Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... i
Symbols & Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................ii
The Basics of Experimental Sciences ............................................................................................................ii
MECHANICS ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Kinematics .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Forces ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Linear Momentum ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Work, Energy, Power ................................................................................................................................. 3
Circular Motion .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Projectile Motion ........................................................................................................................................ 4
THERMOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Thermal Properties ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Thermodynamics ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Sources of Energy ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Energy Balance........................................................................................................................................... 9
Green House Effect (GHE) ...................................................................................................................... 10
Global Warming (GW) ............................................................................................................................. 10
WAVES ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)............................................................................................................. 11
Definitions & Waves in General .............................................................................................................. 12
Reflection and Refraction ......................................................................................................................... 13
Interference and Diffraction ..................................................................................................................... 13
Dopplers Effects ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Standing Waves ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Resolution ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Polarization ............................................................................................................................................... 17
Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium
IB Physics HL Notes (May 2014 Session)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

INTRODUCTION
This is part of my series of detailed IB Physics HL notes that I took during my physics course at Kungsholmens
Gymnasium. Part

consists of

big topics: Mechanics, Thermology, and Waves. The study guide covers the IB

syllabus, and thus contains lots of derivations & explanations for different laws and concepts that students need to
master at the end of their IB Physics HL course. In order to make the study guide short, concise but understandable,
the language of mathematics (i.e. symbols) is used intensively throughout the study guide; thus people who have a
stronger background in mathematics will clearly be more advantaged when using this guide.
Notice that there are things within this study guide that are totally not part of the syllabus, but are still put here for
the ones who are interested. These supplementary materials are put within the information boxes such as the one
presented below:

The texts that are emphasized throughout the guide can be divided into 4 types:
-

Bold: means that the phrase is either a headline or a key terminology

Bold & Italic: means important phrases

Bold, Italic, & Underlined: means vitally important key words

Mathematical formulas that are marked bold are the ones that appear within the IB physics formula booklet

It is necessary to understand that images/figures that are used here in the study guide are as equally important as the
texts themselves; and the text that is placed next to a figure always contains some contents that refer to the picture.
There are many common symbols and abbreviations used repeatedly throughout the study guide; and for that
reason, they are listed in the next section down below for easy referencing. However, note that all symbols that are
not commonly used are defined within the guide itself; so pay attention to these definitions when using the guide!
This guide is not for commercial use; hence, the information presented here (in which most are taken from the
internet, and from the Physics for the IB Diploma 5th Edition textbook, written by K. A. Tsokos) will not be
formally referenced.
Please feel free to contact me through email (my email address is dinhsyhai@yahoo.com.vn) if you have any
questions regarding this study guide. Thank you!

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Symbols & Abbreviations

General Symbols & Abbreviations:

Mean

Min

Horizontal & Vertical components

Work

Standard Deviation

Mass

Kinetic energy

Proportional

Density

Potential energy

Very small compared to.

Time

Electric field

Delta (i.e. change)

Velocity of an Object

Magnetic field

Delta (for very small change)

Acceleration

Electrons

Minimum

Magnitude of Gravitational Field

Photons

Momentum

Wavelength

Max Maximum

Symbols & Abbreviations used in Mechanics

SUVAT (distance),

(initial velocity),

(final velocity),

(acceleration), (time)

Symbols & Abbreviations used in Thermology

/temp Temperature

Luminosity

Pressure

GW

Global Warming

Pressure

Heat

GHG

Green-house Gases

Volume

Internal Energy

GHE

Green-house Effects

Entropy

Kelvin

eGHE

Enhanced GHE

Symbols & Abbreviations used in Thermology

SHM

Distance from source

Simple Harmonic Motion

Length of a Tube

Spring Constant

Amplitude

Diffraction Angle

Angular Frequency/Velocity

Period

Width of a Slit

Frequency

Speed of a Wave

Intensity

observer (e.g.

microphone, screen detector, microscope)

The Basics of Experimental Sciences

REMEMBER: write the final answer with the same number of significant figures with the input that has the least
number of significant figures
7 SI units:
-

Meter: distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299 792 458 seconds

Kilogram: mass of a platinum-iridium alloy kept at the France

ii

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

-

Seconds: duration of 9 192 631 770 full oscillations of electromagnetic radiation emitted in a transition between
the two hyperfine energy levels in the ground state of

atom

Ampere: is defined using

(the model of 2 parallel wires, each of

currents of

in between)

, which have

in length, carrying equal

Kelvin:

Mole: Advogadros number

Candela: unit of luminosity (intensity of a source of frequency 5.40 1014 Hz emitting

of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water

As the units on
units), e.g.

