Section A: Forces & Motion

Speed = Distance travelled / Time taken

- Speed: distance you travel in a particular time
- Velocity: distance you travel in a particular direction in a
particular time
- Also, Displacement: distance in a particular direction

Acceleration = change in velocity / time

taken

Ticker Timers
Simple device to help us measure speed in the lab. Consists
of small box with a space to pass a strip of tape through.
As tape passes through, pin vibrates up and down 50 times
per second, putting dot every 50th a second on the tape.

Data Loggers
Box used to record data. Can be tethered to
computer and collect data in real time or
programmed to collect data over longer period
of time.

Acceleration: rate at which bodys velocity

changes

Advantages of data loggers

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and disadvantages

Records data faster than humans

Expensive

No errors

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Dont get tired/fall asleep/need to be paid

Data can be collected in dangerous places

Require computer to
extract, process and
display data collected.

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Can be placed somewhere on off chance that something interesting might happen

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Displacem
ent (m)

te

25

12.5
0

Velocity-time graphs
Gradient of velocity-time graph = acceleration
Area under the graph = distance

25
18.75
12.5
6.25
0

N.B. that velocity

could also be zero
0

10

20

30

40
0
0

10

20

10

30

20

30

Time (s)

Accelerating Velocity
Displacem
ent (m)

80
60
40
20
0

80

Time (s)

Accelerating
velocity at a
constant rate

Velocity (m/
s)

Velocity (m/
s)

Constant velocity

Constant Velocity

Stationary Velocity

Displacem
ent (m)

Displacement-time graphs
Gradient of displacement-time graph = velocity
Steeper gradient means faster velocity

50
25
0

10

20

30

Time (s)

Time (s)

10

20

30

Time (s)

Investigating Motion using a Toy Car

NOTE: If you dont have light gates, you could use a stopwatch with a lap function.
You could also use a set up to investigate factors that affect motion
Mass: load weights onto it (but make sure you dont overload it so that the wheel axles grind).
Friction: place different material on the ramp (make sure theyre laid flat and dont change the angle of
the ramp in any way).
Acceleration: start the toy car higher up the ramp and see how this affects its average speed between
the gates.
Angle of ramp: see how this affects the cars speed down the slope.
Different cars: see how size, shape and weight of car affects how fast it goes down the ramp.
Streamlined ones would be the quickest.

Forces

Forces: things that can alter an obj.s size, shape or motion. Forces are VECTOR.
- Resultant force = all the forces acting on an obj. treated as on individual force in a particular direction.
- When forces are BALANCED, forces completely cancel and equal zero. There is no resultant force.
- When forces are UNBALANCED, there is a resultant force.
Ns 1st Law Objects with balanced forces acting on them will stay at rest or constant motion. Obj. = in
equilibrium. Unbalanced forces needed to change anything.

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Ns 2nd Law If unbalanced force acts on obj. in particular direction, obj. will accelerate/decelerate in
that direction. Also:
F=ma ; Forces = mass x acceleration
Ns 3rd Law For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction (force)

Friction & Air Resistance

Weight: force of attraction between obj. and Earth
Weight of obj. = mass of obj. x local gravitational field strength
Friction: force that opposes motion when 2 faces
are in contact.
Factors that increase friction include density of
medium, roughness of medium and area in contact
with medium.
We rely on friction to walk and brake systems in
vehicles to work by squeezing a high-friction
compound break pad onto metal disks.

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Air resistance: force that opposes motion when

particles collide with an obj. The faster the motion,
larger the amount of drag/air resistance because as
you move faster, more and more particles will collide
exerting a larger and larger force on the obj.
Factors that increase air resistance include SA of
moving obj., speed its moving at and density of
medium.

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The Parachutist
- He jumps out of plane - there is no air resistance since he isnt moving accelerates (downwards).

- Air resistance builds up in proportion to their speed, air resistance, slowly reducing their

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acceleration, until the air resistance = weight. Forces are balanced, so he stop accelerating and falls at a
constant speed, A.K.A. his terminal velocity.
- Parachutist opens his parachute, suddenly air resistancedramatically because of a larger SA for
resistance to act on. he decelerates, because air resistance is now bigger than his weight.
- As his speed reduces, so does his air resistance since air resistance builds up in proportion to speed.
Process continues until speed has decreased and air resistance has reduced until the forces balance
again. The parachutist stops decelerating - he has reached his new, lower terminal velocity.
- For both terminal velocities, resultant force = 0.
- The lower terminal velocity is because a larger SA gives a larger air resistance for a given speed. This
means parachutist doesnt have to move so fast to produce enough air resistance to balance their weight.
For Earth, gravitational field strength is always 10N/kg, so acceleration is always 10m/s2, irrespective of
weight.

Stopping distances

The GREATER the speed of a vehicle, the GREATER:

The braking force needed to stop the vehicle in a certain distance.
the distance needed for the vehicle to stop w/ a certain braking force.
When trying to stop a vehicle, several factors affect the stopping distance. These can be grouped
into 2 main categories: Thinking distance and braking distance.
Thinking distance: distance travelled between need to stop arising and the first touch of the brake
pedal.

Braking distance: distance travelled between starting to press pedal and coming to rest.

Stopping distance = breaking distance + thinking distance

Things that affect thinking distance include:

Physical reaction time.
Tiredness -reaction time.
Having taken alcohol/drugs -reaction time and makes you
less likely to classify a risk.
Use of mobile - any distractionreaction time.
Speed - twice as fast = twice as far while thinking.
If you apply too much force to the wheels, you lock them and
the vehicle will skid. The less friction that the road surface
can supply, the lower the max. breaking force will be before
skidding.

Moments
Moment: turning effect
of a force.

Things that affect breaking distance

include:
Vehicles initial speed
State of vehicles maintenance (worn
brakes/tyres/shock absorbers all mean
longer braking distance).
Weather conditions - wet/icy roads
mean less friction, meaning breaking
force has to be less, it takes longer to
stop.
Mass of vehicle - heavier the vehicle,
longer it takes to stop.

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Moment (Nm) = force (N) x perpendicular distance from pivot (m)

FURTHER a force is from a pivot, GREATER the turning effect/moment.
LARGER the force, GREATER the the turning effect/moment.

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS - A.K.A. LAW OF MOMENTS states that:

If the sum of the clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of the anti-clockwise moments
about that pivot, an obj. will not turn.

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Centre of mass
Centre of mass: single point through which an obj.s entire weight appears to act.

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To find the centre of mass of an irregular obj. :

1) Hang obj. freely from a point on the surface. If the centre of mass not directly below point of
suspension, force will give rise to turning effect and body will rotate till the centre of mass is below
the suspension point. Draw a vertical line from top to bottom. Repeat 1) and 2).
2) Point at which lines intersect is obj.s centre of mass. To make sure its correct, you can hang obj. from
a 3rd point and repeat 1) and 2) again.
It is also possible for an irregular obj. to have a centre of mass that is not within its borders.
Centre of mass of symmetrical obj. is along its axis of symmetry.

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Stability
If a body is tilted, the line of action of its weight begins to shift towards the one edge of its base. Once
the line of action of the bodys weight is outside its base, the corner of the base acts as a pivot and the
bodys weight is turned into a turning effect, causing the body to topple over.

To increase stability, centre of mass can be

concentrated nearer to the base of the obj. or width
of base could be larger, making it harder to turn the
obj. far enough to displace the line of action of its
weight outside the obj.s base.

