Anaphylaxis Review 2015

F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016
REVIEW
Management and Prevention of Anaphylaxis [version 1; referees:

2 approved]
Anne-Marie Irani, Elias G. Akl
Department of Pediatrics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmon, Virginia, 23298, USA
v1
First published: 22 Dec 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 (doi:

10.12688/f1000research.7181.1)
Open Peer Review
Latest published: 22 Dec 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 (doi:

10.12688/f1000research.7181.1)
Referee Status:
Abstract
Anaphylaxis prevalence has increased within the last few years. This may be
due to a marked increase in allergic sensitization to foods especially in the
pediatric population, as well as to an increase in outdoor recreational habits
and the availability of new biologic medications. Furthermore, guidelines for
the diagnosis of anaphylaxis have been published, thus facilitating the
recognition of this disorder. Diagnosis of anaphylaxis is mainly based on history
and clinical criteria of organ system involvement. The serum tryptase assay is
now commercially available and may be a helpful diagnostic tool in certain
clinical situations involving hypotension, but not in the context of food-induced
anaphylaxis. Treatment of anaphylaxis mainly involves the use of epinephrine
as a first line medication for severe manifestations followed by symptomatic
management of specific symptoms, such as antihistamines for urticaria and
albuterol for wheezing. Although commonly practiced, treatment with systemic
corticosteroids is not supported by evidence-based literature. Observation in a
medical facility for 4-6 hours is recommended to monitor for late phase
reactions, although these rarely occur. Education is an essential component of
management of a patient with a previous history of anaphylaxis, emphasizing
early use of epinephrine and providing a written action plan. Referral to a
board-certified allergist/immunologist is recommended to determine the cause
of the anaphylaxis as well as to rule out other potential conditions. In this
review, our main focus will be on the treatment and prevention of anaphylaxis
while providing our readers with a brief introduction to the diagnosis of
anaphylaxis, its prevalence and its most common causes.
Invited Referees
version 1
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22 Dec 2015
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1 Victria Cardona, Hospital Vall d'Hebron
Spain, Institut de Recerca Vall d'Hebron
Spain
2 Sally Wenzel, University of Pittsburgh
USA, Merritt Fajt, University of Pittsburgh
USA
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Corresponding author: Anne-Marie Irani (anne-marie.irani@vcuhealth.org)

How to cite this article: Irani AM and Akl EG. Management and Prevention of Anaphylaxis [version 1; referees: 2 approved]
F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 (doi: 10.12688/f1000research.7181.1)
Copyright: 2015 Irani AM and Akl EG. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.
Competing interests: Dr Elias Akl declares no competing interests. Dr Anne-Marie Irani: Virginia Commonwealth Institute receives royalties from
ThermoFisher for the tryptase assay, which are shared with the authors spouse.
First published: 22 Dec 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 (doi: 10.12688/f1000research.7181.1)
F1000Research
Page 2 of 8
Introduction: Definition, Prevalence, and Common

Triggers
There are several accepted definitions of the term anaphylaxis in
the medical literature, all of which share the common characteristic
of a severe, life-threatening, generalized hypersensitivity reaction13.
The term anaphylactoid reaction is no longer used based on the
World Allergy Organizations recommendation to further define
anaphylaxis into immunologic, immunoglobulin E (IgE) mediated,
and non-immunologic reactions2. The lifetime prevalence of anaphylaxis is estimated at 1.65% based on a recent national telephone
survey4,5. Food remains the most common overall outpatient cause
of anaphylaxis across all ages combined6, accounting for 30% of
cases of fatal anaphylaxis6. The most common foods that trigger
anaphylaxis include peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish, with
the addition of cows milk in children7,8. There has been a recent
increase in patients with sesame seed anaphylaxis6. Among medications, antibiotics and primarily penicillin are most commonly
involved in subjects aged 18 years and above5 followed by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)9. Other drugs implicated include biologics and monoclonal antibodies10,11. Anaphylaxis
to insect stings has occurred in 3% of adults and 1% of children
who have been stung12,13. Other less common causes of anaphylaxis include seminal fluid and vaccines or vaccine components6.
Exercise-induced anaphylaxis (EIAn) usually occurs with a
co-trigger1416 such as food ingestion. Patients with systemic mastocytosis are at increased risk of anaphylaxis from all causes,
given the increase in mast cell burden. Anaphylaxis secondary to
latex remains a concern in patients with spina bifida as well as in
healthcare workers, but this has become less common, especially
with hospitals using latex-free products throughout the country6.
Patients on allergen immunotherapy (AIT) also carry a small risk of
0.25%1.3% of anaphylaxis6,17,18, especially in the context of poorly
controlled asthma6. The risk of a fatal reaction from AIT is estimated at around 1 in 2.5 million injections6,19,20. Idiopathic anaphylaxis remains a diagnosis of exclusion when extensive trigger
identification fails.
Diagnosis
History: the diagnosis of anaphylaxis relies principally on the
history, including the time course of the event, such as history of
exposure to a particular trigger, the time course between exposure
and development of symptoms, and the evolution of symptoms and
signs over minutes to hours.
Diagnostic criteria: the diagnostic criteria set forth by the National
Institutes of Health (NIH) in 2006 were based on three clinical
scenarios:
First, in the absence of an allergen, anaphylaxis is diagnosed by a
rapid onset (minutes to hours) of a reaction that involves the skin,
mucosal tissue, or both, alongside at least one of the following
symptoms: respiratory compromise, reduced blood pressure, or
symptoms of end organ dysfunction.
Second, after a likely allergen exposure, two or more of the following occur: involvement of the skin or mucosal tissue, respiratory symptoms, decreased blood pressure, and/or gastrointestinal
involvement.
Third, in the case of a known allergen, reduced blood pressure alone

