TECHNICAL REFERENCE GUIDE

Automatic Controls - 1

Contents
Introduction
The need for automatic controls
Safety
Stability
Accuracy
Automatic control terminology
Elements of automatic control
Assessing safety, stability and accuracy
Summary of terminology
Elements of a temperature control system
Assessing safety, stability and accuracy
Anticipating change
Automatic control
Components of an automatic control
Control theory
Modes of control
On/Off control
Continuous control
Proportional control
Reverse or direct acting control signal
Gain line offset
Manual reset
Automatic reset action (Integral action)
Rate action (Derivative action)
Summary of modes of control
Further terminology
Time constant (Of time control system)
Hunting
Lag
Rangeability
Turndown ratio
Control loops
Open loop system
Closed loop control
Disturbances
Feedback control
Feed forward control
Single loop control
Multi-loop control
Cascade control
Dynamics of the process
Process reactions

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Contents
Piping system dynamics
Choice and selection
Application
Power source
Valves and actuators
Controllers
Installation and commissioning
Valves
Actuators/sensors
Power and signal lines
Controllers
Practical methods of setting up a controller
Trouble shooting
Bumpless transfer
Self tuning controllers
Computers in control
Communications
What is Fieldbus?
What is SCADA?

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Introduction
The subject of Automatic Controls is an enormous one, covering
the control of temperature, pressure, flow, level, speed, time and
many more.
The objective of this Technical Reference Guide is to provide a
basic introduction to Automatic Controls. Even this can be divided
into two parts - the control of Heating, Ventilating and Air
Conditioning systems (commonly known as HVAC) and Process
Control. The latter is an immense subject in itself, ranging from
the control of a complete production system or process to the
other extreme - perhaps a simple domestic cooker.
The Controls Engineer needs to have more and more skills at his
command - a knowledge of mechanical engineering, electrics,
electronics and pneumatic systems; a working understanding of
HVAC design and process applications and, increasingly today,
an understanding of computers and digital communications. This
is a wide range of skills.
The Intent of this Technical Reference Guide
This Technical Reference Guide is not intended to transform an
individual into a Controls Engineer. It is intended rather to give
some insight into the practical and theoretical facets of automatic
control in the form of basic building blocks or foundations, to
which other skills can be added in the future.
Spirax Sarco's involvement in automatic controls is specifically
confined to the control of energy transfer fluids within pipelines.
For this reason, this Technical Reference Guide is confined to
the control of processes which use steam, water, compressed air
and hot oils as part of their conditioning cycle.
This control is generally achieved by using valves and actuators
and here we encounter the need to measure and respond to
temperature, pressure, level, humidity and flow rate. Almost
always, we must respond to changes in these physical properties
within a given time. It is, therefore, the combined manipulation of
valve/actuator with time, and the close control of the measured
variable, which we wish to explain in this Technical Reference
Guide.
Each of the Technical Reference Guide sections are intended to
form part of the whole learning process. However they may also
be used for independent reference.

The need for automatic controls

The major reasons owners and users of process plant or buildings
require automatic controls are:
Safety

The first reason for the existence of automatic controls is to

ensure plant or processes are safe to operate. The more complex
or dangerous the plant or process, the greater the need for
automatic controls.

Stability

The second reason is to make plant and processes work steadily

and predictably without worrying fluctuations or expensive shut
downs.

Accuracy

On the basis of stability, it is possible to introduce plant and

process control accuracy. This is required by factories and
buildings to prevent spoilage, increase quality and provide comfort:
the fundamentals of economic success.
From these three basic parameters of automatic control, stem
other desirable benefits such as economy, speed, reliability and
so on. It is against the three major parameters of safety, stability
and accuracy that each control application will be measured.

Automatic control terminology

Specific terms are used within the controls industry, principally to
avoid confusion. At first sight, this seems to be a contradiction
because any 'jargon' is seen to confuse the issue for those
outside the industry.
The fact is that only a small amount of persistence with control
jargon will show how the same words and phrases come together
in all facets of controls from pipelines to robotics; from electronics
to direct operated controls; from temperature to velocity.
A further important factor in using control terms correctly is that
they are international in meaning.
As far as the standard terms used in pipeline control are
concerned, this is best covered by using a simple manual control
example.

Inlet valve (variable)

2
3
1
Discharge
valve (fixed)

Fig. 1 Manual control of a simple process

In this fictitious process (Figure 1), which serves to demonstrate
the principles involved, the operator controls the flow of water by
opening or closing a valve to ensure that:
The water level is not so high that it runs to waste via the
overflow.
The water level is not so low that it does not cover the bottom
of the tank.
At this stage, the discharge rate of the water is fixed via a valve in
the discharge pipe.
5

The human operator has marked three lines on the side of the
tank so that he can manipulate the water supply (inlet) valve. The
levels represent:
The lowest water level allowable which just ensures that the
bottom of the tank is covered.
The highest water level allowable which will just ensure that
there is no discharge through the overflow.
The ideal level mid-way between 1 and 2.
This simple example demonstrates that:
1. The operator is trying to maintain the water in the vessel
between levels 1 and 2. This is called the - Controlled
Condition.
2. This is achieved by controlling the flow of water through the
valve in the inlet pipe - Manipulated Variable.
3. The water itself is known as the - Control Agent.
4. By doing this, he is controlling the level of water in the tank Controlled Variable.
5. Once the water is in the tank it is known as the - Controlled
Medium.
6. The level of water he is trying to maintain is at 3 on the visual
indicator - Set Value (Set Point).
7. He could maintain the water level at any point between 1 and 2
on the visual indicator and still meet the control parameters
i.e. the bottom is covered and no overflow - Desired Value.
8. Assume he is actually maintaining the level at point 2, this is
the water level he is actually maintaining at steady state
conditions - Control Value (Control Point).
9. With reference to (7) and (8) above, the level of water he
ideally wanted to maintain was at point 3. But he is actually
maintaining the level at point 2 which is still quite satisfactory.
But there is a difference in water level between 2 and 3 Deviation.
10.If he closes the inlet valve slightly, the water level will drop
nearer to level 3 and so the deviation will change i.e. become
less. But if he does not touch the valve, the deviation will
remain as it is between Level 2 and level 3 (all other things
remaining unchanged of course).
11.A sustained deviation known as offset.

Output signal

Actuator
(Arm muscle)

Manipulated variable

Controlled device
(Valve)

Controller
(Brain)

Desired value

Process
(tank)

Input
signal

Sensor
(Eye)

Controlled
condition

Fig. 2 Elements of automatic control

Elements of
automatic control

His eye saw movement of the water level against the marked
scale indicator- Detector or sensor.
The eye (sensor) signalled this back to the brain which then
interpreted the signal - controller.
The brain (controller) then decided to send a signal to the arm
muscle - actuator.
The arm muscle and hand (actuator) turned the valve - controlled
device.
It is worth repeating these points in a slightly different way to
reinforce the example:
It shows that the operator's aim is to hold the tank water level at
point 3 on a simple scale. Level 3 can be considered to be his
target or - set value.
He manipulates the level physically by adjusting the inlet valve.
He is known as the - actuator.
Within this operation it it necessary to contend with the operator's
attention span and ability. It is, therefore, unlikely that he will
control exactly at level 3 all the time. Generally he will be high or
low of level 3. The position or level at which he controls is termed
the control value or actual value.
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The amount of error or difference between level 3 and the actual

value is termed - deviation. When a deviation is constant, or
steady state, it is termed - sustained deviation or control offset.
Although the operator is manipulating the water level, the final
aim is to produce the product. In this case, the mixture dripping
from the outlet valve. Naturally, the condition of the final product
in this instance is indirectly related to the manipulation of the tank
level the controlled condition.
Assessing safety,
stability and
accuracy

It can be assumed that a process of this type contains neither

valuable nor harmful ingredients. Therefore, overflow or water
starvation will be safe, but not economic in process time and
quality.
In terms of stability, the operator would be able to handle this
process providing he pays constant attention.
Accuracy is not a feature of this process because the operator
will only respond to a visible and recognisable error.

Summary of
terminology

Set Value - The value set on the scale of the control system in
order to obtain the required condition.
Control Value - The value of the control condition actually
maintained under steady state conditions.
Deviation - The difference between the desired value and the
measured value of the controlled condition.
Offset - Sustained deviation.
Sensor - The element which responds directly to the value of the
controlled condition.
Controlled condition - The physical quantity or condition of the
controlled medium which it is the purpose of the system to
control.
Controller - Accepts the signal from the sensor and sends a
correcting (or control) signal to the actuator.
Actuator - The element that adjusts the controlled device in
response to a signal from the controller.
Controlled device - The final controlling element in a control
system.
There are many other terms used in the Automatic Controls field.
These will be discovered as the Technical Reference Guide
progresses.

Elements of a
temperature control
system

The simple example first shown was a manual level control,

since it was the level of water that had to be maintained. This can
be compared with a simple, manual temperature control example
as shown in Figure 3, where all the previous factors and definitions
apply equally.

Thermometer
Hot water to process

Alarm

Steam
Coil heat
exchanger

Steam trap set

Thermometer
Cold water

Fig. 3 Simple manual temperature control

The task is to admit sufficient steam (as the heating medium) to
heat the incoming water, ensuring that hot water leaves the tank
at a desired temperature.
Assessing safety,
stability and
accuracy

While the simple control of water in the first example could easily
be achieved by a human operator, the control of temperature
shown above is less simple. (We are not suggesting that level
control is inherently simple, merely the example we have shown).
If the flow of water varies, conditions will change rapidly. Thus
the operator's response in changing the position of the steam
valve may not be quick enough.