Elastic behaviour

Elastic behaviour: the ability of a

material to recover its original shape
after the forces causing
deformation have been removed.

When a force changes somethings shape, it has deformed the obj.

Force applied that changes an obj.s shape = load.
Loads that stretch a material are said to put it under tension.
Loads can also compress a material.
When material is loaded sufficiently, it breaks, it is said to fail.

When metal wires and springs are subjected to a load, typically there will be some EXTENSION, both
TEMPORARY + PROPORTIONAL TO THE LOAD = elastic deformation.
If too large a load is applied to a material, it will start to stretch permanently = plastic deformation. Point
at which elastic deformation switches to plastic deformation = a materials elastic limit. Plastic
deformation NOT proportional to load.

When load is removed, elastic

deformation disappears but plastic
deformation remains and material
will be longer than it was before load
was applied.

Once material starts to show plastic deformation, if much more load

is added it will fail suddenly when loaded heavily; these materials =
brittle + often shatter. If material undergoes plastic deformation,
it will neck before failing.

Hookes law (of elasticity)

HOOKES LAW OF ELASTICITY STATES:
The extension of a spring or a wire is directly proportional to the load
placed on it, so as long as the materials elastic limit is not exceeded.
Rubber bands and hysteresis
Some materials such as rubber do not follow Hookes law. Although
they exhibit temporary deformation, it is not PROPORTIONAL to the
load they are subject to.
Investigating Hookes Law with a Spring
1) Set up the apparatus as shown to the right. Make sure you have
plenty of extra masses, and measure the weight of each (with a
balance).
2) Measure the length of the spring (e.g. w/ an accurate mm ruler)
when no load is applied. Ensure the rule is vertical (e.g. w/ a set
square) and measure the spring at eye level. (this is the springs
natural length.)
3) Add one mass at a time and allow the spring to come to rest, then
measure the new length of the spring. The extension is the change
in length from the original length. Adding a marker to the top and
bottom of the spring might make measuring length easier. Repeat
this process until you have enough measurements (no fewer than 6).
4) Once youre done, repeat the experiment and calculate a mean for
the length of the spring for each applied weight. This will make
your results more reliable.

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Elastic Limit

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Weight (N) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg)

Gravity: the force of attraction The MORE MASSIVE a planet, the GREATER the obj.s gravitational
between two objects.
field strength. On Earth, the gravitational field strength is 9.8N/kg
The FURTHER you get from an
Orbital speed (m/s) = 2 x orbital radius (m) / orbital period (s)
obj., the LESS the force of
Orbits of comets are VERY ELLIPTICAL.
attraction between them.
Orbits of moons and planets are ELLIPTICAL.

Gravity and orbits

Moon + Planets

Comet

Small, fast moving bodies will ALWAYS orbit larger ones, e.g. the Earth. This is because:
Earth and sun attracted to each other by gravity.
However, Earth is moving very fast at a right angle to the force pulling it towards the sun.
Combination of gravity + motion act to keep the Earth an equal distance away from the sun on average.
This is relevant to how gravitational force causes moons to orbit planets, planets to orbit the sun,
artificial satellites to orbit the Earth and comets to orbit the Earth.

The universe The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies.

A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars.
Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy.

Section B: Electricity

Mains electricity = a.c. = direction of current is always changing.

Cells/battery = d.c. = direction of current stays the same.

Hazards of Electricity
Broken plugs = expose the metal wires carrying electricity electric shock + water gets in.
Frayed cables = short circuit high current melt wires fire
Long cables = trip hazards
water around sockets = water contains ions conducts electric shock
pushing metal obj.s into circuit = Metals conducts electricity electric shock

Cables + Plugs

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The wiring must be right. They must be connected to the pins + firmly screwed in. No bare wires should be
showing inside the plug + cable grip should be tightly fastened over the cable outer insulation.

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Live wire = provides the path along which the electrical energy from the power
station travels. This wire is alternatively +ve + ve causing a.c. to flow along it.
Neutral wire = is always at 0V. completes the circuit - electricity flows out
through here.

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Earth wire = usually has no current flowing through it. It is there to protect
you if an appliance develops a fault.

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Earthing: This is when a path is provided for charges to escape if a fault was to happen and the live wire
becomes frayed or breaks and comes into contact with the casing. The earth wire provides a lowresistance path for the current. This current is likely to be large enough to blow the fuse + turn the
circuit off. Without the earth wire the user would receive a severe electric shock as current passed
through them to earth.

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The inner wires are made of copper + pins are made of brass because it is a good conductor, cheap, hard
wearing + resists oxidisation well. Earth pin is made longer so that it makes contact first; ensures that the
user is always protected from shocks from a live case.

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- Insulation: putting an insulator around a conductor. Good insulator = plastic. Sheaths are made of plastic
also because it is flexible.
- Double insulation: appliance has a plastic case + all parts of its electrical circuits are insulated so that a
user cannot touch them no earth pin needed

Fuses + Circuit Breakers

- Fuses = If too large a current flows the fuse wire becomes very hot + melts. The fuse blows, shutting
the circuit off prevents you getting a shock + reduces the possibility of an electrical fire. Once fault
fixed, the blown fuse must be replaced with a new one of the same size.
- Circuit breakers = if too large a current flows in a circuit a switch opens making the circuit incomplete.
Once the fault in the circuit has been corrected, the switch is reset, usually be pressing a reset button.
No need for switch or circuit breaker to be replaced.

Current in a resistor results in the electrical transfer of energy + an in temp., + this can be used in a
variety of domestic contexts such as a kettle, toaster etc.
Electrical power
As current flows through an electrical device, it will
measured in joules per second or watts (W).
experience resistance. This resistance limits the amount Energy transferred (J) = power x time (s)
of current that can flow as it causes electrical potential
Power (W) = p.d. (V) x current (A)
energy from the supply to be converted into heat energy.
In most circumstances, this heat energy is wasted.

Power and Energy

Metals = good conductors.

Plastics = good insulators

Current: the rate of flow of charge. Unit is Amperes (amps, A) = C/s. Charge (C) = current x time (s)
Measured using an ammeter connected in series at any point in a circuit.
In a solid, an electric current is a flow of charged particles. In a solid metallic conductor, these particles
are vely charged electrons. When a power source is connected, electrons are repelled from the ve
terminal. This repulsion provides the push to get them around the circuit. However, note that current
flows from +ve to ve.
Charge: Electric charge. Unit is Coloumb (C) = amount of charge passing a fixed point per second.

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Voltage: also called p.d. which is the energy transferred per unit charge passed. Unit is Volt (V) = J/C.
Voltmeters measure the difference in potential energy between 2 points in a circuit and are connected in
parallel.

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Electrons flow from a place where they have a high potential energy to one where they have low potential
energy the larger the p.d., the bigger the current that flows.
Energy transferred (J) = p.d. (V) x current (A) x time (s)
Energy transferred (J) = p.d. (V) x charge passing through it (C)
higher the voltage of the supply or current, the greater the amount of energy that is transferred.

