.
Eggs of the rose chafer are oval, white, shiny
in appearance, and about 1/20 inch long and
1/30 inch in width. Larvae are C-shaped white
grubs about 1/12 inch long and 1/8 inch wide
when fully grown. Mature larvae have three
distinct pairs of legs, a brown head capsule,
and a dark rectal sac visible through the integument. Larvae are found in sandy soil, feeding
on roots of grasses and other weeds, and can
be identied by a distinctive rastral pattern.
The pupae are light yellowish-brown in color
and have prominent legs. They measure about
1/2 inch in length.
Adult rose chafers become active in northeastern North America from late May to early
June. The adults appear all of a sudden. It
seems as though the entire population reaches
maturity practically at the same time, and
multitudes of beetles suddenly make their
appearance. Beetles feed and mate soon after
emerging from the soil. It is common to
see mating pairs in the newly formed grape
clusters.
and pupate in May. After two weeks in the

pupal stage, the adults emerge and crawl to the
soil surface to begin their cycle again. There is
only one generation per year.
Damage Symptoms
Despite its common name, the rose chafer
attacks the owers, buds, foliage, and fruit
of numerous plants including grape, rose,
strawberry, peach, cherry, apple, raspberry,
blackberry, clover, hollyhock, corn, bean, beet,
pepper, cabbage, peony, and many more plants,
trees, and shrubs.
Adults emerge about the time of grape bloom
and often cause extensive damage. Blossom
buds are often completely destroyed, resulting
in little or no grape production (Figure
70). Feeding activity on various plants may
continue for four to six weeks. Damage can be
especially heavy in sandy areas, the preferred
habitat for egg-laying.
Females deposit eggs singly a few centimeters

below the soil surface. Mating and egg laying
occur continuously for about two weeks, with
each female depositing 24 to 36 eggs. The
average life-span of the adult is about three
weeks.
Approximately two weeks after being
deposited, eggs hatch into tiny, white, Cshaped grubs. The larvae feed on the roots
of grasses, weeds, grains, and other plants
throughout the summer, becoming fully
developed by autumn. However, it is not
easy to collect the larvae of rose chafer. They
have been found occasionally on the roots of
orchard grass but never in proportion to the
numbers found in adjacent grapes.
Larvae move downward in the soil as soil
temperatures decline and form an earthen cell
in which they overwinter. In the spring, larvae
return to the soil surface, feed for a short time,
102
FIGURE 70. Blossom buds destroyed by the rose

chafer.
Monitoring
Scouting for this pest within your vineyard
should begin in late May and continue through
late June. Newly emerged adults may be found
feeding primarily on newly formed grape
clusters. If numbers reach two beetles per vine,
control methods should be considered.
Monitoring may also be conducted by using
the attractant developed for rose chafer. Traps
should be placed around the perimeter as

well as diagonally across the vineyard. The
traps used for this purpose are Japanese beetle
traps. For monitoring purposes, these traps
may be spaced every 100 feet and should be
checked daily for newly emerged chafers to let
you know when beetle activity has begun. In
addition, these traps remove beetles from the
population.
If you have areas where the rose chafer is
particularly troublesome, it would be a good
idea to sample pastures or other grassy areas
in the neighborhood to see if the grubs are in
the vicinity and might be controlled. In order
to distinguish the grubs of scarab beetles, the
raster pattern is used (Figure 71).
FIGURE 71. Use the rastral pattern to distinguish

grubs of scarab beetles. Rose chafer larvae can be
identied by a distinctive rastral pattern, shown
here.
Management/Control
Adult chafers begin emerging in late May
and early June at the time of grape bloom.
When only a few beetles are present, one may
handpick them from the plant and destroy
them. Where populations are large and pose a
threat to the grape crop, massive trapping may
be a safe alternative to applying insecticide.
An alternative method to chemical control
has been developed by the Department of
Entomology at Ohio State University for this
pest. A lure using a new powerful attractant
is placed in a Japanese beetle trap. Results
have been very positive. The desired effect of

mass trapping, which is to bring the beetle
population to below threshold level, is usually
achieved after a couple years of trapping.
An application of insecticide may be required
in combination with the trapping effort if
the population is extremely high. It is our
experience that it takes a couple years of
intensive trapping to reduce the population
within a heavily infested vineyard to the point
that chemicals are no longer needed to control
this pest.
In addition, it should be kept in mind that the
pupal stage is extremely vulnerable to disturbance; therefore, cultivating between rows may
be effective in destroying a good number of
chafers. However, it has been our experience
that growers with numbers of beetles sufcient
to inict economic damage will not be able to
control this pest by this cultural method alone.
Chemical control methods should be used
when beetle pressure exceeds the threshold.
To determine the number of beetles per vine,
one should randomly survey 25 vines at all
four corners of the vineyard and 25 in the
center of the vineyard. If this average is above
two beetles per vine, then treatment is recommended.
It should be noted that with this survey
method, one can determine if the chafer
infestation is present throughout the vineyard
or localized in a specic area. If the area is
localized, spot treatment of the infestation may
be all that is required. Treatment with an insecticide should be when the rst newly emerged
beetles are detected in adequate numbers to
pose concern. A second application may be
required if pressure is severe and rainfall is
frequent.
Protection of the young grape cluster is critical
and should be maintained throughout June.
For control of rose chafer, see the Commercial
Small Fruit and Grape Spray Guide for your
state. These recommendations are updated
annually.
103
Multicolored Asian Lady Beetle

Harmonia axyridis, Order Coleoptera,
Family Coccinellidae
Description of Life Cycle
Adults are oval, about 5/16 inches long and
1/4 inch wide (Figure 72). There are many
different color forms ranging from pale
yellow-orange to bright red-orange, with or
without black spots on the wing covers. The
head, antennae, and mouthparts are generally
straw colored but are sometimes tinged with
black. The pronotum is white with up to ve
black spots or with lateral spots usually joined
to form two curved lines, a W- or M-shaped
mark, or a solid trapezoid. The wing covers are
generally yellow-orange in unspotted beetles.
FIGURE 73. Lady beetle eggs hatch in three to

ve days.
FIGURE 74. Lady beetle larval stage.
FIGURE 72. Adult Multicolored Asian Lady

Beetle.
Eggs are bright yellow, laid in clusters of about

20 on the leaves and stems of host plants
(Figure 73). Larvae are elongate, somewhat
attened, and adorned with strong tubercles
and spines. The mature fourth-instar larva is
strikingly coloredthe overall color is mostly
black to dark bluish-gray, with a prominent
bright yellow-orange patch on the sides of
abdominal segments one to ve (Figure 74).
The life cycle from egg to adult requires about
a month or so, depending mostly on temper104
ature. Eggs hatch in three to ve days. The

larval stage lasts up to 14 days, during which
time they consume large numbers of aphids,
scale insects, or other soft-bodied insects.
Pupation lasts ve to six days (Figure 75),
followed by adult emergence.
The adults are rather long lived, with some
lady beetles living up to three years. At least
two generations, with a partial to complete
third generation, occur each growing season.
In the fall when the host plants, such as
soybeans, begin to dry and cooler weather
approaches, adult lady beetles begin to seek
overwintering sites. They are attracted to
vertical walls or cliffs where they seek shelter
in cracks and crevices. Once one lady beetle
FIGURE 75. Lady beetle pupation.
lands, many others may follow in their aggregating behavior.
Damage Symptoms
Lady beetles are normally considered as
benecial insects. However, at grape harvest,
the multicolored Asian lady beetle is now
considered a foe. At harvest there may be a
huge increase in the presence of lady beetles
in many vineyards in the Midwest. Entomologists in the region attribute this population
explosion to the sudden arrival of the Chinese
soybean aphid. As soybeans mature and dry in
late summer, the lady beetles disperse, at which
time mature grapes, especially those with
damaged clusters, become very attractive to the
lady beetles. Beetles remain on the grapes and
feed for several weeks, especially where ripe
fruit is left in the eld late in the season.
In many instances, 10 or more beetles may be
found per cluster on the damaged fruit (Figure
76). The lady beetles seldom cause primary
damage biting through the skin of the grapes
with their mandibles. However, they do take
advantage of breaks in the skins caused by
yellow jackets, hornets, birds, raccoons, as well
as diseases.
The amount of physical damage they cause
is minimal. However, the lady beetles are a
menace to grapes due to a substance they
produce when touched or squeezed, causing
FIGURE 76. Multicolored Asian lady beetles on

damaged fruit.
reex bleeding. When harvesting infested

grapes, the beetles inadvertently end up in the
crusher and thus contaminate the juice with
their special aroma.
The hemolymph or blood of the insect
is a protective mechanism to keep birds
and other predators away. They exude the
musty/basement-like odor from the joints
of their legs. The detrimental effect is that
this hemolymph taints the juice and is able
to persist all the way through the process of
fermentation into the wine.
Management
Since the multicolored Asian lady beetle is not
a native species, few diseases or parasites have
been associated with this beetle. However,
adult beetles have been found to vector fungal
diseases, and therefore their aggregating
nature may be favorable to the dissemination
of bunch rot and other diseases from one
grapevine to another.
Due to the adverse habits of this predatory
beetle, some form of cultural or chemical
control has become necessary. However,
controlling these beetles in grapes at harvest
poses a problem. Harvest restriction intervals
must be considered.
105
Insects That Attack

Grape Foliage
Japanese Beetle
Popillia japonica, Order Coleoptera,
Family Scarabaeidae
The adult beetles feed on the foliage, fruits,
and owers of more than 250 kinds of plants,
but grape is one of their preferred hosts.
The larvae are C-shaped grubs found in the
soil and are serious pests of grass roots. The
distinguishing character of the grubs of scarab
beetles is the rastral pattern (Figure 77). The
adult beetle has a shiny, metallic-green head
and thorax, and coppery-brown wing covers.
Tufts of white hairs are located along the sides
of the body (Figure 78). Adult beetles are
about 1/2-inch long.
FIGURE 78. Note tufts of white hair alongside

the body of the Japanese beetle.
days, and young grubs begin feeding on plant

roots. They overwinter as larvae below the soil
surface. Grubs continue to feed and grow until
cold weather drives them down, at which time
they tunnel down from 3 to 12 inches to make
overwintering cells. In the spring when the
soil begins to warm, grubs move toward the
surface where additional feeding may occur
before pupation in late spring. There is only
one generation per year.
Damage Symptoms
FIGURE 77. The rastral pattern is the

distinguishing characteristic of the Japanese
beetle. Note the V-shaped formation of hairs on
the raster of the grub.
Larvae feed principally on grass roots and

other organic matter. During late spring, larvae
move closer to the soil surface and complete
their development.
Adult beetles emerge from the ground in late
June through July and begin feeding upon
foliage. Mating occurs at this time, and eggs
are laid in the ground. Eggs hatch in about 10
106
The adults feed on the leaves of both wild

and cultivated grapevines (Figure 79). Beetles
prefer foliage exposed to direct sunlight and
often are seen clustered together, feeding
on tender vegetative parts. Vines with thin,
smooth leaves, such as French hybrids, are
preferred over those with thick, pubescent
leaves, such as Concord. Concord vineyards
rarely need special control sprays for Japanese
beetles. On the other hand, French hybrids and
other thin-leaved cultivars require frequent
inspection to prevent damage. Damaged leaves
have a laced appearance, and severely affected
leaves will drop prematurely.
Management
There is no economic threshold on the
number of beetles or amount of damage that
the grub stage of development. This microbial

insecticide cannot be relied upon to protect
grapes from Japanese beetles due to the
mobility of the beetles.
To control Japanese beetle and other fruit
insects, get a copy of the latest recommendations from your local Extension agent.
Grape Phylloxera
FIGURE 79. Adult Japanese beetles feeding on
grape leaves.
Daktulosphaira vitifoliae, Order

Homoptera, Family Phylloxeridae
requires treatment. If a susceptible cultivar

is being grown and growers previously have
experienced high populations of Japanese
beetles, an insecticide should be applied when
beetles emerge and thereafter as needed.
Monitoring
A Japanese beetle lure and trap is available for
monitoring this pest; however, these beetles
are easily detected while walking through the
vineyard. If skeletonizing of leaves becomes
evident, thin-leaved cultivars may need to be
protected with an application of insecticide.
The usual threshold for making a spray application is about 15% of the leaves consumed.
Control
Phylloxera is one of the most destructive grape

pests worldwide. This small aphid-like insect
has a complex life cycle that involves survival
on the roots throughout the year and on the
leaves during the growing season. The insect
forms galls on the leaves and roots of grapevines. The vine will die if its roots become
heavily infested with phylloxera (Figure 80).
If leaves become heavily infested, premature
defoliation and retarded shoot growth may
result.
The life cycle is different for the foliar and root
forms of this insect. The foliar form survives
the winter as an egg under the bark of the
grapevine. Asexual, wingless forms hatch in the
spring and crawl to tiny new leaves, where they
develop galls.
Insecticide is usually applied when feeding

is apparent on most vines and skeletonized
leaves are found. Spot treatment is adequate in
some cases. An insecticide with long residual
activity is needed when beetle populations are
high. Repeated applications may be needed to
control new beetles ying in from surrounding
areas.
A microbial insecticide is available to control
Japanese beetle grubs in turf, although it
is slower acting and more expensive than
conventional insecticides. This bacterial
insecticide causes milky spore disease within
FIGURE 80. Roots heavily infested with

phylloxera.
107
Young crawlers settle on the upper surface

of immature leaves, causing galls to form on
the under surface of the leaves (Figure 81).
The only opening in a gall is to the upper leaf
surface. Once mature, the female begins to lay
eggs within the gall. Nymphs hatching from
these eggs crawl to new leaves at shoot tips,
settle on the leaves, and form new galls.
In the case of the root form of grape
phylloxera, the insects overwinter as immature
forms on the roots (Figure 82). These forms
mature in the spring and produce eggs that
hatch into nymphs. The nymphs then start
new galls on the roots.
Winged forms develop in the spring, summer,

