Jamaican Youths On Their Way To Employment Stefanie Weck

JAMAICAN YOUTHS ON THEIR WAY
TO EMPLOYMENT
MASTERS THESIS
10th Semester
March 2012
SUBMITTED BY
Stefanie Dorotha Weck
100883-3598
SUPERVISOR
Bonn Juego
AALBORG UNIVERSITY
Dept. of History, International & Social Studies,
Development and International Relations
CONTENTS
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
1. Research Question........................................................................................................................... 2
2. Organization of the Thesis ............................................................................................................... 3
Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Basic Assumptions ........................................................................................................................... 5
Grounded Theory ............................................................................................................................ 7
Problem-Based Interviews .............................................................................................................. 8
Primary and Secondary Literature................................................................................................... 9
Case Study ..................................................................................................................................... 11
2. Considerations on Sources and Limitations of Study .................................................................... 11
Conceptual framework .......................................................................................................................... 14
1. Youth Unemployment ................................................................................................................... 14
2. Social Concepts .............................................................................................................................. 15
3. Institutional Concepts ................................................................................................................... 16
4. Economic Concepts ....................................................................................................................... 17
Contextual Background ......................................................................................................................... 19
1. Why focus on Youth?..................................................................................................................... 19
2. Situational Background and Definitions ........................................................................................ 21
Analysis of Social, Institutional and Economic Concepts ...................................................................... 24
1. Social Concepts .............................................................................................................................. 24
Selected Challenges for Youth Employment ................................................................................. 25
Causal & Capacity Gap Analysis ..................................................................................................... 26
2. Institutional Concepts ................................................................................................................... 35
3. Economic Concepts ....................................................................................................................... 50
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 61
Bibliography........................................................................................................................................... 64
Appendix................................................................................................................................................ 69
ABSTRACT
Young people have a lot of talent, energy and motivation. They are important drivers for social
change and economic development. However, they are more vulnerable to unemployment compared
to adults. In Jamaica, youths are especially suffering from the lack of opportunities to find a job.
Therefore, the government has set a special focus on youth employment programs and initiatives in
order to better integrate them into the labor market.
This thesis is an analysis of causalities that hinder Jamaican youth to have easy access to satisfying
and sustainable employment. Obstacles occur in many different areas. The social context is a
significant determinant of Jamaican youths employability. Their socialization process impacts young
peoples values and attitudes. This influences whether or not youths perform well at school and
acquire skills which will help them to enter the labor market. School and education strongly depends
on the institutional environment. Performance in school and academic achievements are a
consequence from the effectiveness of institutions and the quality of teaching. This is closely
correlated to the availability of financial resources and the governments ability to invest in an
appropriate enabling environment. External bondages such as high debt servicing constrain the
Government of Jamaica to direct more public expenditure towards better educational outcomes. This
results in poor performance of student on many levels and triggers social problems such as crime and
violence.
The objective of this thesis is to analyze these correlations that contribute to a situation where young
people in Jamaica struggle to be absorbed by the labor market. Employment is an important factor to
improve ones livelihood and to raise the productivity of a nation. Therefore, it is interesting to
understand why a large number of youths in Jamaica remain unemployed, despite years of
government programs on youth employment.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to
complete this thesis.
I would like to thank my supervisor Mr. Bonn Juego for his guidance and interest in my work.
I would like to thank Ms. Sherrian Gray, Technical Specialist on Youth and Social
Transformation at the Planning Institute of Jamaica; Mr. Machel Stewart, Poverty
Programme Advisor at UNDP Jamaica; Ms. Nasolo Thompson, National Project Officer at the
International Labour Office Jamaica; and Ms. Brenda V. Cuthbert, Chief Executive Officer,
and Mr. Ricardo Biggs, I.S. & Technical Services Manager, at the Jamaica Employers'
Federation for their availability for interviews and cordial assistance.
Further I would like to thank Dr. Doreen and Dr. Wayne West as well as Kacy West for their
incredible hospitality during my stay in Jamaica, Mr. Andrew Walcott for helping me access
and collect literature, and my family and friends for their continued loving support
throughout this Journey.
iii
ABBREVIATIONS
CCA
ESSJ
GDP
GT
HEART/NTA
IADB
ILOJ
IMF
JEF
JLP
JNYS
JSIF
JSLC
JYEN
MOEYC
MOL
NCYD
NELM
JNYS
OAS
PIOJ
PNP
SBA
STATIN
UN
UNDP
UNESCO
UK
US
United Nations Common Country Assessment for Jamaica

Economic and Social Survey Jamaica
Gross Domestic Product
Grounded Theory
Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency Trust
Inter-American Development Bank
International Labour Office Jamaica
International Monetary Fund
Jamaica Employers Federation
Jamaica Labour Party
Jamaica National Youth Survey
Jamaica Social Investment Fund
Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions
Jamaica Youth Employment Network
Ministry of Education, Youth, and Culture
Ministry of Labour
National Centre for Youth Development
New Economics of Labor Migration
Jamaica National Youth Service
Organization of American States
Planning Institute of Jamaica
Peoples National Party
Stand-By Arrangement
Statistical Institute of Jamaica
United Nations
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
United Kingdom
United States
iv
INTRODUCTION
Over the past 40 years human development has progressed in many respects. The Human
Development Report 2011 states that [e]ven in economically distressed countries, peoples health
and education have improved greatly (UNDP, 2011:23). The pace at which countries progress may
differ and the fields of growth may vary according to individual factors that favor or slow down
development in each country. Nevertheless, a lot has been achieved worldwide and life expectation,
education and access to goods and services are better than they have ever been.
In spite of such optimistic trends, many obstacles remain that challenge peoples lives throughout
the world. One of these challenges is unemployment. Overall positive employment trends receded as
a consequence of the global financial crisis. Today, the global community is on its way to slowly
recover from the deep recession which led to the loss of millions of jobs. Since most people derive
their income from work, employment has a strong impact on peoples livelihoods and their
subjective sense of well-being but also on economic development. It is considered a basic human
right. Article 23 of the UNs Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:
Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and
favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
(UN, 1948:23.1)
Especially youths, which the United Nations defines as those between the ages of 15-24, are more
affected by unemployment. Young people are not only are more vulnerable to external shocks, such
as an economic crisis, they also lack experience, social networks or other qualifications that would
make it easier for them to find employment. In most regions youth were nearly three times more
likely to be unemployed than adults (ILO, 2010:17). This is particularly worrying against the
background that youth represent a large proportion of the worlds population. In 2010, the 1.2 billion
young people in the world constituted 18 percent of the global population (UN, 2007:xv). Their
energy and motivation, creativity and talent present a great potential for companies to prosper and
an enormous opportunity for economic and social development.
Many policy makers know about the benefits of investing in youth. Governments target policies and
educational programs at improving opportunities for young people to enter the labor market. The
UN claims that Policy makers must ensure that educational curricula prepare young people for the
job market, providing them with professional, entrepreneurial and job-search skills (UN, 2007:39),
acknowledging that matching school curricula with recent workplace requirements is a difficult task.
INTRODUCTION
One country that is characterized by a large number of youth in its population structure on the one
hand and persisting high levels of youth unemployment on the other hand is Jamaica. Showing a
median age of 24.2 years, Jamaica is a very young country (CIA, 2012). In 2003, 18 per cent of
Jamaicans were between 15 and 24. Though the number of youth has been gradually decreasing over
the last decade, youth remain an important demographic group in Jamaica. Already in 1985, the
Government had recognized the vital role of young people in society and introduced a National
Youth Policy in 1994. Consequently, the National Youth Service (NYS) was re-established in 1995 and
the National Centre for Youth Development (NCYD) was set up in 2000 to act as an institutional
focal point for more effective cooperation between agencies. A reviewed National Youth Policy was
published in 2003, stating Jamaicans opinion that our youth are the future (NCYD, 2003:5). The
vision of the Jamaican youth was formulated and presented in this policy as follows:
Jamaican youth realising our full potential, through access to opportunities, to develop,
participate and contribute as responsible citizens, to a peaceful, prosperous and caring
society.(NCYD, 2003:3)
Since then, the Government of Jamaica has been making great efforts to create opportunities for
young Jamaicans to realize their full potential and has engaged in building an enabling environment
for them to develop and participate in social as well as economic development. Today, numerous
agencies and initiatives act under the responsibility of or in collaboration with Jamaicas government.
Jamaican youths are generally doing well. Most of them are healthy, knowledgeable and educated
and involved in youth programs or creative activities. However, youth unemployment rates are
persistently high. In 2004, the unemployment among those aged 15-24 was 34.0 percent (UNDP,
2012:52). In 2010, the overall youth employment rate in Jamaica was estimated 28.6 percent
(IDB/GOJ, 2011:49). Even though this shows an improvement, the employment situation for young
people in Jamaica remains critical. This thesis is driven by the motivation to undertake an in-depth
analysis of determinants for youth unemployment in Jamaica and discuss their interrelations. Such an
analysis intends to contribute to a better understanding of the context in which young people face
difficulties finding employment. It also helps to identify effectiveness and appropriateness of
programs and initiatives that the Jamaican government has set up to improve conditions for young
people to enter the labor market. Research activities and conduct of analysis were guided by one
question which is formulated as follows:
1. Research Question
Why do a substantial number of youths in Jamaican remain unemployed despite
years of government programs on youth employment?
2
INTRODUCTION
The goal of this thesis is to conduct an analysis of interrelations between various determinants for
youth unemployment in Jamaica. The point of departure in this thesis is the claim that youth
unemployment in Jamaica is influenced by social and cultural aspects as well as structural,
institutional, political and economic factors. To arrange the analysis according to fields of interest,
the author decided to focus on three central determinants and use them as working concepts for the
analysis. These three focus areas and working concepts are: (i) social concepts, (ii) institutional
concepts and (iii) economic concepts. Each focus area aims to shed light on employment challenges
through the lens of the particular working concept.
2. Organization of the Thesis

This thesis is organized into six parts. Following this introduction, the chapter Methodology briefly
outlines basic assumptions, justify the use of a single case study as well as qualitative methods for
research and discuss considerations on sources and literature. The following chapter Theoretical and
Conceptual Framework introduces the reader to the three different working concepts emphasizing
the three abovementioned focus areas: social, institutional and economic aspects of youth
unemployment in Jamaica. The chapter will also present the theories being applied in the analysis to
support empirical findings. The chapter Contextual Background comprises a section on general
definitions of labor economics that are relevant for the analysis. Illustrated with real-life examples
from Jamaica it will help to contextualize the issue of youth unemployment. Another section will
explain why the focus is on youth. The core of this thesis is the chapter Analysis on Social,
Institutional, and Economic Concepts. Based on the three working concepts, each section in the
chapter starts with a situational overview mapping youth unemployment in Jamaica through
empirical data and specific examples. Second, in each section two relevant challenges will be
identified that are further discussed in a causality and capacity analysis. Here, the author also
elaborates on interrelations between the three different focus areas. The last chapter of the thesis is
the Conclusion. It summarizes findings and gives some recommendations for future dealing with
youth unemployment in Jamaica.
The structure of the thesis is designed to center around the analysis. Figure 1 illustrates the thesis
structure, starting out from the problem field and the research question. The methodology is divided
into four subgroups. Together with the contextual background, the methodology lays the ground for
the conceptualization and the choice of theories. Each of the three working concepts contributes
independently to the analysis but is also interrelated to other working concepts. Hence, the analysis
is embedded in the interplay between individual working concepts and their interrelations.
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1: Thesis structure
PROBLEM FIELD
Youth unemployment in Jamaica, social, institutional and economic challenges of job search,
interrelations between local communities, Jamaican government, global economic activities
RESEARCH QUESTION
Why do a substantial number of youths in Jamaica remain unemployed despite years of
government programs on youth employment?
METHODOLOGY
Grounded Theory
Problem-based
Interviews
Primary & Secondary