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Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Circuit
One switch can turn all the components on and
off together.
If a component breaks, it causes a gap in the
circuit and all of the other components will go
off.
The voltage split across components.
Same current through each component.
Resistance split across components:
R = R + R + R

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Parallel Circuit
Switches can be placed in different parts of the
circuit to switch each bulb off individually, or all
together.
If one component breaks, only the components on
the same branch will be affected.
Voltage same though each component.
Current split across components.
Resistance split across components:
1/R = 1/R + 1/R + 1/R

An advantage of using parallel circuits is that other instruments still work if one instrument breaks. Thus
for domestic lighting, we use parallel circuits as it also allows us to switch things on and off separately and
brightness does not change when other bulbs are on or off.

However, parallel circuits use a lot more energy than series circuits for decorative lights we use series.
Each bulb only needs a low voltage, so even when the voltage from the main supply is shared out between
them all each bulb still gets enough energy to produce light. It is also provided with a shunt which allows
current to flow through the bulb even after the filament has broken.

Resistance
Resistance: The degree
to which a component
impedes the passage of
current. Unit is the ohm
().

An electric current flows when electrons move through a conductor. The

electrons collide with the atoms of the conductor which are vibrating around
fixed points more difficult for the current to flow as electrons cannot avoid
banging + rubbing past these atoms friction heat, so the electrons must
lose some of their potential energy to heat energy as they pass through a
circuit. The loss of p.d. is what we call resistance.

The resistance in a wire as:

The length of the wire - Electrons collide w/ atoms more often in long wires than they do in short ones.
The thickness of the wire - Thin wires have fewer electrons to carry the current than thick wires.
Ohms Law
Ohms Law: The current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to the p.d. across its ends
providing temp. remains constant. So:
Potential difference (V) = current (A) x resistance ()

The more current we try to push through a circuit, the greater the no. of collisions between the electrons
+ the atoms of the wire + components. This means that a higher current will generate even more heat.
Importantly, the more heat there is, the faster the atoms of the wire will vibrate around their fixed
points resistance (usually) with temp.
Resistance in different materials
Each material has its own resistance. Non-conductors have a very high
resistance, whilst in metals it is much lower though it still varies from
metal to metal.
Resistors
Fixed resistors: resistors included in a circuit with a fixed amount of
resistance to control the sizes of p.d. + current. It can be used to
protect components from blowing. Current is directly proportional to
the p.d. across the resistor at constant temp.
Variable resistors: resistors where it is possible to alter their
resistance.

There are some materials that

have different resistances
depending on which way the
current flows through them these are called diodes.

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Filament lamps
The lamps must get very hot + glow in order to transform electrical
energy to light energy most of the energy a lamp converts is wasted
as heat. As voltage, the currentbut at arate due to the high
temp. of the lamp. This is because as the bulb gets hotter, its
resistance, so less current flows than if the resistance stayed the
same (like with a fixed resistor) !

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Diodes
Diodes make sure the current only flows one way. When current flows
through them in one direction it can do so easily as the diode has low
resistance. But if current tries to flow in the opp. direction the diode
has high resistance + very little current can now flow. They are often
used in circuits where it is important that current only flows one way e.g. in rectifier circuits that convert a.c. into d.c.

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Light Emitting Diode (LED)

These are diodes that glow when a current flows through them. The semiconductors used to make them
are chosen so that as current crosses from one material to the second one, light is emitted. As it does not
require heating, LEDs are much more efficient than filament lamps.
Note both LEDs + filament lamps can be used to help when testing circuits to find a fault. You would
replace the components with a lamp or LED one at a time to identify the broken component.
Thermistor
Made from a semiconducting material - silicon/geranium. It is a resistor
whose resistancew/ temp. At room temp. the no. of free electron is
small + so the resistance of a thermistor is large. If however it is
warmed the no. of free electrons .Thermistors are often used in
devices such as fire alarms + thermostats.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Resistance when exposed to light. This is because in dark conditions LDRs contain few
electrons + so have a high resistance . If however light is shone onto an LDR more electrons are
freed (due to the light energy) + the resistance .

Section C: Waves
Transverse waves
A transverse wave is one that vibrates, or oscillates at right angles to the direction
Waves: the
in which the energy or wave is moving. Examples of transverse waves include light and
transfer of energy all other EM waves, waves travelling on the surface of water and waves on string.
from one place to
Longitudinal waves
another without
A longitudinal wave is one in which the vibrations, or oscillations, are along the
the transfer of
direction in which the energy or wave is moving. Examples of longitudinal waves include
matter.
sound and ultrasound waves and shock waves.

Properties of
Waves

Describing Waves
Wavelength: distance between 2 identical points (e.g. peaks) in
metres.
Frequency: no. of complete waves which pass a fixed point per
second in Hertz (Hz).
Period: time that it takes a single wave to pass a fixed point in
seconds.
Amplitude: maximum distance that any part of the medium reached
from equilibrium in metres.

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Frequency (Hz) = 1 / time period (s)

Wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m)

Wave Behaviour

Images created by a plane mirror

When you look into a plane mirror, you see images of the
room that appear to be behind the mirror. These images
are created by rays of light from objects inside the
room striking the mirror and being reflected into your
eyes.

Reflection

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The angle of
incidence is equal
to the angle of
reflection.

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PROPERTIES OF AN IMAGE IN A PLANE

MIRROR:
The image is as far behind the mirror as the
obj. is in front.
The image is the same size as the obj.
The image is virtual - i.e. it cannot be
reproduced on a screen.
The image is laterally inverted - i.e. left side
and right side of the image appear to be
interchanged.

Refraction
Refraction is the
change in direction
of a ray due to a
change in speed
when travelling
through different
medium with
different
densities.

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Because rays of light normally travel in straight lines,

your brain interprets them as having come from the
virtual image inside the mirror. A virtual image is an
image through which rays of light do not actually pass.
Images created with rays of light actually passing
through them (e.g. on a cinema screen) are called real
images.

Triangular prisms
Different wavelengths of light refract by different amounts, so
white light disperses into different colours as it enters a prism. A
rectangular block has parallel boundaries, so the rays bend by the
same amount when they leave the block as when they enter - so the
rays emerge parallel. But with a triangular prism, the boundaries
arent parallel, which means the different wavelengths dont emerge
parallel, and you get a rainbow.
Refractive Index
Snells Law says n = sin i / sin r, where n = refractive index.
Experiment to find refractive index of a glass block
1) Draw around a glass block on a piece of paper and direct a ray of
light through it at an angle. Mark the path of the incident and
the emergent rays.
2) Remove the block and draw the refracted ray between them.
3) Daw in the normal at 90 to the edge of the block, at the point
where the ray enters the block.
4) Use a protractor to measure the angle of incidence (i) and the
angle of refraction (r) as shown.
5) Calculate the refractive index using Snells Law.

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Total internal reflection

When a ray of light passes from an optically more dense medium into an optically less dense medium (e.g.
glass to air) the majority of light is refracted away from the normal but there is a small amount that is
reflected from the boundary.

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If you keep increasing the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction gets closer and closer to 90, until
eventually i reaches a critical angle C for which r = 90. The light is refracted along the boundary. Above
this critical angle, you get total internal reflection.

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An experiment to demonstrate this uses a semicircular block. The incident ray is aimed at the curved edge
of the block so that it always enters at right angles to the edge. This means it doesnt bend as it enters
the block, only when it leaves from the straight edge. To investigate the critical angle, C, mark the position
of the rays and the block on paper and use a protractor to measure i and r for different angles of
incidence.

Sin C = 1 / n, where n = refractive index.

