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California Standards
History-Social Science
6.5 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic,
religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of India.

English-Language Arts
Writing 6.1.0 Exhibit awareness of the audience and purpose.
Reading 6.2.0 Students read and understand grade-levelappropriate material.

INi'tJlii','I;I!'Wi~
An Illustrated Poster Ancient India was a fascinating
place. It was the home of amazing cities, the site of strong
empires, and the birthplace of major religions. As you read
this chapter, think about how you could illustrate one asp~ct
of Indian culture in a poster. When you finish the chapter,
you will design such a poster, which will include capti~ns
1
that explain the illustrations you have drawn.

Urban Harappan civilization

reaches maturity.

CHAPTER
EVENTS
WORLD

2200 BC

EVENTS

The Old
Kingdom
ends in
Egypt.

c. 563 BC

1500s BC
Central tenets
of Hinduism
take shape.

c. 1500 BC
The Shang
Dynasty is
established
in China.

c. AD 320

Prince Siddhartha
Gautama, or the
Buddha, is born in
northern India.

Chandragupta
founds the
Gupta Empire.

AD 391 All
Alexander
the Great
begins his
conquests.

non-Christian
religions are
banned in
the Roman
Empire.

ANCIENT INDIA

141

Focus on Themes This chapter outlines and

describes the development of India. You will read
about India's f1rst civilization, called the Harappan
civilization, so advanced that the people had
indoor bathrooms and a writing system. You will

also learn about the society and culture that

restricted whom Indian people could talk with or
marry. Finally, you will read about the religions and
empires that united India and about the art and
literature that the Indians created.

Inferences about History

Focus on Reading What's the difference between a good guess
and a weak guess? A good guess is an educated guess. In other words,
the guess is based on some knowledge or information. That's what an
inference is, an educated guess.

Making Inferences About What You Read On pages 86

and 87, you practiced drawing conclusions. You use almost the
same process to make an inference: combine information from
your reading with what you already know, and make an educated
guess about what it all means. Once you have made several inferences,
you may be able to draw a conclusion that ties them all together.

Additional
reading support
can be found in the

~r.,,.A
1 " acf;i\fe

Reader and
Study Guide

Question Why did Aryan priests have rules for performing sacrifices?
Inside the Text

Outside the Text

Sacred texts tell how to

perform sacrifices.

Other religions have duties

only priests can perform.

Priests sacrificed animals

in fire.

Many ancient societies

believed sacrifices helped
keep the gods happy.

Sacrifices were offerings to

the gods.

Inference The Aryans believed that performing a

sacrifice incorrectly might anger the gods.

142

CHAPTER 6

Steps for Making Inferences

1. Ask a question.
2. Note information "Inside the Text."
3. Note information "Outside the
Text."

4. Use both sets of information to

make an educated guess, or
inference.

Chapter 6

You Try It!

The following passage is from the chapter you are about to read.
Read the passage and then answer the questions that follow.

Harappan Achievements
Harappan civilization was very advanced.
Most houses had bathrooms with indoor
plumbing. Artisans made excellent pottery,
jewelry, ivory objects, and cotton clothing.
They used high-quality tools and developed
a system of weights and measures.
Harappans also developed India's first
known writing system. However, scholars
have not yet learned to read this language, so
we know very little about Harappan society.
Unlike Mesopotamia or Egypt, for example,
there are no large religious monuments or palaces, so the relationship between the people
and their government is less clear. On the other hand, the remarkable similarity of material
culture from widely scattered Harappan sites
suggests a high level of social control.
Harappan civilization ended by the early
1700s BC, but no one is sure why.

Section 1
subcontinent (p. 144)
monsoons (p. 145)
Sanskrit (p. 149)

Section 2
From
Chapter6,
p. 148

Answer the following questions to make inferences about Harappan

society.

caste system (p. 151)

Hinduism (p. 153)
reincarnation (p. 153)
karma (p. 154)
Jainism (p. 155)
nonviolence (p. 155)

Section 3
fasting (p. 157)
meditation (p. 157)
the Buddha (p. 157)
Buddhism (p. 158)
nirvana (p. 158)
missionaries (p. 160)

Section 4
Chandragupta Maurya (p. 162)
Asoka (p. 163)
Chandragupta II (p. 164)

Section 5
metallurgy (p. 170)
alloys (p. 170)
Hindu-Arabic numerals (p. 170)
inoculation (p. 170)
astronomy (p. 171)

1. Do you think that the Harappan language was closely related to

the languages spoken in India today? Consider the information inside the text and things you have learned outside the text to make
an inference about the Harappan language.

2. What have you just learned about Harappan achievements? Think

back to other civilizations you have studied that made similar
achievements. What allowed those civilizations to make their
achievements? From this, what can
As you read Chapter 6, use the
you infer about earlier Harappan
information you find in the text to make
society?
inferences about Indian society.

Academic Vocabulary
Success in school is related to
knowing academic vocabularythe words that are frequently used
in school assignments and discussions. In this chapter, you will learn
the following academic words:

establish (p. 164)

process (p. 170)

ANCIENT INDIA

143

If YOU were there ...

Main Ideas
1. The geography of India
includes high mountains,
great rivers, and heavy
seasonal rain.
2. Harappan civilization developed along the Indus River.
3. The Aryan invasion of India
changed the region's
civilization.

Your people are nomadic herders in southern Asia about 1200

BC. You live in a river valley with plenty of water and grass for your
cattle. Besides looking after cattle, you spend time learning to
recite sacred texts from the village elders. They say these words
hold your people's history. One day, it will be your duty to teach
them to your own children.

Why is it important to pass on these words'!

l
The Big Idea
Indian civilization first developed on the Indus River.

Key Terms
subcontinent, p. 144
monsoons, p. 145
Sanskrit, p. 149

BUILDING BACKGROUND Like Mesopotamia and Egypt, India

f
was home to one of the world's first civilizations. Like other early
civilizations, the one in India grew up in a river valley. But the society
that eventually developed in India was very different from the ones
that developed elsewhere.

Geography of India
Look at a map of Asia in the atlas of this book. Do you see the
large, roughly triangular landmass that juts out from the center
of the southern part of the continent? That is India. It was the
location of one of the world's earliest civilizations.

Landforms and Rivers

II:m

6.5.1 Locate and describe the

major river system and discuss the
physical setting that supported the
rise of this civilization.

6.5.2 Discuss the significance of the

Aryan invasions.

144

CHAPTER 6

India is huge. In fact, it is so big that many geographers call it a

subcontinent. A subcontinent is a large landmass that is smaller
than a continent. Subcontinents are usually separated from the
rest of their continents by physical features. If you look at the
map on the next page, for example, you can see that mountains
largely separate India from the rest of Asia.
Among the mountains of northern India are the Himalayas,
the highest mountains in the world. To the west are the Hindu
Kush. Though these mountains made it hard to enter India,
invaders have historically found a few paths through them.

The highest mountains in

the world, the Himalayas,
separate India from the
rest of Asia.

India is a huge
peninsula, so
large it's called
a subcontinent.

Arabian
Sea

ELEVATION

Feet ~ Me~ffl

13,120
6,560
1,640
656
vel) 0
Below
sea level

150

4,ooo
2,000
500
200
0 (Sea level)

I
I

Laccadive
Islands

w7'('
ks ,

Below
sea level

300 Miles

"
./
\}

\l'J

Andaman
Islands

INDIAN
OCEAN

~ Andaman
Sea

..

1Q" N -

1. Place When do the wet monsoons come to India?

2.location What large plateau occupies the heart
of India?

~"

To the west of the Himalayas is a vast

desert. Much of the rest of India is covered
by fertile plains and rugged plateaus.
Several major rivers flow out of the Himalayas. The valleys and fertile plains of these
rivers were the locations of India's early
civilizations. The Indus is located in presentday Pakistan, west of India. When heavy
snows in the Himalayas melted, the Indus

flooded. As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the

flooding left behind a layer of fertile silt. The
silt created ideal farmland for early settlers.

Climate
Most of India has a hot and humid climate.
This climate is heavily influenced by
India's monsoons, seasonal wind patterns
that cause wet and dry seasons.