Anticipating change

Experience will help but in general the operator will not be able to
anticipate change. He must wait for change.
These and other factors, such as the cost of a human operator
permanently on duty, operator fault, variations in process needs,
accuracy, rapid changes in conditions, the involvement of several
processes etc.; all lead to the need for automatic controls.
At the level of safety the need for an audible alarm has been
introduced - another reason for automatic controls.
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Automatic control

A controlled condition might be temperature, pressure, density,

level, flow etc. from which it follows that the measuring element
could be a temperature sensor, a pressure transducer, a level
detector, a density probe or a flow sensor.
The manipulated variable could be steam, water, air, electricity, oil
or gas, whilst the controlled device could be a valve or damper, etc.
For the purposes of demonstrating the principles, this Technical
Reference Guide will concentrate on valves as the controlled
device and temperature as the controlled condition, with
temperature sensors as the measuring element.

Sensor

Controller

Actuator

Valve

Fig. 4 Components of an automatic control

Components of an
automatic control

Figure 4 shows the component parts of a Control System. The

sensor signals to the controller. The controller, which may take
signals from more than one sensor, determines whether it needs
to make a change in the manipulated variable, based on these
signal(s). It then commands the actuator to move the valve to a
different position (either more open or more closed).
Controllers are classified by the source of power they use electronic, pneumatic, mechanical etc. An actuator can be thought
of as a motor. Actuators are classified in a similar way to
controllers. Valves are classified by the action they use to effect
an opening or closing of the flow orifice, and by their body
configurations.
If the system elements are combined with the system parts (or
devices) the relationship between 'What is to be done' with 'What
does it', can be seen.

10

Some of the terms used may not be familiar because they have
not yet been covered. However, in the following parts of the
Technical Reference Guide all the individual components and
items shown on the previous drawing will be addressed.

Set point

Control knob / remote

potentiometer

Controller

Manipulated variable
Compressed air (0.2 to 1.0 bar)
Electric current 4 to 20 mA

Proportional (P)
Proportional + Integral (P+I)
Proportional + Integral + Derivative (P+I+D)

Pneumatic / electric /
self acting actuator

Controlled
element

Temperature / pressure /
humidity sensor

Vat, heat exchanger,

steriliser
Controlled
device

Measured
variable
pressure /
temperature
signal

Measuring
equipment

Controlled
condition

Process

2 port / 3 port valve

Fig. 5 Typical mix of process control devices with system elements

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Control theory
Modes of control

An automatic temperature control might consist of a valve, actuator

and sensor, detecting space temperature in a room. The control
system is said to be in balance when the space temperature
sensor calls for neither more heat nor less heat. What happens to
the control valve when the space sensor registers a change in
temperature (or, more correctly, a temperature deviation) depends
on the type of control system used. The relationship between the
movement of the valve and the change of temperature in the
controlled medium is known as the mode of control or sometimes
control action.
There are two basic modes of control:
On/Off: The valve is either fully open or fully closed with no
intermediate state.
Continuous: The valve can move continuously between fully
open or fully closed, or be held at any intermediate position.
Derivatives of both these modes exist, which will now be examined
in greater detail.

On/Off control

Occasionally known as two step or two position control, this is

the most basic mode. Considering the tank of water shown in
Figure 6, the objective is to heat the contents of the tank using the
heat exchange from a simple coil, fed with higher temperature
water. In the flow pipe to the coil, a two port valve and actuator is
fitted, complete with a thermostat, situated in the water in the tank.

2 port valve
and solenoid

Fig. 6 On / Off control of a tank

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Thermostat (set at 60C)

The thermostat is set to 60C, the temperature at which it is

desired to maintain the water in the tank. Logic dictates that if the
switching point was actually 60C the valve would never operate
properly. Certainly it would tell the valve to open until it sensed
that the water in the tank was at 60C. From then on it would
open and shut very rapidly indeed, causing extreme wear.
For this reason, the thermostat would actually have an upper
switching point and a lower switching point. This is essential to
prevent hunting or over-rapid cycling. In this case the upper
switching point might be 61C (the point at which the thermostat
tells the valve to shut) and the lower switching point might be
59C (the point when the valve is told to open). Thus there is an
in-built switching difference in the thermostat of 1C about the
60C set point (61C - 59C).
This 2C (1C) is known as the differential or switching differential.
(The actual differential will vary between thermostats). A diagram
of the switching action of the thermostat would look like the graph
shown in Figure 7.

Water tank temperature

Upper switching point 61C

OFF

Set point

60C

Lower switching point 59C

ON
OFF
T1

ON
T2

OFF
T3

ON

Time

Fig. 7 On / Off switching action of the thermostat

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It shows that the tank contents temperature will fall to 59C

before the valve is called to open and will rise to 61C before the
valve is instructed to close.
Figure 7 shows straight switching lines but the effect on heat
transfer from coil to tank water will not be immediate. It will take
time for the heating medium in the coil to affect the temperature
of the water in the tank. Not only that, but the water in the tank will
rise above the 61C upper limit and fall below the 59C lower
limit. This can be explained by referring to Figures 7 and 8. First
however it is necessary to describe what is happening.
At point A (59C) the thermostat signals and switches the valve
wide open. It takes time for the transfer of heat from the coil to
affect the water temperature, as shown by the slope of the rise in
temperature. At point B (61C) the thermostat tells the valve to
shut. However there is still a coil full of existing heating medium
which will continue to give up its heat. Hence the tank water
temperature continues to rise a little reaching its peak of 'overshoot'
at C.

60C

59C

Undershoot

Valve
open

Operating differential

61C

Switching differential of thermostat

Tank water temperature

Overshoot
C

Valve
shut

E
On

Off

On

Time

Fig. 8 Tank temperature vs. Time

From this point onwards, the water temperature in the tank does
begin to fall until, at point D (59C) the thermostat tells the valve
to open. Heating medium is admitted through the coil but, again,
it takes time to have an effect and the water temperature continues
to fall for a while, reaching its trough of undershoot at point E.
The difference between the peak and the trough is known as the
operating differential. The switching differential of the thermostat
depends on the type and make of thermostat used. The operating
differential depends on the characteristics of the application such
as the tank, its contents, the characteristics of the coil and so on.
Figure 8 also shows the related valve position.
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Essentially, with On/Off control, there are upper and lower

switching limits and the valve is either fully open or fully closed there is no intermediate state.
The main advantages of on/off control are that it is simple and
very low cost.
The major disadvantage is that the operating differential will often
fall outside the control tolerance required by the process. For
example, on food production where the taste and repeatability of
taste is determined by precise temperature control, on/off control
would clearly be unsuitable.
By contrast, in the case of space heating there are often large
storage capacities (a large area to heat or cool that will respond
to temperature change slowly) and slight variation in the
temperature is acceptable. In some cases on/off control is
appropriate.
If on/off control is unsuitable because more accurate temperature
control is required, the next option is continuous control.
Continuous control

Continuous control is often called modulating control. It simply

means that the valve is capable of being continually moved to
change the degree of valve opening or closing. It does not just
move to either fully open or fully closed as with on-off control.
There are three basic control actions:
Proportional (P).
Integral (I).
Derivative (D).
It is also necessary to consider these in combination such as
P + I, P + D, P + I + D. Although it is possible to get combinations
of the different actions, and all play their part in producing the
required response, it should be borne in mind that both the
integral and derivative actions are usually corrective functions
of the basic action, proportional control.
The three basic control actions will be considered in turn.

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Proportional control

This is the most basic of the continuous control modes and is

usually referred to with the letter P. The principle aim of
proportional control is to stabilise the process by removing the
swings in process value, e.g. the measured temperature.
This section shows that:
The larger the proportional band, the more stable the control,
but the greater the offset.
The narrower the proportional band, the less stable the process,
but the smaller the offset.
The aim, therefore, should be to introduce the smallest acceptable
proportional band that will make the process stable and give the
minimum offset.
In explaining proportional control, several new terms must be
introduced. Some of them have already been used in the previous
paragraphs.

Valve
'V'

Fig. 9 Valve 50% open

To define these, a simple analogy can be considered - a cold
water tank supplied with water via a float operated valve and with
a stop valve on the outlet pipe, Figure 9. It is desired to maintain
the water level of the tank at B (equivalent to the set point of a
temperature controller).
It can be assumed that, with valve V half open, (50% load) there
is just the right flow rate of water entering via the float operated
valve to provide the desired flow out through the discharge pipe,
and to maintain the tank water level at B.
The system can be said to be under control, in a stable condition
(the float is not bouncing up and down) and at precisely the
desired water level B, providing the outflow required.
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A
Offset
B

Valve
'V'

Fig. 10 Valve closed

Figure 10 shows the fully closed valve V (0% load).
Before the float operated valve cuts off the water supply, the level
of water in the tank rises to A. The system is still under control
and stable but control is above the desired level. The difference
between the desired level, B, and the actual controlled level, A, is
called offset.
Once again, if valve V is half opened, 50% load, the water level in
the tank will return to the desired level at B.