Optical Fibres
Optical fibres are very thin strands composed of two different types of glass. There is a central core of
optically dense glass (high refractive index) around which is a cladding of optically less dense glass - i.e. it
has a lower refractive index than its core.

As the fibres are very narrow, light entering the inner core always strikes the boundary of the two glasses
at an angle that is greater than the critical angle, so the light is always totally internally reflected. It only
stops working if a fibre is bent too sharply.
Optical fibres are now widely used for digital communication
between computers and for speech and video communications. They
are also used in medicine for keyhole surgery in devices called
endoscopes.

Radio waves
Microwaves
Infra-red
Visible light
Ultra-violet
X-rays
Gamma rays

Increasing frequency and

decreasing wavelength

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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It is a continuous spectrum of waves. At one end of the spectrum the waves are of
very long wavelength and low frequency, while at the other end the waves are of very
short wavelength and high frequency. All the waves have the following properties:
1) They all transfer energy.
2) They are all transverse waves.
3) They all travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
4) They can all be reflected, refracted and diffracted.

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Electromagnetic Waves
Radio waves
Uses: Communication and broadcasting
Radio waves have the lowest frequencies and
longest wavelengths, television and digital
communication uses higher frequencies and
shorter wavelengths.

Microwaves
Uses: Mobile phone and satellite communication, cooking
Hazards: internal heating of body tissue, so serious
damage can occur before pain is felt. Microwaves have a
cut-out which turns off the microwave radiation when
the cooker door is opened.

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Infra-red (IR)
Uses: Infra-red cookers and heaters, TV and
stereo remote controls, night vision equipment
(infra-red radiation is shorter from cool objects
compared to warmer objects).
Hazards: Skin burns. Workers whose
occupations expose them to infrared radiation
wear protective clothing w/ reflective surfaces
and good insulating properties.

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Microwave Ovens
The microwaves are absorbed by the water molecules in
food. The heat energy is then conducted or convected
to other parts of the food, so it cooks throughout
rather than just from the outside.
Visible light
Uses: Seeing, communication (optic fibres), photography

X-rays
Uses: X-radiography to observe the internal structure
Ultraviolet (UV)
of objects, including human bodiesHospital workers and
Uses: Fluorescent tubes and UV tanning lamps
others who routinely use x-rays wear protective clothing
Hazards: Damage to surface cells and blindness.
and operate x-ray machines remotely to reduce
Precautions to this include the use of high
exposures.
protection factor suntan cream and covering up.
Sunglasses will reduce the exposure of the eyes
to UV.
Gamma rays
Uses: Sterilising equipment and food, radiotherapy
Hazards: Cancer, mutation. Workers in the nuclear industry wear badges to monitor long term exposure
and either wear dense protective clothing or use remote handling devices when dealing w/ radiation
sources.

Sound Waves

Sound waves are longitudinal waves caused by vibrating objects.

The vibrations are passed through the surrounding medium as a
series of compressions.

Frequency: the no. of complete

vibrations each second, and it is
measured in hertz (Hz) - 1Hz is equal
to 1 vibration per second.

The human ear is capable of hearing sounds w/ frequencies between 20Hz-20,000Hz.

Because sound waves are caused by vibrating particles, in general the denser the medium, the faster sound
travels through it (so solids = fastest, gases = slowest). sound cant travel through a vacuum where there
arent any particles.
Using an oscilloscope to measure the speed of sound
By attaching a signal generator to a speaker you can generate sounds w/ a specific frequency. You can use
2 microphones and an oscilloscope to find the wavelength of the sound wave generated:

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1) The detected waves at each microphone can be seen as a separate wave on the oscilloscope.
2) Start w/ both microphones next to the speaker, then slowly move one away until the 2 waves are
aligned on the display, but exactly one wavelength apart.
3) Measure the distance between microphones to find the wavelength ().
4) You can use the formula v = f x to find the speed of the sound waves passing through the air - the
frequency is whatever you set the signal generator to in the first place.

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Section D: Energy resources and energy transfer

The basics of energy transfers Types of energy
Energy: the ability to do work.

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Thermal (heat) Kinetic (movement)

Chemical potential
Light
Nuclear potential
Elastic (strain) potential
Sound
Gravitational
potential

Electrical potential

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The LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY states: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transferred from one obj. to another or transformed into a different type of energy.
The fraction of useful energy transformed is called the efficiency of the
device:
% efficiency = ( useful energy transferred / total energy put in ) x 100%
Remember: in the exam they may not ask for efficiency as a %

Higher the % of useful

energy coming out of a
transformation, the more
efficient we say that a
device is.

Energy transformed to a form which is not useful/desired is said to be wasted. Energy losses are usually
to the forms of heat and sound, often through the forces of friction.
Heat energy produced as waste heats up the surrounding air and spreads out by convection, conduction
and radiation. As wasted energy spreads out further and further into the surroundings, it becomes harder
to use for useful transformations.
Ways to reduce energy losses include using oil to reduce friction, insulating to
prevent heat loss, streamlining to reduce air resistance.
Sankey diagrams
Sankey diagram: a specific type of flow diagram, in which the width of the
arrows is shown proportionally to the flow quantity.

Thermal transfer
Thermal transfer: moving heat from one place to
another.
- Energy always flows from where it is more
concentrated to where it is more spread out

3 main ways that thermal energy is transferred:

1) Conduction
2) Convection
3) Radiation

Things that affect the rate of thermal transfer include SA and shape. Larger the temp. difference
between obj. and surroundings, greater rate at which energy will be transferred.

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Conduction
Conduction: transfer of thermal energy through a substance without the substance itself moving.

Metals are good thermal conductors, non-metals (generally) poor ones and gases extremely poor - this is
because conduction is to do w/ collisions between adjacent particles and in a gas, particles are very far
apart extremely poor conductors. Liquids are also poor conductors.

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Conduction happens when in a hot part of the substance, particles have more KE. The more energetic
particles collides w/ adjacent particles which transfers some of their energy to them, making them move
faster. These gain energy and then pass energy to particles near to them. the energy transfer goes on
throughout the substance until all particles are moving w/ lots of energy. this process takes place in all
materials.

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In metals, this process takes place much more rapidly, because metals have free electrons that can easily
move through the structure of the metal, speeding up the transfer of energy.

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Convection
Convection: the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward movement of warmer,
less dense regions of fluid.

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If a gas/liquid is hot, density almost always. This is because as the temp. of a

fluid , its particles move faster, leading to the expansion of this region of the
liquid. warm regions are less dense than cold ones and so rise up through them
and are replaced by cold regions. Once the warmer fluid is at the top, it quickly
loses heat to its surroundings and starts to sink again as it becomes denser,
while the cooler fluid heats up and rises. so a circulating current is set up in the
water. This is called a CONVECTION CURRENT.

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Convection is the only type of thermal energy transfer where particles of the
medium move.

This can be
demonstrated w/ a
beaker of potassium
permanganate and a
bunsen. Water is heated
just under the crystal
and it colours the water
as it dissolves, which
lets you see the
movement of the water.