W per steradian)

sides of an equation must be the same, we can add a constant (which is made up of these 7 SI

(gravitational constant), to fix the difference in units

Power

Prefix

E(-18)

Symbol

Power

Prefix

Atto-

E1

Deka-

E(-15)

Femto-

E2

Hector-

E(-12)

Pico-

E3

Kilo-

E(-9)

Nano-

E6

Mega-

E(-6)

Micro-

E9

Giga-

E(-3)

Milli-

E12

Tera-

E(-2)

Centi-

E15

Peta-

E(-1)

Deci-

E18

Exa-

Symbol

ERRORS
-

Systematic error is due to calibration of instruments happens when instruments arent adjusted before testing,
or when the experimenter makes the same error all the time

Random error is revealed by repeated measurements; while reading error (caused by the limits of instruments)
isnt reading error can neither be regarded as random nor systematic error, but its a measure of deviations:
o

If absolute magnitudes of all deviations are smaller than reading error, then result is
theyre bigger, then result is

( is the range of the set of values) or better

Accuracy is a measured of systematic error; precision is a measure of random error

Significant Figures (
with least

in the input; in addition & subtraction, rule is the same but decimal places (

, then

(remember that

can be

): in multiplication/division & powers/roots, result must have as many

is absolute uncertainty,
For

; if

is fractional uncertainty, &

; for

or

in which case it represents roots)

iii

; for

as those

) is used instead

is percentage uncertainty
, then

, then

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

MECHANICS

Kinematics
REMEMBER: velocity increases positive acceleration & vice versa
Speed & acceleration can be found using a photo-gate, tickertape or stroboscopic picture
A problem can be solved either algebraically (only for constant acceleration) or graphically (most useful one is
velocity-time graph as distance can be found as the total area under the graph)
When converting between different types of graphs, use differentiation if the function is known; if its not
known, think about 1st & 2nd derivatives sign test basically, use calculus!
have velocities & measured by the same frame

Frame of reference is an observer let 2 observers ,

of reference relative velocity of
-

;
(

)(

) using these,

is

with respect to
(

just like if we make

))

(at rest)

SUVAT equations! which only works for constant acceleration

Forces
Types of Forces:

natural forces (gravitation, electromagnetic, weak, & strong nuclear force), drag force (which

is proportional to the objects velocity); reaction force (the force normal to the surface of contact)
Friction arises only when there is a tendency for motion:
-

Static friction appears when a body is tending to move (cant exceed a max value the body moves if the max
value is reached)

Kinetic friction appears when a body is moving (always less than the max value less force is needed when
the object is already moving)

Hookes law:

( is tension,

is extension) doesnt work if elastic limit is reached

is spring constant,

1. Newtons first law

Inertia is defined as reluctance of a body to change its state of motion; equilibrium is when the net force is ; when
a body is slightly displace, & if:
-

Net force is still 0, then it was in neutral equilibrium

The body tends to go back to its original position, then it was in stable equilibrium

The body tends to move further from its original position, then it was in unstable equilibrium

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

2. Newtons Second Law

Parachute Jumping (Retrieved from

https://followthelemur.wordpress.com/
category/science-ish-ness/)
Terminal Velocity is due to air resistance when a person does a free-fall:
-

Due to increasing speed, resistive force also increases, making the net force to decrease as

, thus

decreases velocity must decrease exponentially (see the graph above) terminal velocity is reached when
this net force decreases to
-

(i.e. when speed is fast enough for the resistive force to equalize gravity)

After parachute is opened, speed decreases rapidly due to the upward net force both speed, & thus the drag
force will decrease exponentially until a constant value is reached