Literature
Case Study
CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND
WORKING CONCEPTS
Institutional
concepts
Social concepts
ANALYSIS
Economic
concepts
CONCLUSION
4
METHODOLOGY
The aim of this thesis is to discover some of the determinants that cause youth unemployment in
Jamaica as well as their correlations. While discussing latent issues and conducting an analysis the
researcher draws from several understandings, theories and concepts. The following chapter aims at
describing the methodology underlying this work, including basic assumptions, justification for the
choice of methodology and considerations on the sources.
1. Basic Assumptions
First and foremost, it is important to explain the researchers ontological view that is how one
perceives the nature and structure of things per se (Staab/Studer, 2003:2). Further, the applied
epistemological understanding is clarified, that is how one considers the nature, sources and limits
of knowledge (Klein, 2005).
Research is seen as a useful tool to understand the rationale behind real-life issues, hence, to
understand why young people in Jamaica remain unemployed despite existing government programs
targeted at creating better job opportunities. The main objective in this thesis is to analyse the
unemployment situation of youth in Jamaica in terms of their social, institutional and economic
environment. Accordingly, the approach that was chosen is inspired by problem-based learning.
Problem-oriented thinkers try to follow problems, not to anticipate conclusions or to presuppose an
image of the world (Poli/Seibt, 2010:vi). Consequently, the thesis explores different perspectives
and identifies multiple determinants causing youth unemployment in Jamaica, instead of giving
normative recommendations on how to solve the problem.
The method to explore these different perspectives is based on empirical research rather than on
theoretical discussion. This is simply due to the fact that the author considers the empirical approach
more suitable to examine why young Jamaicans continue to be unemployed. The issue of youth
unemployment is part of their real-life experience. Challenges that they face on a daily basis and that
impact their ability to find jobs are context depending issues with many layers of unique dynamics
and determinants. This motivated the researcher to conduct problem-based interviews and a small
survey using standardized questionnaires at the Kings Gate Skills Training Centre Kingston. It is one of
the training institutions associated with the national training programs HEART Trust/ NTA and offers
courses in commercial food, preparation, housekeeping, and leather craft. The survey aimed to listen
to the opinion of young people heading towards employment and to draw a picture from realities on
that ground. A pure theoretical analysis would neither capture the breadth of context specific
determinants nor would it be appropriate to understand local challenges. Hence, generalizations
METHODOLOGY
should be seen in the light of Jamaica and its uniqueness. It may not necessarily be applicable to
other countries. Nevertheless, linking the Jamaican experience to a wider academic discussion helps
to discover congruencies with other findings. For this reason the analysis is embedded into a more
general conceptual framework.
Exploring different perspectives, which are to be achieved through the analysis of three different
focus areas, should not emphasize one particular phenomenon in depth lets say only social
determinants for youth unemployment in Jamaica. The multi-perspective approach rather aims at
showing the broad range of determinants and analysing their dynamics or the extent of their
contribution to unemployment in Jamaica. However, this multi-perspective approach also leads to a
very wider scope of analysis. It examines many sub-issues that occur in each topic area which makes
it necessary to find a strategy that identifies key issues, problems and capacities. For this, the author
decided to conduct a causality and capacity analysis separately for each section on (i) Social
Concepts, (ii) Institutional Concept, and (iii) Economic concepts. Every section starts with an
overview, describing the current situation of the topic area in question. Based on this situational
overview, two key challenges are selected that have a determining relevance for youth
unemployment in Jamaica. First, in the causality and capacity analysis, root causes are identified that
trigger youth unemployment in each thematic area. Second, important actors and their roles are
uncovered. This aims at defining capacities and accountabilities on different levels. Using such a
causality and capacity analysis makes it possible to highlight complexities and describe crosscutting
issues and their interrelations. The challenges selected in each topic area and respective root causes
are:
1. Social Concepts
Challenge Identity. Root causes: Manliness, gender socialization
Challenge Capacity Development. Root causes: Poverty, risky behavior
2. Institutional Concepts
Challenge Effectiveness. Root causes: Quality of teaching, capacity issues
Challenge Budget. Root causes: Budget cuts, dependency on donors
3. Economic Concepts
Challenge Public Debts. Root causes: Debt servicing, loss of GOJs sovereignty
Challenge Migration. Root causes: Dependencies, brain drain
The multi-perspective approach also leaves room for incorporating various concepts and theories
that are relevant during the research process. The following sections describe different methods that
are being used for the analysis later on in this thesis.
METHODOLOGY
Grounded Theory
Grounded Theory (GT) is a method in the field of social science that is often applied in qualitative
social research. It follows a certain style of conducting research that starts out by looking at data,
analysing patterns in the data and then moving to general concepts about it. With such conceptual
categories in mind it becomes possible to build them into a broader theoretical context and compare
them among various available theories. This approach enables researchers to discover theory and
to take areas into consideration that might not be covered by one specific theory. In discovering
theory, one generates conceptual categories or their properties from evidence, then the evidence
from which the category emerged is used to illustrate the concept (Glaser/Strauss, 1967:23). This
strategy of comparative analysis is an alternative to the hypothetico-deductive approach in social
research (Kelle, 2005) which is the approach of testing and verifying a theory with experimental
(quantitative) data. Deducting theory from past studies bears the risk that knowledge is only gained
to a certain extent and that researchers will not necessarily explore new aspects within the field of
relevance. In contrast, GT rather generates new theories or refines and modifies existing ones to
facilitate their usage in real-life situations and more applicable for practitioners. By doing so, GT
helps researchers to show interactions and relations between certain social groups, patterns of
human behavior, social processes and insights based on human experience.
When analysing the situation of Jamaican youth on their way to employment, GT is an adequate
approach. As mentioned above, young people in Jamaica are challenged by many factors when
searching jobs, mainly social, institutional and economic ones. This is such a broad field of research
and one single theory could never capture the problem as a whole. Hence, starting out from data,
creating conceptual categories and refining existing theories seems to be promising strategy. Point of
departure for research then is a field of investigation rather than a hypothesis that is to be proven.
This means that various aspects of youth unemployment in Jamaica will gain importance during the
process of research and will not be already pre-determined from the beginning. Individual empirical
insights, do not aim at verifying a hypothesis but rather contribute to enriching the newly generated
theory. This approach also avoids using examples to fit them into a particular theory. It prevents a
common bias that might occur when a theory is based on experimental data which makes it
irrefutable. Youth unemployment in Jamaica, however, is subject to a dynamic process, continuously
changing according to individual human behaviour. GT enables the researcher to make such dynamic
processes visible that underlie phenomena such as youth unemployment. In the case of Jamaica, this
approach led to structuring the analysis into three different working concepts and to make dynamic
processes and interrelations visible that occur in a social, institutional, and economic context.
METHODOLOGY
Problem-Based Interviews
In line with Grounded Theory, one technique for collecting information is the problem-based
interview. Problem-based interviews are a form of qualitative research that gains knowledge through
an inductive-deductive approach, generating theory from both existing theories and openness
towards subjective insights. During the data collection phase, previous knowledge and assumptions
serve as heuristic-analytical framework to design questions and create a dialogue between the
interviewer and the respondent. The problem-based interview was also seen as a suitable method to
collect information on youth unemployment in Jamaica. The researcher was inspired by previous
knowledge on the economic situation of many young people in Jamaica. The researcher also had
information on labor market indicators and youth employment programs. Hence, interviews were
held in institutions that work on government level to enable youth finding employment. These
institutions were namely the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ), the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the International Labour Office Jamaica (ILOJ). They were chosen due to
their officials level of expertise and experience which was considered to allow a fruitful dialogue
with the respondent.
In problem-based interviews, the respondent is considered the expert for his view and interpretation
of reality. The interviewer tries to learn about these views during the conversation. For this, the
interviewer usually follows a structured guideline to ask questions. Starting out with an opening
question that aims at setting the focus on the problem field the respondent is encouraged to share
his experience and individual opinion on the problem. The opening question in the interviews with
the abovementioned Jamaican institutions was: From what kind of context are youth that
participate in your program? The interviewer then acted as an active listener, asked questions to
clarify statements that were not understood, or returned to a set of standardized questions that
were used as reference and comparison in other interviews. Some of these standardized questions
were: What are some of the challenges that young Jamaicans face when searching a job?, From
your experience, do you think that programs address the needs in the communities?, or How can
policy makers improve in identifying needs on the ground? Tools for conserving the obtained
information were notes being taken during the interview, audio recording and post-interview
minutes, so-called postscripts (Witzel, 2000). The evaluation of the information as well as the analysis
of the data is a highly time-consuming and arduous task. Full transcripts of the interviews can be
found in the annex. Transcripts are used to highlight points made during the interview that refer to
particular pre-assumptions. Additionally, they help to reveal new aspects, terms and impressions that
make it possible to develop further categories applicable for research. This was also the case with
interviews conducted during research in Jamaica. Categories that came to attention during
interviews were such as literacy and failed tests as entrance barriers to working life as well as
METHODOLOGY
institutional shortcomings, when government programs only prepared young people to become
employees instead of employers.
The objective of problem-based interviews is to examine individual concepts of reality and factors
that define meaning. It seeks to learn about subjective interpretations of social processes and
explanations for correlations in human behavior. The researcher tries to allocate single aspects of
narratives and to classify them according to known patterns for interpretation. While conducting the
interview, the researcher draws from these kinds of known patterns to formulate targeted questions
and to search for phenomena that might complement or expand them. Narrative elements, in
particular, allow to retain openness and to discover relevant issues during the research or to alter
pre-assumptions or known patterns (Witzel, 2000). Theory then emerges from conceptualizing and
building a hypothesis based on empirical data. This strategy ensures that the researcher is not biased
by his or her own understanding of the problem but stays flexible to the subject-matter. Referring to
the above-mentioned example, the interview with Ms. Sherrian Gray, Technical Specialist on Youth
and Social Transformation in the PIOJs Community Renewal Programme, revealed that challenges
for Jamaican youths to find employment were were of social, institutional and economic nature. It
induced the researcher to divide aspects of challenges into three categories which lead to the
structure of this thesis.
Primary and Secondary Literature
The subject of youth unemployment has not yet been discussed very much in academia. Literature is
limited and studies often focus on individual aspects of societal issues or economic events that lead
to unemployment as a result rather than referring to a broader theoretical debate or discussing
synergies between different academic disciplines. However, since the global economic crisis
researchers have drawn more attention to the phenomenon of youth unemployment and possible
consequences for development. Governments and international organizations have commissioned
teams of experts to analyze the situation of youth in order to reform and design new youth
employment policies. In the specific case of Jamaica there was surprisingly much literature available
that addressed social, institutional and economic problems affecting young Jamaicans and their
employability, though without elaborating on their interrelations. Already in 2002, National Centre
for Youth Development and the Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture in Jamaica had conducted
an study on Youth in Jamaica: Meeting Their Development Need and in 2006 Kerr, Bailey and Knight
analyzed The Transition of Jamaican Youth to the World of Work.
Since the main interest for research in this thesis was to understand factors that deter Jamaican
youth to find decent work, much emphasis was laid on empirical data and primary literature. With
the objective to explore causes for youth unemployment on the basis of concrete numbers, events
METHODOLOGY
and activities, knowledge was gained through reports, surveys and information generated by people
that directly work on the matter of attention. Some of the primary literature that was used to collect
information on the employment situation of youth in Jamaica was the Final Report of the Jamaica
National Youth Survey 2010, which was published by the Government of Jamaica and the InterAmerican Development Bank in 2011. Furthermore, the Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2010 by
the Planning Institute of Jamaica and the Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2009 by the Statistical
Institute of Jamaica and Planning Institute of Jamaica were a source of research for this thesis.
Empirical findings drawn from primary literature then were supplemented by secondary literature,
hence, studies that had analyzed, interpreted and combined primary information with other sources.
Here, the researcher had to collect many different pieces of literature each relevant to another
aspect of youth unemployment. Even though, secondary literature could be found that highlighted
multiple determinants of youth unemployment in Jamaica, none of it sufficiently covered the broad
scope of social, institutional and economic concepts at once. Chevannes (2002) What You Sow Is
What You Reap: Violence and the Construction of Male Identity in Jamaica for example helped to
analyze consequences of gender identity as regards to youth unemployment in Jamaica and Leslies
(2010) Confronting the Don: The Political Economy of Gang Violence in Jamaica was used to explain
some of the security issues causing challenges to youth employment. Against the background of
institutional concepts Tindigarukayos and
Chadwicks (1996) Civil Service Reform in Jamaica
illustrated efforts to modernize Jamaicas public sector and literature on Economic Returns to
Investment in Education by the World Bank shed light on public expenditure for the educational
system. Economic concepts were clarified through Johnstons and Montecinos (2011) Jamaica:
Macroeconomic Policy, Debt and the IMF as well as Haas (2007) study on Remittances, Migration
and Social Development. Useful literature to embed the topic into a more global discussion was
delivered through the UNDPs (2012) Caribbean Human Development Report 2012 and the ILOs
(2010) Global Employment Trends for Youth: Special issue on the impact of the global economic crisis
on youth.
Primary and secondary literature played a crucial role for the analysis part of this thesis. With
empirical data and findings from existing studies and assessments it was possible to examine the
various challenges that make it difficult for young Jamaicans to find employment. What is unique in
this thesis, however, is the approach to cover such a broad scope of concepts and crosscutting issues.
Therefore, the present thesis is an additional contribution to existing literature and adds interesting
findings to the academic work concerned with youth unemployment.
10
METHODOLOGY
Case Study
This thesis is designed in form of a case study in order to gain a deeper understanding of the
different determinants of youth unemployment in Jamaica. According to the World Bank definition,
[a] case study is a method for learning about a complex instance, based on a comprehensive
understanding of that instance obtained through extensive description and analysis of that instance
taken as a whole and in its context (Morra/Friedlander, 2009:1). Such an instance can either be a
function, a project, a policy, a site, an event or a region. The basic characteristic of a case study is an
in-depth inquiry that requires the diligent collection of information. Especially in social science this
method of qualitative research is a common tool to observe real-life situations, draw conclusions and
consequently broaden the scope of methods. Hence, the use of a case study in this thesis works well
with the approach of qualitative research and Grounded Theory.
The instance that is at the core of attention in this thesis is the phenomenon of youth
unemployment in Jamaica. With the collection of qualitative data and the discussion of root causes
for youth unemployment within the different thematic areas as well as defining actors and
capacities, the author analyzes the phenomenon as a whole and in its context. This process is
inspired by Robert K. Yins work which describes case study as a holistic approach investigating the
real-life context of a contemporary phenomenon. He points out that boundaries between a
particular phenomenon and its context are not always clear and that multiple sources can be used to
give evidence (Yin, 1984:23). This justifies the approach to examine three thematic areas, according
concepts and the discussion of their interrelations. Boundaries between societal and institutional
issues for example are unclear regarding gender identity and the effectiveness of the educational
system. Young male Jamaicans often have more difficulties finding employment due to certain
expectations concerning their role and behavior. The educational system does not address this
phenomenon and hence does not deliver appropriate training to improve young males
employability. The close observation of this real-life situation helps to expand the researchers own
knowledge on mechanisms, processes and power relations. By discovering specific experiences and
contextual dependents regarding youth unemployment in Jamaica, it is possible to gain a more
nuanced idea about reality and identify possible causes why youth unemployment remains high
despite years of government programs.
2. Considerations on Sources and Limitations of Study