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A
B
Deviation
C

Valve
'V'

Fig. 11 Valve open

Look at Figure 11 where the valve V is now fully opened (100%
load). The float operated valve will need to drop to open the inlet
valve wide and admit a higher flow rate of cold water to meet the
increased demand from the discharge pipe. When it reaches
level C, enough water will be entering to meet the discharge
needs and the water level will be maintained at C.
The system is under control and stable, but once again there is
more Offset - the deviation in level between B and C. Figure 12
amalgamates all three conditions used in our example.
The difference in levels between A and C is known as the
Proportional Band or P-band, since this is the change in level (or
temperature in the case of a temperature control) for the valve to
move from fully open to fully closed. The symbol for Proportional
Band is Xp.
The analogy illustrates several basic and important points relating
to proportional control.
The valve is moved in proportion to the error in the water level
(or the temperature deviation, in the case of a temperature
control) from the desired level (or set point).
The precise, desired level or set point, can only be maintained
for one specific load condition.
While stable control will be achieved at other loads, the level
will always be offset from the set point, either above it with a
lighter load, or below it with a heavier load.
Note: By changing the position of the pivot point on the float
operated valve, the proportional band is changed.

18

C
Proportional
band B
(Xp)
A

Fig. 12 Proportional band

Electrical and pneumatic controllers equate set value to mid
proportional band position.
This can now be described with an additional, slightly different
example which uses a temperature control.
The space temperature of a building using a proportional action
temperature control (electrical/electronic valve, actuator, controller
and room sensor).
The control selected has a proportional band (P-Band or Xp) of
6C and the desired internal space temperature is 18C. Under
steady load conditions, the valve is 50% open and the internal
temperature is just right at 18C. A fall in outside temperature
occurs, resulting in an increase in the rate of heat loss from the
building. Consequently, the internal temperature will drop and
this will be detected by the room sensor, which will signal the
valve to move to a more open position to admit more heat.
The valve opens until the rate of heat input is altered by an
amount proportional to the fall in inside temperature.
In due course, the fall in inside temperature is stopped, and in
order to provide the additional heat required, the valve will stabilise
in a more open position. But the actual inside temperature will be
slightly lower than the desired value.
Figure 13 explains this further, where the proportional band is
6C.

19

Inside air temperature (C)

and proportional band
Set temperature 18C

Actual temperature 16.5C

Offset

Controller output %

75%

50%

50%

75%

Process load %

50%
75%

Valve position %

Fig. 13 6C Proportional band

In order to keep the explanation simple it is assumed that the
valve capacity is precisely matched to the load, and there is a
linear relationship between the temperature change, the flow
through the valve and the valve position.
The load and the controller output are shown on the X axis, and
the proportional band and the valve position are shown on the Y
axis.
The following situation can be considered: The inside building
temperature is 18C, and the system is in control at 50 % load.
A drop in outside temperature causes a change in load from
50 % to 75 %. Following the dotted line around the control loop
the effect of this change in load can be seen. The valve
position no longer provides enough heat and the inside
temperature falls. This causes the output of the controller to
rise, and the valve to open until the system is back in control.
In this case the valve goes to 75 % open.

20

As can be seen from Figure 13, the effect of increased load is to

cause the inside temperature to drop. The difference between
the set temperature and the actual inside temperature is offset. In
this case the inside temperature drops to 16.5C. The offset is
therefore 1.5C (6 x 25 %). The offset always changes with load.
A load of less than 50 % will cause the offset to be above the
set value.
A load of more than 50 % will cause the offset to be below the
set value.
Now the effect of altering the proportional band can be considered:
Assuming the same system, but instead of 6C, the proportional
band is increased to 12C (Figure 14). With the same scenario, a
load change from 50 % to 75%, it can be seen that the offset has
doubled, and the actual temperature is now 15C. (18 - (12 x 25 %)).
If the proportional band is halved to 3C, half the original offset
will exist.

Inside air temperature (C)

and proportional band
Set temperature 18C

Actual temperature 15C

Offset

Controller output %

75 %

50 %

50 %

75 %

Process load %

50 %
75 %

Valve position %

Fig. 14 12C Proportional band

21

At the beginning it was stated that P increases the offset. However,

as shown, a larger proportional band also increases the offset. It
is necessary therefore to choose the minimum proportional band
to give stability with the minimum offset.
It will now be considered whether a larger proportional band will
increase the stability of the process.
To keep the maths simple, an example of control with a 5C
proportional band will be considered. It is known that a 5C
change in temperature will cause the valve to move from fully
open to fully closed. In this case the valve has a stroke of 20 mm
and the characteristic is linear, i.e. the flow is directly proportional
to the lift. It can be calculated that for every 1C temperature
change, the valve will move:
20
5
i.e.

= 4 mm

4 x 100 = 20 % change in flow

20

If the the proportional band is doubled to 10C, a 1C temperature

change will cause the valve to move:
20
10
i.e.

= 2 mm

2 x 100 = 10 % change in flow

20

Clearly, the smaller movement will result in less flow change and
hence the process will be more stable.
Equally, if we reduce the proportional band to 2C, the following
is achieved:
20 = 10 mm movement
2
for every 1C temperature change
i.e. 10 x 100 = 50 % change in flow
20
This is a large movement, and a large flow change for a small
temperature change, and has the effect of moving the control
more towards an on/off, giving the system a tendency to become
unstable.
The P Band is often expressed as a percentage. The percentage
P Band is the percentage change in sensor output (of its span)
required to give 100 % change in controller output.

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So, if a controller has an input span of 200C and the P Band is

10C.
The percentage Proportional band = 10 x 100 % = 5 %
200
With adjustable P Band controllers, the actual setting is sometimes
made via an adjustment called gain or proportional gain.
The relationship between gain and P Band is:
Gain =

100
Percentage Proportional Band

or
% P Band = 100
Gain
As a reminder:
A wide proportional band will provide a less sensitive response.
A narrow proportional band will provide a more sensitive
response, but there is a limit to how narrow the Xp can be set.
Too narrow a proportional band will result in oscillation and
unstable control.

100

% Valve lift

Gain =

100
=5
20

Gain =

100
= 2.77
36

50
Set
value
18C
0

Temperature 100C

Xp 20C
( 10C)
Xp 36C ( 18C)
Total span (or range) of controller = 100C

Fig. 15
Reverse or direct
acting control signal

A closer look at the Figures used so far to describe the effect of

proportional control, shows that the output is assumed to be
reverse acting. In other words, a rise in process temperature
causes the control signal to fall and the valve to close.

23

Figures 16 and 17 show the difference between reverse and

direct acting signals.

0%

Controller signal output

100 %

Controller signal output

100 %

Temperature

Temperature

0%

Set temperature

Set temperature

Proportional band

Proportional band

Fig. 16 Reverse acting signal

Fig. 17 Direct acting signal

Generally speaking:
A reverse acting signal will be used on heating control.
A direct acting signal on cooling applications.
On mechanical controllers (e.g. a pneumatic controller) it is usual
to be able to invert the output signal of the controller by rotating
the proportional control dial. Thus, the magnitude of the
proportional band and the direction of the control action can be
determined from the same dial.
On electronic controllers, reverse acting (RA) or direct acting
(DA) is selected through the keypad.

24

Gain line

Xp = 10C

Set value
80C
(50% load)

+5C

Proportional offset
or deviation

-5C

Temperature

No load
85C

Maximum load
75C

0%

25 %

50 %
Valve position

100 %

Fig. 18 Gain line offset

Gain line offset

From the explanation of proportional control, it is seen that there

is control offset or deviation from set value whenever the load
varies from 50 %. To further illustrate this, a system can be
considered where the load is 25 % of maximum demand (shown
in Fig. 18). If the subsequent offset cannot be tolerated by the
process/application, then the P-band (in this case Xp = 10C 5C)
offset must be eliminated. This is done by relocating the gain line,
either moving it up or down, about the set value of 80C. This is
achieved by a process called reset action.

Manual reset

The offset can be removed either manually or automatically. The

effect of manual reset can be seen in Figure 19, assuming the
same values as those used previously.

25

Temperature

82.5C

Re

Set value
80C
(50% load)

set

gin

gai

al g

n li

ain

line

ne

77.5C
75C

Reset Xp = 10C

Ori

Original Xp = 10C

85C

72.5C
0%

25 %

50 %
Valve position

75 %

100 %

Fig. 19 Gain line offset

It is clear from above that the set value has been lowered by
2.5C. This has displaced the whole proportional band in a parallel
manner and brought the 25% load line on to the original set value
which, of course, coincides with the desired value.
Manual reset carried out

Temperature

Set value
Proportional
band

Time

Fig. 20 Effect of manual reset

26

Automatic reset
action
(Integral action)

Manual Reset is usually unsatisfactory in process plant where

each load change will necessitate some reset action. It is also
quite common for an operator to be confused by the differences
between:
Set value
- what is on the dial
Actual value
- what the process is feeling
Desired value - the perfect process condition
Confusion and error are overcome by adopting an automatic
control routine where initial set value and actual value are shown
on the controller front panel. Reset action is hidden within the
internals of the controller.
Such an automatic controller is primarily a proportional controller.
It then has added to it a reset function which is termed 'integral
action'. Automatic reset uses an electronic integration to perform
the reset function - hence the most commonly used term for
automatic reset - which is integral action. It is given the letter I.
The function of the I - action is to eliminate offset by continuously
and automatically moving the proportional band up and down as
necessary and in accordance with the control deviation that it
detects. The deviation signal is integrated with respect to time.
The I - unit starts to give a steadily increasing signal as long as a
control deviation continues to exist. The larger the deviation, the
faster the increase or decrease in extra signal.
An automatic reset controller needs to integrate the offset with
respect to time, with proportional offset. It has to continuously
update its calculations so that accuracy is maintained. Thus
proportional plus integral (P + I) becomes the terminology for the
actions incorporating these features.
The integral action on a controller is inhibited to within the
proportional band. Figure 21 shows the P + I function in total.