Radiation
IR waves can travel through a vacuum and does so at the speed of light. It is
Radiation: the transfer important that heat travel this way, without the need for matter, otherwise we
of energy by infra-red would not receive heat, as well as light, from the sun.
(IR) waves.
the hotter something is, the more IR it emits. the amount of radiation emitted
also depends on the type of surface:
Shape is particularly
Dark, matt surfaces are good absorbers (or poor reflectors) of IR radiation.
important when
Light, shiny surfaces are good reflectors (or poor absorbers) of IR radiation.
considering radiation;
the LARGER the SA,
Also, an obj. thats hotter than its surroundings emits more radiation than it
the GREATER the heat absorbs (as it cools down). And an obj. thats cooler than its surrounding absorbs
transfer due to
more radiation than it emits (as it warms up).
radiation.
Reducing energy transfers
An INSULATOR is the opposite of a
CONDUCTOR.

Air is a very good insulator (as are all gases) because

its molecules are spread out difficult for energy to
be transferred by collisions

How to reduce heat transfer by conduction

Use a vacuum: conduction needs matter; used in vacuum flasks, some types of double glazing etc.
Use air: air is a good insulating material. Many materials like wool, fur, feathers etc. trap air so it cannot
circulate. This works because air is a very poor conductor of heat (like most gases). Houses use fibre glass
insulation (to trap air).
Use water: wetsuits trap a layer of water around the body because water (like most liquids) is a poor
conductor of heat.
How to reduce heat transfer by convection
Use a vacuum: convection needs gases or liquids; used in some types of double glazing.
Use trapped gas or liquid: This restricts circulation, which is necessary for convection to occur, hence
cavity walls are sometimes filled with foam. The size of the gap between the sheets of glass is a
compromise. A narrow gap makes the effect of convection smaller, but it allows a greater amount of heat
transfer by conduction.

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How to reduce heat transfer by radiation

Use shiny surfaces: Very shiny surfaces reflect infrared (heat) radiation well. Firefighters wear shiny
suits to stop heat radiation getting to their bodies. Shiny surfaces are also poor radiators of heat. Space
blankets, for example, retain the body heat of athletes or hill-walkers suffering from exposure. This is
because they have a shiny inner surface which reflects heat back to the person and also a shiny outer
surface which is a poor radiator of infrared.

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Thermos flask energy transfers

1) These have a vacuum between their inner and outer walls and a lid to reduce CONVECTION.
2) These have a vacuum between their 2 walls to eliminate conduction in this area and are made of glass
and plastic to reduce CONDUCTION in other areas.
3) The double internal wall is silvered to reduce radiation from the hot contents. Often white or light
coloured plastic is used for the body of the flask and especially the lid to further reduce RADIATION.
Reducing heat transfers in humans

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1) In the cold, the hairs on your skin stand up to trap a thicker layer of insulating air around the body.
This limits the amount of heat loss of CONVECTION.
2) Humans wear layers of clothing to reduce heat transfer. the pockets of air trapped in the clothes and
between layers mainly reduce heat transfer by CONDUCTION and CONVECTION.
3) Clothes also reduce heat loss by RADIATION from the body, as the material absorbs some heat
radiated out by our bodies.
4) Wear light clothes or a silvered space blanket to reduce RADIATION.
5) If your clothes get wet, swap them for dry ones as quickly as possible, as when water evaporates it
carries thermal energy away with it.

Energy equations

Energy is measured in Joules (J). Whenever a force is used to make something move energy is transformed
- usually to KE and heat = doing work.
work done = energy transferred. So
work done (J) = force applied (N) x distance moved in direction of force (m)
When you lift an obj., the energy that you expend doing the work to lift it is
converted into GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY. This is a type of
energy that the obj. stores, only giving it out again when allowed to fall.
GPE (J) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (10N/kg) x height (m)
KINETIC ENERGY is the energy that something has because of movement.
KE (J) = 0.5 x mass (kg) x velocity2 (m/s)2

The POWER of
something describes
how fast it transforms
energy from one form
to another. so power:
the rate of transfer
of energy OR the rate
of doing work.
Power (W) = work done
(J) / time taken (s)

There are 2 types of energy resources:

Providing electrical energy

1) Renewable resources: sources of energy that 1) Non-renewable resources: limited -once we have
are replenished or renewed more quickly than
used the current supply of the resource, it is gone
they are used, usually by the sun.
forever as the rate of replenishment is very low (or
E.g. wood, sunlight, wind, waves, running water,
non-existent).
tides, geothermal power
E.g. Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), nuclear power
Electricity
Electricity is not an energy resource, because it has to be generated using other sources of energy. At
present, most of the electricity generated in the world is generated in power stations.
Chemical potential
Heat energy in
energy stored in
high-pressure
the form of fossil
USED steam
fuels (oil, gas +
TO
coal) or nuclear fuel

DRIVES
TURBINE

KE of
rotating
turbine

HEAT
WATER

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Electricity can also be generated using renewable energy resources.

Renewable resources

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Electrical
energy
output

SPINS
GENERATOR

Wind power: Wind turbines drive generators to provide electrical energy.

Hydroelectric power:
A water wheel, called a turbine, is used to turn
the generators in a hydroelectric power station.
these power stations use the stored GPE of
water in high reservoirs built in the mountains.
The GPE is converted to KE as the water flows
down the mountain to the power station below.

Wave energy:
An oscillating water column system is used for wave
energy. Rising water column pushes air past the turbine,
which spins and is used to drive a generator. falling
water column sucks air past the turbine, which spins
and is used to drive a generator.

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Solar power:
There are 2 methods of gathering and using energy
directly from the Sun.
1) Solar cells convert light energy directly into
electrical energy.
2) Solar heating panels absorb thermal radiation and
use it to heat water.

Tidal power:
Generates power by turning turbines as tide
flows into a dammed river estuary. As the tide
falls, the water flows out of the estuary and the
turbines are spun again.
KE of movement of the tides is provided by the
gravitational energy from the gravitational pull of
Geothermal energy
the moon and the sun.
This is heat energy stored deep inside the Earth.

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Section E: Solids, Liquids and Gases

Density and pressure
Measuring mass
Measuring volume

Density (kg/m3) (g/cm3) = mass (kg) (g) / volume (m3) (cm3)

top pan balance

set of scales
REGULAR OBJ. length x width x height
IRREGULAR OBJ. immerse irregular obj. in a full container
of water and measure amount of water displaced.

Pressure (Pa) (N/cm2) = force (N) / area (m2) (cm2)

PASCAL = Pa = N/m2

It is possible to use the idea of pressure to make the effect of force smaller or larger. DRAWING PINS
have a larger SA at one end, allowing you to apply a large force to the pin without hurting your thumb. The
very small SA on the other end creates a large pressure on the surface the pin is being driven through,
enabling it to enter the surface.

Liquids and pressure

Pressure in liquids acts equally in all directions. The same applies w/ gases.
As you go down a fluid, you have progressively made more and more
molecules above you. Each molecule must weigh a certain amount, so as you
descend, there is an force acting on your area as you travel down
through a liquid PRESSUREWITH DEPTH.
As you descend through a column of fluid, you can work out the mass of the
liquid above by using the idea of density.
Mass of liquid (kg) = density (kg/m3) x area (m2) x depth (m)
Weight of liquid (N) =density (kg/m3) x area (m2) x depth (m) x g (10N/kg)

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Pressure at the foot of the column is independent of the area of the column:
Fluid pressure (Pa) = density (kg/m3) x g (10N/kg) x height (m)
Atmospheric pressure

At sea level, atmospheric pressure 100kPa = 1atm

MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES can be used to

demonstrate atmospheric pressure.
- When hemispheres are full of air, forces are the
same inside and outside, easy to separate.
- When air is taken out, only force is the outside of
the hemisphere, which is hard to overcome.