With questions involving 2 masses, draw free-body diagrams to find net force

Linear Momentum
Definition of momentum is

; as

, & of impulse is

, then

is the area

under the force-time graph; remember that total momentum is conserved when theres no external forces
Question: A helicopter rotor whose length is

& the helicopters mass is

air is constant at
in a circle of radius
Answer: In
mass of air is
must be

pushes air downwards with a speed ; given that density of

, find

assuming that the rotor forces the air

(spanned by the rotor) to move with the downward speed

second, a certain mass of air is enclosed in a cylinder of radius

& height

the mass of this air will be density multiplies the volume (i.e.
, thus (

Question: A cart of mass

(this works because

is filled with water & moves with velocity

on a frictionless road;

volume of this
) since the force
)
begins to leak

from a small hole in the base of the cart & falls out; what happens to velocity of the cart?
Answer: There can be no change of velocity; this is because there are no external forces momentum is
conserved; & the falling water still moves with the same velocity

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Work, Energy, Power

if

Work

isnt constant, then area under the force-distance graph is the work the

ability to do work is energy conservation of mechanical energy:

(

) elastic potential energy

potential gravitational energy

kinetic energy

Definition for power is

; & efficiency () =

Rules of energy transformation:

-

Total mechanical energy

of a system changes when an external force other than weight & spring tension

does work to a system without acceleration:

is increased as the work will be stored as

in the new state e.g. lifting an object at a constant speed

is decreased due to resistive force

goes to other forms of energy (thermal, sound)

When theres acceleration (net force), the net work done goes into

Elastic collision happens when

of the body

is conserved objects tend to move in the opposite way after the collision if

the bodies stick together after the collision, it is totally inelastic

Circular Motion
(T is period)

As

( is displacement),

wouldnt be tangential to the circular path; however if

can be tangential to the circle using same logic,

is infinitesimal, then

must be towards the centre (centripetal) if

is infinitesimal

Since magnitudes of & are essentially the same, thus well

call it

| |

(i.e.

| |; now by applying the sine rule on the

triangle (see the figure), we have:

(

; but since

is very small (as

then

is the arc on the circle;

is the radius;

is infinitesimal),
(where
is the period)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Centripetal force doesnt exist for real as its just a net force from all other different forces; if the magnitude of
the velocity changes, we have tangential acceleration; the object wont move to the centre because acceleration
vector changes direction all the time (continuously)

Projectile Motion
(

In an arbitrary-angle launch with initial velocity , then

in

projectile motion, we treat vertical & horizontal motions separately:

-

For vertical motion, upward direction should be taken as positive vertical motion will have acceleration

Since theres not horizontal acceleration horizontal motion ( ) can be described as

parabolic; with air resistance, its not parabolic (max height

The real path follows the equation

& range are less; angle which it lands is steeper than when it leaves); Projectile motion can also be solved by law of
can be found by

energy conservation as

____________________________________________________________

THERMOLOGY

Thermal Properties
Internal energy is total

(forces between molecules) &

; heat (or thermal energy or

) is energy transferred

when 2 objects are in a thermal contact, thus allowing them to reach thermal equilibrium

due to difference in

( is specific heat capacity;

-

, where

is area,

is specific latent heat of fusion;

boiling points no

is heat capacity used when object is made of different materials)

( is depth of the object, & is specific heat capacity)

is specific latent heat of vaporization

or

at melting &

(additional energy is used to overcome intermolecular forces instead of increasing )

are measured by calorimeter of known heat capacity, or by mixture method (the measurements are made
after thermal equilibrium has been reached)
c (J kg1K1)

Lf (kJ kg1)

Melting point

Lv (kJ kg1K1)

Boiling point

H2O

4200

334.4

2257

100

Ice

2200

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

To find the final temp of a mixture (e.g. water, ice, & steam), consider 3 possibilities:
-

Final temp will be somewhere between the temps of water and ice

Final temp will be somewhere between the temps of water and steam

Boltzmann equation

is Boltzmann constant; is

(where

root-mean-square speed (

speed) of all molecules) proves that average

of molecules

absolute

If the two previous possibilities dont work, then final temp would be either at boiling point or melting point where
2 different states of the substance co-exist
Ideal gas always obeys equations of state; real gases obey the law only for a range of

is gas constant) Volumetemp graph suggests that there exists a minimum

(
possible

called the absolute zero!!!