Temperature
Original P band
Set value

Proportional
band displaced
Reset/integral action begins
Actual value

Time

Fig. 21 P+I function in total

27

The reset (or integral) time is adjustable. If it is too short, overreaction and instability will result. If it is too long, effectively there
will be no reset action. The reset time is denoted in time units. On
some controllers the adjustable parameter for the reset mode is
the reciprocal of this which is known as repeats per minute.
1
Repeats per minute =
Integral time constant in minutes
Integral time = , means no integral action
Integral time = 0, means infinite integral action
It is important to check the controller manual to see how the
integral action is being represented.
Rate action
(Derivative action)

Reference to Figure 21 shows that, with P+ I controllers,

temperature overshoot is likely to occur when the actual
temperature of the process is outside the Proportional Band set
in the controller.
A typical example of this is at start-up.
The Integral function responds to the large difference between
the actual temperature and the set temperature by moving (or
'winding-up') the Proportional band so far that the Set Point is
outside the band. The actual temperature of the process must
pass the Set Point before the controller output will change. As the
process temperature crosses the Set Point the deviation polarity
signal changes, and the controller output signal starts to decrease.
To remedy this situation we need to measure the rate (B1) at
which the actual temperature is deviating from the set temperature,
i.e. the rate of change of the error.
This is what a Derivative action does.
Following a load change and subsequent reduction in process
temperature:
The integral function will reset the Proportional band.
At the same time, the Derivative function monitors the rate of
change of the difference between the actual temperature
and the set temperature (the error).
As the actual value approaches the set value, the derivative
action has the effect of modulating the signal to the control
valve, and slowing down the rate of temperature change.

28

The result of this additional function is that temperature overshoot

is minimised. Rate action, therefore, detects the rate of change of
error, whereas P and I terms detect the magnitude of the deviation.
Rate action is called Derivative Action and is referred to by the
letter D. D action is again adjustable and referred to as TD in time
units.
TD = 0, means no D action
TD = , means infinite D action
P + D controllers can be obtained, but with these offset is present.
It is worth remembering that the only disadvantage with a P
control, is the presence of offset. To overcome and remove
offset, I action is introduced. The disadvantage of this is overshoot on load change. Hence the need for the third action D. The
result is a P + I + D controller which, if properly tuned, gives rapid
and stable response, with no offset and without overshoot.
P and I and D are referred to as terms and thus a P + I + D
Controller is known as a three term controller.
Summary of modes
of control

So a three term controller contains three modes of control:

Proportional (P) action with adjustable gain to obtain stability.
Reset (Integral) (I) action to compensate for load changes.
Rate (Derivative) (D) action to speed up valve movement
when quick load changes take place.
The various characteristics can be summarised as shown in
Table 1 page 30.

29

Table 1 Summary of control modes and responses

Proportional
plus Integral
P+I

Proportional plus
Derivative P + D
Proportional plus
Integral plus
Derivative P + I + D

Temperature
Temperature

Proportional P

Temperature

On/Off

Typical system response

Temperature

Control Mode

Time

Time

Time

Time

Advantages /
disadvantages
Inexpensive
Simple
Operating differential
can be outside of
process
requirements.
Simple
Stable
Easy to set up
Offset occurs

No offset
Increase in
proportional band
usually required to
overcome instability.
Increased overshoot
on start-up.
Will give best control,
no offset and
minimal overshoot
More complex to set
up manually, but
most electronic
controllers have an
'auto tune' facility.
More expensive
where pneumatic
controllers are
concerned.

Finally, what the controls engineer must do is to avoid the danger

of using unnecessarily complicated controls for a specific
application. In short, the least complicated control action which
will provide the degree of control required should be selected.

30

Further teminology
Time constant
(of time control
system)

This is defined as:

'The time taken for a controller output to change by 63.2 % of its

total due to a step (or sudden) change in process load'.
The explanation is a little deeper than that, however, in that the
time constant is really the time taken for a signal or output to
achieve the set value, if the original rate of increase or movement
were maintained.

Initial rate of
movement
Actual movement
Movement %

63.2%

Time constant

0%
0%

Time

Fig. 22 Time constant

In simple terms, two baths of water are maintained at different
temperatures. The sensor is soaked in one of the tanks and then
quickly transferred to the other one. Actuator movement is
recorded against time, until all the movement appears to have
stopped. Finally, movement is plotted, expressed as a percentage
of the total movement resulting from the change in temperature,
against time. The time taken to reach 63.2 % of the total movement
can be read off. The graph (Figure 22) demonstrates this.
Hunting

Often referred to as instability, cycling or oscillation, this produces

a large deviation from the normal operating point due to just a
small change at the set point. This can be caused by:
Proportional band is too narrow
Integral time is too short
The derivative time is too long
A combination of these.

31

Two
port
valve

Large
steam
volume

Small
water
system

Pump

Fig. 23 Hunting
In the 'unbalanced' system shown in Figure 23, accurate heating
will be difficult to achieve and may result in a large proportional
band to achieve stability.
If the system load suddenly increases, the two-port valve will
open wide, filling the heat exchanger with a large volume of high
temperature steam, causing the water system to heat quickly and
overshoot. This then causes the two-port valve to close quickly,
and hence the water temperature to fall, and the two-port valve to
open again. This cycle is repeated, only ceasing when the P, I
and D terms are balanced.
Hunting of this type can cause premature wearing of system
components, in particular valves and actuators.
Lag

Lag is a delay in response and will exist in both the control

system and in the process or system under control.
Example: A small room is warmed by a heater which is controlled
by a room space thermostat. A large window is opened admitting
large amounts of cold air. The room temperature will fall but there
will be a delay while the sensor cools down to the new temperature
- this is known as control lag.
Having then asked for more heat from the room heater, it will be
some time before this takes effect and warms up the room to the
point where the thermostat is satisfied - this is known as system
lag or thermal lag.

32

Rangeability

This relates to the control valve and is the ratio between the
maximum controllable flow and the minimum controllable flow,
between which the characteristics of the valve (linear, equal
percentage, quick opening) will be maintained. With many valves,
at some point before the fully closed position is reached, there is
no longer proper control over flow in accordance with the valve
characteristics.

Turndown ratio

Turn down ratio is the ratio between the maximum normal flow
and the minimum controllable flow. It will be substantially less
than the rangeability if the valve is oversized.
Although the official definition relates only to the valve, it is a
function of the complete control.

33

Control loops
This is really a continuation from the point at which control
systems left off, except that it now involves the complete control valve, actuator, sensor, controller and the process or system
itself.
Open loop system

With open loop control there is no feedback i.e. no information is

sent back from the process or system under control to indicate
that all is well, or that further corrective action is required. The
simple heating system shown in Figure 24 demonstrates this. (It
is not an example of good control, but helps to explain the
principles).

Two
port
valve

Pump

Hot water boiler

Fig. 24 Open loop control system

The outside sensor is set to 12C and by controlling the valve in
this way, it is hoped that control of the temperature in the room
will be effected.
However, there is no feedback regarding the room temperature.
In mild weather, although the flow water is being controlled,
overheating may occur in the room.
The simple heating system control is not very representative but
helps with this explanation. A more realistic example is a
compensating control system used on a heating circuit, shown in
Figure 25.
34

Three
port
valve

Hot water boiler

Pump

Fig. 25 Open loop control system with outside temperature sensor

and water temperature sensor
Such a system uses a 3-way mixing valve with an actuator,
controller and outside air sensor, as well as a flow water sensor.
When it is cold outside, water flows around the heating system at
its maximum temperature. As the outside temperature rises, the
controller automatically reduces the temperature of the water
flowing through the system.
However, this is still open loop control. There is no feedback from
the building or space being heated. If all the radiators are oversized
or design errors have occurred, overheating will still occur.
Closed loop control

Quite simply, a closed loop control employs feedback - information

is sent back from the process or system. Remaining with the
simple heating system example, the addition of an internal space
temperature sensor, shown in Figure 26, will detect this and
provide closed loop control.
Figure 26 Closed loop control system with sensor for internal
space temperature. This time, the valve and actuator are controlled
via a space temperature sensor in the room itself i.e. there is
feedback from the actual room temperature. (For the sake of
precision, the flow water temperature would be controlled via a
boiler thermostat).
35

Internal
space
temperature
sensor

Hot water boiler

Fig. 26 Closed loop control system with sensor for internal space temperature

36

Disturbances

Disturbances are factors which enter the process or system to

upset the value of the controlled medium. These disturbances
can be caused by changes in load or by outside influences. To
stay with the simple heating system example, if the room is
suddenly filled with people, this will constitute a disturbance,
since it will affect the temperature of the room and the amount of
heat required to maintain the desired space temperature.