This thesis is an empirical study which relies on different methods of collecting data. Consequently,
the outcomes can be subjective, inaccurate or biased. Thus, it is necessary to elaborate on data
credibility and means of measuring reality.
11
METHODOLOGY
Critics of qualitative research and problem-based interviews claim that findings are not built upon
evidence-based facts. Evidence-based facts are gained through experimental methodologies,
randomized control trials, and other forms of mostly quantitative investigations (Denzin/Giardina,
2010:12). In quantitative research, reliability of data is ensured through similar results achieved by
multiple researchers. These results are based on universal indicators and produced in an identical
study process. The quest for universality, reached through such standardized testing procedures, is
not the main objective in qualitative research. The researcher as well as the research participant are
rather seen as unique identities whose individual position becomes an integral part of the study
process. Biases are expected, subjective notions identified and reflexivity purposefully applied while
collecting, analyzing and interpreting data (Miller, 2008). The qualitative and problem-based
approach is not only critical towards the politics of evidence it is also more flexible to relate to
concerns of cultural context. Denzin and Giardina point out that the question of evidence is
a question of who has the power to control the definition of evidence, of who defines
the kinds of materials that count as evidence, of who determines what methods best
produce the best forms of evidence, and of whose criteria and standards are ultimately
used to evaluate quality evidence. (Denzin/Giardina, 2010:12)
Experience from research in Jamaica has shown that methods that the researcher expected to
produce the best form of evidence did not lead to desired results due to cultural matters. The survey
conducted among students of the Kings Gate Skills Trainings Centre and was intended to shed light
on personal experiences of youth as regards to their social background, their job search behavior and
their prospects for the future. However, the researcher found out that students came to the training
institution 30-60 minutes late, if at all which resulted in a very poor sample of 16 returned
questionnaires which cannot be considered representative. Additionally, a great number of students
also did not fill in correctly the sections designed as multiple-answer matrixes. The researcher
concluded that students were not familiar with that type of questioning or that the task was not
explained clearly enough. This experience illustrates that criteria and standards used to evaluate
quality evidence were not practicable in that particular cultural context. For the research of this
thesis, problem-based interviews have proven to be the most fruitful method to collect information
on youth unemployment in Jamaica.
Interviews and the questionnaire were conducted at the beginning of the research phase. That way it
was possible to gain a broad picture of possible determinants for youth unemployment in Jamaica.
Further empirical results were found in primary and secondary sources. The scope of information
available was massive. It presented a challenge in terms of keeping the focus on the research topic or
finding the right information when it was needed.
12
METHODOLOGY
It becomes increasingly difficult, in fact, to find the information that one needs, when
one needs it, to the extent that one needs it and in the appropriate form. Although the
information may be stored somewhere, all too often one does not know where; and
even when one is aware of how to find the information, it is often accompanied by
further information irrelevant to ones purposes. And when information is available, it is
often forthcoming in the wrong form, or else its meaning is not explicitly apparent
(Poli/Seibt, 2010:vii).
The amount of information, especially as regards to empirical data, also revealed that there are many
more determinants of youth unemployment that could not be taken into consideration in this thesis.
Examples for such additional determinants are differences between rural and urban areas, the
informal labor market and communication problems among government institutions and
organizations working on youth employment issues. Due to constraints in time and pages the author
was constrained to display a larger number of challenges for youth employment or to explain
particular phenomena further in depth. This resulted in a more general discussion of corresponding
concepts.
The last notion should be on reliability of data. The overall endeavor was to use data from
government institutions and credible international organizations. However, some information was
outdated or was not congruent with other sources. Additionally, webpages failed to open or did not
allow access. Facing such obstacles the researcher consulted different sources for the same question
to gain a result that is as unbiased as possible. Even though the researcher went to Jamaica to get
information on the spot, it was not possible to verify all conclusions. However, these challenges
reflect difficulties that other researchers and practitioners encounter when performing their work.
13
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This section describes the conceptual framework in which the analysis of youth unemployment in
Jamaica is embedded. Our thinking is constituted by a certain framework of ideas, concepts and
theories that underlie and shape contemporary debates. They influence our beliefs, world views and
acceptance of knowledge (Grayling, 2010:viii). If several parties share the same view on a particular
specification, a conceptualization is given.
A body of formally represented knowledge is based on conceptualization: the objectives,
concepts, and other entities that are assumed to exist in some area of interest and the
relationships that hold among them. A conceptualization is an abstract, simplified view of
the world that we wish to represent for some purpose. Every knowledge base,
knowledge-based
system,
or
knowledge-level
agent
is
committed
to
some
conceptualization, explicitly implicitly. (Staab/Studer, 2003:3)

Lacking consensus on specifications of certain phenomena, individual views could lead to
unconscious assumptions about entities and their general categories and relations. Having said this,
it is essential to specify the concept of youth unemployment as well as the concepts that lay the
ground for the three different thematic areas.
1. Youth Unemployment
Unemployment as concept is part of the greater discussion on economic activity of a nation. Classical
economists see the labor market functioning with perfect competition where supply and demand of
labor achieve on-going equilibrium. On the contrary, Keynesians claim that the labor market can be
stuck in situations of disequilibrium for long period (Cahuc/Zylberberg, 2001:444). Governments
should intervene and manage to aggregate demand through stabilization policies such as
compensation for income effects. However, if wages do not display some nominal rigidity (that is,
stability of wages before adjustment of price changes) such stabilization policies rather cause
inflation to rise. If then real wages then display rigidity (that is, stability of wages after adjustment to
price changes) the result is unemployment (ibid). More recent schools note that additional factors
exist which cause unemployment, such as information asymmetries or costs for job search.
Unemployment evolves in very different ways and strikes nations in different proportions. It depends
on the structural capacity or incapacity of a country to create jobs, changes in the labor force or
changes in the rate of participation. As regards to less developed countries, some scholars identified
underdevelopment as a source of unemployment. However, examples of rapid economic growth and
persisting high levels of unemployment give evidence that development cannot be the only
determinant for fewer job opportunities. In fact, there is the widespread tendency to underestimate
the importance of social objectives in development assistance and the mistaken belief that economic
growth would on its own generate employment (Morse, 1970:2). Therefore, the multi-perspective
approach in this thesis does not only analyze economic causes for youth unemployment in Jamaica
but also social and institutional.
2. Social Concepts
Social concepts refer to a very broad range of concepts that relate to society as a whole, for example
the structure of society or social interactions. For this analysis two working concepts have been
selected which are Identity and Capacity Development.
Identity is a concept relevant for youth unemployment because it embraces matters such as selfperception, roles in society and behavioral expectations. The Scottish philosopher, economist and
historian David Hume (1711-1776) refers to the human mind as system of different perceptions and
calls identity a certain highly specific substantive metaphysical view about the nature of the self or
subject of experience, together with a correlative epistemological claim about what can be known
about its nature (Strawson, 2011:43). It embraces certain characteristics that determine who or
what a person (or a thing) is and believes to be. Identity shapes attitudes and behavior and hence
plays a significant role whether or not young Jamaicans find employment. Since there are so many
different aspects of identity, the author decided to choose one form of identity that is the most
relevant for youth unemployment in Jamaica. It is gender identity. Gender identity, as distinguished
from actual biological sex, is a certain self-conception of being male or female. In every society labor
is divided according to a commonly accepted value system. In Jamaica this is done along gender lines.
Therefore, the concept is important to understand values, tasks and behavior that impacts young
Jamaicans ability to find employment or not.
The second concept is capacity development. According to the UNDP capacity development can be
seen as the process through which individuals, organizations and societies obtain, strengthen and
maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives over time (UNDP,
2009:3). Capacity development aims at enhancing sustainable change and development through
local resources. This means that the capacities of individuals, (community) groups and local
government institutions are strengthened in order to organize a system which fits for the particular
context and allows effectiveness and efficiency. Even though the UNDP definition of capacity
development also includes the aspect of reforming policies and institutions to achieve
transformation, in this analysis will focus mostly upon the capacity development of individuals. The
15
idea behind this focus is to examine what skills, knowledge and experiences young people have that
help them to develop and exercise their capabilities.
Institutional concepts used in this thesis refer to government activities and interventions that take
place in the setting of formal institutions. Institutional politics are viewed as the continuous struggle
for power (Gastel, 2005:4) in a rational organization aiming at efficient problem-solving. Webers
model bureaucracy gives an introducing idea of analytical tools that are from a formal, technical
point of view, the most rational (Weber in Gastel, 2005: 3) instruments to organize collective goals.
Dividing a system into different hierarchical levels and assigning clear roles, functions and
responsibilities to people are supposed to facilitate efficiency. However, from a practical approach
power is not static and cannot be concentrated in one particular place but is always interrelated with
definitions, defining powers and argumentations which are made to support definitions. This
influences outcomes of the system and the achievement of collective goals. Two working concepts
have been selected to analyze the outcomes of the educational system. They are: Effectiveness and
Budget.
Effectiveness in an institutional sense is a concept used to analyze outcomes of the educational
system in Jamaica. It explains the systems success to inform, teach and stimulate young people in
order to make them productive members of the labor force. Effectiveness is the result of certain
strategies and processes that lead to the accomplishment of a particular operational goal. Most
expected outcomes will relate to the extent a unit is meeting its key operational objectives (Troy
University, 2010:2). Institutions conduct assessment to measure effectiveness and improve their
planning if the outcomes do not achieve set targets. Effectiveness involves outcomes in terms of
student learning, that means what students are learning and how students are learning. Another
aspect is the effectiveness of expenditure on education. Human Capital Theory claims that formal
education is highly instrumental and even necessary to improve the production capacity of a nation
(Olaniyan/ Okemakinde, 2008:157). Human Capital Theory bases its argumentation on the belief that
efficiency of workers can be increased by education. It justifies large public spending on education
which, however, does not always lead to achieving the operational goal.
The concept of budget discusses the amounts of money governments spend in order to sponsor
legislative control of the executive, macroeconomic stability, allocations to strategic priorities,
managerial efficiency (World Bank, 1998:1). To ensure sound budgeting, it requires
comprehensiveness and discipline, legitimacy, flexibility, predictability, contestability, honesty,
information as well as transparency and accountability is required (ibid). This means that decisions
16
taken in terms of budget should be in line with correlating policies and stability secured through
balanced short and long term expenditure. Financial management should be accurate, timely,
unbiased and open to improvements. In this analysis the main focus is on public expenditure on
education, meaning financial flows allocated for the purpose of education and training is a crucial
component for creating job opportunities for young people.
Economic concepts refer to a very broad range of concepts that relate to the economy as a whole,
for example economic activities of state and individuals, labor force, international trade, financing
and so forth. For this analysis two working concepts have been selected which are Public Debts and
Migration.
The concept of public debts refers to the option that the government is borrowing from private or
international creditors to compensate fiscal deficits. As a financial intermediary the government
borrows funds (which increase its gross financial liabilities) in order to make loans to both individuals
(e.g. mortgages) and institutions (e.g. investment loans for regional development) (Chouraqui, J-C./
Jones, B./ Montador, R.B, unknown:105). In most discussions, public debt is measured in gross debt
which is due to the fact that data corresponding to public debt is easier to access and more available.
Also, there is a more direct link to debt servicing and debt service payments which are especially
interesting when analyzing youth unemployment in Jamaica. In this analysis the concept of public
debt is used assuming that the government can influence economic development as regards to
promoting or deterring economic growth with fiscal policies.
In terms of economic theory, it is widely accepted that at moderate levels of public
debt, fiscal policy may induce economic growth, with a typical Keynesian behaviour,
but at high public debt levels, the expected tax increases will reduce the positive
results of public spending, decreasing the investment and consumption expenses,
with less employment and lower GDP growth rates (Ferreira, 2009:2).
Public expenditure can increase productivity. However, it is important to implement fiscal constraints
for public borrowing in order to keep an optimal debt-to-GDP ratio, since over-borrowing would
translate into lower growth and welfare. The economic, institutional and political environment
influences the effectiveness of public spending for promoting growth and the capacity of the
government to raise tax revenue or borrow to finance public goods while minimizing the cost to
economic growth (Aizenman/ Kletzer/ Pinto, 2007:1).
17
Migration is a concept that belongs to the group of demographic phenomena. It refers to place of
residents and human movements to other places of residence. Very generally, among all human
movements, we can define those of migration as one or more movements resulting in the change of
place of abode of an individual (UN Statistical Commission/EUROSTAT, 2011:1). It considers two
dimensions which are time and space. Time is seen as the duration of stay at one place or the time
spent until reaching the ne place of residence. Space refers to this place of residence. Migration can
be internal which means that people move to other places within the same country. International
movements involve changes of place across national borders. Migration occurs in a migration system
which is defined as spatially clustered flows and counterflows of people, goods and remittances
between a particular community of origin and a particular destination (Haas, 2007:12). In this
analysis, the focus will be on international migration rather than on internal migration.
18
CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND
The following chapter is intended to provide the reader with some background information that will
become relevant for the analysis. It aims at justifying the choice of attention and describes the
motivation for this thesis. Further, various definitions that refer to the subject of employment and
are most prevalent in labor economics will be explained. This will serve to clarify the use of particular
terms later in the analysis and to ensure that the reader and the writer have a common
understanding of things. Examples from the Jamaican setting will help to illustrate these definitions
and at the same time they will introduce the reader to the youth employment situation in the
country.
1. Why focus on Youth?

The UN considers young people to possess important perspectives and opinions (DESA, 2011) and
acknowledges that young people should be able to participate and play a vital role in social and
economic development with their talents and youthful enthusiasm (Kerr/Bailey/Knight, 2006: xi).
In Jamaica as well, young people are seen as key agents for social change, economic development,
and technological innovation and [they] are a major human resource for development
(NCYD/MOEC, 2002: 6) as well. It is clear that young people in particular strive for self-improvement
and are creative in finding ways to develop their own potential or to get involved within their
environment. Young people are motivated to participate in global debates on social, political and
economic issues, they engage in individual or group actions to form the fabric of their society. They
exploit the internet to gain greater knowledge, advance their own skills or communicate with other
like-minded people. Youths also contribute in volunteer activities in order to give something back to
their communities, they travel and migrate to learn more about the world or find better options
outside their country, and they are willing to take risks, leave family and friends or speak out their
opinion when it comes to building the future.
The period of youth is a time of growing into adulthood and a transition from childhood to an
independent life. They start earning their own subsistence and become productive members of a
countrys labor force. When young people enter the world of work for the first time in their lives they
are often confronted with hard realities of the labor market: lack of open positions, competition
among multiple applicants for a job, and work situations that change as a result from external
influence. Young people usually lack work experience and are therefore less marketable for
employers. Additionally, young employees have fewer firm-specific skills and need to familiarize
themselves with work procedures. Further, young people are more vulnerable to be last in, first
outs. Last in means that youth usually loose out when the number of open jobs is disproportionate
CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUNDINTRODUCTION
to the number of job seekers and when young applicants have to compete with more experienced
adults. First out means that for employers rather lay off young workers than older workers due to
higher costs that have already been invested in the latter. Also, young people often work on
temporary contracts. Hence, they are not covered by employment protection legislation and are
cheaper to release. Accordingly, youth seem to be trapped in a vicious circle which complicates their
job search: no work experience means no job and no job means no work experience (ILO, 2010:19).
Another reason why youth in particular face more difficulties when entering the labor market is their
insufficient access to information and means. Information can either be in form of adequate
knowledge where to search employment as well as the ability to rely on a broad social network
useful for finding a job. Additionally, some financial buffer or provision is necessary to cover
expenses during job search. Young people, who tend to have fewer financial means than adults,
often rely on the support of their family. However, if young job seekers do not have such a
supportive network, these young people cannot afford to be unemployed for a long time. This is
especially the case when social protection mechanisms such as unemployment benefits are
insufficient in a country. As a result, they are willing to take up any job that becomes available and
are more likely to accept work regardless of whether or not this work fits their education, matches
their skills or is experienced as satisfying work.
Young people who are unsatisfied with their employment situation, who work under inadequate
conditions or give up on the job search can feel discouraged, useless and idle. This does not only
incur costs to the economy and society, but also affects youth with psychological outcomes: A lack
of decent work, if experienced at an early age, threatens to compromise a persons future
employment prospects and frequently leads to unsuitable labour behaviour patterns that last a
lifetime (ILO, 2010:6). Discouraged young people are underutilized resources for the labor market
and valuable potential being lost for economic development. Moreover, discouragement among
youth can trigger mental and health problems as well as crime, violence, conflicts and drug taking.
Hence, high youth unemployment can contribute to weaker economic performance or social or
political instability.
Many governments design policies and programs that aim at optimizing the potential of youth.
Through targeted initiatives governments can create an enabling environment for young people and
increase their opportunities to find decent employment. This in return will be beneficial for a
country, as the Youth Employment Network points out:
Accordingly, focusing and investing in youth entails not only a productive use of the labor
force but also valuable long-term social gains. From an economic point of view,
20
investment in youth employment has the potential of boosting savings and aggregate
demand while ensuring sustainability of social security systems. It is therefore a costeffective policy for governments and societies alike. (YEN, 2011:10).
After having explained the importance of focusing on youth unemployment, it is now essential to
clarify issue-related definitions and general terms. This will be undertaken in the following section.
2. Situational Background and Definitions