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The Kelvin Scale of Temperature

At -273C all particles in a substance stop moving = ABSOLUTE ZERO.
A temp. scale often used in Physics is the KELVIN SCALE, starting at
absolute zero, but has the same scale interval.

Ideal gases

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Evidence for Particles

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To convert between the 2

scales:
K = C + 273
C = K - 273

Brownian Motion: Random movement of particles

This is when particles jerk around in random directions that change at random intervals. This is caused by
the large particle (e.g. pollen grain) bounding off much smaller, but faster moving liquid particles (e.g.
water). Also, sometimes there will be more collisions on one side of a pollen grain than on another, and this
will make the pollen grain change its direction/ speed of movement.

Diffusion
Movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration, down
the concentration gradient without an input of
energy.
Ideal Gases

1) Hotter something is, faster its particles move

therefore diffusion is faster. NOTE: greater the
temp., greater the average speed of gas
molecules.
2) Smaller (and lighter) molecules diffuse faster
than big ones.

Average temp. of molecules is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the KE of them.

hotter the gas, faster particles move and more KE each particle has.
The random movement of particles in a gas means that at any instant, many billions of molecules will be
colliding with the inner walls of the container. Each molecule exerts a force on the container's wall and
this gives rise to the pressure of the gas inside its container.
As temp., its particles move faster. This means that they hit the walls of the gas' container more often
and when they hit, they will hit harder. These 2 factors mean increase in temp. = increase in pressure.
A relationship between pressure and volume of gas, given by Boyle's Law tells us:
pressure x volume = constant P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
This is true assuming mass stays the same and temp. stays the same.

Section F: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetic fields

Around every magnet there is a vol. of space where magnetism can be detected = magnetic field.
Magnetic field lines are sometimes drawn to help us visualise magnetic fields. The lines show the
direction that a free north pole would move in if placed in the field (so north south) and the fields
strength is represented by how closely the lines are drawn. Magnetic field lines must never be drawn
touching as it would simply imply that the field is of infinite strength at this point.

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Magnetic fields cannot be seen but we can use iron filings or plotting compasses to show its shape.
The strength and direction of the magnets field can be investigated more thoroughly by using a plotting
compass:
1) Place the magnet in the centre of a piece of paper.
2) Take the compass and put it close to one of the poles, then make a pencil dot at both ends of the
needle. Do the same with other positions around the magnet, with one point of the needle touching
the a previously drawn dot.
3) Plot the field line

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If two magnets are placed near each other, their magnetic fields affect each other. Here are some
magnetic fields around pairs of magnets:

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When magnetic field lines are the same

distance apart from each other, we say
that the magnetic field is uniform.
When the north and south poles are
placed near each other there is an
almost uniform field between the two
poles.

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Electromagnetism

When a current flows through

a wire a magnetic field is
created around the wire. This
phenomenon is called
electromagnetism. The field
around the magnet is quite
weak and circular in shape.

The motor effect

If we pass a current through a piece of wire held at right angles to the magnetic field of a magnet, the
wire will move. This motion is the result of a force created by overlapping magnetic fields round the wire
and magnet.
As seen before, when a current flows through a wire a cylindrical magnetic field is created around the
wire. If the wire is placed between the poles of a magnet, the two fields overlap. In certain places, the
fields are in the same direction and so reinforce each other, producing a strong magnetic field. In other
places, the fields are in opposite directions, producing a weaker field. The wire experiences a force,
pushing it from the stronger part of the field to the weaker part - this is known as the motor effect.
A stronger force will be produced if the magnetic field is stronger or if the current is increased.
If the direction of the current or the direction of the magnetic field is reversed, the wire experiences a
force in the opposite direction. We can predict the direction of the motion using Flemings left-hand
rule (as shown above).

The moving-coil loudspeaker

This uses the motor effect to change electrical energy into sound energy.
Signals from a source, such as an amplifier, are fed into the coil of the
speaker as currents that are continually changing in size and direction (i.e.
A.C.). The overlapping fields of the coil and the magnet therefore create
rapidly alternating forces on the wires of the coil, which cause the
speaker cone to vibrate. These vibrations create the sound waves we hear.
The electric motor

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As current passes around the loop of wire in a simple electric motor, it will cut
across a magnetic field, so one side of it will experience a force pushing
upwards. The other side will feel a force pushing it downwards, so the loop will
rotate. Because of the split ring (commutator), when the loop is vertical, the
connections to the supply through the brushes will swap over, so that the
current flowing through each side of the loop changes direction.The wire at the
bottom is now pushed upwards and the wire at the top is pushed downwards - so
the loop carries on turning.
The arrangement of brushes and split rings
changes the direction of the current through the
loop every half turn, which means that rotation can
be continuous.

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To increase the rate at which the motor turns we can:

1) the no. of turns or loops of wire (to make a coil).
2) the strength of the magnetic field.
3) the current flowing through the loop of wire.

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Practical motors differ from that described in a simple electric motor in several ways:
The permanent magnets are replaced with curved electromagnets capable of producing very strong
magnetic fields.
The single loop is replaced with several coils of wire wrapped on the same axis. This makes the
motor more powerful and allows it to run more smoothly.
The coils are wrapped on a laminated soft iron core. This makes the motor more efficient and more
powerful.

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Electromagnetic induction

Motors use electricity to produce movement. Generators make electricity from movement.
The generator
If we move a wire across a magnetic field at right angles, or if a magnetic
field changes through it, a voltage is induced in the wire. If the wire is
part of a complete circuit, current flows. This phenomenon is called
electromagnetic induction.
The size of this voltage (and current) can be increased by:
1) Moving the wire more quickly
2) Using a stronger magnet
3) Wrapping the wire into a coil so that more pieces of wire move
through the magnetic field.
We can also generate a voltage and current by
pushing a magnet into a coil. The size of the
induced voltage (and current) can be increased
by:
1) Moving the magnet more quickly.
2) Using a stronger magnet.
3) Using a coil with more turns.
4) Using a coil with a larger cross-sectional area.

The factors listed on the

left show that:
- A voltage and current are
generated when a conductor
such as a wire cuts through
the magnetic field lines.
- The faster the lines are
cut the larger the induced
voltage and current.

Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that the size of the induced voltage across the ends
of a wire (coil) is directly proportional to the rate at which the magnetic lines of flux are being cut.
Therefore if we hold a wire stationary or move it horizontally between the poles of the magnet, there are
no lines being cut and so no voltage or current is generated.
The direction of the induced current in a generator depends upon the direction of the motion. If the
direction of the motion is reversed, so too is the direction of the induced current.
Using generators

Dynamo

A dynamo is a simple generator used to generate

electricity for a bicycle light.
As the cyclist pedals, the wheel rotates and a
small magnet within the dynamo spins around. As
this magnet turns, its magnetic field cuts
through the surrounding coil inducing a voltage in
it allowing current to flow. This current can be
used to work the cyclists lights.

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Section G: Radioactivity and Particles

Electrons, protons + neutrons

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The atom
The nucleus of an atom is
surrounded by electrons in shells.

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Atoms are made up of electrons,

protons + neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are also called
nucleons because they are found in
the nucleus of the atom.