Feedback control

This is really closed loop control by another name. Feedback

control takes account of disturbances and feeds this information
back, in order that corrective action can be taken (for example,
the influx of a large number of people into the room affecting
space temperature).

Single loop control

This is the simplest control loop involving just one controlled

variable e.g. temperature. To detail this, a steam-to-water heat
exchanger is considered, shown in Figure 27.

Fig. 27 Single loop control on a HWS calorifier

Only one variable is controlled - the temperature of the water
leaving the heat exchanger. This is achieved by controlling a
2 port valve in the steam inlet. The primary sensor may be a
thermocouple or PT100 sensing the water temperature. The
small signal produced by the sensor may then be fed to a
signal conditioning unit, if needed, or directly to the controller,
if the controller is configured appropriately.

37

The controller compares the signal to the set point. If there is a

difference, the controller sends an error signal to the actuator of
the valve which, in turn, moves the valve to a more open or
closed position. The controller may also include an output indicator,
which shows the percentage of valve opening or closing, or the
signal strength being sent to the actuator from the controller.
Single control loops provide the vast majority of control for heating
systems and industrial processes.
Other terms used for this include set value control, single closed
loop control or feedback control.
Multi-loop control

The following example considers a timber based product which

must be controlled to a specific humidity level (see Figures 28
and 29).

Fig. 28 Single humidity sensor

The single humidity sensor at the end of the conveyor shown
previously, controls the furnace. But if the water spray is increased
due to, for example, mains pressure fluctuations, it may take
perhaps 30 minutes before the product reaches the far end of the
conveyor and the humidity sensor reacts. This will cause variations
in product quality.
A second humidity sensor ahead of the furnace will improve the
control, the controller reacting to the on humidity condition. This,
in a simple form, illustrates multi-loop control.
This humidity control system consists of two control loops:
The first loop controls the addition of water.
The second controls the removal of water.
Within this process, factors will influence both loops. Some
factors such as water pressure will affect both loops. Loop 1 will
try to correct for this, but any resulting error will have an impact
on Loop 2.
38

Fig. 29 Dual humidity sensors

Cascade control

Cascade control is effected by controllers in series, where one

controlled variable is affected by two or more inputs, or where
there are different heat transfer times in the elements of the
system and where high accuracy is needed.
Figure 30 shows a jacketed vessel full of liquid, heated by steam.
The response time of the liquid is much longer than the response
time of the steam.
Controller 1 is receiving signals from a sensor in the liquid. Its own
resulting output signal is fed to a second controller and alters the
set point of that controller. Controller 2 receives a signal from a
sensor in the steam jacket and it reacts to that together with its
own varying set point, to operate the valve and the actuator.
Cascade controllers ensure that percentage changes in the reactor
temperature result in a linear proportional change in the jacket
temperature. This feature is known as 'linearisation', and is
desirable in control systems. Without the cascade control, a
change in liquid temperature will result in a direct output to the
steam valve. This will change the jacket temperature by an
UNDEFINED amount, dependent upon the valve characteristics
and the relative steam pressure.
Under many circumstances, cascade control can reduce the
natural period (speed) of the overall control system. This enables
it to react faster to the load changes imposed upon it.
Without cascade control, a change in liquid temperature simply
causes a demand/position to the steam valve to move. This will
affect the jacket temperature with some lag, dependant upon the
system volume etc. This lag can be relatively long.
With cascade control the liquid controller requires a temperature,
and the second controller moves the steam valve in order to
achieve this temperature as quickly as possible. The result is a
reduction in the natural period of the whole system.
39

Fig. 30 Jacketed vessel

40

Dynamics of the process

This again is a very involved subject but this section will cover the
most basic considerations.
The term time constant, which deals with the definition of the
time taken for actuator movement, has already been outlined.
Other parts of the control system will have similar time based
responses - the controller and its components and the sensor
itself. All instruments have a time lag between the input to the
instrument and its subsequent output. Even the transmission
system will have a time lag - not a problem with electric/electronic
systems but a factor that may need to be taken into account with
pneumatic transmission systems.

Temperature

Actual water temperature

Indicated water temperature

Time

10 - 15 seconds

Fig. 31 Step change 5C

Temperature

Actual water temperature

Indicated water temperature

Time

10 - 15 seconds

Fig. 32 Ramp change 5C

Figures 31 and 32 show some typical response lags for a
thermocouple sensing water temperature.
The time constant of a control system was defined earlier. In
simple terms, it is the time taken for a control to reach
approximately two-thirds of its total movement as a result of a
given change in temperature or other variable.
41

Steady
state

Temperature

Self acting and pneumatic

Electric

Time

Fig. 33 Comparison of response by different actuators

Apart from the delays in sensor response, other parts of the
control system also affect the response time. With pneumatic
and self acting systems valve/actuator movement tends to be
smooth and directly proportional to the temperature deviation at
the sensor. With an electric actuator there is a delay due to the
time it takes for the motor to move the control linkage and
because the control signal is a series of pulses. The motor tends
to 'chase' the signals from the sensor, resulting in bursts of
movement followed by periods where the actuator is stationary.
The response diagram (Figure 33) summarises this. This can be
smoothed out however, by coupling the electric control signal to
a pneumatic actuator.
The control systems studied here have really only considered
steady state conditions. However the process or plant under
control may be subject to variations following a certain behaviour
pattern. The control system is required to make the process
behave in a predictable manner. If the process is one which
changes rapidly, then the control system must be able to react
more quickly. If the process undergoes slow change, the control
system has an easier task.
Much is documented about the static and dynamic behaviour of
controllers and control systems - sensitivity, response time and
so on. The most important is the control loop time lag.
The dynamics of the process are more important when selecting
the right type of controller, sensor and actuator.
42

Temperature

These dynamic characteristics are defined by the reaction of

the process to a sudden change, known as a step input. This
might include an immediate change in temperature, as shown
in Figure 34.

Instant changes
in temperature

Time

Fig. 34 Step input

Tc

Temperature

Process reactions

Dt = Dead time
Tc = Time constant

Dt

Time

Fig. 35 Components of process response to step change

The response of the process can have different characteristics
and there are two factors involved, the time constant and dead
time. These components are shown graphically in Figure 35. The
basic types of process response will be considered here.
43

Response

Step change

Process reaction

First Order Response with no Dead Time

The rate of response is at a maximum at the
start and gradually decreases from that point
onwards.

Time

Response

Step change

Second Order Response

Here, the maximum rate of response does not
occur at the very beginning (i.e. when the step
change happened) but a short time later.
Process reaction

Time

Response

Step change

Process reaction

Time

44

Ramp Response
Here the response is of a linear nature, with a
constant process reaction until the required
result is achieved.

Step change

Response

Step response
with dead time

Dead Time
The process response may be such that, with
any of the types we have looked at, there may
be no immediate dynamic response at all. In
other words, there is a period of dead time. In
broad terms, if the time constant is greater
than the dead time, control should not be
difficult. If, however, the dead time is greater
than the time constant, satisfactory control
can be very difficult to achieve.

Dead time

First order response

with dead time

Second order response

with dead time

Time

45

Piping system dynamics

So far various process dynamics have been considered. When a
control valve is installed in a piping system, its action will have an
effect on the overall piping system dynamics.
With steam systems, only two port valves are used. But control
valves on a water system can be either two port or three port (or
three way).
The action of a 3 way valve, whether mixing or diverting, does
little to change the pressure conditions around the system. A
3-way valve can almost be considered as a constant volume
valve, and constant pressure distribution will be maintained in
the system, irrespective of the position of the valve.

AB

Constant
volume
loop

B
Variable
volume loop
Balance
valve

Hot water boiler

X

Fig. 36 Mixing valve (constant volume, variable temperature)

This statement must be qualified, since this is only true provided
that a balance valve is fitted in the bypass or mixing connection
line, shown in Figures 36 and 37. This balance valve is set to
equal the resistance to flow in the mixing or bypass line so that
in the variable volume part of the piping network (X to A) equals
(X to B) at full flow for both the system diagrams.
46

AB

Variable
volume
loop

B
Constant
volume loop
Balance
valve

Hot water boiler

X

Fig. 37 Diverting valve (constant temperature, variable volume)

The effect of not fitting and setting a balance valve, can be seen
in Figure 38. This shows the pump curve and changing system
curve with changing valve position. The two system curves
illustrate the difference in pressure required between the load
circuit and the bypass circuit, as a result of the lower resistance
offered by the bypass circuit without the balance valve. If the
circuit is not correctly connected/installed then short circuiting
and starvation of other sub-circuits can result i.e. the load circuit
may be deprived of water and degradation of the final product
could result.
Pressure (head)
Pressure drop
through bypass valve

System curve
valve to flow
System curve
valve to bypass

H1

Pump curve

Flow rate

V1

V2

Fig. 38 3-way valve with no balance fitted

47

Valve in a partly
closed position

Increased
head

Design
head

Pum

p cu

rve

Valve fully open

Valve pressure drop

for control valve at
maximum load

Valve pressure drop

for control valve in
part load condition

Sys

c
tem

urv

Operating position
if no valve fitted in
the line

System pressure drop

System pipe
pressure drop

Design flow

Reduced flow

Flow rate

Fig. 39 Effect of two port valve on pump head and pressure

However, when a two port valve is used on a water or liquid
system, as the valve closes, flow will decrease and the pressure
or head across it will increase. Changes in pump head will occur
as the control valve throttles towards a closed position. The
effects are illustrated in Figure 39.
This change in pump flowrate reduces the power consumed, and
the Dp change may be used as a signal to trip in and out, two or
more pumps of varying duties, in sympathy with changes in load
requirements. This enables pumping rates to be matched to load
demand, saving pumping power costs.