or fall and emerge from the soil to lay eggs on
stems. These eggs hatch and produce the true
sexual forms that produce the overwintering
eggs laid under the bark. Several generations
of each form of phylloxera may occur each
season. Although the two forms behave differently, both belong to the same species.
Management
In many areas of the world, susceptible
cultivars are grafted onto resistant rootstocks
to prevent damage by the root form. However,
the foliar form still may occur in such cases.
There are some natural predators that feed
upon the foliar form of grape phylloxera, but
none of these provide adequate control of the
pest. There is no known completely successful
chemical control for the root form of grape
phylloxera. Eastern growers usually do not
have a problem with the root form of the
phylloxera.
Monitoring
FIGURE 81. Phylloxera galls are found on the

undersurface of leaves.
Phylloxera is usually spotty in Ohio vineyards,

so identifying these areas within your vineyard
is important. Spot treatment may be all that is
required to control this pest.
To identify the location and extent of
phylloxera within a vineyard, one should
begin scouting for infested leaves after shoot
length has reached ve inches. Young galls will
be forming on the underside of the terminal
leaves; they are not easily noticed early in the
season without taking the time to inspect the
leaves closely.
FIGURE 82. Phylloxera overwinters as immature

forms on roots.
108
These galls should not be confused with

grape tumid galls, commonly called the grape
tomato gall. Tumid galls have a smooth outer
surface and take on a reddish tomato-like
appearance. The grape phylloxera gall is green
in appearance except early in the season, when
some cultivars tend to have more of a reddish
cast to them. The gall itself has a rough-
looking surface rather than the smooth surface

of the tumid gall. Tumid gall is present but not
a problem in Midwestern vineyards.
Control
Among the cultivated American grapes, many
tend to have resistance to the foliar form of the
grape phylloxera, whereas French hybrids and
vinifera grapes are usually very susceptible,
and control of phylloxera on these cultivars is
recommended. One cannot usually completely
eradicate phylloxera from a vineyard that is
already infested, but one can take measures to
keep the infestation at a tolerable level.
Control of the foliar form of phylloxera may be
achieved by applying insecticide at bloom and
again 10 to 14 days later. Late-season treatment
of grape phylloxera is not effective and seems
to be a waste of time and money. Early-season
control of this pest is critical. Currently we
are fortunate to have a pyrethroid insecticide
labeled for controlling the foliar form of grape
phylloxera. Some compounds are known to
be phytotoxic to certain cultivars. Consult the
latest control recommendations for EPAapproved insecticides.
FIGURE 83. The potato leafhopper feeds on

foliage.
threatened. The potato leafhopper feeds on

more than 200 plant species.
The potato leafhopper does not generally
overwinter in areas north of the Gulf States.
Each year large numbers of potato leafhoppers
are carried to northern areas by warm spring
air currents. Injury to grapes occurs when the
adults y into vineyards and feed on the leaves.
Toxins injected while feeding cause leaves
to cup and be misshapen (Figure 84). These
leaves are most often observed in the top of
the vine and are quite obvious, especially at the
end of the growing season.
Leafhoppers
Potato Leafhopper
Empoasca fabae, Order Homoptera,
Family Cicadellidae
The potato leafhopper (Figure 83), a sucking
insect, feeds sporadically on foliage of grapes,
strawberries, and many other plants. The adult
leafhopper is pale to bright green, wedgeshaped, and about 1/8 inch long. The adults
are very active, jumping, ying, or running
when disturbed. The immature forms, or
nymphs, are pale green and wingless. They run
forward, backward, or sideways rapidly when
FIGURE 84. Toxins injected during potato

leafhopper feeding causes leaves to cup and be
misshapen.
109
Grape Leafhoppers
Eastern Grape Leafhopper, Erythroneura
comes
Three-Banded Leafhopper, Erythroneura
tricincta
Virginia Creeper Leafhopper,
Erythroneura ziczac
Three of the most common leafhoppers
found on grapes in Ohio are the Eastern
Grape Leafhopper, Erythroneura comes [Say];
the Three-Banded Leafhopper, Erythroneura
tricincta Fitch; and the Virginia Creeper
Leafhopper, Erythroneura ziczac Walsh. These
three species vary in their coloration and
markings.
The adults of these leafhoppers are about 1/8inch long. Erythroneura comes is pale yellow
or white with yellow, red, and blue markings
(Figure 85). Overwintering adults are often
nearly all red. E. tricincta is brown and black
with touches of orange on the wings (Figure
86). E. ziczac is pale yellowish or white with a
zigzag stripe down each wing and cross veins
are distinctly red.
FIGURE 86. The Three-Banded Leafhopper is

brown and black with touches of orange on the
wings.
The biology of these three species is similar.

They overwinter as adults in sheltered places
such as the remains of old plants. During the
rst warm spring days the leafhoppers become
active, and they feed on the foliage of many
different plants until grape leaves appear.
Eggs are deposited under the leaf epidermis
and hatch in about two weeks. The immature
leafhoppers, or nymphs, are wingless (Figure
87); they remain and feed on the leaves where
they hatch. Nymphs molt ve times, then
transform into adults. There are two or three
generations of leafhoppers each season.
Damage Symptoms
Adults and nymphs feed on leaves by
puncturing the leaf cell and sucking out the
FIGURE 85. The Eastern Grape Leafhopper is

pale yellow or white with yellow, red, and blue
markings.
FIGURE 87. Immature leafhoppers, or nymphs,
are wingless.
110
contents. Each puncture causes a white blotch

to appear on the leaf (Figure 88). In heavy
infestations, the leaves turn yellow or brown,
and many fall off prematurely. Feeding by
these leafhoppers may reduce the photosynthetic capacity of the plant, and the quality and
quantity of the fruit may be affected.
with extensive agriculture, this practice has

less value as the adults will just move to an
adjacent crop or weedy area.
Certain cultivars are likely to suffer higher
leafhopper populations than others. Wine
and table grape varieties t this criteria.
Moreover, late-producing cultivars are more
likely to favor leafhoppers than early maturing
cultivars.
Monitoring
Vigorous vines are preferred by leafhoppers.
The heaviest populations are normally found
on end vines and on outside rows. This is
partly because these vines are usually the most
vigorous and therefore the most attractive.
It also is partly because of the border or
boundary effect. Vigorous vines fortunately
can tolerate the highest populations.
FIGURE 88. Each puncture from a leafhopper
causes a white blotch on the leaf (left). The leaf on
the right is normal.
Grapevines can tolerate populations of up to

15 insects per leaf with little or no economic
damage. However, heavy leafhopper feeding
may result in premature leaf drop, lowered
sugar content, increased acid, and poor coloration of the fruit.
The sticky excrement (honeydew) of the
leafhoppers affects the appearance and
supports the growth of sooty molds. Severely
infested vines may be unable to produce
sufcient wood the following year. Damage
to the vine can be serious if infestations are
allowed to persist unchecked for two or more
years.
Management
Weeds and trash in and around a vineyard
are a source of leafhoppers. If this material is
removed before spring, the adults lose their
protection and feeding sites, although in areas
Sampling for leafhoppers should be done at 10

days post-bloom, the third week in July, and
again the third to fourth week of August. This
is approximately the same time one should
be assessing grape berry moth risk, and both
surveys may be conducted simultaneously.
Ten Days Post-BloomOnly adult
leafhoppers are present at this time of the
year, so it is not necessary to count them.
If leafhoppers are present, you should see
stippling damage on the lower sucker leaves
and interior leaves of the grape canopy. By
shaking the vines, adult leafhoppers, if present,
will y around the vine. If stippling damage
is present throughout the vineyard, an application of insecticide is recommended to
prevent later damage from occurring.
Early-season damage may indicate that
populations may potentially build up to
damaging levels later in the season. In
vineyards that are at high risk for grape berry
moth, insecticide is usually applied at this
time, so scouting for leafhoppers at this time is
not necessary.
111
Third Week in JulyFrom mid- to late July,

rst generation nymphs are present and
feeding on the undersides of grape leaves. At
this time, the need to apply an insecticide for
leafhopper control should be determined on
a block-by-block basis. Sampling for grape
berry moth and leafhoppers can be done with
a single pass through the vineyard.
The rst step in evaluating leafhopper damage
is to look for stippling on leaves while you are
doing counts of grape berry moth damage.
Most damage will be found on the rst
seven leaves from the base of the shoot. If no
stippling or minimal stippling is visible on the
leaves, there is no point in counting how many
leafhoppers are present.
If moderate to heavy stippling is visible, then
it is necessary to do counts of leafhopper
nymphs to determine if damage levels warrant
treatment. The sampling procedure for
leafhoppers requires counting all leafhoppers
on the undersides of the third through seventh
leaves of one shoot on each of ve vines.
Sampling for leafhoppers should take only a
few minutes per vineyard.
Late AugustIn years when leafhoppers do
build up to damaging levels in vineyards,
it is most common for them to do so in
late August. Vineyards with greater than 10
leafhoppers per leaf should be treated at this
time. If there is very little visible stippling,
sampling will not be necessary. Vineyards that
had insecticides applied to them earlier in
the season will probably not need treatment
at this time. In Ohio we experience more of
a problem with leafhoppers on the islands in
Lake Erie and in vineyards near Lake Erie.
When high populations of leafhoppers are

encountered, an application of an insecticide
may be required. In order to obtain good
control of leafhoppers, complete coverage
of the undersides of the leaves is important.
Coverage of the fruit is of secondary importance.
For control of leafhoppers, see the Commercial
state. These recommendations are updated
annually.
Insects That Attack

the Roots and Crown
Grape Root Borer
Vitacea polistiformis, Order Lepidoptera,
Family Sesiidae
Larvae of the grape root borer attack the larger
roots and crown of grapevines (Figure 89).
They tunnel into these parts of the plant and
feed internally. The feeding and boring of the
larvae will weaken and may eventually kill the
vine.
Control
Leafhoppers have few natural enemies. Cold
and wet weather conditions in spring and fall
are damaging to leafhopper populations, as are
wet winters. Cultivation and cleanup of adjacent
weedy land in the fall will eliminate favorable
overwintering sites in and near a vineyard.
112
FIGURE 89. Grape root borer larvae attack the

larger roots and crown.
The adult is a clearwing moth, with brown

forewings and clear hind wings with brown
borders. The body mimics that of a wasp,
brown with yellow markings. Male moths
(Figure 90) measure about 5/8 of an inch in
length, while the female (Figure 91) is larger,
about 3/4-inch long.
FIGURE 92. Grape root borer.
Mature larvae move to places just under the

surface of the soil and pupate in earthen cells.
Adults start emerging in July and continue to
emerge through August (Figure 93).
Damage Symptoms
FIGURE 90. Grape root borer, male moth.
Larvae attack the roots and crown of grapevines. They tunnel into the roots or crown and
feed internally. Feeding and boring weaken
the grapevine and may eventually kill it.
Larvae also provide entry points for disease
organisms. Vines that are severely infested may
wilt under stress; sometimes only part of the
vine will show stress.
Management
FIGURE 91. Grape root borer, female moth.
The moths emerge from the soil during July

and August. Eggs are deposited individually
on grape leaves or weeds, or dropped on the
ground close to the trunk. The larvae hatch
and burrow into the soil, nd their way to the
roots and crown, and feed on them. Larvae
continue to feed within the vines root system
for about 22 months (Figure 92). A fully
developed larva is about 1/2-inch long and
white with a brown head capsule.
Weed control is important in managing

this insect pest. Weed control decreases the
number of oviposition sites and provides an
area under the trellis suitable for applying an
insecticide. Researchers in North Carolina
also have achieved good control of root borers
with polyethylene mulch; this technique can
be easily accomplished at planting. It works
well in the short term, but the mulch must
be maintained over the years in order to be
successful.
An alternative method of control is to use
pheromone rope ties to disrupt the ability of
the males to locate the female grape root borer.
This method has been successful in some cases.
113
FIGURE 93. Grape root borer adults emerge in July and August.
This method prevents the male root borers

from locating the female borers and mating,
thus reducing the number of fertile root borer
females in a treated vineyard.
Ties are dispensed manually at a rate of 100
ties per acre. They should be placed on the top
trellis wire every six or seven vines. Results
from these trials look promising, but bringing
the borer population down to acceptable levels
requires several years.
Another method of using the grape root borer
pheromone for control is being studied at
two southern Ohio vineyards. This method
uses the sex pheromone and 1C Pherocon
traps. Traps baited with the pheromone are
placed throughout the vineyard in an attempt
to reduce the number of males available for
mating. Three years of study has shown that
the male population is continuing to decline
where the pheromone is utilized.
114
External wood lots containing wild grapes are

a good source of grape root borers. Such areas
adjacent to vineyards should be considered as
possible reservoirs when trying to manage this
pest. Extermination of wild grapes from within
these areas should help to reduce root borer
pressure.
Chemical control of this pest is difcult due
to its cryptic nature. Other management
strategies are being evaluated at Ohio State
University. One of these utilized parasitic
nematodes that attack the larvae of the grape
root borer. This method of control is showing
promise. However, a little more research is
needed to conrm its utility.
Monitoring
Pheromone traps are the only means to easily
monitor this pest. Response by male root
borers to this sex pheromone is strong. A

minimum of three pheromone traps should be
placed transecting the vineyard in a diagonal
manner. Traps should be in place by late June
and checked on a weekly basis thereafter. A
single pheromone cap within a trap will last
the entire season.
Control
Trapping-out uses the sex pheromone placed
within 1C Pherocon sticky traps. This method
is still experimental at this time but certainly
appears to be working. Traps are placed
around the vineyard perimeter in late June at
35- to 50-foot intervals. These traps should be
checked on a weekly basis. Where infestations
are high, many borers will be trapped, resulting
in the need for removal of some of the trapped
adults or replacement of the trap bottoms.
This method requires a continued effort year
after year to reduce pressure in subsequent
years.
Chemical control of emerging adults or
entering newly hatched larvae will give some
assistance if repeated over a wide area.
is about 1/50-inch long (Figure 94). Adult male

mites are smaller and have a pointed abdomen;
they are usually dull green to brown.
Eggs, which are globe-shaped and red, are laid
on the undersides of leaves in the summer. The
eggs are tiny and require a magnifying glass
to be seen. During late summer and early fall,
eggs are laid around cane nodes, where they
overwinter (Figure 95). Several generations
occur each season.
FIGURE 94. Adult female European red mite.
See the Commercial Small Fruit and Grape Spray