Jamaica is a small island nation situated in the Caribbean Sea with a land area of 10,991 km2 (CIA,
2012). It has been inhabited since 4000 BC, first by Taino Indians who had arrived from present-day
Venezuela and Guyana. After Christopher Columbus landed on the island in 1494, the Spanish settled
there in the early 16th century. In 1655, the British seized the country and Jamaica became a colony
under British rule. Jamaica gained independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962 but
remained a member of the Commonwealth. Today, it is a sovereign constitutional parliamentary
democracy. At the end of 2010, Jamaicas population was estimated at 2 705 800 with a population
growth rate of 0.3 percent (PIOJ,
2011:20.2).
increased
Life
expectancy
significantly
improvements
of
Box 1: Jamaica map
has
due
to
livelihoods
and
public health, showing an average of

72.2 years between the 2006 and
2008 (PIOJ, 2011:20.8). Kingston is the
capital and the largest city in Jamaica.
With a Gross National Income of US$
4,800 per capita (in 2010) Jamaica is
classified as an Upper Middle Income
country by the World Bank (World
Bank, 2012a). Its most important
economic sectors are services (mainly
Source: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 2012
tourism), industry and agriculture. Remittances and the export of bauxite/ alumina also contribute
significantly to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) which had grown by an average of 1.3 percent per
annum between 1999 and 2004 (Kerr/Bailey/Knight, 2006:1). These positive trends decelerated after
the global economic crisis and Jamaicas economy contracted by an accumulated 5.1 per cent since
2008 (PIOJ, 2011:5.1). The downturn following the global economic crisis also affected domestic
economic activity and led to a decline of employed labor force by 2.7 percent in 2010 (PIOJ,
21
2011:21.1). Employed labor force of youth between 14-24 years of age1 decreased in real terms from
636,200 in October 2009 to 620,200 in October 2010 (PIOJ, 2011:21.3).
At this point, it becomes essential to elaborate on labor related definitions in order to embed the
issue of youth unemployment in Jamaica into the more general field of labor economics and to
create a common understanding of terms used in the analysis. The author relies on definitions
provided by the International Labour Organization (ILO). Labor economics studies dynamics and
activities in the labor market. The labor market can be defined as a market in which labour services
are exchanged for wages (Sand, 2009:2). Labor is the work done by human beings. It is one of the
three major productive inputs to an economy apart from natural resources or capital. Labor is
exchanged at a certain price and amount and it is determined by various decision makers. One
interesting phenomenon that occurs most notably in developing economies is the existence of an
informal labor market apart from the formal labor market. Here, workers often are not covered by
social insurance schemes, work under indecent labor conditions and earn significantly less than
workers in the formal labor market. Additionally, labor produced in the informal sector does not
contribute to the GDP of one country and therefore impedes development. Even though the informal
labor market plays a crucial role for Jamaicas economy, it will be disregarded further in the analysis.
It would simply exceed the realm of this thesis which could not capture complexities of the informal
labor market satisfactorily.
Market production is achieved through the workforce in a particular region, the so-called labor force.
The labor force comprises all individuals within the population of a country that have reached a
working-age (15 and above) and are active persons in the labor market. They can be either
employed or unemployed. In contrast, there are also inactive persons in the labor market. These are
the ones either discouraged, in school, or unavailable for the labor market for other reasons (YEN,
2011a:14). Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of population by activity in the labor market as regards
to youth. Definitions of activities are clarified in the following:
Employed and unemployed young people are both part of the labor force, hence considered
active and able or available for work during a specific reference period. Employed youths work for
pay or for profit. Young people who are on a temporary leave due to illness, holiday or training are
still considered employed. Additionally, youth are considered employed when they work at least one
hour as unpaid family workers for example in agriculture or another business. Last but not least,
working students and young people in the army also belong to the group of employed. Unemployed
youth do not have a job, but they are seeking to have one and take active steps to find employment.
In the groups of inactive parts of the labor force there are youth who do neither work nor study, nor
1
Please note that this source does not follow the UNs definition of youth being at the age 15-24 years.
22
actively search a job. These young people are categorized as discouraged. Discouraged youth are
hard to measure because they are often unknown to job centers even though they would be able
and available for work. In that sense, they are unutilized resources for the labor market. Young
people that are enrolled in full-time education are defined as In School. They do not work and also
do not look for a job, except when they work part-time in addition to their school curricula. The last
category is youths inactive for
other
reasons.
They
Figure 2: Distribution of youth by activity in the labor market
are
neither students, nor working,

nor searching a job. Reasons for
economic inactivity can be a
chronic illness (or disabilities),
housework or the reception of
income from other sources
than pay (YEN, 2011a:14f).
Distribution
of
youth
by
primary activity is one of the

indicators that are used to map
the situation of youth in the
Source: YEN, Benchmarks for Youth Employment 2010, P.14.
labor market. Another indicator is the youth unemployment rate. The youth unemployment rate
measures the inability of an economy to generate employment for young persons who are not
employed but are available and actively seeking work (YEN, 2011a:12). At the beginning of research,
the youth unemployment rate presented noticeable indices for malfunctions in the Jamaican context
and showed that government had failed to generate employment for young people. It motivated the
researcher to examine determinants impeding successful integration of young people into the labor
market and re-occurs in various sections of the thesis. Educational attainment is an indicator that is
important, especially in the section on institutional concepts. Here, the analysis will strongly focus on
the educational system and youth engaging in school and further training. Hence, the indicator,
describing the proportion of young people and their levels of educational achievement, will help to
provide insights on whether or not young people are prepared for the labor market. The last
indicator that is relevant for this thesis is Youth Employment by Sector. It shows the distribution of
youth across the three major sectors of economy, namely agriculture, industry and services. Since
the service sector is an important driver of Jamaicas economy, this indicator is an appropriate tool to
highlight shortcomings in job opportunities or potential that is being exploited in this sector.
23
ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

The following chapter offers an analysis on causalities and capacities that influence the employment
situation of youth in Jamaica. The chapter is divided into three thematic areas (social, institutional
and economic) those areas which were also selected as working concepts.
1. Social Concepts
The first thematic area focuses on social root causes and capacities as regards to youth
unemployment in Jamaica. Jamaica is a country with a great diversity of people. Throughout history,
people from all different continents came to work on the island. This was partly due to the Spanish
settlement, British rule or slave trade which brought thousands of West Africans to Jamaica between
the 17th and 19th century. Today, Jamaicas society is influenced by this multitude of different cultural
origins. 90.9 percent of Jamaicans are of African origin, 1.3 percent has their roots in East India, 0.2
percent in China, 0.2 percent is White, and 7.3 percent are mixes races. 0.1 percent has other
ancestors (CIA World Factbook, 2012). The existence of so many facets in the composition of society
raises the question of how different groups define themselves. What values and experiences shape
them? This is a question of identity and how certain understandings influence individuals and affect
their behavior within society. The Common Country Assessment 2006-2010 (CCA) by the
Government of Jamaica (GOJ) and the United Nations (UN) in 2006 notices that the absence of an
overarching national vision (UN/GOJ, unknown:58) has led to a more individual-based value system.
Particularly young people are challenged by the deterioration of a supportive environment based on
a traditional agrarian social system. Values such as family or community have changed as a result of
foreign penetration. Originally, the family or community played a crucial role in forming ones
identity and they contributed to the socialization process. With growing influence of external forces
in Jamaica, starting from colonization to todays globalization, the impact of traditional institutions
was weakened and society changed towards a more individual-oriented culture. This change of
values can be seen in the rise of a lower versus higher class mentality, and in the discrimination of
certain groups or giving special privileges to other groups.
Change of values is also is visible when looking at increasing single parent households, decreasing
abilities to solve inter-personal conflicts and in growing violence within or among communities. The
CCA shows that young persons are more likely to indulge in anti-social and aggressive behaviours,
which may convert to criminal actions (ibid:58). One of the consequences of such anti-social and
criminal behavior among young persons is unemployment. Especially young male Jamaicans, who
often are encouraged to develop income-generating skills, leave school early to go working or get
involved with gang activities and criminal actions. As a result of their poor education or lacking

technical skills they are pushed into the informal sector which may lead to underemployment or
unsustainable work arrangements. Additionally, many young Jamaican males simply do not regard
education as a possible way to reach a desired goal (ibid: 27). Instead, they are prone to the concept
of manliness which persists in Jamaica and imposes social pressure on young males to be tough.
This sheds light on the issue of gender socialization and gender identity in Jamaica which also affects
the employment situation of young females. By attributing specific roles to men and women, the
gender division in Jamaica leads to a lower social status of women and weakens their power base in
society. As a result, women suffer from higher rates of poverty and unemployment and are often
exposed to domestic violence. (ibid:76) Even though young females Jamaicans perform better at
school than young males, they have fewer opportunities as regards to finding a job after
accomplishing education.
Such elements of culture create problems as regards to security of person or security within
communities. Communities, weakened by change of values and unstable institutions for socialization,
are unable to protect its citizens or build a protective environment in which young people can
develop prosperous employability. Consequently, the atmosphere of fear and aggravation that
occurs in some Jamaican communities makes it difficult for individuals to advance and develop their
full potential and eventually have access to freely chosen and satisfying employment. The existence
of a safe and supporting environment, which provides such opportunities, is determined by another
important factor: Human capacity development. Human capacity development is relevant for the
question of youth unemployment in Jamaica as it refers to empowering young people from an early
age on and teaching them lifelong learning skills. Skills such as logical reasoning, critical thinking,
problem-solving or simply the understanding of human rights issues are necessary to build a stable
foundation for future employment (ibid:81). It is strongly interrelated with economic concepts
because the ability to develop human capacity often depends on ones economic background. Poor
young people tend to have fewer opportunities to acquire adequate skills to adapt to the
requirements of the labor market than from wealthy families.
Selected Challenges for Youth Employment
Based on this situation of Jamaicas social context, two major challenges for youth employment have
been identified and were selected as working concepts to be used in the causal and capacity analysis
below. These selected challenges are:
Identity
Capacity Development
25

Causal & Capacity Gap Analysis
IDENTITY is an important part of young peoples socialization process. Their self-conception will
determine attitudes and behavior, motivation and confidence. Especially the understanding of
oneself in terms of gender identity influences future employment prospects for youth in Jamaican
society. Young Jamaicans grow up and are socialized in an environment where the division of gender
is traditionally used to assign clear tasks to male and female individuals and to regulate activities in
household and society. Articulated through certain forms of stereotyping young people absorb the
value of gender division and use it to construct the foundation of their own behavior. This behavior
will affect their performance within communities as well as in school. It has consequences for
whether they will succeed or fail in finding employment. The CCA explores impacts of gender issues
in Jamaicas society and the cultural context in which they occur. The CCA states that gender issues
are relevant for young people as For young men it manifests in direct relation to their crews/peers
where there is strong social influence to adopt certain competitive and negative gender roles and
sexual behaviours. For young and older women sex is often seen as a possibility for profitable
material exchanges (UN/GOJ, unknown:75). Therefore, one can say that young people are
influenced by their immediate surroundings, by peer groups and by people who they regularly
interact with.
As described above the value of family and the supportive environment of cohesive communities in
Jamaica have been transforming towards a more individual-based culture which has weakened
traditional institutions of socialization. This is supported by the Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions
(JSLC) which shows an overall decline in household size and a steady increase of single-persons
households. In 2009, 24.0 percent of the survey sample indicated to live in a single-person household
compared to 21.1 percent in 1992. The mean number of children in one household declined from 1.2
to 1.0 in 2000 and 2009 respectively (STATIN/ PIOJ, 2010:1.4). Additionally, the JSLC reveals that
especially female-headed households, which made up 45.5 percent in 2009, were in absence of a
partner, 58.0 percent of those female-headed households belonged to the category No Man, With
Children (ibid:1.6). These numbers give evidence to the breakdown and diminishing role of the
extended family. Households with multi-visiting partner may be the consequence, creating unstable
living arrangements for youth. This breakdown strongly influences how self-perception, roles in
society and behavioral expectations are shaped. Young people tend to model behavior and create
identities and definitions of their self from certain youth subcultures and peer groups. This can lead
to criminal and violent behavior, especially in poorer communities where dysfunctional family
settings occur. For young male Jamaicans who grow up in household lacking good role models, these
young men seek guidance and positive feelings about themselves in other places. Here, so-called
Dons play a crucial role in Jamaicas local communities. Dons are the main figures controlling street
26