ANCIENT INDIA

145

In the summer, monsoon winds blow

into India from the Indian Ocean, bringing
heavy rains that can cause terrible floods.
Some parts of India receive as much as 100
or even 200 inches of rain during this time.
In the winter, winds blow down from the
mountains. This forces moisture out of
India and creates warm, dry winters.
t' 1wmv= *' ,p Drawing Conclusions

How do you think monsoons affected settlement

in India?

History Close-up

Life in Mohenjo Daro

Mohenjo Daro was one of the two major cities
of the Harappan civilization. Located next to
the Indus River in what is now Pakistan, the city
probably covered one square mile. The people
who lived in the city enjoyed some of the most
advanced comforts of their time, including
indoor plumbing.

Harappan Civilization
Historians call the civilization that grew
up in the Indus River Valley the Harappan
(huh-RA-puhn) civilization. Centered along
the Indus, the civilization also controlled
large areas on both sides of the river.
Like other ancient societies you have
studied, the Harappan civilization grew
as irrigation and agriculture improved.
As farmers began to produce surpluses of
food, towns and cities appeared in India.

India's Early Cities

The Harappan civilization was named after
the modern city of Harappa (huh-RA-puh),
Pakistan. It was near this city that ruins of
the civilization were first discovered. From
studying these ruins, archaeologists currently estimate that the civilization thrived
between 2300 and 1700 BC.
The greatest sources of information
we have about Harappan civilization are
the ruins of two large cities, Harappa and
Mohenjo Daro (mo-HEN-joh DAR-oh). The
two cities lay more than 300 miles apart

The houses of Mohenjo

Daro had flat roofs. Many
had staircases that allowed
people to climb to the roof
from the street.

but were remarkably similar. More recent

sources include the ruins discovered at Kalibangan, Dholavira, and the port of Lothal,
in addition to the 2,600 rural settlements
excavated in northwest India.
Both Harappa and Mohenjo Daro were
well planned. Each stood near a towering
fortress. From these fortresses, defenders
could look down on the cities' brick streets,
which crossed at right angles and were
lined with storehouses, workshops, market
stalls, and houses. In addition, both cities
had many public wells.

Harappan Achievements
Harappan civilization was very advanced.
Most houses had bathrooms with indoor
. plumbing. Artisans made excellent pottery,
jewelry, ivory objects, and cotton clothing.
They used high-quality tools and developed a system of weights and measures.
Harappans also developed India's first
known writing system. However, scholars
have not yet learned to read this language,
so we know very little about Harappan
society. Unlike Mesopotamia or Egypt,
for example, there are no large religious
monuments or palaces, so the relationship between the people and their government is less clear. On the other hand, the
remarkable similarity of material culture
from widely scattered Harappan sites suggests a high level of social control.
Harappan civilization ended by the early
1700s BC, but no one is sure why. Perhaps
invaders destroyed the cities or natural
disasters, like floods or earthquakes, caused
the civilization to collapse.
Analyzing Why don't we
know much about Harappan civilization?

Harappan Art
Like other ancient peoples,
the Harappans made small
seals like the one below that
were used to stamp goods.
They also used clay pots
like the one at right
decorated with a goat

148

CHAPTER 6

Aryan Invasion
Not long after the Harappan civilization
crumbled, a new group took power in the
Indus Valley. They were called the Aryans
(AIR-ee-uhnz). Historians have long debated
the origins of the Aryans. Some historians
believe they came from Central Asia, but
others disagree. Wherever the Aryans came
from, some people think they may have
helped end the Harappan civilization.
Invaders from the West
The Aryans were skilled warriors. Using
chariots and advanced weapons, these
invaders took new territory. By 1200 BC
Aryan warriors had swept through the
Hindu Kush and taken control of the entire
Indus Valley. From there they moved east
to the Ganges River Valley.
Much of what we know about Aryan
society comes from religious writings known
as the Vedas (VAY-duhs). These collections
of poems, hymns, myths, and rituals were
written by Aryan priests. You will read more
about the Vedas later in this chapter.
Government and Society
As nomads, the Aryans took along their
herds of animals as they moved. But over
time, they settled in villages and began to
farm. Unlike the Harappans, they did not
build big cities.
The Aryan political system was also
different from the Harappan system. The
Aryans lived in small communities, based
mostly on family ties. No single ruling
authority existed. Instead, each group had
its own leader, often a skilled warrior.
Aryan villages were governed by rajas
(RAH-juhz). A raja was a leader who ruled
a village and the land around it. Villagers
farmed some of this land for the raja. They
used other sections as pastures for their
cows, horses, sheep, and goats.

Although many rajas were related, they

didn't always get along. Sometimes rajas
joined forces before fighting a common
enemy. Other times, however, rajas went
to war against each other. In fact, Aryan
groups fought each other nearly as often as
they fought outsiders.

Language
The first Aryan settlers did not read or
write. Because of this, they had to memorize the sacred texts that were important in
their culture, such as the Vedas. If people
forgot these sacred texts, the works would
be lost forever.
The language in which these Aryan
sacred texts were composed was Sanskrit,
the most important language of ancient
India. At first, Sanskrit was only a spoken
language. Eventually, however, people
figured out how to write it down so they
could keep records. These Sanskrit records
are a major source of information about
Aryan society. Sanskrit is no longer widely
spoken today, but it is the root of many
modern South Asian languages.

l
SUI111ARY AND PREVIEW The earliest
civilizations in India were centered on
the Indus Valley. First the Harappans
and then the Aryans lived in this fertile
valley. In the next section, you will learn
about a new religion that developed in
the Indus Valley after the Aryans settled
there-Hinduism.

l;)fqH~'L1iil5iij Identifying What source

provides much of the information we have about
the Aryans?

Hindi, the most

widely spoken
Indian language,
is based on
Sanskrit.

Section 1 Assessment
Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People

11m

6.5.1, Critical Thinking

6.5.2

1. a. Define What are monsoons?

b. Contrast How does northern India differ from
the rest of the region?
c. Elaborate Why is India called a subcontinent?
2. a. Recall Where did Harappan civilization develop?
b. Analyze What is one reason that scholars do
not completely understand some important parts
of Harappan society?
3. a. Identify Who were the Aryans?
b. Contrast How was Aryan society different from
Harappan society?

India before

India after

the invasion
the invasion
4. Categorizing Draw
a diagram like this
one. Use it to show
how Indian society changed after the Aryan invasion.

CJ-,1

5. Illustrating Geography and Early Civilizations

This section described two possible topics for your
poster: geography and early civilizations. Which
of them is more interesting to you? Write down
some ideas for a poster about your chosen topic.

ANCIENT INDIA

If YOU were there ...

Main Ideas
1. Indian society divided into
distinct groups under the
Aryans.
2. The Aryans practiced a religion known as Brahmanism.
3. Hinduism developed out of
Brahmanism and influences
from other cultures.
4. The Jains reacted to Hinduism by breaking away to form
their own religion .

Your family are skillful weavers who make beautiful cotton cloth.
You belong to the class in Aryan society who are traders, farmers,
and craftspeople. Often the raja of your town leads the warriors
into battle. You admire their bravery but know you can never be
one of them. To be an Aryan warrior, you must be born into that
noble class. Instead, you have your own duty to carry out.

How do you feel about remaining a weaver?

The Big Idea

BUILDING BACKGROUND As the Aryans moved into India, they

Hinduism, the largest religion

in India today, developed out
of ancient Indian beliefs and
practices.

developed a strict system of social classes. As the Aryans' influence

spread through India, so did their class system. Before long, this
class system was a key part of Indian society.

Key Terms
caste system, p. 757
Hinduism, p. 753
reincarnation, p. 753
karma, p. 754
Jainism, p. 755
nonviolence, p. 755

Indian Society Divides

As Aryan society became more complex, their society became
divided into groups. For the most part, these groups were organized by people's occupations. Strict rules developed about how
people of different groups could interact. As time passed, these
rules became stricter and became central to Indian society.

The Varnas
According to the Vedas, there were four main vamas, or social
divisions, in Aryan society. These vamas were:

lim

6.5.3 Explain the major beliefs

and practices of Brahmanism in India
and how they evolved into early
Hinduism.

6.5.4 Outline the social structure of

the caste system.