48

Choice and selection

This section will concentrate on the available choices and the
decisions which must be made before an automatic control can
be selected. Guidance is offered rather than a set of rules,
because the actual decisions revolve around many varying factors,
some of which - such as cost, preference based on past
experience and current fashions - cannot be included here.
Application

It is important to keep in mind the three basic parameters

discussed in Section 1 - Safety, Stability, Accuracy.
In order to select a control, details of the application and the
process itself are required. For example:
What is to be controlled - temperature, pressure, level, flow, etc. ?
What plant is being controlled - e.g. an exchanger for heating
or a process?
Taking a temperature control requirement as an example, is
the temperature fixed or is some variation (i.e. ramp and
dwell), involved?
Is the load steady or variable and, if the latter, what is the time
scale for change i.e. fast or slow ?
Is the temperature to be maintained (set value) critical ?
Is a single loop or multi-loop control required ?
What other functions (if any) are to be carried out by the
control e.g. temperature control of a heating system, switching
on and off but with over-riding internal condensation or frost
protection during 'off' periods.
Is the plant or process in a hazardous area ?
Are any safety features involved e.g. must the valve fail open
or closed in the event of power failure ? Is separate high or low
limit control required?
Is the atmosphere or environment corrosive by nature or is the
valve to be fitted externally or in a 'dirty' area ?
What power sources are available i.e. electricity, compressed
air supply ?

Power source

This is the power source to operate the control - electric,

pneumatic, electro-pneumatic or self-acting.
To some extent, the details of the application itself may determine
the choice of control power. For example, if the control is in a
hazardous area, pneumatic or self-acting may be preferable to
expensive intrinsically safe (explosion-proof) electric controls.

49

The following features are listed as a general comment on the

power source options:
Self-acting controls are robust, simple, tolerant of 'unfriendly'
environments, easy to install and commission, and provide
proportional control with high rangeability.
Temperature controls can be relatively slow to react, and
Integral and Derivative control functions cannot be provided.
Controls can be obtained which fail open or fail closed in the
event of an unacceptable over-run in temperature. They are
safe in hazardous areas, and almost totally maintenance free.
Pneumatic controls are robust and the actuators can provide a
high degree of 'muscle'. In other words they can provide a high
closing or opening force to operate valves against high
differential pressures. The use of positioners will ensure
accurate, repeatable control. Pure pneumatic controls are
inherently safe and actuators provide smooth operation.
The necessary compressed air system can be expensive to
install if no supply already exists. Regular maintenance of the
compressed air system may be required. Basic control mode
is On/Off or Proportional although combinations of P + I
and P + I + D are available. Installation is straightforward and
of a mechanical nature, as is commissioning.
A pneumatic control can also be arranged to provide fail open
or fail closed operation without additional cost or difficulty.
Electric controls give highly accurate positioning and controllers
are available to provide high versatility with on-off or P + I + D
combinations of control mode, and multi-function outputs.
Installation and commissioning involves both electrical and
mechanical trades and the cost of wiring and installation of a
separate power supply must be taken into account.
Electric actuators tend to be less smooth than their pneumatic
counterparts. Spring return actuators are required for fail open
or fail shut functions and these carry a cost penalty and can
substantially reduce the closing force available.
Due to the nature of electrical components, an intrinsically
safe electric control for use in a hazardous area will be an
expensive proposition and, as such, a pneumatic or combination
of the two may be required, as described below.

50

Electro-Pneumatic controls combine the best features of both

types. This type involves a pneumatic actuator with valve, an
electric/electronic controller, sensor and control system plus
an electro-pneumatic positioner or converter.
The combination provides the 'muscle' and smooth operation
of a pneumatic actuator/valve with the speed and accuracy of
an electronic control system. Fail open or closed operation
can be provided without cost penalty and, by using suitable
barriers and/or confining the electric/electronic part of the
system to 'safe' (i.e. non-hazardous) areas, they can be used
where intrinsic safety is required.
To summarise, we can take three factors into account when
considering the power source required:
Changes in load and time (kW and time)
Whether the set value is critical or non-critical (temperature)
Whether the set value has to be varied.
The following figures will explain this further.

51

Changes In load and time

Load

e.g. Zone control of unit heater in warehouses

where day temperatures rise due to solar gain
or seasonal temperature changes. Typically
an On/Off electric or electro-pneumatic
application.
Time
Start

Stop

Start

Stop

Non critical temperature rise and fall

Load

e.g. Hot water washing or rinsing of product

on a conveyor with constant product flow.
This example is ideal for self acting controls.
Time

e.g. HWS storage exchangers and plating

tanks with changing demands and long periods
of no demand. Self acting controls can be
used if load variations are fairly slow - otherwise
electric or electro-pneumatic controls should
be used.

Load

Time
Start
Variable demand with non critical rise and fall

Critical nature of the set value (temperature)

Temp C

e.g. Steam/water heat exchangers where the

load is steady, such as jacket cooling or
condenser cooling.

Set value

Start Stop

Start

Time

Stop

Some non critical overshoot of set value

Typically an On/Off electric or electropneumatic application.

Temp C

Set value
Off set

Start

e.g. Steam/water exchangers for central

heating or jacket heating in processes. Selfacting and pneumatic controls are used if load
variations are fairly slow and if reasonable
offset can be accepted - otherwise electropneumatic or electric controls should be used.

Time
Actual value stable within small off set from set value

52

What is the difference?

e.g. Jacket heating; heating exchanger; drying cabinets. Self-acting and pneumatic
controls are used if load variations are fairly slow and if reasonable offset can be
accepted - otherwise electro-pneumatic or electric controls should be used.
Variable set value and its critical nature
Temp C
Set value
Off set

Off set

Off set

Start

Time
Temperature wants to swing around set value

e.g. Timber curing

Platten presses
Brick baking
Paint drying
Typically an electric or
electro-pneumatic application.

Temp C

Critical

Set value
Material temperature decay

Time
Critical Stop
Start
Start
Typical ramp control calling for an accurate
time versus temperature rate of rise
Critical dwell

Temp C
Critical
ramp
Critical

Critical ramp

Start

e.g. Textile dying

Curing processes
Sterilising
De-frosting food
Paint drying
Electronic programmable controllers are
used with either electric or pneumatic
actuators.

Time

Critical dwell

In each phase temperature and time must be

harmonised and close tolerance is required
Temp C
SV

Critical
Critical

e.g. Multi-step textile dyeing, sterilising, platten

presses, canning and baking. Electronic
programmable controllers are used with either
electric or pneumatic actuators.

Critical

SV
SV
Critical
Time

Start
Many critical parameters
for ramp and dwell overshoot

53

Valves and actuators

The actuator type will have been determined by the selected

power: self-acting, electrical, pneumatic or electro-pneumatic,
the degree of control and speed.
As far as valve selection is concerned, with steam as the flowing
medium, choice is restricted to a two port valve. However, if the
medium is water or another liquid, then there is a choice of two
port or 3 way valves. Their effects on the dynamics of the piping
system in have already been discussed.
Whether a 3 way valve is to mix or divert, will be determined by
the application. If the system pressure changes incurred by using
two port valves are acceptable, their advantages compared with
3 way valves include lower cost, simplicity and less expensive
installation. The choice of two port valves may also allow the
inherent system pressure change to be used to switch in varying
duty pumps or to reduce or increase the pumping rate of one
variable speed pump according to the load demand.
When selecting the actual valve, all the factors considered earlier
must be taken into account - material, body pressure limits,
correct sizing, connections required, etc. It is also necessary to
ensure that the selection of valve and actuator combinations, can
operate against the differential pressure experienced at all load
states.

Controllers

The application may call for On/Off control action only. In which
case, a controller may not be needed at all. The actuator may be
operated from a switching device such as a relay or a thermostat.
Where an application requires versatility, the multi-function ability
of an electronic controller is required - temperature and time
control, multi-loop, multi-input/output, P, P + I, or P + I + D control
action.
Having determined that a sophisticated controller is required, it
is necessary to determine which control action is necessary On/Off, P, P + I, or P + I + D.
The choice here depends on the dynamics of the process and
the types of response considered earlier, plus the degree of
control required.
Before going any further, it is necessary to define what good
control is. There is no single answer to this question. Consider
differing responses to step changes in load as shown in the
following series of figures:

54

If a slow, steady heat up is required, the control

provided by A would be acceptable.

Temp C
B
Desired value

C
A

Time

Temp C

Set point
Increasingly
out of control
Time

Temp C

Set point

Time

However, if a very rapid heat up is the

overriding criterion and overshoot and
undershoot of the desired value are
acceptable, control B would provide the
answer.
However, relatively fast heat up (in relation to
A) is needed but no overshoot can be tolerated,
then control C provides the solution. From this
it is seen that the definition of good control will
vary from application to application.
One thing that is not generally acceptable is
oscillation around the set point or desired value.
There may be some applications where
oscillation is not a problem but it is usually to
be avoided. The concern here is with unstable
oscillations such as those shown here. Such
oscillations are due to either:
Wrong choice of controller, sensor or
actuator
Wrong control settings
Wrong position of sensor. e.g.. creating a
long dead time.
Oscillation should not be confused with the
response pattern we could expect from the
On/Off action of a two point control. This will,
of course, result in a wave response curve
about the desired value, as shown here. When
oscillation is mentioned, it is normally with
reference to continuous control action.