Guide for your state for recommendations.
Mites That Attack Grapes

European Red Mite
Panonychus ulmi, Order Acari, Family
Tetranychidae
The European red mite causes considerable
damage to apples in some orchards; it also
becomes a problem in vineyards from time to
time.
The adult female of the European red mite is
dark red to reddish-brown, has eight legs, and
FIGURE 95. Red mite eggs are laid around cane

nodes where they overwinter.
Damage Symptoms
The adults and nymphs of this species feed
on the undersurfaces of leaves, and in heavy
infestations, the leaves turn a bronze color. If
bronzing occurs early enough in the season, a
115
negative effect on fruit ripening may occur as

feeding may interfere with the normal photosynthetic process of the leaves.
a close eye out for bronzing while traveling

through the vineyard on your tractor. This
can be done at the same time you are applying
fungicide sprays to the vineyard.
Management
Growers should apply miticide sprays before
bronzing occurs. In some vineyards, this pest
is kept at low levels by naturally occurring
predatory mites and predaceous insects.
Monitoring
Monitoring for European red mite can be
accomplished by looking at the underside of
the leaves for their presence at the same time
you are scouting your vineyard for leafhoppers
and grape berry moth. You may also keep
116
Control
Some chemicals reduce leafhopper and/or
spider mite populations while allowing predaceous mites to maintain control of the latter.
Ideally, treatments should be applied so that
mites are reduced below economic levels
without killing predaceous mites or reducing
their food source to the extent that they starve.
For a list of miticides available for controlling
mites in the Midwest, see the Commercial
state.
Wildlife Management
Birds
Crop damage in wine grape vineyards due
to bird depredation appears to be more
pronounced in recent years (Figure 96). This
may be due in part to the increasing acreage
of highly palatable wine grape cultivars being
grown.
Several Midwest wine grape growers have
found that birds are attracted to the early
ripening varieties such as Marechal Foch,
Leon Millot, Pinot gris, and Baco noir. There
is commonly an increase in bird activity in
vineyards as the berries near veraison. This is
a critical time to persuade the birds to move
elsewhere or try to prevent them from reaching
the mature berries.
Birds that are commonly observed in

Midwestern vineyards are European starling,
American robin, Northern mockingbird,
Northern oriole, and Common grackle.
Other birds such as House nch, Cardinal,
Cedar waxwing, Gray catbirds, and American
goldnch have also been observed in vineyards
at various times. Migrating or local ocks
of birds will begin testing grape berries at
veraison.
Several types of management measures have
been implemented in vineyards to deter birds
from feeding, including bird netting; visual,
sound, and chemical repellents; and birds of
prey.
Physical Barriers
Growers have often tried to exclude birds
from the grape canopy by draping bird netting
over each individual trellis row (Figure 97).
Netting is usually rolled out between the
rows and pulled over each trellis and fastened
together to prevent netting from blowing off.
This provides a good barrier to feeding birds.
Mechanical rollers to lay out and take up bird
netting are available commercially. Netting
must be in place by early veraison to assure
that no fruit is damaged or lost.
Visual Repellents
FIGURE 96. Bird damage to winegrape clusters.
Some of the most frequently used visual

devices include scare-eye balloons, Mylar
tape, tin pans, streamers, and other shiny and
uttering objects. The effectiveness of these
visual deterrents has been limited. Birds are
very capable of adjusting to new objects in a
relatively short period of time. This type of
deterrent should only be used in a limited
time frame and, more appropriately, should be
included in an integrated bird-management
system.
117
FIGURE 97. Bird netting draped over grape canopy using a net applicator.
Birds of Prey
Some growers have tried to set up nesting
poles to encourage falcons and hawks to nest
in vineyards. When large avian predators are
active in the vineyard, fruit-eating birds will
tend to stay away from the area. Locating
articial owls and other birds of prey in
vineyards has not been effective.
As with the sight deterrents, birds often

become acclimated in time to new sounds
introduced into the vineyard. These devices
should be used selectively with other control
measures. The devices should be moved
around the vineyard to reduce bird familiarity
and avoid annoying neighbors living near the
vineyard. Growers have resorted to shooting a
shotgun or pyrotechnic pistols to create noise
to scare birds from vineyards.
Sound Repellents
Propane cannons have been randomly placed
in vineyards and set to go off at designated
time intervals. Alarm systems that imitate
bird distress sounds can also be located in
the vineyard and will sound on a preset
time schedule. Some of the more sophisticated systems can produce distress calls from
different bird species, alternating the sound
and length of time of each. The loud or distress
noise will generally induce a panic in the
birds, and they take ight to avoid a perceived
danger.
118
Chemical Repellents
This type of bird control requires the application of a chemical compound to grapes.
Birds nd fruit treated with a chemical agent
to be distasteful. Different chemicals have been
tested as repellents to reduce bird depredation
in fruit crops.
Methyl anthranilate, a naturally occurring
compound in Concord grapes, was found to
reduce bird feeding, but a noticeable foxy avor
appeared in wine produced from Vinifera
and French hybrid grapes treated with this

chemical. Sucrose (disaccharide) has been
used to reduce bird depredation in fruit crops.
Research conducted at Cornell University
showed that birds were less likely to consume
blueberries sprayed with sucrose.
Wild Turkey
Wild turkeys are appearing with ever
increasing numbers in vineyards. As more
vineyards are planted, wild turkeys tend to
move through these areas in ocks looking for
food and shelter. Unless preventative measures
are taken to restrict their entry into a vineyard,
there is little that can be done to prevent them
from decimating a grape crop.
early summer. Food sources are scarce during

budbreak, and deer are naturally attracted to
any green tissue that emerges. Several different
kinds of approaches have been used to mitigate
the damage that deer cause in vineyards.
Chemical Repellents
Chemical repellents should be used with
caution on fruit crops. Some repellents are not
labeled for use on any food crop, and others
can only be used during dormancy or when
there is no fruit present. Be sure to read and
follow label directions when considering the
application of a repellent.
Odor Repellents
Wild turkeys, unlike domestic turkeys,

can take ight and are often seen roosting
in surrounding trees and brush. As with
other birds, turkeys do not like loud and/or
distressing sounds.
Materialshuman hair, dog hair, and soap

that are commonly used to deter deer are
used because they smell unnatural or have the
smell of a predator. These materials can be
used effectively to prevent deer from entering
vineyards.
Physical Barriers
There is some interest in using coyote hair

to create a negative environment for deer.
Coyotes are the main predators of white-tail
deer in Ohio, and it has been reported that
deer do not like to come near feeding areas
that have been baited with coyote hair. As with
the bird populations, deer can acclimate very
quickly, and they can become familiar with a
new odor. However, deer appear to avoid the
area baited with coyote hair for several weeks,
even when the bait is removed, according to
APHIS research scientists.
Standard bird netting can be used, although

turkeys are more powerful and may tear the
netting trying to get the fruit. High fencing can
be used to turn back the turkeys.
Sound Repellents
Propane cannons will have some effect for the
short term, but turkeys, as with other fruiteating birds, become accustomed to the sound
and within a few days may pay little attention.
Shotgun and pyrotechnic guns may provide
some means of distraction to wild turkeys, so
they are less likely to settle in the vineyard.
Deer
Deer, like other wildlife, pose a serious
threat to Midwestern vineyards. Many times
deer have been observed foraging on young
succulent grapevine shoots in early spring
and continuing this feeding behavior into
Sound Repellents
Deer can be startled by unfamiliar sounds, and
they are less likely to stay in an area in which
strange, unnatural sounds are emanating.
Propane cannons and distress signals can be
used to send deer to ight. Moving the noisemakers around the inside and outside of the
vineyard can help to dissuade the deer from
entering the vineyard and make the situation
119
somewhat less familiar. This should keep the

deer on edge and less interested in foraging on
the tender vegetation of the vines.
Physical Barriers
Grow tubes and mesh vinyl screens can be
quite effective in protecting young vines from
foraging deer. The cost will vary depending on
the number of tubes and screens you purchase.
They can be easily placed around the plants
to protect the newly emerging tissue. One
problem is that these devices only protect
plants when rst established in the vineyard.
The vines will quickly grow out of the tubes
and mesh screen, and then deer are able to
reach shoots growing out of the top.
Fencing is one of the best means of preventing
deer from entering a vineyard (Figure 98). The
expense for some owners can be cost prohib-
itive. Poly Tape electric fence, commonly used

to keep horses and cattle in pasture, is being
used to control deer from entering vineyards.
Some producers are using this in place of
standard single-strand electrical fence.
It has been observed that deer will not enter
pasture with this type of fence surrounding
it. The Poly Tape (11/2-inches wide) works
well at a height of 5 to 6 feet, with four to ve
strands from top to bottom. Generally, only
the rst through third strands from the ground
are charged.
Peanut butter on aluminum foil placed on the
electrical wire is used to bate the deer. T-Posts
are used to fasten the tape in place within the
fence row. With any electric fence, grass and
weeds must be kept under control or the fence
could short out. Weed whacker or burndown
herbicides can be used to control vegetation
(Figure 99).
FIGURE 98. Deer exclusion from the vineyard using an eight-foot fence.
120
FIGURE 99. Integrated wildlife management using netting (background) for birds and two-wire electric
fence (foreground) for raccoons.
121
Weeds and Weed Control

Growers agree that weeds must be controlled
to maintain a productive vineyard; however,
the success achieved varies considerably.
Whether you are establishing a new vineyard
or attempting to reduce weed problems in one
that already exists, choices and actions made
along the way will determine the outcome.
Weed control fails most often because growers
do not understand the biology of weeds nor
the tools they are using to gain control.
Weeds can cause tremendous problems in
the vineyard. Besides competing with the
grapevine for nutrients, light, and moisture,
weeds provide shelter and food for other
pest problems. Dense weed growth impairs
air circulation in the vineyard, creating an
environment where grape diseases can ourish.
Weed growth may interfere with fungicide and
insecticide applications.
Because each weed species may require a
slightly different or a vastly different control
method, the successful grower must be able to
identify weeds. Once the weeds in the vineyard
have been identied, a control program that
considers biology, tools, economics, and the
environment can be planned and implemented. Therefore, weed identication is the
rst skill set that should be learned.
To get started with weed identication, obtain
an identication manual, preferably one with
good photographs and line drawings of weeds
at both seedling and mature stages. One book
we have found particularly useful is Weeds of
the Northeast. Once you are ready, remember
that separating different weeds into sensible
categories will help you identify one from the
other and also help decide on the appropriate
control. Categories most useful are grasses vs.
broadleafs and annuals vs. perennials (grasses
and broadleaf weeds may be either annual or
perennial).
122
Most weeds can be categorized as annuals or

perennials. Annual weeds complete their life
cycle, from emergence to setting seed and
dying, in less than 12 months (Figure 100).
Summer annuals (common lambsquarters,
pigweed, green foxtail, for example) emerge in
the spring or early summer and complete the
cycle by fall. Winter annuals (such as shepherds
purse, red dead nettle, annual bluegrass)
may germinate anywhere from mid-summer
until freeze-up (depending on the species),
overwinter as a rosette, and resume growth
in spring, typically setting seed and dying by
May or June. With annuals, destroying the
top growth usually kills the entire plant and
prevents further seed production.
Perennials (e.g., quackgrass, Canada thistle,
poison ivy) may live for several years. Most
perennials (Figure 101) survive the winter
as vegetative propagules, including belowground rhizomes (e.g., quackgrass), tubers
(e.g., Jerusalem artichoke), budding rootstocks
(e.g., Canada thistle), budding taproots (e.g.,
dandelion), or above-ground stolons (e.g.,
ground ivy). Although most produce seed, new
growth in spring usually is from the under- or
above-ground vegetative propagules. Perennials are more difcult to control than annuals,
because the propagules are protected by soil,
foliage, and debris.
Annual weeds are best controlled around the
time of seedling germination and emergence.
Perennial weeds, other than those emerging
from seed, are best controlled either after a
few weeks of growth in the spring, or after fall
rains when growth has resumed. Some perennials are most sensitive to herbicides at or just
before blooming. These critical differences in
strategy for annuals and perennials determine
the success or failure of control and can only
be fully appreciated by understanding the
biology of weeds.
FIGURE 100. Annual weeds complete their life cycle in less than 12 months.
FIGURE 101. Most perennials survive the winter

as vegetative propagules. A. Canada thistle;
B. Quackgrass.
123
Annuals are most sensitive at, or shortly after,

germination because food reserves in the seed
have been depleted, and the young seedling
is not yet producing its own food. Also, at
emergence, seedlings are most sensitive to the
damage caused by herbicides or by cultivation,
and the desiccating effects of wind and sun.
Beyond the 2- to 4-leaf stage, annual weeds
become much more difcult to control;
leaves develop cuticles that resist herbicide
absorption, and root systems penetrate deeply
into the soil where they are protected from
herbicides applied to the soil. Because annuals
persist only by producing seeds, anything you
do to prevent seed production will reduce
future costs of weed control.
In contrast to annual weeds, killing young
foliage and shoots of perennials in early spring
has little effect on the vegetative propagules.
Cultivation or application of herbicides at this
stage of growth merely causes the propagules

to resprout, and the problem quickly returns.
Wait until the correct growth stage of each
species before applying systemic herbicides.
When a perennial reaches the correct growth
stage for herbicide application, food reserves
in the rhizome are depleted, photosynthesis
is in full-swing, and the plant is starting to
rebuild root reserves by translocating sugars
downward into the rhizome or root-system.
Systemic herbicides applied at this stage
translocate, along with sugars, from the foliage
to the vegetative propagules, and complete
control can usually be achieved (Figure 102).
For most perennial grasses, the sensitive
stage is reached after a few weeks of growth,
typically when there are 6 to 8 inches or more
of new growth. For broadleaf perennials such
as Canada thistle and eld bindweed, the
sensitive stage is later, just before or at the time
FIGURE 102. Systemic herbicides translocate downward to vegetative propagules.
124
of owering. Nearly all grass and broadleaf