is sufficient for the diagnosis of anaphylaxis1.
Laboratory test: elevated serum tryptase levels can be detected
within 15 minutes and up to 3 hours after the anaphylactic
episode2123. Levels greater than 11.5 ng/mL are considered elevated.
Serum tryptase levels are rarely increased in the absence of shock
or when food is the trigger6. Baseline elevations of serum tryptase
levels should prompt consideration of the diagnosis of systemic
mastocytosis24. A recent consensus document defined a significant
acute elevation of serum tryptase to be equal to or greater than 1.2
times the baseline +2 ng/mL, indicating likely mast cell activation25.
Management
The management of anaphylaxis includes treatment of acute episodes and preventive measures including management of comorbidities, identification and avoidance of specific triggers, and select
instances of immunomodulation.
Acute treatment
The recommendations for acute treatment of anaphylaxis are largely
based on expert opinion and consensus, as there are no randomized
controlled studies for any of the pharmacologic therapies used.
All published guidelines clearly identify epinephrine as the first-line
medication for the treatment of anaphylaxis1,6. Epinephrine 1:1000
(1 mg/mL) at a dose of 0.20.5 mg in adults and 0.01 mg/kg in children up to a maximum of 0.3 mg dosage should be used6. Injection
in a large muscle, usually the lateral thigh, results in better absorption of the medication26. There are currently two commercially
available doses of epinephrine autoinjectors in the United States:
0.15 mg (ideal for a 15 kg body weight) and 0.3 mg (ideal for a
30 kg body weight). In Europe, a third dose of 0.5 mg has been marketed but is not available for use in the US. It is common practice to
prescribe the 0.15 mg dose to children weighing as low as 10 kg and
the 0.3 mg dose to children after they reach a body weight of 24 kg.
The practice parameters allow physicians to use epinephrine every
510 minutes and even at shorter intervals if deemed necessary6. It
is important to remember that patients on oral or even ophthalmic
beta-blockers might not adequately respond to epinephrine27,28. In
these patients, isotonic saline and intravenous glucagon given at a
dose of 15 mg in adults and 2030 g/kg in children, up to a maximum of 1 mg, should be given, followed by an infusion at a rate of
515 g/minute titrated to clinical response2931. Depending on the
setting (healthcare versus at home), intravenous fluids should be
initiated to maintain adequate circulation32,33.
Another important consideration, which is often ignored, is to position the patient in the Trendelenburg position (lying flat on the back
with legs elevated) in order to allow blood flow to the heart and to
prevent the empty ventricle syndrome described by Pumphrey34.
Other supportive measures could be considered as second-line
therapy. These include oxygen use, H1 and H2 antihistamines for
the treatment of hives, and albuterol for the treatment of bronchospasm. We recommend using a non-sedating antihistamine as
opposed to the common practice of prescribing diphenhydramine,
as the sedative effect might obscure possible central nervous system
Page 3 of 8
symptoms. Corticosteroids are not useful for the acute treatment