150

CHAPTER 6

Brahmins (BRAH-muhns), or priests,

Kshatriyas (KSHA-tree-uhs), or rulers and warriors,
Vaisyas (VYSH-yuhs), or farmers, craftspeople, and traders, and
Sudras (soo-drahs), or laborers and non-Aryans.

The Brahmins were seen as the highest ranking because they

performed rituals for the gods. This gave the Brahmins great
influence over the other vamas.

The Brahmins were seen as the highest ranking because they performed rituals
for the gods. This gave the Brahmins great
influence over the other varnas.
The Caste System
As the rules of interaction between varnas
got stricter, the Aryan social order became
more complex. In time, each of the four
varnas in Aryan society was further divided into many castes, or groups. This caste
system divided Indian society into groups
based on a person's birth, wealth, or occupation. At one time, some 3,000 separate
castes existed in India.
The caste to which a person belonged
determined his or her place in society.
However, this ordering was by no means
permanent. Over time, individual castes
gained or lost favor in society as caste
members gained wealth or power. On rare
occasions, people could change caste.

Brahmins
Brahmins
were India's
priests and
were seen as
the highest
vomo.

Kshatriyas
Kshatriyas
were rulers
and warriors.

Vaisyas
Caste Rules
To keep their classes distinct, the Aryans
developed sutras, or guides, which listed all
the rules for the caste system. For example,
people were not allowed to marry anyone
from a different class. It was even forbidden for people from one class to eat with
people from another. People who broke
the caste rules could be banned from their
homes and their castes, which would make
them untouchables. Because of these rules,
people spent almost all of their time with
others in their same class.

Vaisyas were
farmers,
craftspeople,
and traders.

Sudras
Sudras were
workers and
servants.

nwutXI?IIJJIP Drawing Inferences How

did a person become a member of a caste?

Why do you think priests were at the top of Indian society?

ANCIENT INDIA

151

IWus believe In many clallles,IMat". ...........

the clellles are aspects of a slnafe universal splllt GiBed
Brahman. lhree aspects of Brahman are particularly
important in Hinduism-Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu.

A universal spirit called Brahman

created the universe and everything in it. Everything in the world is just a part of Brahman.
Every person has a soul or atman that will
eventually join with Brahman.
People's souls are reincarnated many times
before they can join with Brahman.
A person's karma affects how he or she will be
reincarnated.

Brahmanism

The deity Brahma

represents the creator
aspect of Brahman. His
four faces symbolize
the four Vedas.

Vedic Texts

Over the centuries, Aryan Brahmins wrote

down their thoughts about the Vedas. In
time these thoughts were compiled into
collections called Vedic texts.
One collection of Vedic texts describes
Aryan religious rituals. For example, it
describes how sacrifices should be performed. Priests placed animals, food, or
The Vedas
drinks to be sacrificed in a fire. The Aryans
Aryan religion was based on the Vedas . . believed that the fire would carry these
There are four Vedas, each containing sacred
offerings to the deities.
texts. The oldest of the Vedas, the Rigveda,
A second collection of Vedic texts
was probably compiled in the second mildescribes secret rituals that only certain
lennium BC. It includes hymns of praise to
people could perform. In fact, the rituals
many deities. This passage, for example, is
were so secret that they had to be done in
the opening of a hymn praising Indra, a
the forest, far from other people.
deity of the sky and war.
The final group of Vedic texts are the
Upanishads (oo-PAHN-ee-shads), most of
11 The one who is first and possessed of wisdom
which were written by about 600 BC.
when born; the god who strove to protect the
These writings are reflections on the Vedas
gods with strength; the one before whose force
by religious students and teachers.
the two worlds were afraid because of the greatReligion had been an important part of
Aryan life even before the Aryans moved
to India. Eventually, in India, religion took
on even more meaning. Because Aryan
priests were called Brahmins, their religion
is often called Brahmanism.

ness of his virility [power]: he, 0 people, is lndra. 11

- from the Rigveda, in Reading about the World,
Volume I, edited by Paul Brians, et al

152

CHAPTER 6

IW11 UI"'IP Finding Main Ideas What

are the Vedic texts?

Siva, the destroyer

aspect of Brahman,
is usually shown
with four arms and
three eyes. Here he
is shown dancing on
the back of a demon
he has defeated.

Vishnu is the preserver aspect

of Brahman. In his four arms,
he carries a conch shell, a
mace, and a discus, symbols
of his power :and greatness.

Hinduism Develops

Life and Rebirth

The Vedas, the Upanishads, and the other

Vedic texts remained the basis of Indian
religion for centuries. Eventually, however, the ideas of these sacred texts began
to blend with ideas from other cultures.
People from Persia and other kingdoms in
Central Asia, for example, brought their
ideas to India. In time, this blending of
ideas created a religion called Hinduism, ] .
the largest religion in India today.

According to Hindu teachings, everyone

has a soul, or atman, inside them. This soul
holds the person's personality, the qualities
that make them who they are. Hindus
believe that a person's ultimate goal should
be to reunite that soul with Brahman, the
universal spirit.
Hindus believe that their souls will
eventually join Brahman because the world
we live in is an illusion. Brahman is the
only reality. The Upanishads taught that
people must try to see through the illusion
of the world. Since it is hard to see through
illusions, it can take several lifetimes. That
is why Hindus believe that souls are born
and reborn many times, each time in a
new body. This process of rebirth is called

Hindu Beliefs
The Hindus believe in many deities. Among
them are three major deities: Brahma the
Creator, Siva the Destroyer, and Vishnu
the Preserver. At the same time, however,
Hindus believe that each deity is part of a
single universal spirit called Brahman. They
believe that Brahman created the world
and preserves it. Deities like Brahma, Siva,
and Vishnu represent different aspects of
Brahman. In fact, Hindus believe that everything in the world is part of Brahman.

More than 800

million people in
India practice
Hinduism today.

reincarnation .

Hinduism and the Caste System

According to the traditional Hindu
view of reincarnation, a person who has
died is reborn in a new physical form.

ANCIENT INDIA

153

The type of form depends upon his or her

karma, the effects that good or bad actions
have on a person's soul. Evil actions during one's life will build bad karma. A person with bad karma will be born into a
lower caste or life form.
In contrast, good actions build good
karma. People with good karma are born
into a higher caste in their next lives. In
time, good karma will bring salvation, or
freedom from life's worries and the cycle
of rebirth. This salvation is called moksha.
Hinduism taught that each person
had a duty to accept his or her place
in the world without complaint. This

In modern times, nonviolence has been a powerful

tool for social protest. Mohandas Gandhi led a long
nonviolent struggle against
British rule in India. This
movement helped India win its
independence in 1947. About
10 years later, Martin Luther
King Jr. adopted Gandhi's nonviolent methods in his struggle
to win civil rights for African
Americans. Then, in the 1960s,
Cesar Chavez organized a
campaign of nonviolence to
protest the treatment of farm
workers in California. These
three leaders proved that
people can bring about social
change without using violence.
As Chavez once explained,
"Nonviolence is not inaction.
It is not for the timid or the
weak. It is hard work. It is the
Mohandas Gandhi (top),
patience to win~'
Martin Luther King Jr. (above), and
Cesar Chavez (right)

ANALYZING INFORMATION

How did these three leaders prove that nonviolence is

a powerful tool for social change?

154

CHAPTER 6

is called obeying one's dharma. People could build good karma by fulfilling the duties required of their specific
caste. Through reincarnation, Hinduism
offered rewards to those who lived good
lives. Even untouchables could be reborn
into a higher caste.
Hinduism was popular at all levels of
Hindu society, through all four vamas. By
teaching people to accept their places in
life, Hinduism helped preserve the caste
system in India.
Summarizing What determined how a person would be reborn?