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An atom is electrically neutral. This is because the no. of +ve charges carried by the protons in its nucleus
is balanced by the no. of -ve charges on the electrons in the electron shells around the nucleus.
Atomic number
The no. of protons in a particular element is always the same. The
atomic no. of an element tells us how many protons each of its atom
contains.
The atomic no. is equal to the no. of electrons in an atom.
The symbol we use for atomic no. is Z. Atomic no. A.K.A. proton no.

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Atomic mass
Atomic mass = total no. of protons + neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom. The mass of the
electrons that make up an atom is tiny and can
usually be ignored.
We usually refer to the mass of an atom by its
mass no. or nucleon no.
The symbol we use for mass no. of an atom is A

Isotopes
Isotopes: atoms w/ different no. of neutrons but same
no. of protons. This affects the mass of the atom.
The stability of isotopes
Isotopes of an element have different physical
properties and stability from other isotopes of the
same element.

Protons are held in the nucleus by the nuclear force. This force is very strong and acts over a very small
distance. It is strong enough to hold the nucleus together against the electric force repelling the protons
away from each other. The presence of the neutrons in the nucleus affects the balance between these
forces. Too many or too few neutrons will make the nucleus unstable. An unstable nucleus will eventually
decay. When the nucleus decays it gives out energy and may also give out ionising radiation.

Ionising radiation

Ionising radiation causes atoms to gain or lose electric charge, forming ions.
Unstable nuclei decay at random. This means that it is not possible to predict which unstable nucleus in a
piece of radioactive material will decay, or when decay will happen.

There are 3 basic types of ionising radiation: alpha, beta + gamma radiation.
Alpha radiation
They are helium nuclei - helium atoms without their orbiting electrons.
Have a relatively large mass number of 4 - made up of 2 neutrons and 2 protons.
Relative charge of +2 because of the two protons that they carry.
Alpha particles have a short range (distance it can travel through matter). Alpha particles can only travel
a few cm through air and cannot penetrate more than a few mm of paper.
They have a limited range because they interact w/ atoms along their paths, causing ions to form. This
means that they rapidly give up energy that they had when they were ejected from the unstable nucleus.
Strongly ionising.
Beta radiation
They are very fast-moving electrons that are ejected by a
decaying nucleus.
The electron comes from a neutron splitting into a proton (which
stays in a nucleus) and an electron (which is ejected at high
speed).
Relative charge of -1 because of electron.
Beta particles interact w/ matter less frequently than alpha
particles. This is because they are smaller and carry less charge
they have a greater range than alpha particles.
They can travel through paper easily and are only absorbed by
denser materials like thin aluminium.
Moderately ionising.

Gamma radiation
They are electromagnetic waves w/
very short wavelengths.
No mass or charge as they are
waves.
Interact only occasionally with ions
in their paths.
Extremely penetrating - it takes
several cm of lead or a metre or so
of concrete to stop gamma radiation.
Weakly ionising.
Emitted in packets of energy called
photons.

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Nuclear transformations

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If the decay process involves the nucleus ejecting either an alpha or beta particle, the atomic no. will
change, causing the original element to transform into a different element.

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Alpha decay
The atomic mass no.by 4 and the atomic no.by 2.
For example, radon decays into polonium when it emits an alpha
particle. Here is the equation for that radioactive decay:

Beta decay
The atomic mass number stays the same
The atomic number increases by 1
For example, here is the equation for the beta decay of
carbon-14 into nitrogen:

Detecting ionising radiation

Gamma decay
It is a high-energy radiation.
After an unstable nucleus has
emitted an alpha or beta particle it
sometimes has surplus energy this
energy is emitted as gamma
radiation.
Gamma rays are pure energy no
mass or charge no change to either
atomic no. or mass no. of the nucleus
no change in element.

Becquerel (Bq): Measure of the rate of nuclear decay = how many

unstable nuclei are disintegrating per second.

Using photographic film

Scientists who work w/ radioactive materials wear a strip of photographic film in a badge. If the film
becomes fogged it shows that the scientist has been exposed to a certain amount of radiation.
These badges are checked regularly to ensure the safety limit for exposure to ionising radiation is not
exceeded.
The Geiger-Mller tube
Usually linked up to a counting circuit which keeps count of how many ionising particles have entered it.
They are sometimes connected to rate meters. These measure the radioactivity in becquerels. They
usually have a loudspeaker output so the level of radioactivity is indicated by the rate of clicks produced.

low-level radiation that is produced all the time. Some of the sources
of background radiation are natural and some are artificial.

Background radiation
Sources include

The Earths crust - decaying radioactive isotopes still present from when the Earth was formed.
Space - cosmic rays from stars, but our atmosphere gives us fairly good protection from it.
Internal radiation - as we breathe we take in tiny amounts of the radioactive isotope of carbon.
Artificial radiation - nuclear power station leakages, testing nuclear weapons, radioactive tracers.

Radioactive decay and half-life

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Radioactive decay is a random process.

The half-life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half the original mass of the sample
to decay. The half-life is different for different isotopes.

Uses of radioactivity in medicine

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Using tracers in diagnosis

Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers to help doctors identify diseased organs.
A radioactive tracer is a chemical compound that emits gamma radiation.
The tracer is taken orally by the patient (swallowed) or injected. Its passage around the body can be
traced using a gamma ray camera.
A short half-life is very important as this means that the activity of the tracer decreases to a very low
level in a few days.
Treatment
Low doses of radiation may have no lasting
effect on the cells in our body. Higher doses
may cause mutations, leading to abnormal
growth and cancer. Very high doses will kill
living cells.
Cancer can be treated by cutting out cancerous
cells. Another way of treating cancer is to kill
the cancer cells inside the body by chemicals
containing radioactive isotopes.
BUT, the radiation kills the healthy cells as well
as diseased ones.
To reduce the damage to healthy tissue,
chemicals are used to target the location of
the cancer in the body - they may emit alpha or
beta radiation. Both have a short range in the
body, so they will affect only a small vol. of
tissue close to the target.

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Sterilisation using radiation

Ionising radiation can kill living cells used to kill
micro-organisms on surgical instruments and other
medical equipment. Technique = irradiation
The items are placed closely to strongly ionising
sources. The items can be packaged in airtight bags
to ensure they cannot be recontaminated before use.
The radiation will penetrate the packaging and
destroy the bacteria without damaging the item.
Some food products are treated in a similar way.
Radiation is used to kill bacteria in food which does
not destroy vitamins in the food like other means of
killing bacteria such as high temperature treatment.
But it is an issue that causes concern amongst the
public and is not a widely used procedure at the
present time.

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The use of radioactivity in industry

Gamma radiography
A gamma ray camera is like the X-ray camera used to examine
the content of your luggage at airport.
A source of gamma radiation is placed on one side of the obj. to
be scanned and a gamma camera is placed on the other. Gamma
rays are more penetrating than X-ray.
Gamma radiography is used to check for imperfection in welded
joints and for flaws in metal casting.
Two advantages of Gamma radiography: 1) More penetrating 2)
Gamma sources is small and do not require power source.

Gauging
In industrial processes, raw
materials and fuel are stored in large
tanks or hoppers. Radioactive
isotopes are used to gauge how much
material there is in a storage vessel.
Advantages:
- No direct contact
- Dust or fog will not affect the
measurement.