Pressure

( is area,

is angle

The molecular

the higher

Frequency of collisions the smaller

makes with the normal vector) 2 factors that affect

of a gas:

is, the larger the larger

is, the more frequent

Thermodynamics
(as soon as there is

will change necessary to put )

is the area under

pressurevolume graph

of molecules)

(assuming theres no

is a state function (a property that only depends on

between gaseous molecules) (

is no.

0th law of thermodynamics: when 2 objects are in thermal equilibrium separately with a 3rd object then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other
1st law of thermodynamics: energy is conserved it is neither created nor destroyed
-

: heat lost;

: work done on gas)

Can only be used for gases, but not for solids & liquids because these substances can neither be compressed or
expanded very much, thus

for solids, & liquids,

Thermodynamics Processes:
-

Isobaric: constant pressure

Isochoric: constant volume

must be used instead!

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

-

Isothermal: constant temperature (

) occurs when a force is applied to changing

& ,

but only slowly to allow time for internal energy to leave the gas, so that the temp wouldnt increase
-

Adiabatic: a change with no heat lost or gained (

In a thermodynamic-processes cycle (a loop)

closed circle; if the loop goes clockwise, then

, & this is the area of the

; if anti-clockwise, then

Comparison between Isothermal & Adiabatic Curves

(Adapted from The First Law of Thermodynamics and
Some Simple Processes by OpenStax College, licensed
under CC-BY 3.0)

Under the same initial conditions,

; but as

decreases due to

( is for adiabatic, is for isotherm); as

is the same for both

must decrease adiabatic curve would be steeper

Discussion of Entropy, Carnot Engine & Refrigerator:

-

Entropy is a measure of disorder & is defined mathematically in thermodynamics as

Consider a Carnot engine (a loop that contains

adiabatic &

isotherm) with

(for hot reservoir) &

(for cold reservoir); then efficiency is defined as

; also since

this suggests that entropy is similar to

Carnot-refrigerator suggests that heat only flow from

if

as they are both state functions

is supplied to it

2nd law of thermodynamics: Entropy of an isolated system never decreases;

(for irreversible process) or

(for reversible process):

Heat cant spontaneously flow from a cold to a hot object; water at

cant suddenly freeze; air in a room cant

suddenly occupy just half of the room these are not impossible, but very unlikely
The conservation of energy & the 2nd law show the degradation of energy (decrease of useful energy):
-

Heat transfers from hot to cold will eventually reach the same

Ordered energy will be transformed to disordered energy for

Isolated universe expands adiabatically

no

can be done

to increase

decreases Heat lost of universe

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Sources of Energy
Energy density (unit
for nuclear fuels, it is

) is energy obtained from a unit mass of fuel for fossil fuels, it is heat of combustion;
; & for hydro power, it is calculated by

1. Fossil Fuels
Advantages (high energy density, easy to use); Disadvantages (non-renewable, pollution,

, hard to transport)

2. Solar Power:
Advantages (free, renewable, clean); Disadvantages (requires much space, lower power output, affected by
weather, works only during the day, high initial costs)
Suns luminosity is
-

( is distance from sun to earth) received

Intensity (i.e. power per unit area) received from Sun is

on Earth is

which is defined as solar constant

However as sunlight can only hit a target area of

( is earths radius) at any time due to Earths rotation

around its own axis average intensity is only

-

Daily insolation is total energy on

in 1 day reduces at high latitudes in winters due to greater depths

along light-path, shorter time of daylight, & oblique incidence of light (causing energy to spread on larger area)
Active Solar Devices:
-

Black collecting surface with pipes underneath and a concentrator system to focus light

Photovoltaic cells (used in space programme) (made of semiconductors):

-

Converts sunlight to DC current (efficiency 30%)

absorb photons, thus moving from valence to conduction band in semi-conductors (similar to processes in
metals, as

can moved from valence shell to become delocalized

entirely the same as photoelectric effect where

) current this is similar, but not

are completely ejected from the metals

3. Wind Power
Advantage (free, clean, renewable); Disadvantage (noisy, low efficiency, wind dependent, high maintenance costs)
As