55

Fig. 40 Hot water storage calorifier

On/Off control is normally suitable for applications where there is
a very large secondary side thermal capacity compared to the
primary side capacity.
To explain this, consider a hot water storage calorifier where the
large volume of water being stored is heated by a steam coil.
When the water in the vessel is cold, the valve will be wide open
admitting steam into the coil, until the water in storage is heated
to the desired temperature. When hot water is drawn off via taps
etc., there will be a time lag in heating the cold water which
enters the vessel to take its place. But this will not be a problem
since a large amount of hot water is being stored in the calorifier
and on-off control would be quite adequate.
A practical and cost effective solution to this application is self
acting control.

56

Fig. 41 Heat exchanger with kettle storage capacity

This is a non-storage heat exchanger with very little thermal
storage capacity on either the primary or the secondary side, and
a fast reaction time. If On/Off control were used, rapid opening
and closing of the valve would occur possibly leading to failure.
Control would not be accurate.
What is needed is a control which allows the valve to take up an
intermediate position between on or off - continuous control and
accurately maintain temperature and also to respond quietly to
changes in temperature.

57

Installation and commissioning

Valves

Before installing a valve it is necessary to ensure that size,

pressure rating, materials and end connections are all suitable
for the conditions under which the valve is expected to work.
All reputable manufacturers of automatic control equipment will
provide full and detailed instructions covering the correct
installation procedure for their equipment. Data will also be
provided on how to set the equipment to work plus any routine
and regular maintenance to be undertaken. In most cases, the
manufacturer will also offer an on-site commissioning service, at
a cost of course. And in some cases, a regular after-sales
maintenance contract can be entered into. This section covers
the major points to be considered.
Piping upstream and downstream of the control valve should be
clear and unobstructed. The correct operation of a valve will be
impaired if it is subject to line distortion stresses. It is important to
ensure that all flanged joints are square and true and that pipework
is adequately supported. Control valves should generally be
installed in horizontal pipelines.
Pipework systems will often be subjected to pressure testing
prior to being put into use. This test may be carried out at a
pressure above the normal working conditions. It is necessary to
ensure that the control valve and its internals are designed to
withstand this higher test pressure - if not, the valve should be
removed from the line at the time of the test, substituting a
suitable make-up piece.
Control valves are instruments and they will be damaged if dirt or
other abrasive or obstructive materials enter them. It is essential
in most applications to fit pipeline strainers upstream of control
valves to prevent this from happening.
Valves must also be accessible for routine maintenance, such as
re-packing of glands, replacement of internals etc. To facilitate
this sort of work, isolating valves of a full bore pattern either side
of the valve, will keep plant down-time to a minimum while the
work is carried out.
If a plant must be kept in operation at all times even if a control
valve is being inspected or maintained, then it may be necessary
to fit a valved by-pass. However, the valve used in the by-pass
must be of good quality. Any leakage through it during normal
operation will affect the action of the control system.
The control valve must be fitted to ensure the correct direction of
flow of the medium passing through the valve. Usually, a direction
of flow arrow is cast into the body of the control valve.

58

In steam lines, it is important to provide a steam separator and/or

a trapping point upstream of the valve, shown below. This will
prevent the carryover of condensate through the control valve,
which will reduce its service life. This drain point is also important
if the control valve is likely to remain closed for any length of time.
If it is not fitted, waterhammer and consequent damage
(sometimes very serious indeed) will result when the valve opens.

Air vent

Upstream
isolation
valve

Control valve

Safety valve

Downstream
isolation
valve

Strainer

Separator

Sensor

Controller

Trap set

Fig. 42 Pressure reducing station

59

Actuators/sensors

Again, manufacturers instructions must be adhered to. Actuators

will generally be mounted vertically above the control valve,
although different arrangements may be recommended if an
electric actuator is mounted to a valve handling a high temperature
medium, such as steam.
Generally speaking, actuators should be located away from
conditions such as excess heat, high humidity or corrosive fumes.
These are likely to cause premature failure in components such
as diaphragms or electronic/electronic items. Manufacturers will
state the recommended maximum ambient temperature
conditions. With some electric actuators, if condensation is likely
to occur within the actuator, models with an in-built heater are
available. In short, where such conditions cannot be avoided,
actuators should be purchased which are suited to the installed
conditions.
Enclosures for actuators, positioners, and so on, will usually
carry an enclosure rating under the national electrical code
'Classification of degrees of protection provided by enclosures'.
This will specify the degree of immunity of the box to the ingress
of dust and water. It is no good using an electric actuator whose
enclosure has a low rating to the ingress of water, if it is likely to
be hosed down!
Care must be taken to ensure that sensors are fully and correctly
immersed if they are to carry out their sensing function effectively.
The use of separate pockets will enable inspection or replacement
to take place without the need to drain the piping system, vessel
or process plant, but on the other hand will delay their response.

Power and signal

lines

With a pneumatic system, compressed air and pneumatic signal

lines must be dry, free from oil and dirt, and leak tight. Locating
the pneumatic controller near the valve and actuator will minimise
any delay which is due to capacity, and the resistance of lengths
of air lines.
Increasingly, the valve, actuator and any positioners or converters,
will be supplied as a complete pre-assembled unit. If they are
not, the actuator will need to be mounted to the valve, and the
positioner (for a pneumatic control) to the actuator. The assembly
will then have to be set up properly, to ensure that the correct
valve stroke, etc. is achieved, all in accordance with the
manufacturers' instructions.

Electrical wiring for

electric/electronic
and electro/
pneumatic controls.

60

Unfortunately, many apparent 'control' problems are traced back

to incorrect wiring. To quote an obvious problem encountered as
an extreme example, connecting a 110 V supply to a 24 V rated

motor, will result in damage! Care must be taken with the wiring
system, in accordance with the manufacturers' instructions, and
subject to any local regulations.
'Noise' or interference in electrical systems is often encountered,
resulting in control system operation problems which are difficult
to diagnose. The use of screened cable, separately earthed
conduit or a self-acting or analogue controller may be necessary.
The subject of cable protection is beyond the scope of this
Technical Reference Guide and will not be covered.
Controllers

As mentioned earlier, the application will generally produce

changes that are slower than the response time of the control
system. This is why the parameters of the controller - proportional
band or gain, integral time and derivative time - must be tuned to
suit each specific application/task.
There are a number of methods for adjusting controller
parameters, most of which involve the use of mathematics. The
behaviour of a control loop can be predicted mathematically but
the process or application characteristics must be determined by
measurement. Obtaining the latter is often difficult. Methods based
on design heat transfer ratios are documented in more detailed
studies of automatic control.
In line with the basic nature of this Technical Reference Guide,
mathematics will be avoided and space devoted instead to two
simple but practical methods, of a trial and error nature.
Before starting it is important to consider the three options
regarding the P-Band setting i.e. too wide, too narrow, correct.

If the P-Band is too wide, as in Curve A,

large offset occurs but it is very stable.
Narrowing the P-Band will reduce the offset.
But too narrow a P-Band will cause instability
and oscillation, as shown in curve B. The
optimum P-Band, curve C, is achieved at a
setting just slightly wider than that which
causes oscillation.

Temperature
A - Too wide
C - Correct

Set point

Fig. 43 P-Band setting - Reaction to a change in load

B - Too narrow
Time

So:
Correct P-Band = Good stability, good response - offset
Larger P-Band = Better stability, slower response - larger offset
Smaller P-Band = Instability, quicker response - smaller offset
The options concerning Integral time must also be considered.
61

With too short an integral time, as curve A,

temperature will cross the set point and
some oscillation will occur. An excessive
integral time will result in the temperature
taking too long to return to set point, curve
B. Curve C shows a correct integral time
setting where the temperature returns to
set point as rapidly as possible without any
overshoot or oscillation.

Temperature

B - Too long
C - Correct

Set point
A - Too short
Time

Fig. 44 Integral time - reaction to a change in load

So:Correct I time = Elimination of offset, stable - no overshoot

Smaller I time = Elimination of offset - response too fast,
causing instability and overshoot
Larger I time = Elimination of offset, stable - no overshoot,
slow response
Finally, Derivative time.
Curve A shows an excessive derivative time
causing an over rapid change in
temperature, overshoot and oscillation. Too
short a derivative time, curve B, allows the
temperature to deviate from the set point for
too long. The optimum setting, as in C,
returns the temperature to the set point as
quickly as possible and is consistent with
good stability.