Gauging thickness of sheets

The thicker the sheet, the greater the amount of radiation it absorbs.
By monitoring the amount of radiation, the thickness of the sheeting can be closely controlled during
manufacture.
Tracing and Measuring the flow of liquids and gases
Radioisotopes are used to track the flow of liquids in industrial processes.
Very tiny amounts of radiation can easily be detected. Complex piping systems, like heat exchangers in
power stations, can be monitored for leaks.
Radioactive tracers are even used to measure the rate of dispersal of sewage.

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A variety of different methods involving radioisotopes are used to date

minerals and organic matter. The most widely known method is
radiocarbon dating.

Radioactive dating
Radiocarbon dating

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By measuring the proportion of the radioactive isotope carbon-14 in samples of dead organic material it is
possible to date how long the material has been dead. C-14 is chemically identical to the non-radioactive
form, C-12, so it is absorbed by all living things during respiration. The proportion of C-14 to C-12 reduces
at a predictable rate after death.

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Some organic matter can be dated by measuring the proportion of a radioactive isotope present relative to
the material formed at the end of the decay chain. Radioactive materials go through series of decays (the
decay chain) transmuting into lighter elements - the end of this sequence is a stable isotope of an element.

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Limitations:
- Assumes that cosmic radiation reaching the earth is constant, which is not necessarily an accurate
assumption. Fortunately the technique has been calibrated to take the variations of cosmic ray activity
into account.
- Samples older than 50000-60000 years are not measured in this method because the amount of
remaining carbon-14 in the sample is too small to measure accurately.

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The health hazards of ionising radiation

Ionising radiation can damage the molecules that make up the cells of living tissue. If the cell start to
behave in an unexpected way because it has been damaged we call this cell mutation. Some types of
cancer happen because damaged cells start to divide uncontrollably.
Different types of ionising radiation present different risks. Alpha particles = greatest ionising effect
but little penetrating power little risk as it does not penetrate skin.
BUT problem is much greater if the source of alpha radiation is taken into the body - breathed in or
taken in through eating food - as here radiation will be very close to many different types of cells ad
they may cause damage and mutation if exposure is prolonged cancer.
Beta and gamma radiation do provide a serious health risk when outside of body, as they can penetrate
skin and flesh and can cause cell damage by ionisation. BUT, beta and gamma emitters that are absorbed
by the body present less risk than alpha emitters, because of their lower ionising power.

In all cases, longer period of exposure to radiation = greater risk of serious cell damage.
Workers in the nuclear industry wear a strip of photographic film in a badge to indicate their level of
exposure. The more foggy, the higher the level of exposure to radiation.
Another type of badge uses a property called thermoluminescence = the exposed material will give out
light when it is warmed. The radiation releases energy to make heat so the badges will give out more light
when exposed to higher levels of radiation.
These badges are checked regularly to ensure the safety limit for exposure to ionising radiation is not
exceeded.
Safe handling of radioactive materials
Samples of radioactive isotopes used in school and colleges are very small. This is to limit the risk to users.

Precautions to reduce risk:

- Store in lead container - to block even the most penetrating forms of radiation, gamma rays.
- Labelled as a radiation hazard and must be stored in a locked metal cabinet.
- Handle using tongs and kept as far from the body as possible.
In nuclear industry + research laboratories, much larger amounts of radioactive material are used
therefore they are handled w/ great care. Very energetic sources will be handled remotely by operators
who are shielded by lead, concrete and thick glass viewing panels.
Major problem w/ nuclear materials = long-term storage. Some materials have extremely long half-lives
so they remain active for thousands + sometimes tens of thousands of years. Nuclear waste must be
stored in sealed container that must be capable of containing the radioactivity for enormously long
periods of time.

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Daltons model of the atom

Dalton said that some substances were
made up of identical atoms called
elements, and elements always have
the same mass.

Models of the atom

The plum pudding model

JJ.Thompson thought that atoms
were +vely charged spheres w/ vely charged charged electrons
embedded in them.
The Rutherford model of the atom

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Rutherford worked with Geiger, who also worked w/ an undergraduate

student called Marsden. Together they carried out a series of
experiments that involved firing alpha particles at very thin foil. Their
experiment is shown on the left.

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The zinc sulphide screen gives out tiny sparks of light, called
scintillations when hit by an alpha particle. Geiger and Marsden were
able to see what happened to the alpha particles as they passed
through the gold foil by noting where the sparks occurred on the
screen:
Most of the alpha particle passed straight through the gold foil as if
it wasnt there at all.
Once in a while an alpha particle was knocked in a different direction.
A very small proportion actually seemed to bounce off the gold foil.

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Rutherford studied these results. He realised that, as most of the alpha particles passed straight through
the foil, most of each gold atom must be empty space. However, Rutherford knew that atoms did have
mass, so they couldnt be just empty space. the rare event of a rebound meant that an alpha particle had
run into something very massive. Rutherford realised that the mass must be concentrated in a very tiny
volume at the centre of the atom, which he called the nucleus. The deflections and rebounds were because
the +ve charges on the alpha particles were repelled by +ve charges in the nuclei.
The amount of deflection depends on a no. of factors:
1) The speed of the alpha particle - the alpha particle is deflected less if it is travelling faster.
2) The nuclear charge - if the nucleus is strongly +ve, then the alpha particle will be more strongly
repelled away from it.
3) How close the alpha particle gets to the +vely charged nucleus.
Generating electricity using nuclear fuels
Uranium-235 is used as a fuel in a nuclear reactor. It is used because its nuclei can be split by a neutron.
Process of splitting an atom = fission.
Uranium is a fissile material because it goes through the splitting
process easily. The process happens as shown on the diagram on
the right:

1) A slow-moving neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of uranium-235.

2) The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and splits apart.
3) The fragments of this decay are two daughter nuclei of barium-144 and krypton-89. The decay also
produces gamma radiation and 3 more neutrons.
The fission reaction produces a huge amount of energy. This is because some of the mass of the original
uranium-236 nuclei is converted to energy. Most of the energy is carried away as KE of the lighter nuclei.
Some is emitted as gamma radiation.

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The 3 neutrons produced by the fission may hit other nuclei of uranium-235, so causing the process to
repeat. If one neutron from each fission causes one nearby uranium-235 to split, then the fission reaction
will keep going. If more than one neutron from each fission causes fission in surrounding nuclei, then the
reaction escalates. This is called a chain reaction.

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If a chain reaction were allowed to take place in an uncontrolled way = nuclear explosion. This involves the
sudden release of enormous amounts of heat energy and radiation. Hence in a nuclear reactor the process
is controlled so that heat energy is released over a longer period of time. The heat produced in the core of
the reactor is used to heat water. The steam produced then drives turbines to turn generators.
The reactor core contains fuel rods of enriched
uranium = U-238 with a higher proportion of
U-235 than is found in natural reserves of
uranium.
Graphite is used as a moderator, which absorbs
some of the KE of neutrons to slow neutrons
down, as slow neutrons are more easily absorbed
by uranium-235.

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Boron or cadmium is used as control rods, which

absorb the neutrons and take them out of the
fission process completely. When the control
rods are fully inserted into the core, the chain
reaction is almost completely stopped and the
rate of production of heat is low. As the control
rods are withdrawn, the rate of fission increases
producing heat at a greater rate.

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Nuclear waste which will continue to produce dangerous levels of ionising radiation for thousands of years,
presenting a serious problem for long-term storage. They are usually sealed in containers that are then
buried deep underground. The sites for underground storage have to also be carefully selected, as the
geology of the site must be stable.