perennials can be controlled with fall-sprays of
systemic herbicides, as the weeds are actively
building root-reserves at that time.
Understanding how the tools of weed control
work is as important as understanding the
biology of weeds. Cultivation kills by breaking
and shearing individual plants and exposing
them to the drying effects of sun and wind.
When annual weeds get beyond a few inches
high, cultivation becomes more difcult and
much less effective, because weeds can tolerate
some drying and can recover from the physical
damage.
Cultivation also stimulates germination
of more weed seeds. Growers can use this
behavior to their advantage by planning ahead.
Cultivate the surface to stimulate seed germination and then kill young seedlings soon after
emergence with more cultivation. The second
cultivation will, in turn, cause more seed
germination, and the cycle can be repeated.
The cycle of cultivation, weed emergence
followed by more cultivation, is called summer
fallow. The cycle can be repeated many times
in a single spring or growing season and is a
very effective strategy to reduce the number
of weed seeds in the soil and thus the need for
weeding after planting grapevines.
Herbicides kill weeds by interfering with
various physiological processes occurring
within their tissues. Typical symptoms
of herbicide use are malformed growth,
discolored or dead tissue, and stunting. Young
seedlings are more sensitive to these effects
than older plants.
Terms used when discussing herbicides are
listed here and are useful in understanding
the important differences between the various
herbicide products.
Selective Herbicides
Herbicides are either selective or nonselective. A selective herbicide affects some
plants but not others. A non-selective

herbicide will kill any plant it contacts.
Contact Herbicides
Contact herbicides affect only the tissue
sprayed. They do not move within the plant.
Only above-ground tissues that are directly
sprayed will be affected. Contact herbicides
(e.g., Gramoxone) are useful for controlling
small annuals and for temporarily reducing
growth of perennials.
Systemic Herbicides
Systemic, or translocated, herbicides, are
those that move within the plant. Systemic
herbicides applied to the soil (e.g., Karmex)
are absorbed by roots and translocated
to leaves where they inhibit physiological
processes such as photosynthesis. Systemic
herbicides applied to the foliage (e.g.,
Roundup) translocate to the root system,
provided the herbicide is applied at the
correct growth stage.
Residual Herbicides
A residual herbicide or persistent herbicide
(e.g., Princep) is one applied to the soil (may
also be applied to leaves) where it slowly
breaks down over time but continues to
control germinating weeds for some time
after application. Some residual herbicides
may persist long enough to damage crops
planted a year or more after application.
Residual herbicides may or may not be
selective, and they may or may not be
systemic.
The more you understand about the biology
of the weeds you need to control and the tools
available, the better decisions you will be able
to make about control; however, an extensive
review of these topics is beyond the scope of
this publication. Fortunately, many excellent
sources of detailed information on weed
biology, herbicides, cultivation implements,
and other control tools are available on the
Internet and in local libraries.
125
Now that you have mastered some basic

concepts of weed biology and control
techniques, you should plan a weed-control
program. A weed-control program is simply
a pre-planned schedule of activities based on
the weeds you have identied, the age of your
vineyard, and economic and environmental
considerations.
Developing a new vineyard, nurturing one that
is newly planted, or cleaning up an established weed-infested site all require different
approaches. The best time to implement a
weed-control program is before planting. This
is when perennial weeds can be eradicated.
Once a vineyard is established, perennials are
much more difcult to control. While specic
perennial weeds may require specic controls,
the guidelines presented here will apply in
most instances.
Establishing New Vineyards

The practices recommended prior to planting
are referred to as site preparation. Start site
preparation the year before planting. Land that
is in sod should be treated with a non-selective
systemic herbicide after new growth reaches a
height of about 8 inches. Plow and disk within
one to two weeks of herbicide application,
even if control is not obvious.
Systemic herbicides work slowly, and control
symptoms take time to develop. Delaying
tillage until after symptoms are obvious can
result in reduced control. After tillage is a good
time to take soil samples for nutrient and pH
analysis (see Vineyard Establishment). Practice
summer fallow until late May by allowing
weeds to regrow until they are a maximum of
1-inch high and then cultivate.
Land that has been in annual crops, such
as corn and soybeans, may be relatively free
of perennials. Such land should be tilled in
early spring, sufciently to stimulate weed
emergence, and then summer fallowed as
recommended for sod ground. If perennials
are obvious prior to tillage, then treat the eld
126
as if it is in sod. In June plant a cover crop of

oats, buckwheat, or annual ryegrass to build
organic matter and suppress weed growth.
Oats and ryegrass can be treated with a
selective, systemic broadleaf weed herbicide
to kill germinating annuals (see Weed Control
Guide for Ohio Field Crops, Ohio State
University Extension Bulletin 789). Plow the
cover crop before it goes to seed. If signicant
annual weeds germinate in late summer, after
plowing-under, consider additional summer
fallow. Do not let late summer weeds go to
seed.
When fall rains resume, surviving vegetative
propagules of perennials will sprout and
emerge. Late September through October is a
good time to apply a nal treatment of a nonselective systemic herbicide to kill remnants
of perennial weeds. Apply the herbicide to
actively growing weeds when the foliage is
6- to 8-inches high. Annuals co-emerging
will also be killed. The site can be re-seeded
in as little as four days after the last systemic
herbicide application.
Cultivate (only if needed to prepare an
adequate seedbed) and plant a cover crop
of companion grass (see the section on Soil
Management) if a permanent sod is required
for the row middles. Otherwise, plant fall
rye or winter wheat (rye can be established
throughout November, depending on latitude
and prevailing weather) if bare row-middles
are needed. Remember too that winter wheat
can be underseeded with a permanent sod
species that will persist after the wheat dies.
Cover in the row areas can be killed in the
spring by spraying new growth (wait until
it is 6- to 8-inches high) with a systemic
herbicide.
Nurturing a Newly Planted

Vineyard
Scout the vineyard for emerging weeds at the
same time as scouting for insects and diseases,
and map their location in the vineyard at the

individual species level. Record the distribution of each species as:
GENERAL = found throughout the eld.
LOCAL = found in a small portion of the eld.
SPOTTY = found in just a few places.
Also record the density of each species as
either:
1 = SCATTERED, just a few weeds.
2 = SLIGHT, 1 weed per 6 feet of row.
3 = MODERATE, 1 weed per 3 feet of row.
4 = SEVERE = more than 1 weed per 3 feet of
row.
Take samples of unknown weeds for later
identication. Hopefully, perennial weeds were
eradicated before planting as outlined previously. If not, it is not too late to start but dont
expect control to be as good as the outcome
of a correctly implemented site preparation
program.
Perennial grasses in the row can be treated
whenever they occur with selective, systemic
herbicides such as Select, Fusilade, or Poast.
These herbicides will not affect broadleaf
weeds or grapevines, even if directly sprayed.
Grass control will take time, but with persistence, perennial grasses will be largely eliminated.
In the meantime, mow the sod between grape
rows to discourage growth of broadleaf weeds
and to prevent any seed production. Install
grow tubes on young vines. With grow tubes
correctly installed, i.e., with the bottom of the
tube buried about 1 inch in the soil, nonselective herbicides can be used under the
trellis.
Contact herbicides such as Gramoxone and
Rely (glufosinate) will control annuals up to
4-inches high. Systemic herbicides (Roundup)
will control annuals and perennials. For
persistent broadleaf perennials, such as Canada
thistle, wait until the bud stage is reached and
then spray with a systemic herbicide.
Perennials requiring herbicide treatment must

not be allowed to grow higher than the grow
tube or sprays cannot be used. Tall weeds
can be gently bent to the ground and then
thoroughly sprayed with a systemic, or alternatively, wiped with a topical application of
a systemic herbicide. Weeds under the trellis
should be controlled into late fall until winterhilling takes place. Grow tubes should be
removed prior to winter.
Remember that annual weeds under the trellis
can be controlled with cultivation. However,
trellis wires and location of vines and posts
often limit the type of cultivation equipment
that can be used. Nevertheless, several implements, generally operated hydraulically, have
been used to work the area under the trellis.
An example is the grape hoe.
Hand hoeing is sufcient for smaller plantings.
Invariably, weeds are controlled only by
repeated cultivations which can be costly and
laborious. Missing just one timely cultivation
may result in weed seeds being returned to the
soil. With cultivation there is a signicant risk
of injuring trunks and root systems of vines.
Several soil-applied residual herbicides
including Devrinol, Suran, and Prowl can
be used in the transplant year to prevent
annual weeds. Herbicides typically lead to
more vigorous vine growth and higher yields
because they do not injure the crops root
system. Plastic and organic mulches can effectively control weeds. Their use is described in
the section Vineyard Establishment.
Maintaining Weed Control

and Clean-Up Practices
in Established Vineyards
Additional herbicides are registered for use in
older vineyards. In late March through April,
apply a residual herbicide such as Karmex
or Princep (three-year-old vines with these
herbicides) to the soil under the trellis. Most
residual herbicides only kill germinating
127
weeds, thus they must be applied early before

weed emergence.
Contemplate applying two or more micro-rate
applications rather than a single application at
the maximum rate. Micro-rates are simply a
fraction of the maximum one-time application
rate, applied to coincide with ushes of weed
emergence whenever that occurs, provided
the total used is no more than the annual
maximum application rate. For instance, if the
single maximum application rate is 3 lbs per
acre, three micro-rate applications of 1 lb per
acre could be applied.
The advantage of the micro-rate approach
is generally better weed control with less
herbicide. The disadvantages include a
requirement for more careful management,
more time and labor, and potentially more soil
compaction because of repeated trips across
the vineyard.
Watch for escapes (escapes are weeds in the
treated area that have been missed or have
survived the treatment) when scouting for
insects and diseases. Typical escapes following
application of a residual herbicide such as
Karmex or Princep are old witchgrass and large
crabgrass. Annual grasses tolerate these herbicides, and their populations quickly build up if
the same residuals are used year after year. This
buildup of tolerant species is known as a weed
shift. To prevent weed shifts, do not depend on
just one herbicide or on herbicides that work the
same way (e.g., herbicides that inhibit photosynthesis) every year. Instead, rotate herbicides with
different modes of action and selectivity on a
yearly basis. When grasses occur in the vineyard,
they can be treated with a systemic herbicide
such as Poast. Poast and similar herbicides can
be used several times during the growing season
on an as-needed basis.
Be vigilant for the return of perennials and
other invasive weeds and eradicate them,
preventing seed production, whenever they
occur. Invasion of the vineyard is an on-going
problem as weed seeds enter in soil, wind,
128
and water and on machinery and animals,

etc. In mid- to late summer, an application of
a residual soil-active herbicide will prevent
establishment of winter annual weeds, such as
shepherds purse and groundsel. The exception
to this guideline would be vinifera, when there
is an intention to establish a winter cover crop
under the trellis after hilling.
Guidelines for Weed Control

with Herbicides
Start site preparation weed control the year
before planting. Eradicate perennial weeds
and reduce weed seed numbers in the soil.
Learn to identify weeds. Herbicides are
species specic, only controlling those species
listed on the label, when they are treated at
the correct growth stage.
Calibrate the sprayer, use recommended
water volumes and spray pressure (see the
label), and maintain good agitation in the
spray tank. For information on sprayer
calibration, see Ohio State University
Extension Fact Sheet AEX-520, Boom
Sprayer Calibration. This can be downloaded
from the Internet at http://ohioline.osu.edu/
aex-fact/0520.html and can also be obtained
from most county Extension ofces in Ohio.
Maintain a 3- to 4-foot weed-free swath
under the trellis. Use grow tubes on young
vines. Grow tubes enable you to safely direct
contact and systemic herbicides to weeds
under the trellis.
Recall that no one herbicide controls all
weeds. If the same product or products are
used repeatedly, weed escapes will occur and
eventually become dominant. To prevent
weed shifts, rotate herbicides from year to
year. For instance, if you use Princep one
year, switch to Karmex the following year,
and then back (though both materials
inhibit photosynthesis in sensitive plants,
their mechanism of action differs and resistance is not likely to develop). Better yet,
switch from Princep, to Karmex, to Solicam,

and then back.
Avoid spraying grape foliage or green bark,
as severe damage may occur with some
herbicides (especially systemics). Windy
conditions can cause spray drift to be
deposited on sensitive plant parts.
For specic information on herbicide rates
and timing of applications, growers should
consult the regional bulletins and spray
guides on small fruit for their state. For
more information on these publications,
contact your local Extension ofce. Ohio
growers should consult the Ohio publications, published by Ohio State University
Extension. For more information on these
publications, contact your county Extension
ofce or Ohio State University Extension,
Media Distribution, 2021 Coffey Road,
Columbus, OH 43210-1044. Herbicide
recommendations in these bulletins are
updated yearly.
No herbicide should be applied in vineyards
unless it is labeled for that specic use. Use
of other than federally labeled or approved
herbicides is illegal and may result in injury
to the vines and liability to the growers.
Improper use of even labeled herbicides can
result in severe crop damage or lack of weed
control.
Controlling Specic Perennial

Weeds with Systemic Herbicides
In the recommendations presented in this
section, application rates are provided for
two of the most common formulations of
glyphosate. The use of these brand names does
not imply an endorsement of these over other
glyphosate products, nor a criticism of those
products that are not named.
Quackgrass
For long-term control, use Roundup Ultra at
1 to 2 quarts per acre or Touchdown at 3.33

pints per acre. Use the 1-quart-per-acre rate of
Roundup Ultra in 5 to 10 gallons of water per
acre on land that has been in row crops. The 2quart-per-acre rate will provide longer lasting
control when spraying sod. Spray when the
grass is about 8-inches high and wait at least
three full days (72 hours) but not more than
seven days before plowing.
Fall frosts before spraying will not affect
control provided at least 60% of the foliage is
still green when you spray. If planning a spring
application, do not fall plow; simply wait until
quackgrass reaches the right growth stage (four
to ve new leaves) and spray.
Johnsongrass
Apply Roundup Ultra at 1 quart per acre plus
ammonium sulfate (17 pounds per 100 gallons
of spray) in a spray volume of 5 to 10 gallons
per acre, when Johnsongrass is in the boot to
heading stage. In the fall, application can be
made anytime prior to frost.
If using Touchdown, apply 2-1/3 pints per acre
plus ammonium sulfate (17 pounds per 100
gallons of spray) and apply in 5 to 10 gallons
per acre at the same stage of growth as for
Roundup Ultra.
Yellow Nutsedge
Yellow nutsedge is difcult to control.
Nutsedge persists by producing nutlets which
grow at the end of rhizomes. Nutlets break
dormancy in spring, and emergence follows
in late spring and early summer. Control with
herbicides is rarely or never complete, because
insufcient herbicide translocates into the
nutlets.
Attack nutsedge one or two years before
planting using an integrated approach. Apply
preplant glyphosate on small nutsedge plants
(control with Roundup Ultra is best when
nutsedge is 6- to 12-inches high; earlier
applications will provide some suppression
129
Monsanto Research) and/or tillage before

planting.
If you do not already have nutsedge in a eld,
prevent its introduction. Wash all soil from
recently purchased used equipment before
allowing it on your farm. If you have some
infested elds and others that are not, or if your
equipment is used on elds of other farmers, be
sure to wash all soil off the equipment before
using it on land that is nutsedge-free. Make
sure all transplant materials were produced
under nutsedge-free conditions.
Canada Thistle
Canada thistle can be treated in the ower-bud
to owering stage in early summer or in late
summer and fall during the rosette to owerbud stage. In fallow elds, stop tillage in late
July and allow thistles to regrow for at least ve
weeks.
Apply Roundup Ultra or Touchdown before a
killing frost and when Canada thistle regrowth
reaches the ower-bud stage or is at least 10- to
12-inches high. Apply Roundup Ultra at 2 to