of anaphylaxis but may be effective in preventing biphasic or protracted anaphylaxis. As a result, many centers will administer a single dose of systemic corticosteroids (orally or intravenously) after
the patient has been stabilized35,36. A prolonged 3 or 5 day course
is not indicated. The frequency of occurrence of biphasic reaction
has been reported to be from as low as 1% to as high as 23%6,37,38.
These different estimates are likely due to varying definitions of
anaphylaxis and the criteria used to identify a biphasic reaction.
Using the NIH definitions for anaphylaxis in a retrospective chart
review of two urban academic hospitals in Canada, Grunau et al.
reported the incidence of a biphasic clinically important reaction
to be 0.18%39. Currently, expert consensus recommends observation in the emergency room for a period of at least 6 hours after
stabilization6,38,4043. Patients should be discharged home with a
prescription for an epinephrine autoinjector (EpiPen), along with
instructions for self-administration and a referral to an allergy/
immunology specialist for diagnosis and prevention.
Prevention
Long-term preventive measures include the recognition and management of risk factors for anaphylaxis in general, as well as measures directed to the specific triggers in particular.
It is important to identify and manage comorbid conditions that
increase the risk of a severe anaphylactic reaction when poorly
controlled. These include asthma, cardiovascular disease, and mastocytosis or mast cell activation syndrome. Furthermore, administration of certain medications such as beta-blockers may interfere
with the therapeutic response to epinephrine as previously mentioned. Young children may not be able to recognize and report
early symptoms of anaphylaxis, leading to a delay in administration
of epinephrine. Adolescents and young adults often display risky
behavior with regards to food avoidance and poor compliance in
carrying the epinephrine autoinjector.
The next section will review preventive measures specific to the
various diagnostic categories of anaphylaxis.
Food-induced anaphylaxis. Avoidance of the confirmed food
trigger requires lifelong vigilance, including education on reading food labels, informing family and friends, and caution while
eating in public establishments. Given the difficulty in implementing complete food avoidance and the resultant negative effect on
quality of life, clear and consistent information should be provided
regarding the specific food triggers. In some patients, food challenges performed in a clinical setting may be necessary to assess
the clinical significance of positive skin tests or serum IgE levels.
Various forms of immunotherapy for food desensitization are currently being investigated, including oral, sublingual, and patch
application4451. Primary prevention of peanut allergy in high-risk
infants with severe eczema and/or egg allergy was recently reported
in a landmark study where early introduction of peanut between
the ages of 4 and 11 months in infants with negative oral peanut
challenge resulted in a rate of peanut allergy of 3% at 5 years of
age compared to 17% in the group of infants who practiced peanut
avoidance, an 86% relative risk reduction in infants with negative
peanut skin tests52.
Medication-induced anaphylaxis. As with foods, an accurate

determination of the offending medication is needed. In situations
when the patient is receiving multiple medications simultaneously a
detailed history is crucial. Standardized skin testing is available for
penicillin only53, although many protocols have been reported for
other antibiotics and miscellaneous drugs54,55. Once identified, the
offending medication should be avoided and alternative therapies
used. In that respect, it is important to identify medications with
potential cross-reactivity to the offending agent. If no alternative
medication is adequate to treat the underlying condition, careful
desensitization by administering incremental doses of the offending
drug can be performed, often in an intensive care unit setting56,57.
This procedure does not confer long-term tolerance to the drug, so
future administration of the drug would once again require a desensitization procedure. Omalizumab, a monoclonal antibody against
IgE, given subcutaneously for the treatment of difficult-to-control
asthma as well as chronic spontaneous urticaria carries a 1 in 1000
risk of anaphylaxis, especially after the first three doses. Current
expert opinion recommends injections to be administered at a medical facility, together with monitoring for 2 hours following the first
three injections and for 30 minutes after subsequent injections.
Patients are also advised to carry an epinephrine autoinjector for a
period of 24 hours following the injections11.
Insect sting anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis to insects occurs in 3% of
adults and 0.40.8% of children who are stung6,58. History, as always,
is key in identifying the insect, correlating the onset of symptoms to
the sting event and helping in avoidance of future stings. Different
insects build nests in different places: hornets build large nests in
trees, yellow jackets in the ground, and wasps under houses or barns.
Honeybees usually leave a stinger and build nests in tree hollows.
Wasps, yellow jackets, and hornets are scavengers and are likely
to be encountered in picnic areas where food is available. Fire ants
build their nests in soil and often sting in a circular pattern multiple
times. Patients with a history of insect sting hypersensitivity should
be educated on avoidance of stings, carry an epinephrine autoinjector, and obtain a consultation with an allergist/immunologist in order
to undergo specific serum IgE testing and skin testing to identify the
culprit insects. Randomized controlled trials have demonstrated the
development of long-lasting protection against anaphylaxis in most
patients who are treated with subcutaneous venom immunotherapy
for a period of 35 years6,5861. Venom extracts are available for
honeybee, yellow jacket, white-faced hornet, yellow hornet, and
wasp, and whole body extract is available for fire ant. Patients with
mastocytosis and mast cell activation syndrome have an increased
risk of anaphylaxis with insect sting, whereby the anaphylactic episode could be the presenting sign of the disorder62,63.
Exercise-induced anaphylaxis. EIAn, as the name implies, is
anaphylaxis induced by physical activity. The mechanism behind
it is still not entirely clear. Symptoms usually start within a few
minutes after exercise and include fatigue, flushing, itching,
and urticaria. If exercise continues, symptoms may progress in
severity with angioedema of the airways and death64,65. Often,
a co-trigger is required for symptoms to develop, such as a
specific (or any solid) food, NSAIDs, menstruation, alcohol,
or even pollen exposure in sensitized individuals14,66. The risk of
anaphylaxis with exercise may occur within 46 hours of food
Page 4 of 8
and alcohol ingestion and within 24 hours after administration of