gangs and their activities. Usually they are drug lords, gun traders and gang leaders. Most of the
times, they are characterized by great levels of respect and power particularly within poor and/or
inner-city communities. Young male Jamaicans who are driven by the desire to be respected and to
attract women are motivated to join gangs because this gives them the chance to have access to
money -often through illegal activities such as drug trade or robbery. Gang membership also gives
them the opportunity to obtain weapons, which are considered a symbol of protection, and the
consequently rise in status and popularity. Additionally, gangs give young people structure,
guidelines for behavior, symbols to relate to and forms of identification. Since every gang is
characterized by a common objective (mostly committing criminal acts), an identified name, leader
and visible markings, they offer youth a feeling of belonging and friendship. Studies have observed
that Initial motivations for gang membership revolve around identity, belonging, and participation in
a range of group activities that at times include gang activities (Leslie, 2010: 23f).
The form of socialization that young people experience impacts their attitudes towards skill training
and consequently impacts their ability to find employment. Whether young people develop a
behavior that is beneficial to their employability or creates obstacles to enter the formal job market
can be analyzed with the indicator on educational attainment. This indicator gives evidence on how
many young people are enrolled in an educational institution as well as what type of institution they
are enrolled in. It also shows differences between male and female students in terms of educational
achievement. Various studies prove that young male Jamaicans underachieve at school and perform
are less successful than their female counterparts. Enrollment rates show a clear decline of males
consuming formal education at higher levels. Where males took a slightly larger share of enrollment
than females at primary school level, the reverse was true from the level of secondary school
onwards. According to the Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2010 (ESSJ), data for 2009/10
indicate a gross enrollment rate for public primary schools at 99.6 percent for boys and 99.5 percent
for girls. The gross enrollment rate is the ratio of number of persons enrolled at a specific school level
(not regarding their age) to the number of persons in the officially recognized age range for that level
(PIOJ, 2011:22.10).2 Attendance for the same time period was 83.9 for boys and 85.9 percent for
girls. At secondary school level (Grades 7-11) the gross enrollment rate for males was 91.8 percent
which was a more significant decrease than for females at 97.4 percent. The average daily
attendance at school at that level was estimated 78.6 percent for males and 83.4 percent for females
in 2009/10 (ibid:22.11ff). Enrollment at the tertiary level was 6.8 per cent for males and 8.3 percent
for females which clearly demonstrates the intensification of differing school performance by young
males and females in Jamaica (JSLC, 2009: 4.3). Data for the average daily attendance at tertiary level
are not available and hence cannot be presented. Figure 3 summarizes school enrollment and
2
Data on school attendance are taken from the JSLC and the Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture.
27

average daily attendance as regard to sex. Findings of the JSLC also reveal that a larger proportion of
males
(and
poor
students)
visit
three-year
Figure 3: School Enrollment and Attendance by Sex in %, 2009/2010
schools
instead of five-year
schools
at
secondary
the
level
(ibid: 4.4). Learning

from these figures
one resumes that
young
Jamaican
males
are
more
likely
to
lack
qualification
and
adequate
school education in
order to successfully
enter
the
Source: PIOJ, Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2010, p. 22.10 and Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions
2009, p. 4.3.
formal
labor market. The CCA identifies male under-achievement in education as a matter of gender
socialization. In Jamaican culture men are expected to be the provider of the family and they are
responsible for affairs outside the domestic sphere. Drawing from the traditional association of
mens work as to be heavy and physically demanding work the concept of gender identity enforces
the expectation of males to be tough. Already from an early age on, boys, more than girls,
experience severe disciplinary practices, often executed with corporal punishment, in order to make
them strong enough (Chevannes, 2002:52). This form of socialization often confronts young male
Jamaicans with a lot of violence which they might translate into aggressive behavior themselves. In
combination with the abovementioned peer group socialization young males in Jamaica are likely to
believe that aggressive behavior leads to being respected and having identity. The correlation
between gender identity and male under-achievement at school finds support in the CCA which
states that Aggressive boys were more likely to have lower ambitions, lower verbal IQs, and lower
achievement scores (UN/GOJ, unknown:24). Lower ambitions and lower achievement scores mean
early drop-outs from school for many young males. Additionally, the gender specific expectation
from men to acquire income-generating skills induces young Jamaican males not to take education as
an option to obtain wealth and success. They rather drop out of school early to work in the informal
sector or participate in criminal activities such as enterprises based on trading narcotics, gun business
28

or acts of violence related to gang issues. Both these effects of gender-divided socialization in
Jamaicas changing values are root causes that minimize livelihood opportunities for young males as
well as their chances to successfully find employment. Hence, one of the root causes that trigger
youth unemployment in Jamaica is manliness because especially young men, with their behavior,
attitudes and knowledge, do not fulfill the requirements for regular jobs. They are more likely to drift
toward criminal activities.
For young women in Jamaica, however, the situation is different. Traditionally the womens role in
society and in a family context is to exert domestic work such as cooking, cleaning the house, child
care and the like (Chevannes, 2002:52). Many women have a low social status which means less
access to resources and a lower power base in society. They are more vulnerable to domestic
violence and sexual abuse which continues to be a commonly accepted practice in Jamaicas cultural
environment. Not always being viewed as a crime (UN/GOJ, unknown:76), the process to ally
domestic violence is slow. Endeavors aiming to develop a legislative framework to protect women
only advance gradually, and in many cases they remain victims of frequent crime and violence. Under
such circumstances and unequal gender relations young women have to assert themselves against
prevailing opinions. For them, empowerment is a crucial contributor to obtain better livelihood
opportunities and employment. Education can be one of the routes to gain greater independence in
a difficult environment. While young males are encouraged to fend for themselves, more attention
is given to the education of young females and to their acquisition of knowledge, values, and social
skills. Interestingly, If resources do not allow for the children to attend school all at the same time,
girls are given the advantage over boys (Chevannes, 2002:53). This seems to contradict experiences
from other developing or emerging countries where males are usually favored over females in terms
of school education. Jamaican statistics not only show higher school enrollment rates and greater
levels of average daily attendance among females but also indicate that young women are more
likely to continue their education on a tertiary level. However, higher enrollment rates for young
female Jamaicans do not necessarily translate into better opportunities to enter the formal labor
market. Oftentimes, the opposite is the case. Looking at the unemployment rate divided by gender,
one finds out that the unemployment rate for women all ages is lower than for young men.
According to the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN), in October 2011, the unemployment rates
for Jamaican males in the age cohort from 14-19 years and 20-24 years were estimated at 39.4
percent and 22.4 percent, respectively (STATIN, 2012). For Jamaican females in the same age cohort
and at the same point of time the estimated unemployment rates were 55.8 percent (ages 14-19)
and 33.4 percent (ages 20-24) (ibid). Here it is important to note that higher unemployment rates
among younger age cohorts occur due to their supposable school enrollment. Since young females
are more likely to be enrolled in education, there is a bias. Higher unemployment rates among
29

female youth are not necessarily due to fewer job opportunities but due to more girls going to
school. To support the argumentation that females in Jamaica suffer from higher unemployment
makes it necessary to look at total unemployment rates, not divided by age group. Here data shows
that almost twice as many women were unemployed compared to Jamaican men. In October 2011,
the total unemployment rate in Jamaica was 9.4 percent for males and 16.9 percent for females. The
difference is striking and it becomes clear that women in Jamaica face unemployment more often
than their male counterparts, despite better performance and achievements at school. Hence,
socialization along gender lines is identified as one of the root causes that determine unemployment
for youth in Jamaica. Influencing their identity in a significant way, gender socialization shapes the
opinions of what roles men and women should fulfill in society. According to those roles, young
women have fewer opportunities to work.
Having explained the idea of manliness and socialization along gender lines as root causes for youth
unemployment in Jamaica, the following paragraph discusses capacities, roles and actors. Families
have been recognized as the primary agents of socialization. Family structures are very culturally
driven. They are the smallest units in society which aim to create an enabling environment. Families
are responsible for assisting their youngsters to find their identity to become capable persons and to
develop particular behavior that will help them succeed in their search for employment. However,
families, especially from poor socio-economic communities face the challenge of limited capacity to
offer their offspring the kind of support which would be adequate for them to prosper. If they do not
succeed in creating a nurturing foundation of values, attitudes, knowledge and skills, young people
will face obstacles while trying to find employment later in life. Communities are similarly important
compared to families, though they cover a wider field of social interactions. Communities role is to
build and maintain a context where young people find guidance towards positive behavior such as
the ability to resolve interpersonal conflicts with peaceful means. Poor communities with low social
capital and cohesion are more threatened by gangs and other disrupting groups that destroy any
supportive environment and threaten citizens with crime and violence. Another group that can be
identified as important actor is the peer group. The peer group influence young Jamaicans in a very
direct way. Peer groups bear the potential to demonstrate strengthening support for youth. In peer
groups young people can develop their own identity and be prepared for future challenges such as
job search or successful entry into the labor market. However, peer groups such as gangs can also
have devastating effects on individuals lives in the long term, due to their criminal activities, drug
consumption or trade and violent assaults harming others. Further, schools which are also significant
actors in terms of preparing youth for the job market need to adapt curricula that are best suited for
young people and their living context. This is closely interrelated with issues of institutional concepts,
effectiveness and quality of teaching. If schools disregards socio-cultural circumstances and matters
30

of gender identity, they fail in their duty to teach young people necessary tools to succeed in the
labor market, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, taking own initiative and respect towards
others. The last capacity agent to be mentioned is cultural industry. In a variety of ways, young
people in Jamaica express themselves in forms of music, use visual arts to communicate their
concerns and they look up to successful DJs and artists. In that sense, cultural industry has an
enormous potential to reach young people, transport values and portray as well as shape identity.
Although data on the cultural industry is very limited and most of this sector takes place outside
formalized structures, it has experienced strong growth over the last 40 years (UN/GOJ, unknown:67)
and motivates young people to work for or create their own business. With its direct link to the
immediate environment of young people, cultural industry often has more authority in the informal
sphere than state actors. Hence, it offers opportunities on a local level to give young people
employment through entrepreneurial activities. Governments often underestimated that significant
role of cultural industries and do not appreciate culture and its potential to contribute to the
economy. There lies great potential to use that energy from young people to combat youth
unemployment in Jamaica. Until now, the government is not yet collaborating with the cultural
industry to a large extend, even though they could reach, inform, and sensitize young people through
that channel and within their surroundings. Cultural industry at times invokes traditional prejudices
and distorts identity by promoting values such as gangsterism and enforcing gender biases.
However, by understanding attitudes, values and behavior of youth and how they are shaped by
society, policy makers take an active role in building cultural industry an support youth to develop
their potential and escape the trap of unemployment. One of Jamaicas most valuable resources is its
cultural uniqueness and the ability of Jamaicans to shift, morph and change behaviour patterns as
seen fit to meet some particular needs (Burton, unknown:11). This flexibility and ability to adapt to
changing circumstances and new challenges is a great capacity which could serve to fight youth
unemployment in Jamaica because it offers possibilities to create new and better employment
opportunities.
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT, seen as the process to gain and strengthen capabilities and to reach
development objectives requires certain pre-conditions that allow individuals to acquire knowledge
and to apply new knowledge. In Jamaica, the pre-conditions for capacity development vary greatly
depending on what family context individuals come from. In poor socio-economic communities
where youth unemployment is highest, young people have fewer opportunities to develop their
capacities. In such communities one of the root causes that hamper capacity development is poverty.
In 2009, the national poverty line in Jamaica was 16.5 percent. As can be seen in Figure 4, this was an
increase by 4.2 percentage points, compared to the prior years when the poverty line was at 12.3
and 9.9 percent in 2008 and 2007, respectively (STATIN/ PIOJ, 2010:2.7). Reasons for this increase
31

after
years
of
general
Figure 4: Prevalence of Poverty by Region, in %, 2000-2009
decline of poverty can be

the results from the global
economic crisis. Rural areas
show the highest levels of
poverty
whereas
Other
Tows3 remained to record

the
lowest
levels
of
poverty. Poverty affects

capacity development in
many ways. It not only
limits resources to cover
the expenses for basic
Source: STATIN/ PIOJ, Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2009, p.2.7
needs such as nutrition, housing and health care, it also reduces the access to knowledge and the
possession of durable goods4 which might improve quality of life and facilitate daily chores. There are
different forms of poverty depending on region. Rural poverty often is related to communities living
mostly from agriculture production. Often, houses do not have access to adequate sanitation
systems or running water. Young people have to travel long distances to attend school, on average
9.5 km (ibid:4.6). This shows that their capacity development is depending on various external
factors. Young people may either have to help with the agricultural production as well as with
generating income and hence cannot acquire knowledge through the formal educational system.
Rather, they are expected to work either as unpaid family workers or as own account workers in
the informal sector. This situation diminishes their chances to gain new knowledge which could equip
them with skills to find new and innovative ways to decent employment and a self-determined life. In
poor urban communities the challenges for capacity development are different compared to those in
rural areas. In poor urban communities individuals are often burdened with tremendous levels of
stress such as high cost for housing or utilities, such as electricity, water or telephone. According to
the JSLC 2009, some of the housing-related expenses apportioned 58.4 percent of the entire
household consumption (STATIN/ PIOJ, 2010:V). Another factor causing stress and employment-
Other Towns are other major cities outside Kingston, not considered rural, such as Port Antonio or Ocho Rios
Some selected durable goods are: Gas Stove, TV Set, Refrigerator/Freezer, Portable Radio/Cassette/CD Player,
Fan, All Stereo Equipment, Washing Machine, Car/Other, Vehicle, Sewing Machine, Electric Water Heater n/Air
Conditioner, Electric Stove, Solar Water Heater.
4
32

complicating conditions is the prevalence of violence that often is a day-to-day reality in poor urban
communities. According to the UNDP Citizen Security Survey 2010, only 35.7 percent of Jamaicas
citizens felt secure living in their country. The rest of respondents indicated to feel insecure due to
crime (UNDP, 2012:19). By 2009, Jamaica recorded a significant increase in reported major crimes,
including robbery, breaking and entering, and larcenyincreases of 43, 85, and 115 per cent,
respectively (JCSFD quoted in Leslie, 2010: 6). Murder rates in Jamaica are some of the highest in
the world, with a homicide rate of 53 per 100,000 citizens in 2010 (PIOJ, 2011:24.4). Even though the
ESSJ 2010 observed a decline in all major crimes in the most volatile and vulnerable communities due
to social intervention programs targeted at at-risk youth, the number of young people involved in
crime is strikingly in those communities. The ESSJ reveals that 52.1 percent of those arrested in 2010
were 1625 years old (ibid:24.4). Interestingly, mostly young males are among those arrested for
crime, including those of the young age of 12. This again shows the interrelation between gender
identity and poverty. Table 1 gives an overview of persons in different age groups that were arrested
for selected major crimes. These major crimes are murder, shooting, robbery, breaking, larceny, and
Table 1: Age group and sex of persons
arrested for selected major crimes, 2010
Age group
Total
12-15
16-20
21-25
177
835
795
10
6
177
845
801
Source: PIOJ, Economic and Social Survey Jamaica, p. 24.5
carnal abuse. If young people do not feel safe in their

environment, their main concerns are about security
and ways to protect themselves, instead of engaging
in job search and sustainable employment. Poor
urban youths live in an environment where criminal
and violent activities restrict individuals freedom to
develop ones own capabilities and acquire new knowledge. They often do not have many
opportunities to develop skills that enable them to adequately handle stress or turn to persons or
institutions that could provide them with support. Such circumstances can lead to emotions such as
frustration and self-derogation as well as feelings of being powerless and excluded from mainstream
society. The CCA 2006-2010 explains consequences of such experiences and states that social
exclusion not only determines future employment perspectives for young people but also for future
generation:
Social Exclusion can also be transmitted across generations. Characteristics such as low
levels of education, teen pregnancy, spatial exclusion [], intermittent employment in
low-level occupations and poor housing conditions are often trenchant and affect
more than one generation of a family. Educational opportunity and outcomes is one
of the major contributing factors to social exclusion. Poor educational outcomes
often mean long-term underemployment or worklessness and decreased social mobility
(UN/GOJ, unknown:54f).
33