3 quarts per acre in 5 to 10 gallons of water or
Touchdown at 2 quarts per acre. Spot sprays of
a 2% solution (0.5 pints in 6 gallons of water)
of either herbicide will also be effective.
Field Bindweed
Field bindweed must be treated when it is
actively growing and at or beyond bloom. Fall
treatment is best, but apply herbicides before
a killing frost. Apply Roundup Ultra at 3 to 4
quarts per acre or Touchdown at 5.33 pints per
acre. Spot spray with a 2% solution of either
product.
Hard water with more than 500 parts per
million of calcium or magnesium will usually
reduce glyphosate activity. If hard water must
be used, keep the volume low (5 gallons per
acre) or increase the rate of herbicide. Use
clean water. Silt, clay, and organic debris in
water will also reduce glyphosate activity.
Always add ammonium sulfate (17 lb/100
gal water) to glyphosate for maximum effectiveness on perennial weeds.
Table 16. Herbicides for Perennial Weed Control the Year Before Planting and for Spot Treatment.
Prevalent Weeds
Timing of Treatment a
Herbicide/Ab
Canada Thistle
Late spring/early summer; early/late

fall
Roundupc 1 qt. or
2% spot treatment
Field Bindweed
When plants are at or past full

bloom /before killing frost
Roundup 2 qt + 2,4-D 1 pt or
Banvel 8 oz + Roundup 1 qt
Horsenettle
Late bud to owering stage
Roundup 4 qt or 2,4-D 2 qt
Dogbane
Late bud to owering stage
Roundup 1 qt + 2,4-D 1 pt or
Roundup 1 qt + Banvel 2 pt
Poison Ivy
7/1 to 9/15
Banvel 1 qt + Roundup 2 qt or
Crossbow 2 qt
Quackgrass
Spring 8 tall to heading or

Fall 8 tall regrowth
Roundup 2 qt
Wild Brambles
Bud to bloom stage
Banvel 1 qt + Roundup 1 qt or
Crossbow 6 qt (1-1.5% solution)
Swamp Smartweed
7/1 to 9/15
Banvel 8 oz + Roundup 1 qt
Apply at least three weeks before an anticipated frost (exceptions: C. thistle and quackgrass).
b
Adding a surfactant to these herbicides will improve their effectiveness; Roundup already contains a
surfactant. Rates are given in amounts of commercial product per acre.
c
Apply Roundup with Banvel or 2,4-D where several weeds are present. Roundup alone is best applied on
tall weeds, at 5 to 10 gpa with surfactant and ammonium sulfate. Follow label recommendations. Do not
apply Banvel, 2,4-D, or Crossbow near grapes. Avoid drift. Apply spot treatments using low pressure or a wick
applicator.
130
Injury from Herbicides

Herbicide injury symptoms on occasional
plants in the vineyard are not uncommon.
However, yield and quality are rarely an issue
unless injury is widespread and persistent.
Sporadic injury in the vineyard can most
often be traced to directed sprays of systemic
herbicides contacting foliage or green bark,
using too high a rate of residual herbicides
on light soils, incorrectly calibrated sprayers,
sensitive cultivars, and weak plants growing
under unfavorable conditions. The grower has
control over many of these factors.
Any factor that injures the cropother
pests, winter injury, exposure of crowns and
root systems as a result of erosion, improper
mineral nutrition, wet spots in the eld,
etc.will make the crop more susceptible to
injury. Light, sandy soils require less herbicide
than heavier soils for comparable levels of
weed control. Grapevines growing on soils low
in organic matter are more prone to herbicide
injury from soil-applied herbicides than
vines growing on soils high in organic matter.
Accordingly, lower rates of herbicide should be
used on elds low in organic matter (less than
2%).
Of much greater signicance to vineyards
in the Corn Belt are risks associated with
herbicide spray drift from nearby small
grain, corn, and soybean elds. Spray drift
that occurs while nearby elds are sprayed
can severely damage grapevines. Grapes are
extremely sensitive to 2,4-D and closely related
growth-regulator herbicides used for weed
control on pastures, wheat, oats, barley, and
rye. Grapes may also be severely damaged by
drift of glyphosate (Roundup and generics),
currently the most commonly used herbicide
on soybean. Grapes are sensitive to drift
of many additional eld crop herbicides
including Atrazine, Sencor, and ALS-inhibitor
herbicides such as Accent and Firstrate. Injury
symptoms caused by some of these herbicides
may easily be confused with disease and insect
damage.
Symptoms of 2,4-D injury (Figure 103) to

grapevines are easily distinguished. The
youngest terminal growth is most severely
affected. Vines and leaf petioles are severely
twisted. Leaf blades may be stunted and
misshapen with closely packed, thick veins.
Terminal growth may cease for a time
following the initial effects; if injury is severe,
growth will be retarded for several weeks.
Vines with these symptoms rarely produce
new normal growth for the remainder of the
season. If the injury is not too severe, normal
growth will resume the following year. Severely
injured vines may die or not recover for two
years or more. Vines injured by 2,4-D also
may have delayed fruit ripening. If vines are
severely injured, fruits may never mature,
regardless of the length of season. These
delayed-maturity effects may persist for one
to three years before normal ripening returns.
Cultivars vary in their tolerance of 2,4-D.
FIGURE 103. Symptoms of 2,4-D drift on

Concord grape (A and B).
131
Concord is one of the most susceptible, while

some vinifera cultivars are fairly tolerant to
2,4-D.
Glyphosate injury (Figure 104) is similar to
injury from growth-regulator herbicides.
Glyphosate injury shows up rst on the
newest growth, usually about two weeks after
contact. New leaves are chlorotic, stunted, and
misshapen. In particular, affected leaves may
be elongated, and somewhat strap-shaped with
a puckered surface. Terminal growth may die
and slough off. In severe instances, vines may
be killed or growth severely stunted. Recovery
from severe injury may be slow, and symptoms
can be expected to slowly decline over two or
more years.
Atrazine and Sencor are photosynthesis inhibitors similar to Princep and Karmex, herbicides
that are used on grapes. Symptoms are similar
to that caused by Princep and Karmexleaf
chlorosis that may be a halo around the
margin, interveinal, or veinal (Figures 105 and

106). In severe examples, leaves turn brown
and drop off. Symptoms caused by drift are
unlikely to persist beyond the year the incident
occurred.
FIGURE 105. Symptoms of Karmex injury.
FIGURE 106. Symptoms of Princep injury.
FIGURE 104. Symptoms of glyphosate injury

(A and B).
132
Systemic postemergence herbicides, such as

Accent (Figure 107) and Firstrate (Figure 108),
used on corn and soybeans, respectively, can
also damage vines.
Grape growers should discuss the problem of
drift and the risks of herbicide injury to the
vineyard with surrounding growers of eld
crops. Stress the importance of not using
high-volatile herbicides and avoiding windy
conditions. Because of their volatility, many
2,4-D compounds can injure vines at great
distances from the point of their application.
FIGURE 107. Symptoms of Accent injury.
Effects of volatile formulations of 2,4-D (ester

formulations are generally more volatile than
amine formulations) and related compounds
have been observed in vineyards at least ve
miles from the point of application. If a 2,4-D
herbicide must be applied near grapes, use
the least volatile forms. If possible, do not use
2,4-D products in the immediate vicinity of
grapes. Additional information on herbicide
injury is available in a recent publication
Herbicide Drift and Injury to Grapes, Southern
Illinois University, Bulletin C1382.
FIGURE 108. Symptoms of Firstrate injury.
133
Soil Management
Two soil-management systems are now in
general use in Midwestern vineyards. Many
growers cultivate between the rows during the
growing season and plant a cover crop over
winter. A more recent system is to maintain
a permanent sod cover between the rows. In
both cases, weed growth under the trellis is
controlled by chemicals or tillage.
Cultivation Plus Cover Crop

Vineyards planted on shallow soils or the
lighter soils in the lake plains areas usually
respond best over a period of years to the
cultivation plus cover-crop system. Those
planted on the ne-textured soils and those on
the more sloping sites subject to soil erosion
may respond more favorably to the system
of permanent sod cover between the rows.
However, with care, almost any vineyard can
be maintained under either system.
The kind of winter crop cover selected is
relatively unimportant. Rye and ryegrass are
most common, and both are satisfactory.
Seed is planted in August or early September.
Satisfactory seeding rates are two bushels
per acre for rye seeded in early August, or 20
pounds per acre of ryegrass seeded in July. A
light fertilizer application, such as 31212,
at the rate of 200 to 250 pounds per acre can
be made at seeding time. When seeding, avoid
scattering seed in the vine rows.
Disk the overwintering cover crop down in
early spring before it competes with the grapevines. For rye, competition with vines begins
when rye reaches a height of 1 to 2 feet, and for
ryegrass, when seed heads just begin to appear.
However, growers should never disk when the
soil is wet enough to deteriorate the structure.
Disk only enough to knock down the cover.
Excessive disking not only wastes labor, but
134
also can damage the soil structure and create

compaction zones.
Cultivate between vine rows during the summer
only when necessary to control weeds. Cultivate
as shallow as possible, but deep enough to
destroy weeds or grass beneath the trellis. Deep
cultivation or plowing between rows will do
more damage than weed growth because of loss
of soil organic matter and soil structure.
After the planting year, avoid excessive cultivation in the vine row that can injure shallow
roots and increase soil compaction. Chemical
weed control is recommended under the trellis.
Competition from a cover crop during spring
and early summer can reduce yields. The
extent of yield reduction depends on the
degree of competition between the cover crop
and the vines for soil moisture and nutrients.
Because nutrients can be applied with fertilizers, the primary competition is for water.
Permanent-Sod Management
A permanent-sod cover between vineyard rows
is desirable in the Midwest (Figure 109). This
practice is recommended in vineyards where
soil erosion is likely to be moderate to severe
under summer cultivation.
Bluegrass is recommended for this purpose.
It is suited to Midwestern environmental
conditions and competes less severely with
grapes than deeply rooted cover crops. A new
grass mixture marketed under the trade name
Companion Grass also is gaining acceptance in
vineyards and orchards because of its slowgrowing characteristics. Companion Grass is a
mixture of Elka perennial ryegrass and Ensylva
creeping red fescue. Avoid deep-rooted crops
such as tall fescue, timothy, and other vigorously growing grasses.
FIGURE 109. A permanent sod cover between rows is recommended in erosion-prone vineyards.
Seeding of bluegrass is more successful in the

fall than in early spring. The ideal time is early
September. If the vineyard has been under
summer cultivation, bluegrass or Companion
Grass may be seeded following the last cultivation at the rate of 20 to 30 pounds per acre.
If the vineyard has not been under cultivation,
these grass seeds may be broadcast following a
light disking that does not destroy existing sod.
Avoid broadcasting seed under the trellis.
Mow the grass cover as needed, directing the
clippings to the row middle, away from grape
rows, and leave the clippings on the vineyard
oor. Vineyard fertilization usually can
support a good sod cover. However, if poor sod
results, take a soil test, and follow the recommended fertilizer practice.
Growers may experience reduced crop yields
with a permanent cover-crop system on lighter,
sandy, or gravelly soils. This probably results
from the reduced available moisture in these
soil types. Keeping the sod short will reduce

competition.
Mulching
Mulching has been used in soil management
for grapes, although it is not generally
accepted. Mulching has several advantages over
cultivation plus cover crops. Mulching:
1. Suppresses weed growth, which reduces
competition for soil moisture and nutrients.
2. Conserves soil moisture, increases rainfall
penetration, and reduces erosion.
3. Requires less nitrogen each year for
equivalent yields.
4. Often maintains or increases vine vigor and
productivity without other added nutrient
elements, because these are supplied by the
decaying mulch.
135
In vineyards where vine vigor is low, mulching

and other sound soil-management practices
can economically and effectively boost vigor.
In this situation, growers can achieve the most
favorable results of mulching.
However, mulch may have some disadvantages in certain situations. Vigorous vines may
require a longer season to mature fruits with
optimum soluble solids (Brix) content than
vines of less vigor. The problem arises when
growers try to reduce the vigor or amount
of growth on over-vigorous vines under
continuous mulch. Often, two to three years
are required to reduce annual vine growth to
a more desirable level, even when balanced
pruning is followed.
Heavy mulching of poorly drained soils should
be avoided because it could actually increase
excess soil moisture in the root zone. Mulching
also may increase re and rodent hazards.
Most organic materials such as straw, hay, corn
cobs, sawdust, composted grape pomace, or
ne wood chips will serve satisfactorily in the
vineyard. The mulch may be applied to the
entire vineyard oor or conned to a 4- or
5-foot band beneath the trellis. If erosion
control is the primary goal, adding mulch to
row middles generally is effective. The depth
of the mulch can vary from 2 to 10 inches.
The necessary mulch depth depends on the
quantity available, density of the material used,
and the cost. Generally, 6 to 8 inches of loose
straw or 2 to 3 inches of sawdust are adequate.
Bales of rolled hay also have been effective
in vineyards, but can be a source of weeds,
especially perennials like Canada thistle.
136
Once the initial mulch has been established,

annual additions are necessary to maintain
the desired depth. In general, a ton of straw is
required for an inch of mulch over one acre.
Other materials may require varying amounts
to form an inch of mulch, depending on their
density and bulk.
Liming and Soil Reaction