NSAIDs. The most common food trigger in the USA is wheat, followed by grains and seafood14,15. Potential co-triggers could be identified through skin testing and exercise challenge testing despite its
low sensitivity. It is imperative to identify the co-triggers in order to
provide education on avoidance. H2 antagonists should be avoided,
as preliminary data show that they might interfere with the normal
digestion of food and potentially lead to a more severe reaction16,67.
Therefore, prevention is individualized to the patient and to the
co-triggers. These patients can exercise regularly once the co-trigger is avoided for a period of time prior to exercise. They should be
counseled to exercise with a partner at all times and should carry
epinephrine for autoinjection. If early signs or symptoms develop,
the patient should stop exercising in order to avoid progression6.
Allergy to galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose, also known as alphagal. More recently, a new cause of anaphylaxis has been linked to
red meat consumption with a delayed onset of 35 hours or more
after ingestion68,69. Patients usually report a history of a lone star
tick bite 13 months prior to anaphylaxis70. The pathogenesis is due
to the development of an IgE response to a mammalian oligosaccharide epitope, galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose, known as alpha-gal,
present in the tick and conserved in mammalian meat70. A typical
presentation would be a patient waking up in the middle of the
night and collapsing on the way to the bathroom after ingestion
of mammalian products for dinner. Episodes are sporadic70. There
is a commercially available serum test to detect IgE against alphagal. Avoidance of mammalian meat is recommended as well as
availability of an epinephrine autoinjector.
Idiopathic anaphylaxis. Idiopathic anaphylaxis remains a diagnosis of exclusion after extensive history and testing to rule
out specific triggers, including foods, exercise, medications,
and insect hypersensitivity. Laboratory workup to look for evidence of mast cell activation is indicated. Serum tryptase levels obtained at baseline, as well as within 34 hours of an acute
episode, can be helpful in demonstrating acute mast cell activation2325. Other mast cell mediator measurements of urinary
metabolites include N-methylhistamine, leukotriene E4, and
prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2alpha). An elevated basal serum
tryptase level suggests the diagnosis of systemic mastocytosis.

A bone marrow biopsy can also be considered70,71. In patients with
elevated serum PGD2 (or its urinary metabolite, PGF2alpha), treatment with 650 mg aspirin twice a day is recommended72,73. Treatment with high-dose prednisone, 60100 mg daily for 12 weeks
along with non-sedating H1 and H2 antihistamines, followed by
tapering the dose of prednisone on alternate days over a period of
3 months has also been shown to decrease the frequency and severity of anaphylactic episodes, but results in high toxicity74,75. Multiple reports7678, as well as our own experience, have shown that
treatment with omalizumab, a monoclonal anti-IgE antibody, can
lead to decreased frequency of episodes and is very well tolerated.
An epinephrine autoinjector should be carried at all times.
Conclusions
Anaphylaxis is a potentially life-threatening condition. Given its
high prevalence, 25% of the population, physicians of all specialties are likely to be tasked with the recognition and management of
anaphylactic episodes. In this regard, several consensus guidelines,
including the American, European and World Allergy Organization
guidelines, have been published to facilitate this task13. A careful history and specialized testing to identify potential triggers are
paramount in preventing future events. Measurements of mast cell
mediators in biologic fluids can improve the diagnostic accuracy
of anaphylaxis. Epinephrine remains the mainstay of treatment for
acute episodes. Emerging therapies include the use of omalizumab
as well as allergen-specific immunotherapy.
Competing interests
Dr Elias Akl declares no competing interests.
Dr Anne-Marie Irani: Virginia Commonwealth Institute receives
royalties from ThermoFisher for the tryptase assay, which are
shared with the authors spouse.
Grant information
The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting
this work.
F1000 recommended
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Open Peer Review