The ability to face problems with adequate approaches of stress management, to cope with
frustration or to develop understanding is an important pre-condition for being accepted by
employers and hence to achieve a successful transition into the formal labor market. Inappropriate
stress management as well as the absence of a supportive environment and the lack of institutions or
organizations that equip young people to become mature, responsible and reasoning citizens also
cause risky behaviour among young people. As discussed above, especially young male Jamaicans
turn to subculture networks, join gangs and solve problems rather violently than conflict easing. For
young women poverty as well as risky behavior has other consequences that limit their capacity
development. Young women are especially vulnerable to violent assaults; they are victims of
domestic violence and sexual abuse. The ESSJ reports that in 2010 814 young females between the
ages 10 and 29 had been treated in hospitals due to sexual assault, compared to 38 males in the
same age group (PIOJ, 2011:23.11). As in other Caribbean countries, in Jamaica young females are
also forced to work in night clubs and serve with sex (UNDP, 2012:77). This not only defeats the
dignity of young women and injures them physically as well as psychologically, it also constraints
young womens capacity development tremendously. However, not only violence and sexual assaults
are one of the causes that limit the opportunities for young people to gain knowledge, skills and
experiences which would help them to find employment. In addition to risks that young people are
combatting as part of their environment, they are also more willing to actively take risks that present
a threat to personal health and safety. The consumption of inebriant substances such as alcohol or
marijuana is very common among Jamaican young people which can lead to mental and health
problems. Even though only 26 percent of respondents at the King Gate Skills Training Centre agreed
or strongly agreed that it was difficult for young people to find employment due to involvement in
criminal or drug activities, it is beyond doubt that drug consumption reduces youths ability to
become responsible and reliable employees. Additionally, the strong emphasis on gender identity in
Jamaica induces young people to start sexual activity at an early age. Lack of knowledge and maturity
can consequently lead to sexual risky behavior such as promiscuity or unprotected sex. Sexual risky
behaviour, especially at a young age, can cause loss of creative potential and energy which would
help young people finding a job later on in life. The UNDP Caribbean Human Development Report
states that
Early sex has put young people at greater risk and made them more vulnerable to
exposure to HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, as well as teenage and
unexpected pregnancy, which constrain socio-economic potential. These outcomes often
lead to interpersonal conflict between partners and to depression, frustration and
aggression. (UNDP, 2012:56)
34

Risky behaviour does not only harm young people and their capacity development in terms of
possible diseases (HIV in particular). It can also cause early pregnancy or the inability to take
advantage of opportunities if they present themselves to young people. Additionally, risky behaviour
affects the psychological, ethical and cultural development, as well as their parenting capacities and
their abilities to create a supportive and stimulating environment for generations to come. In that
sense, risky behaviour by todays young people will not only determine their own capacity
development but also influence the larger dimension of capacity development within local
communities in the long run. Hence, another identified roots cause for challenges for capacity
development is risky behaviour.
After having analysed some of the root causes that diminish young peoples opportunities to find
employment in terms of capacity development, a discussion on roles and capacities will follow. The
Government of Jamaica is one actor that can the influence capacity development of young people.
The Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture (MOEYC) bases its policies and programs on the
philosophy that The ever-changing global environment creates opportunities and makes demands
for a society which actively develops a creative thinker-worker with the attitudes, skills and
knowledge to be a controller of his environment not a victim of it (MOEYC, 2001: White Paper).
Jamaican youth will continue to struggle with unemployment, if the government does not succeed in
providing options that help a society to develop creative thinker-workers. The effectiveness and
quality of formal education and training by the government strongly determines whether or not
young people will acquire attitudes, skills and knowledge to benefit from opportunities in the everchanging global economy. If policies, structures and procedures are not pursued deliberately,
Jamaican youth will not be able to develop and exercise their capabilities. Communities play a role
because they can find strategies to build youth capacity by creating an enabling environment.
Jamaican youth remain unemployed when strategies do not sufficiently tackle the context in which
violence arises, [or carve] out a space for youth to be equipped to take responsibility for resisting the
recourse to violence (UNDP 2012: 57). The last relevant actors are young people themselves. Only
when a person thinks about how to improve the present situation or how to perform an existing task
in a better way can it can it be said that he or she has a strong achievement motivation (So,
1990:39). In Jamaica, the lack of such achievement motivation is one problem that keeps youth from
investing in their own capacity development which would be beneficial to their employability.
The second thematic area looks at the institutional environment in which young Jamaicans get ready
for working life. Hence, it focuses on the rational organization of Jamaicas educational system. Using
Webers model of bureaucracy youth unemployment in Jamaica is analyzed as regards to powers
35

that define needs and instruments to make efficient problem-solving. This analysis detects root
causes for inefficiency of politico-institutional measures aiming at combatting youth unemployment.
The National Development Plan Vision 2030 Jamaica emphasizes that the realization of the plan will
require the input of our youth who must have a sense that they are at the centre of our nations
development (POIJ, 2010:8). Believing that every Jamaican has the ability to contribute to the
accomplishment of the plan, it encourages young peoples involvement in the transformation
process. This transformation process into a more developed nation includes the improvement of
opportunities for young people to find decent employment. The government of Jamaica has been
undertaking concrete measures to put young people at the center of national development since
1985, when it drafted the National Youth Policy. With the launch of this Policy in 1994 as well as the
establishment of the National Youth Service (NYS) and the National Centre for Youth Development
(NCYD), the government intensified its efforts to focus on youth issues and work to facilitate the
development of an environment that optimizes the potential of each young Jamaican (MOEYC,
2003: 3.1). After having analyzed the situation of youth in Jamaica in 2001, the Policy was reviewed
to be improved. A new version of the National Policy was drafted in 2003 and intended to better
address new challenges of youth development. The Policy was reviewed by the NCYD and with the
support from the National Strategic Plan for Youth Development (NSPYD). The reviewed Policy
articulates the common vision for youth development in Jamaica as well as it defines the framework,
roles and responsibilities in order to advocate youth issues.
The National Youth Policy represents the government of Jamaicas genuine commitment
to place on the agenda, issues, programs, and projects relating to youth. It reflects the
work of hundreds of organizations and thousands of individuals who have labored
diligently for almost two years to produce a document, which will guide youth
development programs (POLICY, 2004: 3).
The Policy is based on principles of the Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the
Rights of the Child. Therefore, it not only reinforces rights for young people such as the Right to life,
freedom from discrimination, freedom of expression, culture and religion, the Right to an identity,
protection from abuse and basic healthcare and education. It also addresses the right to
opportunities which optimize young peoples growth and development as well as access to services
and information that will enhance their development (NCYD, 2003:21). In order to promote and
ensure those rights the government of Jamaica implements legal and social initiatives that aim at
fostering positive youth development. The initiatives are divided into six different topic areas. One of
these topic areas is Employment and Entrepreneurship. This will be at the core of this section on
institutional concepts. Strategic objectives that were identified in this topic area embrace the efforts
36

to (i) increase the employability of youth, (ii) increase the number of employment opportunities for
youth, and (iii) foster an environment conductive to creation of opportunities for self-employment
(NYCD, 2003:26). The Box 2 displays the particular measures taken to achieve those objectives. By
working with various stakeholders from the public and private sector youth should be offered
opportunities to develop relevant skills, gain work experience and find jobs with the help of
placement programs.
Box 2: Measures to achieve Strategic Objectives
Source: NCYD, National Youth Policy 2003, p. 30
Additionally, incentives should be given to employers to hire young people even though they might
lack experience and young people should be encouraged to contribute to different Jamaican sectors
with their own inventions. The third strategic objective delineates self-employment as fruitful
approach to creating new employment opportunities and advocates training, youth-friendly loan
programs and enterprise development to facilitate entrepreneurship. The implementation of the
Policy is a multi-sectoral approach which means that mechanisms at local, regional and national level
underlay the implementation process. This requires a close collaboration from all stakeholders and
should allow young people to actively participate themselves to reach the goals of the Policy. The list
of stakeholder encompasses more than 200 national agencies, governmental and non-governmental
organizations, schools, projects, associations, and international partners. With so many agents
participating in the process to create a supportive environment for young people to find
employment, the problem of collaboration and communication becomes evident. Already in 1994
the Jamaican government identified the need to set up an institutional focal point which could work
37

to ensure an effective coordination between the different organizations and agencies concerned
with youth related programs.
For that purpose the Government of Jamaica (GOJ) established the NCYD which fulfills the role of
being a center for collaboration among stakeholders. Additionally, it is a clearinghouse for
information disseminating and research on issues regarding youth development. Further tasks of the
NCYD include functions of policy formulation and strategic planning, program development and
multi-sectoral coordination, monitoring and evaluations as well as program management, youth
empowerment and participation through the National Secondary Students Council, the Jamaica
Youth Ambassadors Programme, the Jamaica Union of Tertiary Students and the National Youth
Council. The NCYD also established multiple Youth Information Centres (Y.I.S.) throughout the
country. These are local centers where young people can access free information, browse the
internet, do job search, get help with school or job related tasks, can participate in workshop and fun
activities as well as find mentors and counseling. With those services and activities the NCYD works
towards its ultimate vision to act as An interdependent, dynamic, youth centric organization,
fulfilling the needs of Jamaicas youth, empowering them to attain their maximum potential, where
love of self, country and fellowman is customary, thus creating a solid foundation for the countrys
future (NYCD, 2010: About the NYCD). The NCYD is partnering with the Human Employment and
Resource Training Trust/ National Training Agency (HEART Trust/ NTA), a governmental Career
Advancement Program which provides access to training through enterprise-based workplace
experience and technical vocational and education training (TVET) institutions and programs.
Additionally, HEART Trust/ NTA carries out competence assessment and offers certification at
different levels. HEART Trust/ NTA is one of the main implementing agents that support Jamaican
young people to successfully entering the labor market. Further partners engaging with NCYD are the
Inter-American Development Bank IDB, the Jamaica Business Development Corporation, the
Jamaican Foundation for Lifelong Learning, the Korean International Cooperation KOICA, the
Labour Market Information System (LMIS), the National Youth Service, the United Nations Children
Fund UNICEF, the United Nations Population Fund-UNFPA, and the US Agency for International
Development USAID. Along with the National Youth Policy coordinated by the NCYD, the Jamaican
government provides skills training and employment opportunities for youth through the National
Youth Service (NYS). The NYS operates programs such as the Corps Programme, the Jamaica Values
and attitudes Programme for Tertiary Students (JAMVAT) and the National Summer Employment
Programme. Those programs give young Jamaicans the options to participate in training and work
experience, community services, in government and private sector organizations, and positive
development workshops. Young people can receive stipends for meals and transportation and backto-school funds. As can be seen there is a magnitude of options for young people to benefit from in
38

order to escape the threat of unemployment. Summarizing the most important findings mentioned
above,
The main options that are available for school leavers include entry into the labour
market, enrolment in: private post-secondary institutions; the National Youth Service
(NYS) programmes; HEART Trust/NTA programmes, Community Colleges and public and
private tertiary institutions (PIOJ, 2006:3).
Figure 5 summarizes the options that are available for school leavers in Jamaica.
Figure 5: Selected options for youth transiting from school to work
Source: Kerr/ Bailey/ Knight, 2006: The Transition of Jamaican Youth to the World of Work. P.5
The figure illustrates the range of different institutions, programs and services offered by multiple
stakeholders that present opportunities for youths in Jamaica to develop skills and improve their
employability. Having in mind those various options and the numerous stakeholders and agents
involved in youth development and employment initiatives, one may pose the question how
information reaches young people, what channels are used to communicate those options into the
communities and how effectively trainings prepare young people to enter the labor market.
Challenges such as making young people aware of their options as well as challenges when improving
39

and expanding programs and working in cooperation with other agents seem to impact the
effectiveness of programs tremendously. Another questionable issue is the speed at which policies
and programs are developed and implemented. The most recent version of the National Youth Policy
dates back to 2004 and does not respond adequately to young peoples need of todays Jamaica. As a
consequence, the Jamaica National Youth Survey 2010 (JNYS) has been conducted, intending to map
current the situation of young Jamaicans and address gaps within the existing Policy. Giving an indepth analysis of young peoples living and working conditions, entrepreneurial and employment
opportunities as well as spirituality and values, the survey aimed to collect information that could
serve the revision of the National Youth Policy. Having seen so many highly ambitious strategies to
create better employment opportunities for youths in Jamaica, the research question appears to be
even more urgent: why do a substantial number of Jamaican youths remain unemployed, despite
years of government programs on youth employment? The PIOJ in collaboration with the ILO has
identified some of the major obstacles that impede young Jamaicans access to decent employment.
The main obstacles that youths in Jamaica encounter when searching a suitable job are (i) no suitable
training opportunities, (ii) unsuitable general education, (iii) no education, (iv) unsuitable vocational
education, and (v) not enough jobs available (PIOJ, 2006: 30). These obstacles are closely related to
institutional issues and hence become relevant for the analysis in this section.
Based on this situation of Jamaicas institutional context and the description of roles and
responsibilities related to youth employment initiatives, two major challenges for youth employment
have been identified and were selected as working concepts to be used in the causal and capacity
analysis below. These selected challenges are:
Effectiveness
Budget