( is area)

power extracted by the wind turbine is

of the wind in 1 second (i.e. power) is

(where

is the efficiency factor)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

4. Hydroelectric power
Advantage (free, clean, renewable); Disadvantage (high initial costs, dependent on location, affecting ecology)
Let

be mass flow rate as

be volume flow rate &

power obtained from

hydropower is
ways of extracting hydro-power: lake storage system (water from lake are allowed to fall down), pump storage
system (water are allowed to fall down & pumped up again), & tidal storage system (using tides to turn turbines)

5. Nuclear Power (Fission)

Advantages (no

, high energy density); Disadvantages (radioactive waste, mining danger, nuclear weapons)

Nuclear Power Station:

-

Natural uranium has only

(the rest is

) uranium must be enriched to contain

induced fission (non-spontaneous

reaction) a critical mass of uranium must be present to prevent

cant capture fast-moving

(graphite)

of

of

must initiate it chain

from escaping
production of plutonium!!!

must be slowed down by bombarding with atoms in the moderator

is absorbed by a coolant (e.g. water) to make steam & run generator

Control rods are to absorb excess

when it is necessary can be raised or lowered

Nuclear dangers in power station happen when:

-

Moderators get hot due to collisions with

, thus creating pressure on cooling pipes leading to explosion

Heat is produced even after reactor is shut down, due to beta decay of unstable nuclei

Radon gas is produced at uranium mining places

6. Nuclear Power (Fusion)

Advantages (plentiful materials, less radioactive waste); Disadvantages (hard to maintain plasma)
Process of producing electricity:
-

deuterium (

) & tritium (

) can be produced by electrolysis

Fusion must happen in plasma form thus it can be kept magnetically in tokamak which allows the plasma to
move in the magnetic field lines without touching anything

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

7. Wave Power
Advantage (free, clean, renewable); Disadvantage (waves dependent, expensive devices to withstand storms)
Water waves are dispersive, i.e.

is speed of energy transfer)

( is period,

( is

amplitude) is called power per unit length of the wavefront this is the energy carried by the wave

OWC in working mode, showing how the turbines

are turned as the water waves blow air in & out of
OWC (Adapted from Chandrashekhara Athavale:
http://chandrashekharasandprints.wordpress.com/
2013/04/02/the-wave-power/)

OWC (oscillating water column) couples low-frequency water wave (

(

) to high-frequency electricity

) by adjusting the air hole to increase the air speed

Energy Balance
Stefan-Boltzman law:
-

Emissivity is ratio of power emitted of an object to that of a black body (perfect emitter & absorber)

Any bodies (not at

a black body),

) radiate electromagnetic wave with power

is surface area of the body, &

is the bodys temp) if

) where (

then its energy gained of the body, & if

(no unit)

is emissivity (

for

is Stefan-Boltzman constant

Net power exchanged by a body is

Albedo

where

for snow,

is surroundings temp, &

then its energy lost

for water Earths average is

Wiens law:

the higher , the shorter

, the higher energy Earth emits infrared radiation, while Sun

emits UV & visible light
The curve obeys Wiens law notice that all bodies emit all
types of wavelengths, but the strongest wavelength is at the
peak of the curve the vertical axis is arbitrary

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

(

Power received by a body is

(

balance,

for Earth,

solving gives

( is solar constant) by energy

(for an Earth without an atmosphere)

Green House Effect (GHE)

GHE gives Earth 96% of total energy as extra heat

of radiation is re-radiated by Earth back to space as

is re-radiated back to space, giving Earths

is shone on earth,
average surface temp of

(i.e.