Jains React to Hinduism

Although Hinduism was widely followed in
India, not everyone agreed with its beliefs.
Some unsatisfied people and groups looked
for new religious ideas. One such group
was the 1ains (JYNZ), believers in a religion
called 1ainism (JY-ni-zuhm).
Jainism was based on the teachings
of a man named Mahavira. Born into the
Kshatriya varna around 599 BC, he was
unhappy with the control of religion by
the Brahmins, whom he thought put too
much emphasis on rituals. Mahavira gave
up his life of luxury, became a monk, and
established the principles of 1ainism.
The 1ains try to live by four principles:
injure no life, tell the truth, do not steal,
and own no property. In their efforts not
to injure anyone or anything, the 1ains
practice nonviolence, or the avoidance of
violent actions. The Sanskrit word for this
nonviolence is ahimsa (uh-HIM-sah). Many
Hindus also practice ahimsa.
The 1ains' emphasis on nonviolence
comes from their belief that everything is
alive and part of the cycle of rebirth. 1ains
are very serious about not injuring or killing
any creature-humans, animals, insects, or
even plants. They do not believe in animal
sacrifice, like the ones the ancient Brahmins performed. Because they don't want
to hurt living creatures, 1ains are vegetarians. They do not eat any food that comes
from animals.
Identifying Points of View
Why do Jains avoid eating meat?

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW You have

learned about two religions that developed in India-Hinduism and 1ainism.
In Section 3, you will learn about another religion that began there-Buddhism.

women-. ......

lhese.leln
masks to ....... . , . . . ,
aulclentdy ..............lnsec.ts.

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People lim

6.5.3, 6.5.4

1. a. Identify What is the caste system?

b. Explain Why did strict caste rules develop?
2. a. Identify What does the Rigveda include?
b. Analyze What role did sacrifice play in Aryan society?
3. a. Define What is karma?
b. Sequence How did Brahmanism develop into
Hinduism?
c. Elaborate How does Hinduism reinforce followers'
willingness to remain within their castes?
4. a. Recall What are the four main teachings of Jainism?
b. Predict How do you think the idea of nonviolence
affected the daily lives of Jains in ancient India?

Critical Thinking
5. Categorizing Draw a

ID .o 0 D

graphic organizer like

the one shown here.

'
In each box, identify
'
one of the four varnas of Aryan society. Below the name,
list the people who belonged to that class.

6. Illustrating Hinduism Now you have a new possible

topic for your poster. How might you explain a complex
religion like Hinduism?

ANCIENT INDIA

155

If YOU were there ...

Main Ideas
1. Siddhartha Gautama
searched for wisdom in
many ways.
2. The teachings of Buddhism
deal with finding peace.
3. Buddhism spread far from
where it began in India.

You are a trader traveling in northern India in about 520 BC.

As you pass through a town, you see a crowd of people sitting
silently in the shade of a huge tree. A man sitting at the foot of
the tree begins to speak about how one ought to live. His words
are like nothing you have heard from the Hindu priests.

Will you stay to listen? Why or why not?

The Big Idea

Buddhism began in India and
became a major religion.

BUILDING BACKGROUND The Jains were not the only ones to

Key Terms and People
fasting, p. 157
meditation, p. 157
the Buddha, p. 157
Buddhism, p. 158
nirvana, p. 158
missionaries, p. 160

break from Hinduism. In the 500s BC a young Indian prince attracted

many people to his teachings about how people should live.

Siddhartha's Search for Wisdom

In the late SOOs BC a restless young man, dissatisfied with the
teachings of Hinduism, began to ask his own questions about life
and religious matters. In time, he found answers. These answers
attracted many followers, and the young man's ideas became
the foundation of a major new religion in India.

The Quest for Answers

r:;:m

6.5.5 Know the life and moral

teachings of the Buddha and how
Buddhism spread in India, Ceylon,
and Central Asia.

156

CHAPTER 6

The restless young man was Siddhartha Gautama (si-DAHR-tuh

GAU-tuh-muh). Born around 563 BC in northern India, near the
Himalayas, Siddhartha was a prince who grew up in luxury. Born
a Kshatriya, a member of the warrior class, Siddhartha never had
to struggle with the problems that many people of his time
faced. However, Siddhartha was not satisfied. He felt that something was missing in his life.
Siddhartha looked around him and saw how hard other
people had to work and how much they suffered. He saw people
grieving for lost loved ones and wondered why there was so
much pain in the world. As a result, Siddhartha began to ask
questions about the meaning of human life.

In this painting, Prince Siddhartha

leaves his palace to search for the true
meaning of life, an event known as
the Great Departure. Special helpers
called ganas hold his horse's hooves
so he won't awaken anyone.

Before Siddhartha reached age 30,

he left his home and family to look for
answers. His journey took him to many
regions in India. Wherever he traveled, he
had discussions with priests and people
known for their wisdom. Yet no one could
give convincing answers to Siddhartha's
questions.

After seven weeks of deep meditation, he

suddenly had the answers that he had been
looking for. He realized that human suffering comes from three things:
wanting what we like but do not have,
wanting to keep what we like and already
have, and
not wanting what we dislike but have.

The Buddha Finds Enlightenment

Siddhartha spent seven more weeks
Siddhartha did not give up. Instead, he
meditating under the tree, which his
became even more determined to find the [ followers later named the Tree of Wisdom.
He then described his new ideas to five of
answers he was seeking. For several years,
he wandered in search of answers.
his former companions. His followers later
Siddhartha wanted to free his mind
called this talk the First Sermon.
Siddhartha Gautama was about 35
from daily concerns. For a while, he did not
even wash himself. He also started fasting ,
years old when he found enlightenment
under the tree. From that point on, he
or going without food. He devoted much
of his time to meditation, the focusing of would be called the Buddha (BOO-duh), or
the mind on spiritual ideas.
the "Enlightened One." The Buddha spent
According to legend, Siddhartha spent
the rest of his life traveling across northern
six years wandering throughout India. He
India and teaching people his ideas.
eventually came to a place near the town
of Gaya, close to the Ganges River. There, '"'PW"'tnarrvr Summarizing Wh at did the
he sat down under a tree and meditated.
Buddha conclud e about th e cau se of suffering?

Buddhists from
all over the
world still travel
to India to visit
the Tree of
Wisdom and
honor the
Buddha.

ANCIENT INDIA

157

Teachings of Buddhism
As he traveled, the Buddha gained many
followers, especially among India's merchants and artisans. He even taught his
views to a few kings. These followers were
the first believers in Buddhism, a religion
based on the teachings of the Buddha.
The Buddha was raised Hindu, and
many of his teachings reflected Hindu
ideas. Like Hindus, he believed that people
should act morally and treat others well. In
one of his sermons, he said:
11

Let a man overcome anger by love. Let him

overcome the greedy by liberality [givingt

the liar by truth.This is called progress in the
discipline [training] of the Blessed. 11
-The Buddha, quoted in The History ofNations: India

Four Noble Truths

At the heart of the Buddha's teachings
were four guiding principles. These became
known as the Four Noble Truths:
1. Suffering and unhappiness are a part of

human life. No one can escape sorrow.

2. Suffering comes from our desires for
pleasure and material goods. People
cause their own misery because they
want things they cannot have.
3. People can overcome desire and ignorance and reach nirvana (nir-VAH-nuh),
a state of perfect peace. Reaching nirvana frees the soul from
suffering and from the need for
further reincarnation.
4. People can overcome ignorance
and desire by following an eightfold path that leads to wisdom,
enlightenment, and salvation.

158

CHAPTER 6

The chart on the next page shows the steps

in the Eightfold Path. The Buddha believed
that this path was a middle way between
human desires and denying oneself any
pleasure. He believed that people should
overcome their desire for material goods.
They should, however, be reasonable, and
not starve their bodies or cause themselves
unnecessary pain.

Right thought
Believe in the nature of
existence as suffering and
in the Four Noble Truths.

f) Right Intent
Incline toward goodness
and kindness.

Right Speech
Avoid lies and gossip.

Right Action
Don't steal from or harm
others.

Right Livelihood
Reject work that hurts
others.

Right Effort
Prevent evil and do good.

Right Mindfulness
Control your feelings
and thoughts.

Right Concentration
Practice proper meditation.