Grapes can be grown successfully over a wide
range of soil pH conditions. They perform
best where soil pH is between 5.5 and 6.5.
Vineyard fertilization often has fewer problems
and may be less expensive where the soil pH is
maintained in that range. Periodic soil testing
is necessary to determine the soil pH and
liming requirements. Lime should be applied
only when soil analysis indicates a need.
Research has shown that potassium deciency
can be intensied by dolomitic limestone,
which is high in magnesium. Excessive applications of calcium limestone also can result
in manganese deciency. The deciency
occurs because soil manganese becomes more
insoluble and less available to roots when the
pH is raised to near 7.0 or above.
Applying dolomitic limestone can help correct
magnesium-decient vineyards. Dolomitic
limestone also can be used to reduce soil
potassium levels if magnesium is above recommended levels. For more information, refer to
Ohio State University Extension Bulletin 458,
Fertilizing Fruit Crops.
Fertilization
Fertilization
Grapes, like other crops, require adequate
supplies of all essential plant nutrients for
optimum growth and yield. Most soils contain
adequate or near-adequate quantities of all
nutrients. Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium,
magnesium, and boron are the nutrients
most likely to limit grape production in the
Midwest. Vineyard fertilizer practices are
designed to boost the supply of available soil
nutrients to the levels required for optimum
growth and fruit production.
For successful soil fertilization, growers must
accurately determine the nutrient status of the
vineyard. Vineyard sites or sections of the same
site may vary in the levels of nutrients available
to vines. Growers can choose from several
methods to determine their vineyards nutrient
status. Weak growth, poor leaf color and fruit
set, and early defoliation indicate low levels of
one or more nutrients. Delayed vine and fruit
maturity and excessive vigor suggest an over
(or late) application of nitrogen.
Soil tests are helpful for determining the level
of nutrients in the soil. Plant petiole analysis,
however, is a very important companion
analysis that allows a grower the ability to
follow the actual amount of nutrients taken up
into the vine. Both forms of analysis should be
used to maintain a good working knowledge of
a vineyards fertility.
Soil Analysis
Soil testing is a relatively simple procedure
that can be done during the fall or spring. Soil
analysis will determine the availability of the
primary (N, P, K), secondary (S, Mg, Ca), and
micro (Fe, Mn, B, Cl, Zn, Cu, Mo) nutrients.
Soil pH in the range of 5.5 to 6.5 is adequate
for grape production. American varieties with,

for example, Vitis labrusca in the pedigree will
be more adaptable to lower pH (high acidity)
soil than varieties with a greater amount of
V. vinifera. There is very little potential of
nutrient elements being tied up or being
released at high levels that can cause toxicity to
the vines.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is an
important indicator of the soils particles to
readily exchange cations (e.g., H+, Ca++, K+)
with the plant roots. Generally, as the clay
content increases, the more soil particles will
be available to hold nutrients. Vineyard soils
with 2% to 3% organic matter are considered
normal. CEC measures the ability of a soil to
retain exchangeable cations (H+, CA++, Mg++,
and K+). The percent of organic matter and
clay inuence the CEC of a soil and ultimately
determine the amount of each element
available to the plant. There can be different
ranges of CEC, depending on the classication
of the soil as sand (1 to 5), silt (5 to 20), clay
(20 to 30), and organic (30+). The amount
of organic matter in a soil can inuence soil
fertility and tilth.
Nitrogen is generally lacking in Midwestern
soils and is customarily applied each growing
season at the rate of 50 to 80 lbs. of actual
nitrogen per acre. Phosphorus deciencies
are not wide spread in Midwestern soils, with
40 to 50 lbs. per acre considered adequate.
Potassium is an element that should be
maintained around 300 lbs. per acre. Grapevines use considerable amounts of K for
development of foliage, wood, and fruit
production. Magnesium, boron (B), and zinc
(Z) are considered adequate in the ranges of
200 to 250 lbs., 1.5 to 2% and 8 to 10% per
acre, respectively (Table 17).
137
Liming is benecial where acidic soils

are common. By increasing the soil pH
through liming, Ca++ and Mg++ levels can
be increased, toxic levels of micro-nutrients
can be reduced, and microbial activity can
be increased, causing a release of N, P, K, and
B. Additionally, soil structure and tilth have
been shown to improve through the use of
lime.
The Lime Test Index (LTI) indicates the tons
per acre of Ag-ground lime needed to adjust
a mineral soil to a specic pH. For example,
a vineyard soil that has an LTI = 68 would
require 1.2 tons per acre of Ag-lime to raise the
soil pH to 6.5. An LTI is derived by multiplying
the SMP (Shoemaker, McLean, and Pratt)
buffer pH x 10. Coarsely ground material takes
longer to react with the soil chemistry, and
thus the pH will not change as quickly as when
ner ground lime is used.
Soil samples are generally taken either during
the fall or early spring, depending on when you
would like to apply fertilizer. Some growers
feel that by having their soil analyzed in the fall
they are able to purchase needed fertilizer at a
reduced rate. Others feel that applications of
nitrogen and other elements should be made
in the spring prior to shoot growth. (See Table
17 for desirable ranges of soil characteristics

for grapes.)
Nitrogen applications should be completed
around fruit set, but no later than veraison,
to allow for uptake and utilization by the
vines during the growing season. Mid- to
late summer applications of nitrogen will
encourage the vines to continue vegetative
growth into the fall season when plants should
begin to harden off prior to dormancy.
You can collect samples by using either a soil
probe, spade, or shovel. Be sure to take samples
in your vineyard along a Z- or X-shaped
pattern in the eld or block of vines to assure
representative samples. Avoid sampling soil
only in the middle or along the edges of the
vineyard. In order to have a representative
sample, be sure to use a clean plastic bucket
and take a generous amount of soil from
each subsample. To adequately evaluate your
vineyard soil, be sure to sample at two different
depths starting at just below the surface to
8 inches, then from 8 to 16 inches. This will
allow you to make any necessary adjustments
in soil fertility or pH or both.
When submitting a soil sample for analysis,
you should ll out a Soil Test form. This form
Table 17. Desirable Range of pH, Organic Matter, and Elements from Soil Test for Grapes.
Grapes
pH
5.5 to 6.5
Organic Matter
2 to 3%
Phosphorus
40 to 50
Potassium
250 to 300
Magnesium
200 to 250
Boron
Zinc
1.5 to 2.0
8 to 10
Phosphorus given at actual pounds of available phosphorus, manganese, boron, and zinc and as
exchangeable potassium, calcium, and magnesium, per acre.
a
b
Desirable range will vary with soil type (sand, silt, or clay), organic matter already present in the soil,
and pH. Soil levels may need to be changed to correct deciencies or excesses as they are accessed.
138
will instruct the individual processing your

soil sample as to the type of test(s) you want
to have conducted. Information given on
the form will provide the location of the soil
sample, recent history of fertilizer and lime
applications, depth of where the sample was
taken, crop status, intended crop, crop age (if
planted), and whether irrigation is applied.
Plant Analysis
In plant analysis of grapes, leaf petioles are
the parts sampled. Chemical analysis of the
petioles indicates the level of nutrients in the
entire vine. Samples are normally collected
between July 1 and August 30 which corresponds to veraison. Contact your county
Extension ofce for a listing of potential
laboratories where you can send your samples
for analysis. Be sure to provide complete
information on the container as to the date,
location, and variety sampled.
To be most efcient, petiole analysis should
be conducted over a period of years as part of
the management program. A single analysis
is useful in diagnosing a nutrient problem or
in determining the nutrient status of the vine

at the time sampled. However, one analysis
cannot indicate what the nutrient status may
be a year later.
Petiole analysis continued for three to ve
years in a given vineyard will help establish
trends and changes in nutrient element levels.
The direction and nature of the trends are
then interpreted and used in planning annual
fertilizer and cultural programs. This information can greatly help growers maintain
vineyards at their peak of production year after
year. The recommendations for nutrients in
grape petioles are shown in Table 18.
Primary Nutrients
Primary nutrients are essential for sustaining
vegetative growth, yield production, plant
vigor, and winter hardiness of vines. Nutrient
levels can be assessed by soil and/or plant
tissue analysis.
Historically, grapes grown in the Midwest were
petiole sampled during mid-July to the end
of August. Research from California and New
York indicated that sampling for N during
Table 18. Specic Element Recommendations for Grapes from Petioles.

Element a
Decient
Below
Normal
Normal
Above
Normal
Excessive
N (%)
0.3-0.7
0.7-0.9
0.9-1.3
1.4-2.0
2.1+
P (%)
0.12
0.13-0.15
0.16-0.29
0.30-0.50
0.51+
K (%)
0.5-1.0
1.1-1.4
1.5-2.5
2.6-4.5
4.6+
Ca (%)
0.5-0.8
0.8-1.1
1.2-1.8
1.9-3.0
3.1+
Mg (%)
0.14
0.15-0.25
0.26-0.45
0.46-0.80
0.81+
Mn (ppm)
10-24
25-30
31-150
150-700
700+
Fe (ppm)
10-20
21-30
31-50
51-200
200+
Cu (ppm)
0-2
3-4
5-15
15-30
31+
B (ppm)
14-19
20-25
25-50
51-100
100+
Zn (ppm)
0-15
16-29
30-50
51-80
80+
a
Values may differ among species for optimal growth. Values from leaves will vary signicantly. For petioles
taken between July 15 to August 15.
Source: Fertilizing Fruit Crops, Ohio State University Extension, Bulletin 458.
139
June would provide a more accurate example

of the N that is available for plant growth and
development during the growing season. This
may, in the future, become a more acceptable
practice for Midwest grape growers.
Nitrogen
The nutrient element that is often low or
decient in a vineyard is nitrogen. Grape
leaves will exhibit a light-green to yellowishgreen color as nitrogen in the vine drops to
low or decient levels. Leaf discoloration will
appear in the older leaves as the nitrogen is
translocated from older to new emerging
leaves. Vines will have poor vegetative growth
and reduced fruit set where nitrogen is
decient.
Nitrogen is generally applied in split applications at budbreak or post-budbreak and
during bloom. Application rates vary with
vine vigor and other factors. In general, most
vineyards should receive between 40 and 80
pounds actual nitrogen per acre each year.
If ammonium nitrate (33-1/2% nitrogen) is
used, 120 to 240 pounds of the material will
be broadcast per acre over the vineyard row
area. Less-vigorous vines should receive higher
rates. In small vineyards, nitrogen fertilizer
can be applied annually at the rate of 1/2 to
1/3 pound of a 33-1/3% nitrogen carrier, or its
equivalent, around each vine. Do not concentrate the fertilizer at the base or allow fertilizer
to touch the vine.
Most nitrogen forms can be used equally
well in vineyards. The choice depends largely
on the cost per pound of nitrogen applied,
with one possible exception. On soils with a
high pH, where grape leaves show symptoms
of manganese or iron deciency, sulfate of
ammonia is preferred. This form of nitrogen
tends to increase soil acidity, which makes
more manganese available to the vine roots.
Do not use sulfate of ammonia on low-pH
soils.
140
High application rates can stimulate excessive

growth, which may result in the appearance of
deciency symptoms of other nutrients. For
example, if supplies of potassium, magnesium,
or other nutrients are low in a given vineyard
soil, excessive nitrogen application rates
could result in the appearance of deciency
symptoms of one or more of these elements.
Phosphorus
Midwestern vineyards tend not to have
serious phosphorus (P) deciency problems.
Generally, adequate amounts of P can be
found when soils are tested. In the event that a
soil analysis indicates a lack of P, then superphosphate or blended fertilizer with P included
can be applied at a rate based on soil and/or
leaf tissue analysis.
Potassium
Grapevines will often show signs of potassium
(K) deciency when heavily cropped and little
or no additional K has been added. A dull,
dark green color will appear on the leaves. In
mid- to late summer, leaves may have a bronze
color, especially on the west-facing side of the
trellis. Some leaves may have dark spots or
blotches. This symptom often has been characterized as black leaf of grapes (Figure 110).
FIGURE 110. Potassium deciency symptoms

characterized by yellowing of leaf margins.
Marginal chlorosis, browning, and dying may

occur as the deciency becomes more severe.
Other possible symptoms include brown dead
spots or areas throughout the leaf. In severe
cases, more than half of the leaves on a vine
may show these symptoms. Severe potassium
deciency greatly reduces vine vigor, berry size,
and crop yield.
Symptoms of potassium deciency generally
develop in mid-shoot leaves followed by
older basal leaves. Potassium carriers include
potassium sulfate (sulfate of potash),
containing about 50% K 2O; potassium
chloride (muriate of potash), containing about
60% K 2O; and potassium nitrate, with 44%
K 2O.
Foliar sprays of potassium sulfate or potassium
nitrate can be effective to temporarily reduce
a severe K deciency. Potassium compounds
tend to be xed in the soil surface, although
less than phosphate. This xation, which
makes potassium unavailable to plant roots,
generally is greater in a clay soil with pH near
7.0 than in a sandy soil with a pH near 5.0.
Therefore, potash application rates may need
to be greater and more frequent on clay than
on sandy loam soils, especially if the pH is
above 6.5.
Response to potash fertilizers is greatest when
applications are made in 2-foot bands beneath
the trellis. Broadcasting potash over the entire
vineyard is less efcient and less economical.
Either soil or foliar applications of sulfate
or nitrate of potash should be made where
potassium is low. Soil application rates should
be based on a soil test, foliar analysis, or both.
In general, 100 to 400 pounds per acre have
been adequate.
If foliar sprays are indicated, use a solution
containing 6 to 10 pounds of either carrier
per 100 gallons. Apply at a rate of 200 to 300
gallons per acre of mature vineyard. Foliage
applications are of primary value, but they
provide only a temporary solution to a
potassium problem. Soil applications have a
more lasting effect. Make one or more applications as soon as the need is determined. Avoid
excessive rates of potash, which can lead to
magnesium deciencies in the vineyard and
high pH must and wine.
Magnesium
Magnesium (Mg) is most likely to be decient
in vineyards with low pH (acidic) soil or
in situations where excessive amounts of
potassium have been applied. The lower
the soil pH, the more Mg is tied up in the
soil particles and not available for plant use.
Increased levels of potassium will cause the
displacement of Mg++ cations on the soil
surface, which causes a reduction in available
Mg ions.
Symptoms of Mg deciency develop on the
older leaves rst. Chlorosis (yellowing) appears
between the veins of the leaves while the veins
remain green (Figure 111). As a vine becomes
more severely affected, the interveinal chlorosis
intensies in older leaves and spreads to
younger leaves toward the terminals of canes.
The younger terminal leaves may not exhibit
symptoms until the entire vine is extremely
decient.
Where the soil pH is below 5.5, apply
dolomitic lime (high in magnesium) at the rate
of two to four tons per acre. This will increase
soil pH and correct a magnesium deciency.
Complete correction could occur within a few
months or may not be achieved until one or
two years after the application.
If the soil pH is above 6.5 and no liming is
needed, correction is best achieved through
foliage applications of magnesium sulfate
(Epsom salts). Even if dolomitic limestone has
been applied and Mg deciency symptoms are
severe, foliage application provides a quick but
temporary solution.
For foliar sprays, mix magnesium sulfate
at the rate of 16 pounds per 100 gallons of
water. Two applications usually are adequate.
141
FIGURE 111. Magnesium deciency symptoms in a red (A) and a white (B) cultivar.
Apply the rst shortly after bloom and the