EFFECTIVENESS seen as a concept to analyze outcomes of the educational system, is used to
investigate whether or not the institutional setting in Jamaica achieves the objective to prepare
young people for future employment. According to Human Capital Theory, high levels of public
spending on education increase productivity. However, critical discussion of Human Capital Theory
and empirical experiences point out that high public expenditure on education does not necessarily
lead to high quality education and effectiveness. The quality of education and its adequateness to
needs in the economy and to its beneficiaries is determining economic returns and levels of growth.
In Jamaica, the educational system is often criticized not to be effective. The Taskforce on Education
Reform identified that underachievement in student learning at all levels of the system as the most
40

critical issue (IDB, unknown:4). The Economic and Social Survey 2010 (ESSJ) presents numbers of
poor students achievement in mathematics and literacy. As at 2010, the level of mastery in literacy
was 67.1 per cent and 41.6 per cent for numeracy (PIOJ, 2011:22.7). Consequently, general pass
rates for examinations are relatively low. The JNYS 2010 discovers that more than half of Jamaicans
between the ages 15-24 had not passed any examination, namely 55 percent and less than 5 percent
had passed higher examinations. Figure 6 display the percentages of examinations passed according
to different levels.
The figure shows that at all levels student learning is critical and underachievement is reflected by
very low rates of students passing examinations. It gives evidence of low outcome of the educational
system and the investment in human capital of Jamaican youth. Such low outcomes decrease young
peoples chances to find employment in the labor market. They will not be adequately prepared to
fulfill required tasks by employers and increase productivity. During the interview, Ms. Sherrian Gray
addresses the same problem and mentions that many of them cannot even write their own name
(Transcript 1). Also Ms. Nasolo Thompson, National Project Officer Officer at the ILO Jamaica, states
during the interview that young people coming out of the school system are challenged to perform
Figure 6: Examinations passed at different levels
Source: Forbes/ Delatie-Budair (Statinja), Presentation Jamaica National Youth Survey 2010, Slide 16
well in basic skills such as literacy, proficiency in English, numeracy and social soft skills, []
interpersonal relations, conflict resolution, [and] those kind of things (Transcript 3). Consequently,
young people are not absorbable by the labor market. This is supported by findings of the Common
Country Assessment 2006 - 2010 for Jamaica (CCA) which states that Poor educational outcomes
often mean long-term underemployment or worklessness and decreased social mobility (UN/GOJ,
unknown:55). Causes for such low outcomes decreasing effects on the quality of education in
Jamaica are absenteeism on both sides, the students as well as the teachers side. In addition,
41

teaching methods are often inappropriate particularly towards poor performance of young males
and teachers are insufficiently trained. The Ministry of Education has drawn more attention to the
low achievement rates of Jamaicans youths and has identified the quality of teaching as one major
obstacle for successfully educating youths. Therefore, one of the root causes that are identified to
cause youth unemployment is the lack of quality teaching. This is closely connected to the
qualification of teachers whose task it is to prepare young people for future employment in a
meaningful way. The ESSJ presents numbers that demonstrate that Jamaican teachers are often
qualified at low levels. Even though the number of teachers has increased by 1.4 percent in
2009/2010 compared to the prior year, only 81.0 percent of teachers working in public secondary
schools were trained (PIOJ, 2011:22.14). Figure 7 shows the distribution of teachers by qualification.
Teachers that are not trained well
Figure 7: Distribution of teachers by qualification, 2010
enough have more difficulties to

present
the
subject
matters
catching students attention. For

them it is also harder to maintain
discipline
among
students
disturbing the course of teaching.

Especially young Jamaican males,
due to their behavior emphasizing
manliness, toughness and violence
tend to show such behavior also
at
school.
Their
educational
outcome is low because teachers
Source: PIOJ, Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2010, p. 22.13
are unable to react to such behavior appropriately, sincere, creating a sense of discipline and
obedience to rules. It could be easier achieved by male teachers. However, Consistent with previous
years, the teaching profession continued to be dominated by females at this level where they
accounted for 89.3 per cent of the total (PIOJ, 2011:22.10). The large number of female teachers is a
contributing factor that the educational system fails to especially address and reach young males.
They do not feel motivated to perform better in school. Another cultural driven aspect for male
underachievement becomes clear in the interview with Ms. Nasolo Thompson who explains based on
a field survey that succeeding in the academic system was a feminine thing, so [boys] associated it
with homosexuality (Transcript 3, 12.16). This shows that in Jamaica, teaching is not designed for a
particular context and is not sensitive towards socio-cultural aspects. Inexperienced teachers or such
lacking appropriate pedagogical skills easily could fell overwhelmed. This again translates into low
quality teaching and poor educational outcomes. It has consequences for the future employability of
42

young Jamaican. Where there is a failing education system, options are narrowed and persons may
become itinerant, moving in search of employment (UN/GOJ, unknown: 59). Human Capital Theory
supports this argumentation by emphasizing that education must be of high quality in order to
increase economically productive human capability (Olaniyan/ Okemakinde, 2008:158), hence, in
order to improve young peoples employable and absorbable by the labor force.
The educational system in Jamaica seems to be ineffective also in other ways. Aiming to prepare
young people for future employment, in Jamaica many different institutions and programs offer
training opportunities for young people. Since in this analysis the focus is on the effectiveness of the
educational system as such, the difference between regular schooling and different types of training
is not particularly highlighted. It is rather important to show opportunities that are offered to young
Jamaicans so as to develop skills and improve their employability. Which particular path they choose
is of minor importance and not relevant in this analysis. As discovered through the survey at the
Kings Gate Skills Training Centre, 87 percent of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the
training would improve their skills and abilities and 60 percent stated that the training would help
them find a job. As described in the above, young school leavers in Jamaica can choose from a wide
range of possibilities how to continue training. Besides the major post-secondary programs such as
HEART/Trust NTA and NYS programs or the Building Youth for National Development (BYOND)
Project, young Jamaicans can continue education at several Community Colleges and public as well as
private post-secondary and tertiary institutions. Figure 8 displays the distribution of method of
training respondents of the JNYS were receiving in 2010. Figure 9 shows the qualification that they
expect to achieve on completion of training.
Figure 8: Percentage Distribution
of Method of Current Training, 2010
Source: IDB/GOJ, National Youth Survey 2010, Final Report, p.69
Figure 9: Percentage Distribution of Qualification

Expected on Completion of Training, 2010
Source: IDB/GOJ, National Youth Survey 2010, Final Report, p.69
The two figures indicate that approximately 45 percent of young people receive training at
university/tertiary level, while a quarter of youth is enrolled in on-the-job trainings or HEART/Trust
NTA programs. These figures illustrate various possibilities for Jamaican youth to obtain a certificate
43

or diploma. Such an official document enables young people to prove their successful termination of
training and attests acquired skills. It also helps employers to know which tasks a young person
applying for a job is able to perform. Hence, a certificate or diploma facilitates young peoples job
search and improves their chances to find employment. From a theoretical economic perspective a
formal certification reduces information asymmetries and therefore reduces costs that occur during
job search. However, as shown before, a majority of young people in Jamaica does not pursue a
formal training. This means that they do not only miss the chance to receive a certification at the end
of their training, they also have fewer opportunities to improve their abilities in an institutional
context where methods fulfill formalized standards and teachers are officially approved. The JNYS
2010 discovers that less than a third of young Jamaicans (29.8 percent) have ever been trained for a
job or occupation (IDB/GOJ, 2011:64). The remaining 70.2 percent of youth in Jamaica has therefore
a weaker position when it comes to applying for a job. One obstacle that keep young Jamaicans from
pursuing a training is lack of financing (30.7 percent of respondents in the JNYS indicated that lack of
financing was an obstacles to training; IBD/GOJ, 2011:70). Another obstacle is capacity issues by
responsible training institutions. Despite the existence of a number of Human Employment and
Resource Training Trust/ National Training Agency (HEART Trust/NTA) financed and operated training
opportunities island-wide, these institutions have largely been unable to fulfill the level of demand
(Kerr/Bailey/Knight, 2006:30f). Over-subscriptions for popular programs such as hospitality or food
service or long waiting lists in order to register for training programs make it difficult for young
Jamaicans to access suitable preparation for future employment. The HEART Trust/ NTA annual
report 2007-2008 shows improvements in access to training for young people. The report indicates
that the collaboration with the private sector has been intensified in order to provide more training
opportunities for youth. The number of new partnering firms has been extended from 29 to 92 in the
period under review. The rate of enrollment has surpassed the set target by 9.7 percent and the
number of learners participating in HEART Trust/ NTA programs had increased to 107,093 (HEART
Trust/NTA, 2008:17). These numbers, even though optimistic, reveal another root cause for youth
unemployment in Jamaica from an institutional perspective: capacity issues. This is further explained
in the following calculation: the enrollment of students in secondary level schools in real terms
totaled 262,626 (PIOJ, 2011:22.12). This is the same time period as covered by the HEART rust/NTA
annual report 2007-2008. In 2010, the number of students enrolled in secondary education has
increased to 265,175 (PIOJ, 2011:22.12). Referring to Figure 8, one can see that only roughly 45
percent of youth who continued education in 2010, went to tertiary level institutions. This means
that the rest of those young Jamaicans who pursue further education engaged in vocational or onthe-job training, hence, approximately 55 percent. Assuming that all school leavers from secondary
education would like to continue with training to advance their qualification, one can compute the
44

number of training places necessary to absorb the number of school leavers intending to pursue a
vocational or on-the-job training. If 55 percent of the 262,626 secondary school leavers in 2007-2008
would have liked to access training, 144,444 training places should have been available. HEART Trust/
NTA, however, only offered 107,093 training places. Even though, HEART Trust/NTA is not the only
supplier of training opportunities it is the national training program and hence the largest and most
important one. This calculation shows that the state cannot provide sufficient opportunities for
young people to receive training. Looking at enrollment in secondary institutions is interesting in that
regard that training programs often require a completed secondary education in order to register.
Consequently, youth who cannot enroll in a training program due to capacity issues are forced to
enter the labor market without training. The fact that young people face such ineffectiveness in
terms of training opportunities leads to discouragement among youth and a loss of productivity for
the labor force.
The main actor when it comes to capacities is the government. The GOJ has a key role for designing
and implementing curricula in the educational system, including national training programs. Its main
responsibility is to create a link between the economy and the youth population seeking to enter the
labor force and contribute to the economy. For this, the government has to identify the need of the
economy and which types of employment can bring promising opportunities for young Jamaicans to
find employment. If the government does not recognize circumstances and concerns of young people
it is unable to tailor education suitably to prepare them for future employment. By providing national
institutions and initiatives to teach relevant skills to Jamaican youth, the GOJ has the most powerful
capacity to improve the situation for young people to successfully find jobs. Another important actor
is the private sector. As mentioned above, private firms closely collaborate with state institutions
such as HEART Trust/NTA to provide training opportunities for young Jamaican. By doing so, private
sector firms not only contribute to a better understanding of what is needed in the economy and
adapting curricula in order to be best appropriate. Private firms which engage within the educational
system also allow young students to improve their learning process with practical experience
acquired outside formal schooling. Hence, they can help to make training more effective. Jamaican
youth are another actor in terms of capacity. Their behavior and motivation to acquire new skills is a
determining factor to make education and job preparation effective. Even though Jamaican young
people face obstacles when trying to access training, they can benefit from a wide range of
possibilities to get ready for the labor market. Some of these possibilities are skills development
programs offered by NGOs or church groups as well as e-learning or consulting professional
counselors rather than family or friends. Hence, if Jamaican youth actively search to improve their
skills development they can ameliorate their own employability or help others to do so.
45

BUDGET, must encompass all the fiscal operations of government and must also force policy
decisions having financial implications to be made against the background of a hard budget
constraint and in competition with other demands (World Bank, 1998: 1). In that sense, budget
demonstrates an institutional challenge to successful educational outcomes. The availability and
amount of financial resources determines whether or not training programs or educational initiatives
can further exist or fulfill adequate requirements meeting the needs of the targeted population. The
Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture (MOEYC) receives its funds through the Ministry of Finance
which allocates certain taxes and general revenues towards education and specific educational
programs, such as HEART Trust/NTA programs. Additionally, international donor agencies support
the GOJ with project-related funds, agencies such as the UNESCO, the Inter-American Development
Bank, Organization of American States (OAS) and other private sector agencies as well as community
and faith-based organizations. The GOJ considers education and training as overriding priority
(MOE, 2007: White Paper) which is reflected in the allocation of funds to the MOEYC. In the time
period between 1996 and 2000 the Government of Jamaica allocated public expenditure to
education ranging from 6.1 to 7.6 as a percentage of the national GDP. In 2009, the education
expenditure was 5.8 percent of the GDP (World Bank, 2012c). That is above the level which OECD
countries usually spend on education, running from 4.5 to 6.7 percent as a percentage of GDP
(Cahuc/Zylberberg, 2001: 61). Public expenditure on education covers spending on instructional and
non-instructional educational institutions. In that it provides for the education of students as well as
services and bodies in charge of administration, curriculum development, psychological counseling,
educational research or building maintenance. Through the educational system young people gain
the ability to signal their specific capacities to possible future employers. Investing in primary and
secondary education may not immediately translate into payoffs. However, education is an
investment that produces knowledge acquisition and increased productivity, which in turn leads to
higher income (Cahuc/Zylberberg, 2001: 60). Surely, the Theory of Human Capital by Becker (1964)
rather refers to individuals and their individual choices to invest expenditures in order to improve
their efficiency in the labor market. Nevertheless, the government plays a significant role in ensuring
access to education through public expenditures, especially in the context of Jamaicas large cohort
of young people coming from poor communities and not being able to afford education. In that
sense, the GOJ, by investing in the acquisition of knowledge of its youth generation, will eventually
receive returns in form of higher productivity and efficiency of the labor market. Between the years
1996 and 2000, the spending on education made up 10.6 and 14.5 percent of the Governments
budget (MOE, 2007: White Paper). Though the GOJ continues to provide mostly free education in the
public sector and covers for example tuitions for students at secondary level, government spending
on education has decreased over the past couple of years. For the Financial Year (FY) 2010/11, the
46

GOJ allocated $73.4 billion, which was 13.1 per cent of the national budget []. This was 2.5 per cent
below the revised estimates for 2009/10 (PIOJ, 2011:22.2). These cuts in government spending on
education can be explained as a consequence of the global economic crisis where to the GOJ reacted
with monetary and fiscal reforms. Figure 10 illustrates the proportions allocated to the school
different levels. It refers to the overall budget on education in the Financial Year (FY) 2010/11. The
figure shows that the largest proportion
on spending goes to the secondary level,
Figure 10: Allocation of the overall budget on

education according to school levels, FY 2010/11
namely 34.4 percent. For many young