Challenging Hindu Ideas

Some of the Buddha's teachings challenged
traditional Hindu ideas. For example,
the Buddha rejected many of the ideas
contained in the Vedas, such as animal
sacrifice. He told people that they did not
have to follow these texts.
The Buddha challenged the authority
of the Hindu priests, the Brahmins. He did
not believe that they or their rituals were
necessary for enlightenment. Instead, he
taught that it was the responsibility of each
individual to work for his or her own salvation. Priests could not help them. However,
the Buddha did not reject the Hindu teaching of reincarnation. He taught that people
who failed to reach nirvana would have to
be reborn time and time again until they
achieved it.
The Buddha was opposed to the
caste system. He didn't think that people
should be confined to a particular place in
society. Everyone who followed the Eightfold Path properly, he said, would achieve
nirvana. It didn't matter what varna or
caste they had belonged to in life as long
as they lived the way they should.
The Buddha's opposition to the caste
system won him support from the masses.
Many of India's herdsmen, farmers,
artisans, and untouchables liked hearing that their low social rank would not
be a barrier to enlightenment. Unlike
Hinduism, Buddhism made them feel that
they had the power to change their lives.
The Buddha also gained followers
among the higher classes. Many rich and
powerful Indians welcomed his ideas
about avoiding extreme behavior while
seeking salvation. By the time of his death
around 483 BC, the Buddha's influence
was spreading rapidly throughout India.
How did
Buddha's teachings agree with Hinduism?

"tJ:wwrt?'l??'' Comparing

ANCIENT INDIA

159

INDIAN
OCEAN
N

w
* E ..

Early Buddhist area

. _ Spread of Buddhism
250
250

500 Miles

500 Kilometers

.,

J :

Movement Buddhism spread to what island south of India?

Buddhism Spreads

Buddhism Spreads Beyond India

Buddhism continued to attract followers

after the Buddha's death. After spreading
through India, the religion began to spread
to other areas as well.

The spread of Buddhism increased after

one of the most powerful kings in India,
Asoka, became Buddhist in the ZOOs BC.
Once he converted, he built Buddhist
temples and schools throughout India.
More importantly, though, he worked to
spread Buddhism into areas outside of
India. You will learn more about Asoka and
his accomplishments in the next section.
Asoka sent Buddhist missionaries, or
people who work to spread their religious
beliefs, to other kingdoms in Asia. One
group of these missionaries sailed to the
island of Sri Lanka around 251 BC. Others
followed trade routes east to what is now
Myanmar and to other parts of Southeast
Asia. Missionaries also went north to areas
near the Himalayas.

Buddhism Spreads in India

According to Buddhist tradition, 500 of
the Buddha's followers gathered together
shortly after he died. They wanted to make
sure that the Buddha's teachings were
remembered correctly.
In the years after this council, the
Buddha's followers spread his teachings
throughout India. The ideas spread very
quickly, because Buddhist teachings were
popular and easy to understand. Within
200 years of the Buddha's death, his teachings had spread through most of India.

160

CHAPTER 6

Members of the Theravada branch tried

to follow the Buddha's teachings exactly as
he had stated them. Mahayana Buddhists,
though, believed that other people could
interpret the Buddha's teachings to help
people reach nirvana. Both branches have
millions of believers today, but Mahayana
is by far the larger branch.
Sequencing How did Buddhism spread from India to other parts of Asia?

Jllii"''-alaiJ'Y

Young Buddhist students carry

gifts in Sri Lanka, one of the
many places outside of India
where Buddhism spread.

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW Buddhism, one

of India's major religions, grew more
popular once it was adopted by rulers of
India's great empires. You will learn more
about those empires in the next section.

(!
~

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People lim

6.5.5

1. a. Identify Who was the Buddha, and what does the

Missionaries also introduced Buddhism

to lands west of India. They founded
Buddhist communities in Central Asia and
Persia. They even taught about Buddhism
as far away as Syria and Egypt.
Buddhism continued to grow over the
centuries. Eventually it spread via the Silk
Road into China, then Korea and Japan.
Through their work, missionaries taught
Buddhism to millions of people.

A Split within Buddhism

Even as Buddhism spread through Asia,
however, it began to change. Not all
Buddhists could agree on their beliefs
and practices. Eventually disagreements
between Buddhists led to a split within the
religion. Two major branches of Buddhism
were created-Theravada and Mahayana.

term Buddha mean?

b. Summarize How did Siddhartha Gautama free his
mind and clarify his thinking as he searched for wisdom?
2. a. Identify What is nirvana?
b. Contrast How are Buddhist teachings different from
Hindu teachings?
c. Elaborate Why do Buddhists believe that following the
Eightfold Path leads to a better life?
3. a. Describe Into what lands did Buddhism spread?
b. Summarize What role did missionaries play in
spreading Buddhism?

Critical Thinking
4. Summarizing Draw a diagram like

the one shown here. Use it to

identify and describe the Four Noble
Truths as taught by the Buddha.
FOCUS ON WRITING

1.

2.

3.

4.

5. Considering Indian Religions Look back over what

you've just read and the notes you took about Hinduism
earlier. Perhaps you will want to focus your poster on
ancient India's two major religions. Think about how you
could design a poster around this theme.

ANCIENT INDIA

161

If YOU were there ...

Main Ideas
1. The Mauryan Empire unified
most of India.
2. Gupta rulers promoted
Hinduism in their empire.

You are a merchant in India in about 240 BC. You travel from
town to town on your donkey, carrying bolts of colorful cloth.
In the heat of summer, you are grateful for the banyan trees along
the road. They shelter you from the blazing sun. You stop at wells
for cool drinks of water and rest houses for a break in your
journey. You know these are all the work of your king, Asoka.

How do you feel about your king?

The Big Idea

The Mauryas and the Guptas
built great empires in India.

BUILDING BACKGROUND For centuries after the Aryan invasion,

Key People
Chandragupta Maurya, p. 162
Asoka, p. 163
Chandragupta II, p. 164

India was divided into small states. Each state had its own ruler and
India had no central government. Then, in the 300s BC, a foreign
conqueror, Alexander the Great, took over part of northwestern India.
His armies soon left, but his influence continued to affect Indian
society. Inspired by Alexander's example, a strong leader soon united
India for the first time.

Mauryan Empire Unifies India

In the 320s BC a military leader named Chandragupta Maurya
(kuhn-druh-GOOP-tuh MOUR-yuh) seized control of the entire
northern part of India. By doing so, he founded the Mauryan
Empire. Mauryan rule lasted for about 150 years.

~ 6.5.6 Describe the growth

of the Maurya Empire and the political and moral achievements of the
emperor Asoka.

162

CHAPTER 6

The Mauryan Empire

Chandragupta Maurya ruled his empire with the help
of a complex government. It included a network of
spies and a huge army of some 600,000 soldiers. The
army also had thousands of war elephants and thousands of chariots. In return for the army's protection,
farmers paid a heavy tax to the government.
In 301 BC Chandragupta decided to become a]ainist monk. To do so, he had to give up his throne. He
passed the throne to his son, who continued to expand
the empire. Before long, the Mauryas ruled all of northern India and much of central India as well.

Asoka
Around 270 BC Chandragupta's grandson
Asoka (uh-SOH-kuh) became king. Asoka
was a strong ruler, the strongest of all the
Mauryan emperors. He extended Mauryan
rule over most of India. In conquering
other kingdoms, Asoka made his own
empire both stronger and richer.
For many years, Asoka watched his
armies fight bloody battles against other
peoples. A few years into his rule, however,
Asoka converted to Buddhism. When he
did, he swore that he would not launch
any more wars of conquest.
After converting to Buddhism, Asoka
had the time and resources to improve the
lives of his people. He had wells dug and
roads built throughout the empire. Along
these roads, workers planted shade trees

and built rest houses for weary travelers. He

also encouraged the spread of Buddhism in
India and the rest of Asia. As you read in the
previous section, he sent missionaries to
lands all over Asia.
Asoka died in 233 BC, and the empire
began to fall apart soon afterward. His sons
fought each other for power, and invaders
threatened the empire. In 184 BC the last
Mauryan king was killed by one of his own
generals. India divided into smaller states
once again.

Focus oN
READING
What can you
infer about the
religious beliefs
of Asoka's sons?

IU!i,.HU1!'15iij Finding Main Ideas

How
did the Mauryans gain control of most of India?

Arabian
S ea

Bay of
Bengal

.I

Mauryan Empire
200

400 Miles

-----.
200

400 Kilometers

.
I

Mauryan troops used war

elephants in battle, striking
fear in their enemies. As
the elephants charged
forward into battle,
soldiers on top hurled
spears at their enemies.