second two weeks later. Each spray application requires about 200 to 300 gallons of the
mixture per acre to adequately cover the vines.
If longer-lasting effects are desired, magnesium
sulfate can be applied to the soil. This is
recommended on high pH soils where
magnesium deciency has resulted from
excessive potash applications. In these cases,
magnesium sulfate may be applied alone or
mixed with other fertilizer materials at the rate
of 100 to 500 pounds per acre broadcast over
the entire vineyard oor. In small vineyards,
apply magnesium sulfate at 1/4 to 3/4 pound
per vine. Magnesium sulfate or dolomitic
limestone can be applied any time of year.
Secondary Nutrients
Secondary nutrients, although not required
in large amounts, are essential for good
plant growth and vigor. Over-application
can occur when adjusting levels of calcium
(Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), boron (B)
or copper (Cu). If too high a concentration
of secondary nutrients is applied either by
foliar or soil application, then there is a risk of
increasing each of the elements to toxic levels.
Secondary nutrients Mn, Ca, and Fe are
normally not found to be decient. Soil and/or
leaf tissue may indicate that these elements
142
are decient. A foliar application of a decient

nutrient(s) can be sprayed on for immediate
effect. This type of fertilization is a temporary
means of correcting a deciency and should
not to be used in a long-term fertility program.
Calcium
Calcium is generally not found to be decient
in soils that are well limed. Unless the pH is
allowed to drop below 5.8, there is little chance
for Ca to be tied up in the soil. Additionally,
lime that is high in Ca can add adequate
amounts to the soil. Calcium can be applied as
nely ground limestone or hydrated lime, or in
fertilizer mixtures.
Boron
Boron deciencies have been observed in grape
plantings in the form of poor fruit set. Clusters
will tend to be small, and (shot) berries will
not fully develop on the rachis. Terminal
buds may not break in the spring, and ends of
shoots sometimes are distorted. A plant tissue
analysis can determine if there is a deciency
in B, and appropriate amounts can be applied
in a foliar spray. Boron availability should
not be a problem if soil pH does not become
alkaline. Borax or borate, B carriers, can be
sprayed on in the spring when needed.
Manganese
Manganese deciency symptoms rst appear
as interveinal chlorosis, or yellowing, of the
younger terminal leaves. A Mn deciency may
occur when the soil pH is 7.0 or higher and
can be corrected by applying fertilizer-grade
manganese sulfate at one to two pounds per
vine, or 250 to 500 pounds per acre, depending
on vine size and severity of the deciency.
Manganese chelate (EDTA), or its equivalent,
can be used in place of manganese sulfate.
Always read the product label before applying
these materials.
A foliar application of Mn can be sprayed
on for immediate effect. This application
is considered to be a temporary means of
correcting a deciency and not for longterm adjustment of the nutrient level. Mix
manganese sulfate at the rate of 4 pounds plus
2 pounds of hydrate lime per 100 gallons of
water. Manganese chelate is mixed at the rate
of 1 pound per 100 gallons of water. Spray at
the rate of 200 to 300 gallons per acre. Two
applications usually will provide season-long

control of manganese symptoms. Apply the
rst just after bloom or when symptoms rst
appear and the second two weeks later.
Iron
If deciency symptoms develop or a petiole
analysis indicates a need, apply iron in the
form of iron chelates.
Copper
Copper is required in minor amounts and, if
needed, can be applied at no more than 4 to 6
lbs. of copper sulfate per acre in a foliar spray
in early spring before budbreak.
Zinc
Zinc is required in minor amounts and, if
needed, can be applied in a foliar spray at 5.5
lbs. of zinc chelate per acre in early spring
before budbreak.
143
Harvesting and Marketing

Harvest Timing
The proper harvesting time for grapes depends
on the cultivars, nature of the growing season,
and the particular use of the fruit. Although
proper harvest methods cannot make up
for poor weather or cultural management,
harvest can diminish a quality crop to a level of
mediocrity, if not handled with care. The rate
at which grape fruits mature, as well as the time
of their ripening, is governed by several factors,
some of which can be altered by the grower.
Factors Affecting Harvest Timing

1. Selection of cultivars.
Select cultivars that inherently mature their
fruits within the growing season common
in the Midwest, with bloom in early June
and harvest before a killing frost in midOctober.
2. Growing-season temperatures.
An average growing-season temperature
of 65F to 70F is necessary for proper
functioning of the natural processes that
mature fruits and vines. A minimum
amount of heat units is necessary to mature
a cultivar such as Concord. A heat unit
is dened as the daily accumulation of
temperature above a certain threshold value
(generally 50F) for a specic stage of plant
development.
3. Crop load.
Vines carrying a normal, or less than
normal, crop mature fruits earlier than
those carrying heavy crop loads.
4. Light exposure.
Vines trained to expose the highest
percentage of leaves to light mature fruits
144
and wood earlier than vines with less light

exposure.
5. Healthy foliage.
Grapes with leaves free from insects, disease,
herbicide injuries, and nutrient deciencies
mature faster.
6. Vine vigor.
Over-vigorous vine growth delays maturity
of fruit and wood; vines with low vigor
generally mature wood and fruit earlier
than normal vines, if the crop load is
not excessive. Moderately vigorous vines
normally mature their fruits earlier than
highly vigorous vines. Therefore, overvigorous vines with densely shaded areas
may not mature their fruit or wood before
autumn frosts kill leaves and tender shoot
terminals.
7. Intended use.
Grapes intended for fresh eating, processing
into juice, jam, jelly, or wine, may have
different desired harvest parameters.
As the harvest season approaches, growers
should try to pick the fruit at optimum
maturity and quality for the specic use.
Grapes do not improve in avor, color, and
sugar content after separation from the vine,
so harvest should be delayed until desired
levels are reached. On the other hand, if the
grapes are left too long on the vine, the berries
may shatter; damage from birds, insects, and
rots may become signicant; and yields will be
reduced.
The rst indication of physiological changes
in the maturing fruit is the development of
pigments in colored cultivars and softening
of berry skins. The beginning of the ripening
process is called veraison. Following veraison,
berry sugars will rapidly increase, acid will

decrease, and the berry will reach its nal
size. Approximately three to four weeks after
veraison, or three weeks before harvest, regular
berry sampling should begin to monitor fruit
composition. It is critical that the sampling
procedure be consistent each time to fully
evaluate ripening.
Most cultivars change color long before they
are mature enough to harvest. Human taste
buds respond primarily to the sugar/acid ratio.
Grapes are approaching an acceptable maturity
for fresh eating at a sugar/acid ratio of 15:1
(15% soluble solids and an acid content of
1%). As the sugar content increases and the
acid content decreases, this ratio may rise to
as high as 25:1 or 30:1. For table use, grapes
should be picked when both color and avor
have reached their peak.
The average length of time between bloom
and optimum harvest date for a cultivar can be
helpful in determining the time of harvest but
may vary considerably from year to year and
from region to region. The section on grape
cultivars contains information on approximate
date of maturity to use as a guide.
Grapes for commercial processing into juice
or wine generally are harvested at the state of
maturity desired by the processor. The primary
index of maturity for this purpose for juice
grapes is the soluble solids (Brix) content.
(Brix is determined with a refractometer. See
Figure 112.) In addition to soluble solids,
total acid content and pH also are important
indicators of maturity, especially for wine
grapes.
When grapes are grown for processing, the
entire vineyard is harvested at one time to
facilitate processing. Therefore, it is extremely
important to determine the fruit composition
in the vineyard prior to harvest. Berry samples
should be taken from exposed fruit and
shaded fruit in different parts of the canopy,
on opposite sides of the row, and in a manner
that as close as possible represents the balance
FIGURE 112. A refractometer is used to

determine the soluble solids (Brix) content.
of fruit in the vineyard. Berries at the tip of

the cluster ripen last, so it is important that
the sample include berries from all parts of the
cluster. Avoid sampling from vines at the ends
of rows or from odd vines. Although underdeveloped secondary clusters are best removed
at veraison, if they are to be harvested (as with
mechanical harvesting), they must be included
in the sample. For the sample to accurately
represent maturity, a minimum of 100 berries
should be collected from multiple clusters on
at least 20 vines.
Total acidity (often called titratable acidity)
and pH are important harvest parameters
because they affect both avor balance and
wine stability. Titratable acidity measures the
quantity of grape acids (mostly tartaric and
malic), while pH is a measure of the strength
of the acidity. Normally, titratable acid
decreases during ripening, and the decrease
is greater under warm than cool conditions.
Titratable acid level is measured by titrating
against a standard base using a pH meter or
color change indicator. Juice and wine with
lower pH tend to have better color, microbial
and chemical stability. If pH is too high, wine
may taste at and lack crisp, fruity avors. A
meter with a pH sensitive electrode is used to
measure juice pH. Growers may work with a
winery to perform tests of titratable acidity
and pH, but the procedure is not difcult if the
grower has access to the proper equipment and
supplies.
145
A good reference on wine and juice analysis,

including pH and TA measurement, is
available from Southwest Missouri State
University. See Micro Vinication: A practical
guide to small-scale wine production, Dharmadhikari, M. R. and K. L. Wilker. 2001.
sition to wine quality. Flavor, seed maturity,

skin color, and other factors may also be
important with certain cultivars and for
discriminating winemakers. Working with the
processor to determine the optimal level of
ripeness is the best approach to success.
Guidelines for fruit harvest parameters

vary according to the intended wine style.
Generally, for dry white wines, fruit is
harvested when the pH is 3.1 to 3.2 and the
titratable acidity is about 0.75%. For dry red
wines, fruit is harvested when the pH is 3.4 to
3.5 and the titratable acidity is about 0.65%.
In both cases, winemakers generally prefer
fruit at about 0.15% higher acid levels for
wines they intend to nish sweeter, with 2 to
3% residual sugar.
Fresh-market grapes and those for table use

must be hand-picked and handled carefully. To
achieve optimum quality and extend the length
of the season, growers may sometimes harvest
a vine more than once, selecting fully ripened
clusters determined by color and taste. Some
cultivars tend to crack at maturity, particularly
if there has been excessive rain. In such cases,
fruit rots can develop and spread rapidly. If
fruit rots start to develop, harvest immediately
to avoid losing the entire crop.
In most cases, soluble solids should be 20%

or above when the pH and titratable acidity
are in the appropriate range. However, some
cultivars, particularly labrusca types, tend to be
lower in soluble solids when other parameters
are optimal. Additionally, some winemakers
prefer more or less ripe fruit of specic
cultivars.
While grapes for wine making are often hand

harvested, the majority of grapes for juice are
harvested mechanically (Figure 113). Most of
the harvesters rely on high-frequency vibration
to shake both individual grapes and intact
clusters from the vines. Several commercial
models are available for both single- and
double-curtain trellises. Some winemakers
prefer machine harvesting because it facilitates rapid harvest and processing, especially
on larger acreages and where labor may be
limited.
There are notable exceptions to these general

guidelines, but they should help growers
understand the importance of fruit compo-
FIGURE 113. Mechanical harvesters are used with juice grapes and some wine grapes, especially where
acreages are large and labor may be limited.
146
Marketing
All grape growers should develop a marketing
plan. Time and money spent cultivating a
vineyard is wasted unless a suitable marketing
plan is developed. There is not enough time to
develop a market after grapes are ripe.
Successful marketing requires more than
producing good fruit, although a quality
product is necessary. The key is to develop
a marketing plan that forces the grower to
examine all the facets of grape growing as a
business. It also forces growers to set realistic
goals and devise methods to achieve them.
The rst decision in formulating a marketing
plan is identifying the target market. Growers
cannot realistically try to sell grapes to
everyone. They must aim for a segment of
the total market. The wine producers or
marketing association in each state can provide
prospective growers with lists of wineries
and other potential markets. A rst step is to
identify wineries and get input from them on
what cultivar they need and whether a mutual
relationship of supply and demand can be
developed (Figure 114).
Growers must be realistic about the potential

yield from their vineyard, the cultivars adapted
to their site, and the price those cultivars can
bring. One of the best ways of ensuring a
good business relationship is to operate under
a mutually agreed-upon contract. Although
it is best to consult legal advice to develop a
contract, some characteristics that may be
included are listed here.
1. Cultivar and clone, quantity to be delivered,
price, Brix, TA, pH.
2. Who transports and in what containers?
Time requirements?
3. Who is responsible for off-loading? Getting
certied weights?
4. Method and time of payment.
5. What happens if grapes are below
minimum quality?
6. Level of rot and material other than grapes
allowed.
Depending on the location of the vineyards,
other types of markets such as pick-your-own,
fresh-pressed juice, or produce distributors
may be possibilities.
FIGURE 114. Retail sales room.