Temperature
B - Too short
C - Correct

Set point
A - Too long

Fig. 45 Derivative time - reaction to a change in load

Time

So:Correct derivative time = Quick response, stable

Larger D time
= Faster response leading to overshoot
and instability
Smaller D time
= Slower response, some oscillation

62

Preparation
Before a controller is tuned several items should be reviewed.
The process should be carried out under supervision if appropriate
to the organisation concerned. Individuals who are experienced
at tuning may find they are already familiar with the items below.
However it is sensible to use the following as a checklist.
Be sure of objectives
Be aware of the rate and extent of response of the process to
the controller output. Is it straightforward to restore stability if
required?
Decide how much change is allowed in the process and the
controller output.
Decide on responsibilities i.e. who will carry out adjustments to
the controller settings? Ensure that the appropriate individual
is trained and will not become confused in a pressurised
situation.
Decide which individuals are responsible for switching between
manual and automatic control and who will carry out set point
changes if required. Once again be assured that individuals
are trained and will not become confused in a pressurised
situation.
Schedule training so that an experienced individual will be
available for a specified period of time after tuning to deal with
any problems that may be encountered.
Record all existing settings and controller output, in the event
they must be restored.
Communicate all changes to operating personnel. If a logbook
is kept for this purpose, keep it.

Periodic time

Temperature C

Practical methods
of setting up a
controller

Set point

Time

Fig. 46 Minimum overshoot method

63

Set Proportional Band (Xp) to maximum (minimum gain)

1. Set Integral time (TI) to (i.e. no I - action)
2. Set Derivative time (TD) to 0 (i.e. no D - action)
3. Decrease P-Band (Xp) until oscillation just begins to occur as
shown in Figure 51. A chart recorder may be necessary to
observe this. Note the periodic time and the 'critical proportional
band' at which oscillation just begins to occur.
Having this information, programming of the controller can
commence using the following theoretical values as a start point:
Set Proportional Band (Xp) to 1.7 x Critical Proportional Band
Set Integral time (TI) to Periodic time x 0.5
Set Derivative time (TD) to Periodic time x 0.125
As stated above, these values are a start point, and the demand
may be for a more conservative settings, and the following values
could be considered in order to avoid any possibility of oscillation
at different loads:
Proportional band (Xp) may be increased up to 2 or even 3 x
Critical Proportional Band.
Integral time (TI) may be increased up to Periodic time x 1
Too large a TD setting will produce instability. Stability can be
checked by introducing a small change in the set point, and
observing the reaction.

64

Trouble shooting

When dealing with troublesome control applications, over 50 %

of the problems are experienced because the process is badly
designed or not understood. The question of design is wide
ranging and cannot be covered fully in this text. However it is
possible to indicate how potential control problems are identified.
Temperature
No capacity to pull
the temperature back
Overshoot
Set point
Fast temperature rise
Time

Fig. 47 Insufficient load

Simulating load is the first important move in commissioning any
process. It is important to recognise that at least 30 - 40 % of load
is necessary for commissioning. It is very unlikely that plant can
be set up correctly without a load, as the load characteristics
shown here will show.
Where a load is available, similar curves can be studied to gauge
the process reaction and estimate controller settings.

Temperature
Periodic time

Amplitude A in C

Frequency =

1
Periodic time

Set point

X-Plot tC and
T secs at each point
X

Time

Fig. 48 Example of process plot for working out control settings

65

Using on/off control, process plots must be made in order to

determine the initial control settings. A chart recorder would
prove to be a great asset here. Figure 48 shows an example of a
process plot.
A = Amplitude in C

F = Frequency in seconds

Type of control
Proportional control
P-Band = A x 1.5
Proportional and integral
P-Band = A x 2
Integral time = P x 0.85
Proportional and integral and derivative
P-Band = A x 1.7
Integral time = P x 0.5
Derivative time = P x 0.125
The sequence for setting up a commissioning test is:
1. Make sure some load is available (30 % - 40 %)
2. Set any high limit protection functions
3. Set the controller to On/Off
4. Use a squared paper pad to plot the progress of temperature
and time in the process.
5. From switch on, the following curves are typical of what may
be seen.

66

Bumpless transfer

The technical specifications for controllers include many other

items and one that is frequently encountered is bumpless transfer.
Most controllers incorporate a Manual - Auto switch and there
can be times when certain control situations require manual
control. This necessitates interrupting the automatic control loop.
Without bumpless transfer, the transfer from Auto to Manual or
vice versa would mean that the control levels would be lost,
unless the manual output were matched to the automatic output.
Bumpless transfer ensures that the outputs - either Manual to
Auto or Auto to Manual - do match, and it is only necessary to
move the switch as appropriate.

Self tuning
controllers

The arrival of the microprocessor, provided the ability for some

functions which previously required a computer, to be packed
into the confined space of a controller. Amongst these, was the
ability to 'self-tune'. Controllers are now available with this facility
whereby it is no longer necessary for a commissioning engineer
to go through the process of setting P, I, D terms. Instead the
controller itself switches to On/Off control for a period of time.
During this period it analyses the results of its responses, and
calculates and sets its own P, I, D terms.
In fact, controllers are now moving one step further from this.
Self-tune applied basically to the conditions that the controller
met for some period of time after start up. Once set, the P, I, D
terms remained constant, regardless of any later changes in the
process system or changing application situations.
The next step is the adaptive controller which not only sets the
required initial P, I, D terms, but keeps a watching brief and resets these terms if necessary, according to changes in the process
system, or changing application situations.
Such controllers are now available and their use is becoming
increasingly widespread, even for relatively unsophisticated control
tasks, as their cost comes down.

67

Computers in control
It seems appropriate to end this Technical Reference Guide with
a brief, broad look at where computers fit into the control scene.
Firstly, they can be used to gather and retain information, e.g.
they can be used as data loggers, from a number of controllers.
The computer has no control over the plant and is used purely to
obtain information and display it as appropriate (Figure 49).

Data gathering and

display computer

Analogue to digital
converter

Controller

Analogue
signal
Actuator
and valve

Sensor

Sensor

Process 2

Process 1

Sensor
Process 3

Fig. 49 Computer as data logger

Secondly, the computer can communicate with the controller and
can be used to 'supervise' its operation, as shown in Figure 50.
In this role, the computer can perhaps:
Select and identify a controller for communication.
Program or re-program the selected controller.
Examine the current operation status.
Collect operational history and data and many other functions.
68

Computer
Display and record

Modem

To other
controllers

Controller

Sensor

Actuator

Process

Fig. 50 Supervisory computer

The next obvious step is to dispense with the controller altogether
and allow the computer to carry out this function as shown in
Figure 51. This is know as direct digital control.

Computer
Display and record

Analogue
to digital
converter

Digital to
Analogue
converter

Sensor

Actuator

Process

Fig. 51 Computer in control - direct digital control

Direct digital control systems tend to be expensive and the costs
of the necessary programming can be expensive too. If the
computer fails, control is lost, and so apart from very specific
cases, there is a good argument for retaining local controllers
with the computer having a supervisory or data logging role.
69

Communications
Recent introductions of control systems utilising Fieldbus and
SCADA technology allow many Sensors, Actuators, Valves and
Controllers to be linked to a communications network.
What is Fieldbus?

'Fieldbus' is the generic name for a bi-directional digital

communication line. A Fieldbus can be thought of as a digital
Network similar to an Office PC Ethernet network. It is essentially
a means of connecting devices such as controllers and sensors
such that information can be exchanged between all the devices
connected to the Fieldbus. There are many individual types of
Fieldbus, each having its own standard defining the
communication protocol (language) and the electrical connections.
Typical Fieldbus types which may be encountered:ARCNET, AS-i, CAN, Control Net, DeviceNet, Foundation
Fieldbus, HART, INTERBUS, LONworks, Modbus, P-Net,
Profibus, WorldFIP.
Many people believe that in the long term, Fieldbus will replace
4 - 20 mA and 2 - 10 V as it gives users and products more
information and control through a low cost cabling system.

What is SCADA?

SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. As

the title suggests it is a means of providing supervisory control
(adjustments of set points, work schedules and general plant
functionality) and gathering data relating to the process being
monitored. A SCADA system uses a computer system to
communicate with controllers, monitor signals from sensors, and
record data at the required time intervals (seconds, minutes,
hours etc.) for analysis at a latter date. SCADA systems vary
hugely in size and complication but consist mainly of three parts.
The SCADA software and the computer it runs on:
1. The digital network or other means by which information can
be passed between the computer and the process instrumentation/
controls, perhaps a Fieldbus network.
2. I/O Units which convert the 4 - 20 mA sensors and other plant
equipment to the digital network. Note : For some products e.g.
Fieldbus products, this interface can be built into the products.
3. The heart of the SCADA system is the SCADA software
running on the computer (1) above. The normal means of passing
information between the computer and the process instrumentation
is a digital network (2) above. The digital network used can be a
suppliers own proprietary design or a recognised standard such
as Ethernet or a Fieldbus.

70

In (very simple terms) a typical office environment and using

typical SCADA/Fieldbus set-up, the following conditions would
exist:
Office network (cabling)
MAINFRAME

Finance

Design

Production

Directors

Sales

Fieldbus network (cabling)

Computer and
SCADA
software

Controller

Temperature
transmitter
Pressure
transmitter

Actuator
Flow computer
or local display
DP cell

SCADA
process
director

Fig. 55
71

72

Spirax-Sarco Limited, Charlton House,

Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, GL53 8ER UK.
Tel: +44 (0)1242 521361 Fax: +44 (0)1242 573342
E-mail: enq@spiraxuk.attmail.com
Internet: www.spirax-sarco.com
Copyright 2000

Spirax Sarco is a registered trademark of Spirax-Sarco Limited

TR-GCM-08

CM Issue 1