..... ,....

:I\t

., - -,

\')

~"

,...,AAI

OCEAN

Place Which cities were part of the Mauryan Empire?

ANCIENT INDIA

163

Gupta Rulers
Promote Hinduism
After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire,
India remained divided for about 500
years. During that time, Buddhism continued to prosper and spread in India, and so
the popularity of Hinduism declined.

ACADEMIC
VOCABULARY
establish to set

up or create

A New Hindu Empire

Eventually, however, a new dynasty was
established in India. It was the Gupta
(GOOP-tuh) Dynasty, which took over India
around AD 320. Under the Guptas, India
was once again united, and it once again
became prosperous.

Arabian

Bay of

Sea

Bengal

Gupta Empire
200
0

200

300 Miles

300 Kilometers

Region What region of India was not part ofthe Gupta Empire?

164

CHAPTER 6

The first Gupta emperor was Chandragupta I. Although their names are similar, he
was not related to Chandragupta Maurya.
From his base in northern India, Chandragupta's armies invaded and conquered
neighboring lands. Eventually he brought
much of the northern part of India under
his control.
Indian civilization flourished under the
Gupta rulers. These rulers were Hindu, so
Hinduism became India's major religion.
The Gupta kings built many Hindu temples, some of which became models for
later Indian architecture. They also promoted a revival of Hindu writings and worship practices.
Although they were Hindus, the Gupta
rulers also supported the religious beliefs
of Buddhism and Jainism. They promoted
Buddhist art and built Buddhist temples.
They also established a university at
Nalanda that became one of Asia's greatest
centers for Buddhist studies.

Gupta Society
In 3 75 Emperor Chandragupta II took the
throne in India. Gupta society reached its
high point during his rule. Under Chandragupta II, the empire continued to grow,
eventually stretching all the way across
northern India. At the same time, the
empire's economy strengthened, and people prospered. They created fine works of
art and literature. Outsiders admired the
empire's wealth and beauty.
Gupta kings believed the social order of
the Hindu caste system would strengthen
their rule. They also thought it would keep
the empire stable. As a result, the Guptas
considered the caste system an important
part of Indian society.
This was not good news for women,
whose roles were limited by caste rules.
Brahmins taught that a woman's role
was to marry and have children. Women
couldn't even choose their own husbands.

Parents arranged all marriages. Once married, wives had few rights. They were
expected to serve their husbands. Widows
had an even lower social status than other
women.
Gupta rule remained strong in India
until the late 400s. At that time the Huns,
a group from Central Asia, invaded India
from the northwest. Their fierce attacks
drained the Gupta Empire of its power
and wealth. As the Hun armies marched
farther into India, the Guptas lost hope.

By the middle of the SOOs, Gupta rule had

ended, and India had divided into small
kingdoms yet again.
Summarizing Whatwas
the Gupta Dynasty's position on religion?

'" 'HJt'""U"I?Ui?'-

SUtltiARY AND PREVIEW The Mauryas

and Guptas united much of India in their

empires. Next you will learn about their
many achievements.

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People lim

6.5.6

1. a. Identify Who created the Mauryan Empire?

b. Summarize What happened after Asoka
became a Buddhist?

c. Elaborate Why do you think many people

consider Asoka the greatest of all Mauryan rulers?
2. a. Recall What religion did most of the Gupta
rulers belong to?
b. Compare and Contrast How were the rulers
Chandragupta Maurya and Chandragupta I alike,
and how were they different?
c. Evaluate Do you think the Gupta enforcement
of caste rules was a good thing? Why or why not?

Critical Thinking
3. Categorizing
Draw a chart
like this one.
Fill it with information about
India's rulers.

Ruler

Dynasty

Accomplishments

~'

FOCUS ON WRITING

4. Comparing Indian Empires Another possible

topic for your poster would be a comparison of
the Maurya and Gupta empires. Make a chart in
your notebook that shows such a comparison.

ANCIENT INDIA

165

Asoka
How can one decision change a man's entire life'!
When did he live? before 230 BC

c. 261 BC Asoka's

Where did he live? Asoka's empire included much of northern and

empire reaches its

greatest size.

central India.

c. 261 BC Asoka

What did he do? After fighting many bloody wars to expand his empire,

becomes a Buddhist.

Asoka gave up violence and converted to Buddhism.

c. 251 BC Asoka

Why is he important? Asoka is one of

the most respected rulers in Indian history
and one of the most important figures in the
history of Buddhism. As a devout Buddhist,
Asoka worked to spread the Buddha's teachings. In addition to sending missionaries
around Asia, he built huge columns carved
with Buddhist teachings all over India.
Largely through his efforts, Buddhism
became one of Asia's main religions.

begins to send
Buddhist missionaries
to other parts of Asia.

Generalizing How did Asoka's life

change after he became Buddhist?

This Buddhist shrine,

located in Sanchi, India,
was built by Asoka.

If YOU were there ...

You are a traveler in western India in the 300s. You are visiting a
cave temple that is carved into a mountain cliff. Inside the cave it
is cool and quiet. Huge columns rise all around you. You don't feel
you're alone, for the walls and ceilings are covered with paintings.
They are filled with lively scenes and f1gures. In the center is a
large statue with calm, peaceful features.

Main Ideas
1. Indian artists created great
works of religious art.
2. Sanskrit literature flourished
during the Gupta period.
3. The Indians made scientific
advances in metalworking,
medicine, and other sciences.

'

How does this cave make you feel'"!

The Big Idea

The people of ancient India
made great contributions to the
arts and sciences.

BUILDING BACKGROUND The Mauryan and Gupta empires

united most of India politically. During these empires, Indian artists,
writers, scholars, and scientists made great advances. Some of their
works are still studied and admired today.

Religious Art

Key Terms
metallurgy, p. 170
alloys, p. 110
Hindu-Arabic numerals, p. 170
inoculation, p. 170
astronomy, p. 171

The Indians of the Maurya and Gupta periods created great

works of art, many of them religious. Many of their paintings
and sculptures illustrated either Hindu and Buddhist teachings.
Magnificent temples-both Hindu and Buddhist-were built all
around India. They remain some of the most beautiful buildings
in the world today.

Temples
Early Hindu temples were small stone structures. They had
flat roofs and contained only one or two rooms. In the Gupta
period, though, temple architecture became more complex.
Gupta temples were topped by huge towers and were covered
with carvings of the god worshipped inside.
Buddhist temples of the Gupta period are also impressive.
Some Buddhists carved entire temples out of mountainsides.
The most famous such temple is at Ajanta. Its builders filled the
caves with beautiful wall paintings and sculpture.

fim

6.5.7 Discuss important

aesthetic and intellectual traditions
(e.g., Sanskrit literature, including the
Bhagavad Gita; medicine; metallurgy;
and mathematics, including HinduArabic numerals and the zero).

ANCIENT INDIA

167

This Hindu temple is covered with incredibly detailed carvings and decorations.
Many individual sculptures are images of
important Hindu deities, like the deity of
Vishnu above.

Another type of Buddhist temple was

the stupa. Stupas had domed roofs and
were built to house sacred items from the
life of the Buddha. Many of them were
covered with detailed carvings.
Paintings and Sculpture
The Gupta period also saw the creation of
great works of art, both paintings and statues. Painting was a greatly respected profession, and India was home to many skilled
artists. However, we don't know the names
of many artists from this period. Instead,
we know the names of many rich and
powerful members of Gupta society who
paid artists to create works of beauty and
significance.
Most Indian paintings from the Gupta period are clear and colorful. Some of
them show graceful Indians wearing fine
jewelry and stylish clothes. Such paintings
offer us a glimpse of the Indians' daily and
ceremonial lives.

168

CHAPTER 6

Artists from both of India's major

religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, drew
on their beliefs to create their works. As
a result, many of the finest paintings of
ancient India are found in temples. Hindu
painters drew hundreds of deities on temple walls and entrances. Buddhists covered the walls and ceilings of temples with
scenes from the life of the Buddha.
Indian sculptors also created great
works. Many of their statues were made
for Buddhist cave temples. In addition to
the temples' intricately carved columns,
sculptors carved statues of kings and the
Buddha. Some of these statues tower over
the cave entrances. Hindu temples also
featured impressive statues of their deities.
In fact, the walls of some temples, such as
the one pictured above, were completely
covered with carvings and images.
!l3!;,.l)~ltl,l!ll':t Summarizing How did
religion influence ancient Indian art?