Current Referee Status:
Editorial Note on the Review Process
F1000 Faculty Reviews are commissioned from members of the prestigious F1000 Faculty and are edited as a
service to readers. In order to make these reviews as comprehensive and accessible as possible, the referees
provide input before publication and only the final, revised version is published. The referees who approved the
final version are listed with their names and affiliations but without their reports on earlier versions (any comments
will already have been addressed in the published version).
The referees who approved this article are:

Version 1
1 Sally Wenzel, 1, Merritt Fajt2 1 Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of
Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15213, USA
2 Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
15260, USA
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
2 Victria Cardona, 1,2 1 Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
2 Allergy Research Group, Institut de Recerca Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
F1000Research
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F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016

Management and Prevention of Anaphylaxis [version 1; referees:

First published: 22 Dec 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 (doi:

Open Peer Review

Latest published: 22 Dec 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 (doi:

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F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016

Corresponding author: Anne-Marie Irani (anne-marie.irani@vcuhealth.org)

F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016

Introduction: Definition, Prevalence, and Common

Third, in the case of a known allergen, reduced blood pressure alone

F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016

symptoms. Corticosteroids are not useful for the acute treatment

Medication-induced anaphylaxis. As with foods, an accurate

F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016

and alcohol ingestion and within 24 hours after administration of

tryptase level suggests the diagnosis of systemic mastocytosis.

Sampson HA, Muoz-Furlong A, Campbell RL, et al.: Second symposium on the

Muraro A, Roberts G, Worm M, et al.: Anaphylaxis: guidelines from the European

Lieberman P, Camargo CA, Bohlke K, et al.: Epidemiology of anaphylaxis:

findings of the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology

Wood RA, Camargo CA, Lieberman P, et al.: Anaphylaxis in America: the

Lieberman P, Nicklas RA, Oppenheimer J, et al.: The diagnosis and management

Derby CJ, Gowland MH, Hourihane JO: Sesame allergy in Britain: a

F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016

questionnaire survey of members of the Anaphylaxis Campaign. Pediatr Allergy

1993; 11(2): 195205.

Gangur V, Kelly C, Navuluri L: Sesame allergy: a growing food allergy of global

Sherman MS, Lazar EJ, Eichacker P: A bronchodilator action of glucagon.

Fisher MM: Clinical observations on the pathophysiology and treatment of

Patel DD, Goldberg RM: Cetuximab-associated infusion reactions: pathology

Fisher M: Blood volume replacement in acute anaphylactic cardiovascular

Choo KJL, Simons E, Sheikh A: Glucocorticoids for the treatment of

Lieberman P: Biphasic anaphylactic reactions. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol.

Alqurashi W, Stiell I, Chan K, et al.: Epidemiology and clinical predictors of

Grunau BE, Li J, Yi TW, et al.: Incidence of clinically important biphasic

Tole JW, Lieberman P: Biphasic anaphylaxis: review of incidence, clinical

Soar J, Perkins GD, Abbas G, et al.: European Resuscitation Council Guidelines

Scranton SE, Gonzalez EG, Waibel KH: Incidence and characteristics of

Golden DB, Marsh DG, Kagey-Sobotka A, et al.: Epidemiology of insect venom

Dohi M, Suko M, Sugiyama H, et al.: Food-dependent, exercise-induced

Harada S, Horikawa T, Ashida M, et al.: Aspirin enhances the induction of type I

Kidd JM, Cohen SH, Sosman AJ, et al.: Food-dependent exercise-induced

Bernstein DI, Wanner M, Borish L, et al.: Twelve-year survey of fatal reactions to

Schwartz LB, Yunginger JW, Miller J, et al.: Time course of appearance

Schwartz LB: Diagnostic value of tryptase in anaphylaxis and mastocytosis.

Sampson HA: Peanut oral immunotherapy: is it ready for clinical practice?

Valent P, Akin C, Arock M, et al.: Definitions, criteria and global classification of

Simons FE, Gu X, Simons KJ: Epinephrine absorption in adults: intramuscular

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Nowak-Wgrzyn A, Sampson HA: Future therapies for food allergies.

Du Toit G, Roberts G, Sayre PH, et al.: Randomized trial of peanut

Pollack CV Jr: Utility of glucagon in the emergency department. J Emerg Med.

F1000Research 2015, 4(F1000 Faculty Rev):1492 Last updated: 01 APR 2016

Brockow K, Garvey LH, Aberer W, et al.: Skin test concentrations for

Castells M: Rapid desensitization for hypersensitivity reactions to

Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters; American Academy of Allergy,

anaphylaxis: survey results from a 10-year follow-up study. J Allergy Clin