) using Stefan-Boltzmans law

Sinks (which destroy GHG)

GHG

Created from natural sources

Created from human

H2O

Evaporation

CO2

Forest fires, volcanoes, oceans

Fossil fuels, burning forests

Photosynthesis, dissolved in oceans

CH4

Wetlands, oceans, lakes, rivers

Fossil fuels, farming

Reaction with radicals (

N2O

Forests, oceans, soil, grasslands

Fossil fuels, cement, fertilizers

Destroyed by photochemical reactions

Rains

Deforestation is controversial because even though burning trees causes enhanced greenhouse effects (eGHE), but
without deforestation, rainforests can contribute to increase in

& release

when they die/decompose

Photons Absorption Mechanism:

-

Energy levels in molecules are quantized only absorb

of specific frequency ( ), which can be modeled by

resonance phenomenon for a diatomic molecule with

masses connected by a spring, its resonance

natural frequency

(as both atoms arent fixed, then

Calculations for resonance

of GHG give

Transmittance curve is percentage vs

is

to be IR radiation only infrared

are absorbed

graph showing transmittance of radiation of specific

through a GHG

Global Warming (GW)

Effects of GW on Sea levels:
-

Melting of land-ice (not sea-ice) increases

of

, reduces Earths albedo, affects evaporation rate (leading

to huge climatic change due to more rains & clouds), & affects ocean currents due to decreasing salinity &
density (affecting heat transfer on Earth) thus melting of ice leads to further warming of Earth
-

Formula for calculations of expansion of water during the melting of ice:

volume expansion that depends on

as

expands quite anomalously; &

( is coefficient of
is initial volume

However, therere some counter-effects that lower sea level these include higher

leads to more evaporation

taking place, & the fact that water expands & covers land, thus lowering down sea level

10

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Support-arguments for eGHE:
-

Computer models pretty reliable

Strong correlation between rise of temp & GHG GHG in ancient time is studied through collected ice cores,
which gives info of gas concentrations & temp at the time of freezing

IPCC reports which were based on existing published scientific material

Counter-arguments against eGHE:

-

Increased solar activity pattern of GW is inconsistent with changes in solar activity

Increased volcanic activity & changes in earths solar orbit the changes occur with periods of thousands
years not relevant of climate changes in the last 200 years)

WAVES

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Definition of SHM: SHM takes place when a particle that is disturbed away from its fixed equilibrium experiences
an acceleration that is proportional & opposite to its displacement
-

Displacement:

Velocity:

Acceleration:

As

) ( is amplitude,
(

( is period)

is phase angle,

is angular velocity)

)
(

or

; as

(using the definition of SHM)

SHM in Pendulum:
-

length or displacement,
-

Using free-body diagram for a pendulum,

However if

( is the arc

( ) not SHM

is length of pendulum)

is very small compared to

; as

( )

then

compared to , the pendulum performs SHM

for small

Using the same method, for a spring,

When performing SHM, theres a continuous transformation of mechanical energy for a horizontal spring, by
energy conservation

11

same for all SHM

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Definitions & Waves in General

-

Waves are disturbance that travels in a medium or vacuum, transferring energy & momentum, with no largescale motion of the medium 2 types of waves are electromagnetic & mechanical waves

Transverse disturbance is at right angles to direction of energy transfer

Longitudinal disturbance is along direction of energy transfer causes

compressions & rarefactions displacement is the density of the medium

Wavefronts pass through all points (at crests) that have the same phase in

Incident angle: angle between the ray with the normal of reflecting surface

Angular width (measured in radians/degrees) is the total width within e.g. central max used in diffraction

The energy carried is proportional to the square of amplitude

(
where

is period,

is tension, &

is wavelength);

second, therere

wavefronts

is often determined by the medium thus in ropes,

is mass per length ( )

Under-damping consists of heavy- & light-damping both systems oscillate with lower
exponentially; however, heavy-damping has lower , thus longer

while

decreases

than light-damping

In critical damping & over-damping, the system returns to its equilibrium state as fast as possible without
performing oscillations; however, the decrease in

Each curve shows

in over-damping happens much slower

damping condition for how amplitude of an oscillating system changes according to the driving

(i.e. input) frequency; resonance becomes disastrous when

12

and when theres no damping (i.e.