Sometime before 500, Indian writers

also produced a book of stories called the
Panchatantra (PUHN-chuh-TAHN-truh). The
stories in this collection were intended
to teach lessons. They praise people for
cleverness and quick thinking. Each story
ends with a message about winning friends,
losing property, waging war, or some
other idea. For example, the message below
warns listeners to think about what they
are doing before they act.

Sanskrit Literature
As you read earlier, Sanskrit was the main
language of the ancient Aryans. During the
Maurya and Gupta periods, many works
of Sanskrit literature were created. These
works were later translated into many
other languages.

Sacred Texts
The greatest of these Sanskrit writings
are two sacred texts, the Mahabharata
(muh-HAH-BAH-ruh-tuh) and the Ramayana (rah-MAH-yuh-nuh). Still popular in
India, the Mahabharata is one of the world's
longest sacred texts. It tells of the struggle
between two families for control of a kingdom. Included within it are many long passages about Hindu beliefs. The most famous
is called the Bhagavad Gita (BUG-uh-vuhd
GEE-tah).
The Ramayana, according to Hindu tradition written prior to the Mahabharata, tells
about a prince named Rama. In truth, the
prince was the deity Vishnu in human form.
He had become human so he could rid the
world of demons. He also had to
rescue his wife, a princess named
Sita. For centuries, the characters of the Ramayana have been
seen as models for how Indians
should behave. For example,
Rama is seen as the ideal ruler,
and his relationship with Sita as
the ideal marriage.

11 The good and bad of given schemes

Wise thought must first reveal:

The stupid heron saw his c~i.fks
Provide a mongoose meal.
-from the Panchatantra, translated
by Arthur William Ryder

Eventually, translations of this collection spread throughout the world. It became

popular even as far away as Europe.
1
'

'"W"' ;" ,, . Categorizing What types of

literature did writers of ancient India create?

In this illustration of the Ramayana,

the monkey king sends the monkey general Hanuman to find Sita.
Hanuman helped Rama defeat the
demons and win back Sita. Many
Indians view him as a model of
devotion and loyalty.

Other Works
Writers in the Gupta period also
created plays, poetry, and other
types of literature. One famous
writer of this time was Kalidasa
(kahl-ee-DAHS-uh). His work was
so brilliant that Chandragupta
II hired him to write plays for
the royal court.

ANCIENT INDIA

169

Scientific Advances
Indian achievements were not limited to
art, architecture, and literature. Indian
scholars also made important advances in
metalworking, math, and the sciences.

ACADEMIC
VOCABULARY
process a series
of steps by which
a task is
accomplished

People still get

inoculations
against many
diseases.

170

Metalworking
The ancient Indians were pioneers of
metallurgy (MET-uhl-uhr-jee), the science
of working with metals. Their knowledge
allowed them to create high-quality tools
and weapons. The Indians also knew
processes for mixing metals to create alloys,
mixtures of two or more metals. Alloys are
sometimes stronger or easier to work with
than pure metals.
Metalworkers made their strongest
products out of iron. Indian iron was very
hard and pure. These features made the
iron a valuable trade item.
During the Gupta Dynasty, metalworkers built the famous Iron Pillar near
Delhi. Unlike most iron, which rusts easily, this pillar is very resistant to rust. The
tall column still attracts crowds of visitors.
Scholars study this column even today to
learn the Indians' secrets.

CHAPTER 6

Mathematics and Other Sciences

Gupta scholars also made advances in
math and science. In fact, they were
among the most advanced mathematicians of their day. They developed many
elements of our modern math system.
The very numbers we use today are called
Hindu-Arabic numerals because they were
created by Indian scholars and brought to
Europe by Arabs. The Indians were also the
first people to create the zero. Although it
may seem like a small thing, modern math
wouldn't be possible without the zero.
The ancient Indians were also very
skilled in the medical sciences. As early as
the AD lOOs, doctors were writing their
knowledge down in textbooks. Among the
skills these books describe is making medicines from plants and minerals.
Besides curing people with medicines,
Indian doctors knew how to protect people against disease. The Indians practiced
inoculation (i-nah-kyuh-LAY-shuhn), or
injecting a person with a small dose of a
virus to help him or her build up defenses
to a disease. By fighting off this small dose,
the body learns to protect itself.

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What are some areas of science that people

studied in ancient India?

For people who were injured, Indian

doctors could perform surgery. Surgeons
repaired broken bones, treated wounds,
removed infected tonsils, reconstructed
broken noses, and even reattached torn
earlobes! If they could find no other cure
for an illness, doctors would cast magic
spells to help people recover.
Indian interest in astronomy, the study
of stars and planets, dates back to early times
as well. Indian astronomers knew of seven
of the nine planets in our solar system. They
knew that the sun was a star and that the
planets revolved around it. They also knew
that the earth was a sphere and that it rotated on its axis. In addition, they could predict
eclipses of the sun and the moon.
Finding Main Ideas What
were two Indian achievements in mathematics?

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Gm

1. a. Describe What did Hindu temples of the Gupta period

look like?
b. Analyze How can you tell that Indian artists were well
respected?
c. Evaluate Why do you think Hindu and Buddhist
temples contained great works of art?
2. a. Identify What is the Bhagavad Gita?
b. Explain Why were the stories of the Panchatantra
written?
c. Elaborate Why do you think people are still interested
in ancient Sanskrit epics today?
3. a. Define What is metallurgy?
b. Explain Why do we call the numbers we use today
Hindu-Arabic numerals?

Critical Thinking
4. Categorizing Draw a chart like the one below. Use it to

identify ancient Indian achievements in math and science.

Metallurgy

SUMMARY AND PREVIEW From a group

of cities on the Indus River, India grew
into a major empire whose people made
great achievements. In the next chapter,
you'll read about another civilization that
experienced similar growth-China.

6.5.7

Math

Medicine

Astronomy

5. Highlighting Indian Achievements Make a list of Indian

achievements that you could include on a poster. Now

look back through your notes from this chapter. Which
will you choose as the subject of your poster?

ANCIENT INDIA

171

from the

Bhagavad

translated by Barbara Stoler Miller

WORD HELP
lapses breaks
serenity peace
reason thinking
discipline self control

Krishna says that people

need to give up the desire for
possessions to find peace.
What does Krishna say
comes with peace?

About the Reading The Bhagavad Gita, one of Hinduism's most sacred
texts, is part of the much longer epic called the Mahabharata. The title
Bhagavad Gita is Sanskrit for "Song of the Lord." The lord to which the
title refers is Krishna, who is the deity Vishnu in human form. The Gita,
as the poem is sometimes known, is written as a conversation between
Krishna and a prince named Arjuna. Faced with a battle in which he will
have to fight many of his friends and family members, Arjuna turns to
Krishna for advice. As part of his response, Krishna explains to Arjuna
how a soul can find peace and eternal happiness.
AS YOU READ

Think about the meaning behind Krishna's advice to Arjuna.

From anger comes confusion;

from confusion memory lapses;
from broken memory understanding is lost;
from loss of understanding, he is ruined.

lim

6.5.7 Discuss important

aesthetic and intellectual traditions (e.g., Sanskrit literature,
including the Bhagavad Gita;
medicine; metallurgy; and
mathematics, including HinduArabic numerals and the zero).

l1!iJ

3.3.4 Define how tone

or meaning is conveyed in
poetry through word choice,
figurative language, sentence
structure, line length, punctuation, rhythm, repetition, and
rhyme.

172

CHAPTER 6

But a man of inner strength

whose senses experience objects
without attraction and hatred,
in self control, finds serenity. 0
In serenity, all his sorrows
dissolve;
his reason becomes serene,
his understanding sure.

Without discipline,
he has no understanding or inner power;
without inner power, he has no peace;
and without peace where is joy?