147
Publications for Additional Information

Additional information on the sources indicated
here can be found in the next section.
Bordelon, B. P. 1995. Grape varieties for
Indiana. Bulletin HO-221. Lafayette, Ind.
Purdue University. (Source 6).
Dami, I., J. Masiunas, B. Bordelon. 2002.
Herbicide Drift and Injury to Grapes.
Carbondale, Ill. Southern Illinois University.
(Source 10).
Dharmadhikari, M. R. and K. L. Wilker. 2001.
Micro Vinication: A practical guide to smallscale wine production. Southwest Missouri
State University. (Source 11).
Hellman, E. W. 2003. Oregon Viticulture.
Oregon State University Press. Corvallis, Ore.
(Can be obtained through Source 9.)
Howell, G. S., D. P. Miller, and T. J. Zabadal.
1998. Wine grape varieties for Michigan.
Bulletin E-2643. East Lansing, Mich. Michigan
IPM Grape Fact Sheets. Set of 14 on: Eutypa
Dieback, Powdery Mildew, Botrytis, Black
Rot, Downy Mildew, Phomopsis Grape and
Leaf Spot, Berry Moth, Grape Cane Borer,
Cutworms, Grape Leafhopper, Grape Cane
Girdler, Grape Flea Beetle, Grape Rootworm,
and Grape Tumid Gallmaker. Extension
Publication #102FSG. Ithaca, N.Y. Cornell
University. (Source 3).
Jourdan, T. D., R. M. Pool, T. J. Zabadal, and
J. P. Tomkins. 1981. Cultural practices for
commercial vineyards. Geneva, N.Y. Cornell
Loux, M. M., J. M. Stachler, W. G. Johnson,
G. R. W. Nice, T. T. Baunan. 2004. Weed
Control Guide for Ohio Field Crops. Ohio State
University Extension Bulletin 789. 176 pp.
(Source 2.)
148
Mullins, M. G., A. Bouquet, L. E. Williams.

1992. Biology of the grapevine. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
(Source 9).
Pearson, R. C. and A. C. Goheen, Eds. 1988.
Compendium of grape diseases. St. Paul, Minn.
American Phytopathological Society (APS)
Press. (Source 4).
Pool, R. M. et al. 1988. Growing Vitis vinifera
grapes in New York State. New York State
Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N.Y.
Cornell University. (Source 1).
Reisch, B. I., D. V. Petereson, R. M. Pool, and
M. H. Martens. 1993. Wine and juice grape
varieties for cool climates. Information Bulletin
233. Ithaca, N.Y. Cornell University. (Source 3).
Reisch, B. I., D. V. Petereson, R. M. Pool, and
M. H. Martens. 1993. Table grape varieties for
cool climates. Information Bulletin 234. Ithaca,
N.Y. Cornell University. (Source 3).
Smart, P. and M. Robinson. 1991. Sunlight into
Wine. Wine Titles, Underdale, South Australia.
(Source 9).
Uva, R. H., J. C. Neal, J. M. DiTomaso. 1997.
Weeds of the Northeast. Comstock Publishing
Associates. Ithaca, N.Y. 397 pp. (Source 3).
Williams, R. N., D. M. Pavek, and R. W. Rings.
1985. Insect and Mite Pests of Grapes in Ohio.
Ohio State University Extension. Bulletin 730.
Columbus, Ohio. (Source 2).
Wolf, T. K. and E. B. Poling. 1995. The midAtlantic winegrape growers guide. Raleigh, N.C.
North Carolina State University. (Source 7).
Zabadal, T. J. 1997. Vineyard establishment
IIplanting and early care of vineyards.
Zabadal, T. J. 1999. Pest control in small

vineyards. Bulletin E-2698. East Lansing, Mich.
Michigan State University. (Source 5).
Zabadal, T. J. 2002. Growing table grapes in
a temperate climate. Bulletin E-2774, East
Lansing Mich. Michigan State University.
(Source 5).
Zabadal, T. J., J. A. Bartsch, G. D. Blanpied, T. J.
Dennehy, R. C. Pearson, R. M. Pool, and B. I.
Reisch. 1988. Concord table grapes: A manual
for growers. Geneva, N.Y. Cornell University.
(Source 1).
Zabadal, T. J., G. S. Howell, and B. P. Miller.

1997. Table grape varieties for Michigan.
Zabadal, T. J. and J. A. Andersen. 1997.
Vineyard establishment Ipreplant decisions.
Zabadal, T. J. and G. Brunke. 2001. Building a
grape arbor. Southwest Michigan Research and
Extension Center (SWMREC) Special Report
#16. East Lansing, Mich. Michigan State
149
Sources
Source 1
Source 5
Communication Services Distribution

New York State Agricultural Experiment
Station
Cornell University
Geneva, NY 14456
Michigan State University Bulletin Ofce

10-B Agriculture Hall
East Lansing, MI 48824-1039
Source 2
Source 6
Ohio State University Extension

Media Distribution
2021 Coffey Road
Columbus, OH 43210-1044
Phone: 614-292-1607
Items can be ordered with Visa or MasterCard,
or you will be billed for the cost of the publication plus shipping.
Purdue University
Agricultural Communication
Media Distribution Center
231 S. University Street
West Lafayette, IN 47907-2064
1-888-EXT-INFO (398-4636)
Master Card, Visa, Discover accepted.
E-mail: media.order@purdue.edu
Fax: 765-496-1540
Source 3
Source 7
Cornell Extension Resource Center - GP

7 Cornell Technology Park
Ithaca, NY 14850
Phone: 607-255-2080
Fax: 607-255-9946
E-mail: DISTBCENTER@CCE.CORNELL.
EDU
North Carolina State University

Publications Ofce
Department of Ag Communication
Campus Box 7063
Raleigh, NC 27695-7603
Items can be ordered by phone with Visa or

MasterCard.
Or order with a credit card at 1-517-355-0240.
Source 8
The Southwest Michigan Research and
Extension Center web site:
www.msue.msu.edu/swmrec
Source 4
American Phytopathological Society
3340 Pilot Knob Road
St. Paul, MN 55121
Or order with a credit card at 1-800-328-7560.
150
Source 9
Practical Winery and Vineyard Magazine
15 Grand Paseo
San Rafael, CA 94903
This magazine sells numerous grape
publications.
Source 10
Source 11
University of Illinois
Publication Plus
Information Technology and Communication
Services
1-800-345-6087
webstore.aces.uiuc.edu/Shopsite/c1382.html
Southwest Missouri State University

Department of Fruit Science
9470 Red Springs Road
Mountain Grove, MO 65711-2999
Phone: 417-926-4105
Fax: 417-926-6646
http://mtngrv.smsu.edu/
151
Glossary
Arm
A short branch of old wood extending
from the trunk or cordon on which canes
or spurs are borne.
Arthropod
Any invertebrate animal (including insects,
mites, spiders, and crustaceans) that has a
jointed body and limbs.
Ascospore
The sexual spore of an ascomycete fungus.
Balanced Pruning
Pruning the vine based on its growth and
number of nodes the previous growing
season. A method of determining the
potential fruiting capacity of a vine at
pruning time.
Base Shoot
A shoot arising from a bud at the base of a
cane.
Bleeding
Flow of plant sap from wounds.
Brix
A scale used to indicate soluble solids
content: Brix = grams of sucrose per 100
grams of liquid at 68F.
Bud
The compound bud or eye in the axil of a
leaf, at the node.
Callus
Parenchyma tissue that grows over a
wound or graft and protects it from drying
or injury.
Calyptra
The petals of a grape ower.
152
Cane
A mature woody, brown shoot that
develops after leaf fall.
Canker
A necrotic, localized disease area with a
sharp line of demarcation between healthy
and diseased tissue. Usually on trunks or
canes.
Canopy
The entire foliage of a grapevine as it is
positioned on the trellis.
Chlorosis
Yellowing of normally green parts of the
plant, especially shoots and leaves.
Cleistothecium
The sexual fruiting body of a powdery
mildew fungus.
Conidia
Asexual spores formed by several types of
fungi.
Cordon
An extension of the grapevine trunk,
usually horizontally oriented and trained
along the trellis wire.
Crop Load
The ratio of crop size/vine size.
Crop Size
The fruit weight per vine (in pounds)
measured at harvest.
Curtain
A portion of the canopy composed of
the current seasons shoot growth that is
normally oriented downward.
Dormancy
That stage when the plant is not actively
growing.
Floret
The individual ower of a cluster.
Herbicides:
Selective Herbicide One that affects
some plants but not others.
Non-Selective Herbicide One that will
kill any plant it contacts.
Contact Herbicide One that affects
only the tissue sprayed.
Systemic Herbicide One that moves
within the plant; also known as a translocated herbicide.
Fragipans
Impermeable soil layers or texture changes
that prevent free downward movement of
water.
Infection
The process in which a pathogen enters,
invades, or penetrates a host plant and
establishes a parasitic relationship with it.
Fruiting Wood
One-year-old wood (cane) that produces
the current seasons crop.
Infection Period
The time required for a plant pathogen to
penetrate host plant tissue and establish
a parasitic relationship. Length of the
infection period depends on environmental factors such as wetness duration
and temperature, and host susceptibility.
Escapes
Weeds in a treated area that have been
missed or that have survived the treatment.
Fungicide
A chemical or physical agent that kills
fungi or inhibits its growth.
Gall
An abnormal growth of plant tissue caused
by stimuli external to the plant itself,
generally caused by insects or parasitic
bacteria. Example: Phylloxera gall.
Germ Tube
The initial hyphae strand from a germinating fungus spore.
Head
The top of the vine where canes are
selected to produce the current seasons
crop.
Hedging
Trimming ends of shoots in a vertically
shoot-positioned traning system, such as
VSP.
Internode
That portion of the cane or shoot between
nodes.
Lateral
Side branches of a shoot or cane.
Lesion
A wound or delimited disease area.
Life Cycle
The period of time between fertilization
of an insect egg and the death of the
individual that proceeds from that egg. In
most insects, includes the stages of egg,
larva (grub), pupa, and adult.
Mummy
A dried and shriveled grape berry resulting
from attack by a fungus.
Necrosis
The localized death of plant tissue,
generally brown or black in color.
153
Node
The thickened portion of a shoot or cane
where the leaf and its compound bud are
attached.
Oospore
A thick-walled, sexually derived resting
spore of oomycete (downy mildew) fungi.
Pedicel
The stem of an individual ower or berry.
Peduncle
That portion of the rachis extending from
the shoot to the rst branch of the cluster.
Petiole
The stem end of a leaf.
Pheromone
A chemical substance (i.e., sex attractant)
produced by an animal that serves as a
stimulus to other individuals of the same
species for a behavioral response.
Pruning
Physical removal of portions of the vine
for the purpose of maintaining size and
productivity.
Pycnidia
An asexual, globose, or ask-shaped
fruiting body of a fungus that produces
conidia. See Conidia.
Rachis
The main stem or axis of a cluster. The
framework of the cluster to which the
pedicels are attached.
Renewal Spur
A cane pruned to one or two nodes,
generally on an arm or cordon. Its primary
purpose is to position a cane for fruiting
the following season.
154
Rest
That period of nonvisible growth
controlled by internal factors. Visible
growth will not occur even under
favorable environmental conditions.
Sclerotia
Hard, dark, and rounded mass of fungal
tissue that permits survival in adverse
environments.
Shatter
That physiological stage following bloom
when impotent owers and small green
berries begin to drop from the cluster.
Shoot
The green, leafy growth developing from
a cane, spur, cordon, or trunk. The developing growth is the source of leaves, stems,
tendrils, owers, and fruit.
Skirting
Trimming ends of shoots in a downward
shoot-positioned training system, such as
High Cordon.
Slip-Skinned
The grape esh separates readily from the
skin.
Sporangiophore
A sporangium-bearing body of the downy
mildew fungus.
Sporangium
A fungal structure producing asexual
spores, usually zoospores.
Spore
A reproductive body of a fungus.
Spur
A cane pruned to one or two nodes. A
fruiting spur is chosen to produce shoots
with fruit. See Renewal Spur.
Stomate
An opening or pore usually in the lower
surface of a leaf that functions in gas
exchange.
Sucker
A shoot arising from a bud below ground.
Summer Lateral
A weak shoot produced in the axil of the
leaf adjacent to the bud.
Tendril
A curled structure arising from some
nodes of the shoot and capable of
attaching itself to other portions of the
vine or trellis.
Trunk
The main, upright structure of the vine
from which arms, cordons, shoots, and
canes arise. Vines may have more than one
trunk.
Veraison
That physiological stage in the development of a grape berry when it begins
to ripen as indicated by color change and
fruit softening.
Vine Size
Weight of cane prunings on a vine.
Measured by weighing cane pruning per
vine (in pounds) during the dormant
season.
Water Sprout
An unwanted shoot arising from buds on
the trunk.
Weed Shift
The build up of tolerant weed species.
Zoospore
A fungal spore with agella, capable of
locomotion in water.
155

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Bulletin 919 For-sale publication

Copyright 2005, Ohio State University Extension

Midwest Grape Production Guide

Crop Control and Canopy Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Controlling Specic Perennial Weeds with Systemic Herbicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Introduction and History

established vineyards, cultivars that included

FIGURE 1. Bordeaux application to control diseases in the early 1900s.

10,000 acres and grew to a peak of 28,000 in

FIGURE 2. Grape harvest in the Lake Erie Region

During Prohibition, grapes were only used

produced for religious purposes, and home

was limited until the 1990s at which time

Spring frosts may occasionally kill the tender

FIGURE 4. Frost injury to the primary shoot

Cluster initiation for next years crop begins

The following spring as these buds begin

Morphologically, the grape fruit cluster is

Frequently during the growing season, a short,

can be damaged. When injury occurs, it is

FIGURE 6. Bud cross section showing dead

The most frost-free sites are those higher than

Soils and Water Drainage

drainage means surface removal of water as

FIGURE 7. Poor drainage with standing water

Just as cold air should not be allowed to

The USDA Natural Resources Conservation

FIGURE 9. Example of soil prole with adequate

Producers should note that general soils and

Although grapevines grow and produce best

destructive diseases and insect pests

Table 1. American Cultivars for the Midwest.

Standard of juice quality and most

Vigorous Concord type.

Concord type; distinct avor; table

Earlier Concord type; vigorous.

Adherent skin; productive; muscat

Used for wine and sherry.

Used for wine; stores well.

Used for wine and white juice.

Spicy avor; non-uniform color.

Used exclusively for wine; long

Table Grape Cultivars

Since fruit appearance and berry size greatly

Vinifera table grape cultivars, such as

A recent publicationGrowing Table Grapes in

Table 2. Seedless Table Grape Cultivars for the Midwest.

Productive; good clusters.

Slip skin; mild strawberry avor; may

High quality; straggly clusters.

Highly productive; high quality;

High productivity; medium clusters;

High quality; productive; uneven

Adherent skin; compact clusters;

Adherent skin; rm esh.