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Resonance (leading to large ) is when driving frequency of a periodic force equals to natural frequency ( ) of a
system disastrous for mechanical oscillating systems (e.g. Tacoma bridge collapse) but it can also be useful:
-

For microwave-ovens water molecules are resonant with microwaves

For radio & TV resonance can be used to tune into specific station
For timing device in electronic watches piezoelectricity forces quartz crystal to vibrate at natural frequency;
this vibration sends an electrical signal at crystals resonant frequency)

Reflection and Refraction

Principle of superposition: when

travelling waves meet, if

and

after that,

the displacement of the superposed wave is

are the individual displacements then

waves continue to travel as they were

Phase change during waves reflection & boundary behaviors:

-

Due to Newtons 3rd Law & momentum conservation, reflected wave must be inverted if the ropes end is fixed

A wave will undergo phase change if it reflects off a boundary to a denser medium will be inverted

A wave will not undergo phase change if it reflects off a boundary to a less-dense medium will not invert

Law of reflection states that incidence angle & reflected angle (these angles are with respect to the normal of
reflecting surface) are equal & lies on the same plane; however, reflection only takes place when

is larger than

sizes of any surfaces irregularities long waves (e.g. infrared) get reflected more than short waves (e.g. UV)
Difference in the speed of waves in different media causes refraction:
-

Snells law:

&

are speeds in 2 different mediums;

is incidence angle;

is refracted

angle) can be applied to any types of waves

-

Refraction bends a wave because the left-side of a wavefront hits

2nd medium first, but both sides must still be in phase; this is also
the reason why

must stay constant as both sides wouldnt be in

same phase otherwise but

-

, hence

Index of refraction ( ) is

gets smaller

( is speed of light in vacuum,

is speed of light in a medium) from this

& Snells law, we have

Interference and Diffraction

) let

Interference is the result of superposition between waves of same properties (i.e. same
distances from a point to
waves from the

sources, then path difference (

sources to reach the point is

) is defined as

thus for

Constructive interference

must be multiple of a period

Destructive interference

must be multiple of half of a period

If

) , then

13

, & time difference (

, then:

or if

&

be
) for

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Diffraction: a wave spreads as it goes past an obstacle or through a slit; diffraction is only significant when
comparable size or bigger than the slit/obstacle diffraction of light is often negligible as its
-

is of

is too short

Huygens principle states that every point on a wavefront emits a spherical wavelet
in forward direction with identical properties as original wave; these circles are
the reason for diffraction this effect is compounded for longer

& narrower slit

Single Slit Diffraction calculations are based on the diagram below ( used here is the diffraction angle):
-

Consider a pair of
then

rays from point

(midpoint of the slit) & point

min is when

; if

therere other pairs to consider, but they will make

then

the same angle as the one found from points

-

For 2nd min, point

can still be used; however instead of taking point ,

use another point that divides

a point that divides

&

into

Thus general formula for

into

sections; similarly, for 3rd min, use

sections, & so on
-min is:

For circular slit, then the general formula is

-

Algebra of formula

really explains why diffraction is more significant for longer , & narrower slit

Max are harder to find as they have different intensities; however they often lie approx between

Combination of Single- & Double-Slit Diffraction let

General equation to find a max in double-slit diffraction is

is dependent on the value of ) if

If

isnt negligible, then Graph

Missing order

to yield Graph

(note that modulation is not

sitting on top of Graph )

-max on Graph

that doesnt appear on Graph

modulation this only happens when this

-max superpose with

Based on this criteria, then

be distance between them:

(i.e. the effect of double-slit diffraction

will be modulated by Graph

is defined to be the

slits, &

, single-slit effects can be ignored & well get Graph

the result of superposition, but its more like Graph

-

the width of

min

(where

14

as the result of

-min on Graph
is the missing order on Graph )

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Dopplers effects
Dopplers effect is change in

due to relative motion between source (subscript ) & observer (subscript ); for

light, things get complicated due to Einsteins relativity however, for small
of light),

( is sources speed, &

is speed

this works no matter which moving case it is because is the same for all reference frames

Moving Source:
-

Use the diagram to the right (which shows how source &
waves move in

second to derive the formulae below

Toward observer:

Away from observer:

)
(

General formula for moving source is

Moving Observer
-

Rules of relativity states that both source & observer can claim that they are moving with respect to another,
thus its possible to apply moving-source formula to moving-observer cases however, to do this, we must
find relative velocity (R.V) of the wave with respect to observer