WORD HELP
insight understanding;
wisdom
discernment understanding
restraint holding back; self
control
sage wise person
eludes escapes
renounces gives up
craving longing, wanting
delusion false belief

If his mind submits to the play

of the senses,
they drive away insight,
as wind drives a ship on water. e
So, Great Warrior, when withdrawal
of the senses
from sense objects is complete,
discernment is firm.

e Just as the wind pushes a

When it is night for all creatures,

a master of restraint is awake;
when they are awake, it is night
for the sage who sees reality.

ship along the water, Krishna

says, the desire for objects
pushes away peace and
understanding of the world.

As the mountainous depths

of the ocean
are unmoved when waters
rush into it,
so the man unmoved
when desires enter into him
attains a peace that eludes
the man of many desires. 0

8
This painting from the 1700s shows
Hindu women entering a forest on
their way to meet Krishna.

When he renounces all desires

and acts without craving,
possessiveness,
or individuality, he finds peace.

Krishna says that people

seeking peace should be
more comfortable at night,
because the senses are less
active then than during the
day.

Just as the ocean doesn't

change when water rushes
into it, people shouldn't be
changed by desires.

What does Krishna say will

be the reward for people
without many desires?

This is the place of the infinite spirit;

achieving it, one is freed from delusion;
abiding in it even at the time of death,
one finds the pure calm of infinity.

1. Analyzing Hindus believe that the world is

an illusion that people must see through to
be united with Brahman. How is this idea
supported by Krishna's discussion of how
to find peace?

2. Comparing Krishna says the people who

find peace will reach the "place of infinite
spirit" and find the "pure calm of infinity:'
How does this idea compare to the
Buddhist concept of nirvana?

173

Interpreting Diagrams
Diagrams are drawings that illustrate or explain
objects or ideas. Different types of diagrams have
different purposes. The ability to interpret diagrams
will help you to better understand historical objects,
their functions, and how they worked.

The Sanchi stupa is surrounded by a stone railing with four gates called torenas. About halfway up
the side of the mound is a second railing next to a
walkway. Worshippers move along this walkway in a
clockwise direction to honor the Buddha. The stupa
is topped by a cube called the harmika. Rising from
the harmika is a mast or spire. These parts and their
shapes all have religious meaning for Buddhists.

Use these guidelines to interpret a diagram:

Read the diagram's title or caption to find out

what it represents. If a legend is present, study it
as well to understand any symbols and colors in
the diagram.

Here is another diagram of the Sanchi stupa.

Interpret both diagrams on this page to answer
the questions that follow.

f) Most diagrams include labels that identify the

object's parts or explain relationships between
them. Study these parts and labels carefully.

e If any written information or explanation

accompanies the diagram, compare it to the
drawing as you read.

@ -~

The diagram below is of the Great Stupa at

Sanchi in India, which is thought to contain the
Buddha's remains. Like most stupas, it was shaped
like a dome.

dome.,

r~ngs)

9
1. Which letter in this diagram labels the torenas?
2. What part of the stupa does the letter A label?
3. The walkway and railing are labeled by which

letter?

174

CHAPTER 6

Standards Review
Use the visual summary below to help you review
the main ideas of the chapter.

Reviewing Terms and People

Fill in the blanks with the correct term or name from this
chapter.
are winds that bring heavy rainfall.
2. A
is a division of people into groups
based on birth, wealth, or occupation.
3. Hindus believe in
, the belief that
they will be reborn many times after death.
4.
founded the Mauryan Empire.
5. The focusing of the mind on spiritual things is
called _ _ _ _ .
6. People who work to spread their religious beliefs
are called _ _ _ _ .
7. People who practice
use only
peaceful ways to achieve change.
8.
converted to Buddhism while he was
ruler of the Mauryan Empire.
9. A mixture of metals is called an _ _ _ _ .
10. The study of the stars and planets is called
1.

Comprehension and
Critical Thinking

em

SECTION 1 (Pages 144-149)

6.5.1, 6.5.2
11. a. Describe What caused floods on the Indus

River, and what was the result of those floods?

b. Contrast How was Aryan culture different
from Harappan culture?
c. Elaborate Why is the Harappan culture
considered a civilization?

em

SECTION 2 (Pages 150-155)

6.5.3, 6.5.4
12. a. Identify Who were the Brahmins, and what

role did they play in Aryan society?

b. Analyze How do Hindus believe karma
affects reincarnation?
c. Elaborate Hinduism has been called both
a polytheistic religion-one that worships
many deities-and a monotheistic religionone that worships only one. Why do you think
this is so?

ANCIENT INDIA

175

em

SECTION 3 (Pages 156-161)

6.5.5
13. a. Describe What did the Buddha say caused

human suffering?
b. Analyze How did Buddhism grow and
change after the Buddha died?
c. Elaborate Why did the Buddha's teachings
about nirvana appeal to many people of lower
castes?
SECTION 4 (Pages 162-165)

em 6.5.6

14. a. Identify What was Chandragupta Maurya's

Reading Skills
19. Drawing Inferences Based on what you learned

about the Gupta period, what inference can you

draw about religious tolerance in ancient India?
Draw a box like the one below to help you organize your thoughts.
Question:

Inside the Text:

Outside the Text:

Inference:

greatest accomplishment?
b. Compare and Contrast What was one

similarity between the Mauryas and the Guptas?

What was one difference between them?
c. Predict How might Indian history have been
different if Asoka had not become a Buddhist?
SECTION 5 (Pages 167-171)

em 6.5.7

15. a. Describe What kinds of religious art did the

ancient Indians create?

b. Make Inferences Why do you think religious
discussions are included in the Mahabharata?
c. Evaluate Which of the ancient Indians'
achievements do you think is most impressive?
Why?

Social Studies Skills

20. Understanding Diagrams Look back over the

diagram of the Buddhist temple in the skills

activity at the end of this chapter. Using this
diagram as a guide, draw a simple diagram of
your house or school. Be sure to include labels
of important features on your diagram. An
example has been provided for you below.

Bedroom

Bathroom

Kitchen

Hallway

Reviewing Themes
16. Religion What is one teaching that Buddhism

and Hinduism share? What is one idea about

which they differ?
17. Society and Culture How did the caste system
affect the lives of most people in India?

Bedroom

Living Room

Bedroom

FOCUS ON WRITING

z-

21. Designing Your Poster Now that you have cho-

Using the Internet

18. Activity: Making a Brochure In this chapter,

you learned about India's diverse geographical features and the ways in which geography
influenced India's history. Enter the activity keyword. Then research the geography and civilizations of India, taking notes as you go. Finally,
use the interactive brochure template to present
what you have found.

176

CHAPTER 6

sen a topic for your poster, it's time to create it.

On a large sheet of paper or poster board, write
a title that identifies the subject of your poster.
Then draw pictures, maps, or diagrams that
illustrate your chosen topic.
Next to each picture, write a short caption.
Each caption should be two sentences long. The
first sentence should identify what the picture,
map, or diagram shows. The second sentence
should explain why the picture is important to
the study of Indian history.

Standards Assessment
DIRECTIONS: Read each question, and write the
letter of the best response.

Use the map to answer the following

question.

What is the main goal of people who

follow Buddhism as it was taught by
the Buddha?
A wealth
B rebirth
C missionary work
D reaching nirvana

I ] The Mauryan emperor Asoka is known for

all of the following except
A expanding the empire across most of India.
B spreading Hinduism.
C working to improve his people's lives.
D practicing nonviolence.

Early India's contributions to world

civilization included
A developing the world's first calendar.
B creating what is now called algebra.
C inventing the plow and the wheel.
D introducing zero to the number system.

Connecting with Past Learnings

0
Civilization grew on the Indian subcontinent
along the river marked on the map by the
letter
A W.

A Hammurabi's Code
B the Book of the Dead
C Gilgamesh

B X.

D the Pyramid Texts

Y.

The people of which varna in early India

had the hardest lives?

As you learned earlier in this course, the

ancient Egyptians held elaborate religious
rituals. Which of these Indian religions also
involved many rituals, including sacrifices?

A Brahmins

A Buddhism

B Kshatriyas

B Brahmanism

C Sudras

C Jainism

D Vaisyas

D Mauryanism

D Z.

In this chapter you learned about two sacred

epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
Which of the following is also an epic poem
that you have studied?

ANCIENT INDIA

177