Toward source R.V is

Away from source R.V is

using moving-source formula

using moving-source formula
(

General formula for moving observer is

)
(
(

(
)

)
(

Combination of Both in the observers frame, and when both observer & source move:
-

Toward each other: waves move at

Away from each other: waves move at

, source moves at
, source still moves at
(

General formula for combination effects is

by moving-source formula,
(

similarly,

Wavelength Calculations in Dopplers Effects:

-

For moving source:

For moving observer:

(
(

(remember that R.V is

) constant

Frequency of rays reflected from a moving observer (as in the case of using polices radar gun to measure the speed
of a car) can be worked out using both moving-observer & moving-source formulae

15

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Standing Waves
A standing wave is when 2 identical travelling waves moving in opposite directions meet & superpose doesnt
transfer energy to create standing wave, we must disturb a medium with

that is equal to

of a harmonics

Nodes happen when displacement is always zero

Anti-nodes happen where max displacement ( ) can occur (but note that displacement still changes all the time)

Calculation
-

(fundamental);

(2nd harmonic);

fixed ends;
-

(3rd harmonic); etc

for 2 unfixed ends;

for 2

for only 1 fixed end

By doing some close analysis,

o

With 2 fixed ends or 2 unfixed ends,

With 1 fixed end,

The higher , the higher

is representation of odd numbers)

when a bottle is being filled, the length of air column is getting smaller, leader to

higher , thus we hear higher-pitched sound as the bottle is filled

Speed of Sound is measured by sounding a tuning fork with known

over a tube partially filled with water level

of water is adjusted until resonance is reached, creating a standing wave with

fixed end (the water end)

Use only

tuning fork to get different harmonics: as

Use several tuning fork to get only

In practice, end correction constant ( ), which depends on the tubes diameter, must be added
by measuring

-harmonic (i.e.

is slope of

( ) is slope of

):

vs

graph

vs graph
(

different resonance, we can set up simultaneous equations to solve for

Resolution
objects Rayleigh Criterion states that

Diffraction of light limits resolution of

are just resolved when central max of
-

For small

source falls on

, in a microscope where

As
Broglies

of

is used but as

min of the other

2 objects are resolved when

( is the separation between the objects,

; for circular lens,

is distance to the observer)

, an object can be resolved if

objects

( is Planks constant),

16

; in electron microscope, De
must be accelerated

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Polarization
Electromagnetic field is created by induction (i.e. induces which induces which induces , & so on) field
disappears when either or is blocked necessary to only deal with either or in the study of polarization
Plane Polarization: a transverse wave propagating in a certain plane is allowed to get through a transmission axis
(i.e. a slit) of same plane, while other planes are blocked a method used to filter light (using a Polaroid)
Manuss Law & Polarization of Light by Polarizer & Analyzer:
-

Let

be incident electric field that makes angle

with transmission axis of a polarizer, then

the component that gets transmitted)

; but as

Manuss Law is

Un-polarized light can be polarized by a polarizer, which reduces by half as is the average of
can be any angles) this polarized light can be further polarized by an analyzer, in which the final
by Manuss law (where

is

( here
is found

is the angle between polarizers transmission axis & that of the analyzer)

Polarization by Reflections
-

Light reflected off a non-metallic surface is partially polarized, in which

the reflected components are within the plane parallel to the surface)

Incidence angle equals to Brewster angle

only when the reflected ray is

100% polarized & when angle between refracted & reflected rays is

by Snells law
thus

(where

&

are refractive indices of

media)

Optically active materials (e.g. quartz, sugar solution) show optical activity (ability to rotate the plane of polarized
light) amount of rotation depends on

& distance travelled by light some applications are:

Some materials become optically active when subjected to stresses stress analysis

Using optical activity to measure concentration of optically-active substances in solution

Liquid Crystals Display (LCD) (Figure below is a derivative work of this image, licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5):
-

LC (which shows optical activity) are put between a

polarizer & an analyzer LC automatically aligns
themselves as a helix due to attractive force between them

If no voltage is applied, LC rotates plane of polarized light,

allowing allow light to pass through bright

If voltage is applied, LC is aligned along direction of

no rotation of light (no light passes through) dark

17