Jamaicans education on secondary level
is the last stage of formal schooling
before they transfer to institutions
training them for a particular job or
acquiring skills in a specialized subject
area. Therefore, the GOJ by investing
particularly in education on secondary
level plays a crucial role in preparing
young people for their entry into the
labor market and creating drivers for
economic
development.
With
the
reduction of the overall spending on
education, however, the government

runs the risk to diminish positive outcomes of the education system and to jeopardise the Vision
2030 (Jamaica Observer, 2011). By decreasing its spending on education the government takes away
important resources to guarantee quality preparation for young peoples future careers and higher
earnings connected to higher education. It would directly affect young people and their
opportunities to find employment. Therefore, budget cuts have been identified as one root cause of
budgetary challenges within the institutional context. Even though, the GOJ has prioritized education
on its policy agenda and strategic planning, reductions in spending have contributed to aggravating
effects on the youth unemployment situation in Jamaica.
Another issue is the efficiency of expenditures on education itself. Referring to the bureaucracy
model mentioned above, bureaucratic administration, thus a system of hierarchical structures,
specialization and impersonality, is a technical necessity (to co-ordinate the subdivided tasks)
(Urban in Gastel, 2005:3). The Jamaican MOEYCs mission is to manage an effective system of
human resource development for Jamaica (Tindigarukayo/Chadwick, 1996:13). The educational
system in Jamaica and its management and structure is again rooted in Jamaicas historical
47

development. Initially set up to educate the small white elite (as in contrast to the black working
class), the entire management of school-related issues was pooled in one central office. With political
restructuring and after 1991, this management system was changed into one administrative head
office and six regional offices (MOEYC, 2004:1). This first step to decentralize the educational
system in Jamaica aimed to give more responsibility to regional offices in order to supervise school at
a local level and respond quicker to problems on the ground. This being a first step towards a more
effective education system, in 2007 the GOJ approached the Inter-American Development Bank
(IADB) to assist with the transformation of the education sector. As a result and based on studies, the
GOJ introduced institutional reforms and changed the structure and governance of Jamaicas
education system [aiming] to create more accountability and autonomy throughout the sector, and
[intending] to improve the overall quality of education measured by well-defined performance
targets (IDB, unknown:4). In 2010, the Education System Transformation Programme was
established to improve the performance in this sector. The undertaken institutional reforms also
included a ministry modernization process with the following issues being tackled: (i) the
implementation of a more developed Information and Communication Technology system with the
goal to facilitate online registration and completing registration processes, (ii) drafting standards for
licensing to improve capacity building among teachers and training providers for teachers in service,
and (iii) the establishment of the National College for Educational Leadership (PIOJ, 2011:22.7). These
reforms have a direct effect on young people and their future employment opportunities. The root
cause identified in this section is the lack of modernization. Antiquated structures and obsolescent
management systems decelerate processes. In contrast, standardized procedures and the use of
modern communication technology not only facilitate quicker operations but are also less money
consuming.
The ESSJ reveals that 75.3 percent of government expenditure was allocated to
recurrent disbursements (PIOJ, 2011:22.2). Mr. Machel Stewart, Poverty Programme Advisor at
UNDP Jamaica, responds in the interview as regards to challenges when implementing programs. as
usual one of them is institutional arrangements, bureaucracy, we work with implementing agencies
which are usually attached to a government department, so thats one, the bureaucracy of getting
everything, the procurement done, bureaucracies of getting consultants hired (Transcript 2). He
additionally explains that the UNDP supports the government to develop a harmonized framework
for data statistics to make data measurement more accurate and data sharing between different
ministries more consistent. These experiences reveal a reality which shows that large percentages of
expenditures are not being used efficiently. Heavy bureaucracy and time-consuming procedures also
cause high expenditure on operational processes in the educational system. Consequently, this
money cannot be invested in providing better training opportunities for young people through
modernized school equipment or better quality teaching. After the global economic crisis, budgets
48

were cut through fiscal and monetary reforms and the different ministries were called upon to be
more efficient, more frugal (Jamaica Observer, 2011). However, if the management system is not
modernized well enough, there will not be many possibilities to be more efficient. This will result in
higher number of students not getting access to education as well as decreasing quality of teaching.
The finding backs the theoretical assumption that bureaucracy is the most rational instrument to
organize collective goals only to a certain extend. The idea to assign clear roles and responsibilities to
be efficient can only be achieved when the institutional context is modern and directly responding to
occurring needs.
During the interview with Ms. Nasolo Thompson another point was raised which demonstrates a
challenge for youth employment programs and projects as regards to budgeting: the collaboration
with other organizations and agencies and the dependency on donors for particular initiatives. The
Government of Jamaica for instance engaged with UNICEF for a 30-month to implement to develop
more NCYDS Youth Information Centres island wide between 2007 and 2008. Other international
donor agencies and NGOs contributed to the project to ensure sustainability (NYCD, 2010). Such
projects that help young people on the ground to search jobs, write applications and obtain other
important information to find employment are heavily relying on donors in order to continue
operating. Ms Nasolo Thompson explains in the interview that donors have a significant involvement
in how funds should be spent. If a project does not fulfill certain parameters or requirements that a
donor is expecting to be fulfilled, they might not pay and hence, the project would lack necessary
financial resources to keep running. Some agencies have more flexibility but other agencies have
stricter rules about how the money should be used. Ms. Thompson emphasizes that really where
the money comes from is key (Transcript 3). This shows that local practitioners face constraints
enforced by external actors when designing projects. They cannot react to what is needed on the
ground but rather have to fulfill expectation of donors. Additionally, the problem arises that projects
may not be sustainable and will have to be terminated after funding has been ceased. So, another
root cause for budgetary challenges to youth employment in an institutional context is the
dependency on donors. Young people involved in training projects funded by international donors,
engage, acquire skills and are being prepared for the labor market as long as the program is running.
However, if the project ends, youth cannot longer seek such services. In so far, international
collaboration on youth employment programs is a fruitful approach to create better opportunities
for youth to enter the labor market, but if implemented without further considerations on how to
maintain services, it leads to fewer opportunities for youth to increase their employability.
After some of the root causes for youth unemployment in terms of budget have been explained, this
paragraph discusses important roles and capacities. First, the Government of Jamaica is an actor of
49

major importance when it comes to improving budget distribution, budget efficiency and budget
sustainability. It should be acknowledged that the GOJ is aware of the benefits that education brings
to young people and that education will prepare them future. The government may also be well
aware of the fact that there is a positive relation between education and economic growth and that
better educated workers contribute to better economic return. However, the practical experience
shows that resources used are not distributed in the most efficient way. The modernization of the
MOEYC is an important step to cut down costs for lengthy processes and re-organize funding to make
it available in more efficient ways. Another influential actor is the international community or more
precisely international donors and partners. With funds and loans for example by the UNESCO, the
IADB, the OAS or the IMF, the Government of Jamaica has a wider scope to operate and to create
policies and implement programs aiming to support young people to escape the trap of
unemployment. However, collaboration with international donors or partners brings certain
dependencies and constraints. Especially loans by the IMF and debt services as well as structural
adjustments that are a precondition to receiving loans, demonstrate a tremendous burden to
Jamaica. As a result, institutions and initiatives that are targeted to creating job opportunities for
young Jamaicans suffer from shortage of funding due to the need to comply with conditions made by
members of the international community.
The third thematic area focuses on youth unemployment in Jamaicas economic context. Economic
concepts are used as regards to economic development. According to Streeten the objective of the
development effort is to provide all human beings with the opportunity for a full life (Dutt/ Ros,
2008:3). Such opportunities for a full life also include perspectives to gain decent employment in
order to be self-sustainable and also to become productive members of the labor force. Theories of
economic development help to analyze economic issues and their effects to enable or impede young
Jamaicas opportunities to find employment. Economic development is closely correlated to issues
analyzed earlier in this thesis in terms of social and institutional concepts.
Jamaica is classified as an upper middle income country by the World Bank. In 2010, Jamaicas GDP
was at USD 14,252,029,782 (World Bank, 2012). The service sector is the largest contributor to
Jamaicas GDP. Service industries accounted for an estimated 81.5 percent contribution to the
national GDP in 2010 (PIOJ, 2011:5.5). Services are also the islands most employment generating
sector and accounted for 64.4 percent of total employment in 2010 (ibid:XIV). The JNYS survey 2010
confirms this stark emphasis on services by illustrating that more than a half of young Jamaicans had
received training to become either Craft and Related Trades Workers or Service Workers and Shop
and Market Sales Workers, 28.6 and 28.0 percent respectively (IDB/GOJ, 2011:64). Goods producing
50

industries made up 23.6 percent of the 2010 GDP. Most of Jamaicas foreign exchange is received
from remittances and tourism, approximately 15 and 10 percent of GDP respectively (CIA World
Factbook, 2012). The export of aluminum and bauxite is another important contributor to Jamaicas
economy, comprising about 10 percent of Jamaicas GDP. Even though, the total inflows of
remittances increased by USD 115.9 million and export earnings for bauxite and aluminum rose by
14.3 percent between 2009 and 2010, the overall economy of Jamaica contracted by 1.2 percent in
the same time of reference. Both the Good-producing and Service Industries declined by 1.7 percent
and 1.5 percent, respectively (PIOJ, 2011:XI). This is due to the effects of the global economic crisis
and resulting developmental challenges. Figure 11 shows the curve of Jamaicas GDP between 2005
and 2010. It illustrates positive annual development of the GDP before 2008 and following the global
economic crisis negative effects on economic growth until 2010. The ESSJ identifies as one of the
reasons
the
weak
external
Figure 11: Total GDP at Basic Prices, 2005-2010
demands and private financial

flows (ibid:VI). Prior to the global
crisis,
commodity
Jamaica
had
prices
risen
in
sharply
between 2006 and 2008 and

severe natural disasters such as
the Hurricane Gustav in 2008 and
Tropical Storm Nicole in 2010
deteriorated Jamaicas economic
situation
and
increased
the
pressure on Jamaica to undertake

macroeconomic changes.
As a
Source: PIOJ, Economic and Social Survey Jamaica, 2011, p.5.3.
result of such downturns for Jamaicas economic development, the GOJ had to turn to the IMF in
order to borrow financial supplies. In February 2010, Jamaica entered a 27-month Stand-By
Arrangement (SBA) by the IMF over USD 1.2 billion (IMF, 2010). The SBA aims to combat Jamaica`s
economic development challenges in terms of (I) growth, (ii) inflation, (iii) balance of payments, (iv)
tax reform, (v) public sector reforms, and (vi) financial sector reforms (IMF, 2010). Additionally,
Jamaica receives Official Development Assistance (ODA) by numerous multilateral and bilateral
partners such as the IDB, the World Bank and the Caribbean Development Bank. Such grants and
loans are intended to [maintain] macroeconomic stability, [promote] social well-being, and [foster]
an enabling environment for private sector development (PIOJ, 2011:IX). Most of newly approved
ODA is directed to the Administrative sector to support the reform of government`s policies.
Jamaica`s weak macroeconomic performance has made it necessary to rely on foreign assistance and
51

arrangements to borrow loans. Especially the events between 2008 and 2010 have impacted the
country with various challenges leading to negative economic development. Jamaica`s imports,
which showed an increase in 2010, outweighed exports leading to a trade deficit of USD 3 866.4
million (ibid:6.4). Even though the exchange rate showed a nominal appreciation of 4.2 percent
between 2009 and 2010 and interest rates declined, Jamaica suffered from higher domestic prices
for food and fuel due to the international rise in grains and oil prices (ibid:6.8).
The negative development of Jamaica`s economy as a result from the crisis has deteriorating effects
on the employment situation in the country. The largest absolute decrease of employed labor force
recorded the construction industry which experienced a decline of employed persons by 6.7 percent
(ibid.XII). Also in the Tourism industry the annual employment shrunk and Hotels and Restaurants
employed 4450 persons less in 2010 compared to 2009 (ibid:17.8). This becomes an important issue
against the background that many young people in Jamaica are being trained and employed in the
service sector. Even though, the Jamaican economy is slowly recovering from the, the effects of poor
economic performance hit young people the hardest also in a long term. As a consequence from
limited employment opportunities especially for well-educated young Jamaicans, many young people
migrate to the United States, Canada or Great Britain. The participation in the GOJ`s Overseas
Employment Programme rose by 8.3 percent in 2010, compared to 2009. Despite of the small size of
the island, Jamaica is well known in the world thanks to its large diaspora. Many Jamaicans leave for
economic reasons. They often have the chance to earn more money with jobs in foreign countries
and hence are able support their families from abroad. Large numbers of Jamaican households have
one or more members abroad in North America or the United Kingdom, while many others contain
returned migrants (Glennie/ Chappell, 2010). In that sense, migration has two effects in terms of
economic development in Jamaica. On one hand, remittances contribute to Jamaicas economic
development. On the other hand, Jamaica faces the challenge to lose its professional class and
valuable capacities for national development, since mostly skilled and well educated Jamaicans leave
the country. It shows that Jamaica lacks sufficient incentives to attract young people to become
productive members of the labor force. However, the issue of migration also gives evidence for
Jamaica`s strong outcomes of the tertiary education level and that Jamaicas highly trained
professionals are able to succeed in the international arena. How does this correspond with the lack
of quality and ineffectiveness of Jamaica`s educational system analyzed in the previous section?
Again it reveals the issue of poverty and raises the point of what opportunities do individuals have to
receive support engaging in training. Young people from wealthy families have better chances to
obtain a high quality education than youth from an economically poor background. With that in
52

mind, one understands that young Jamaicans from wealthy families have greater opportunities to
find employment, if not in Jamaica, then abroad.
Based on this situation of Jamaicas economic activities and development, two major challenges for
youth employment have been identified and were selected as working concepts to be used in the
causal and capacity analysis below. These selected challenges are:
Public Debts
Migration

PUBLIC DEBTS, used as a concept that considers public expenditure as a government action to
increase productivity, refers to government borrowing to compensate fiscal deficits. With a debt-toGDP ratio at 129.3 percent in fiscal year 2009/2010, Jamaica continues to be one of the most
indebted countries in the world (Johnston/ Montecino, 2011:2). The results of such enormous public
debt are high costs for debt servicing and the need to mobilize extensive levels of revenue to repay
debts as well as very high interest rates. Actually, Jamaicas debt could be manageable, if the interest
rates did not present such a heavy burden. Interest rates have shown a significant increase since the
1990s when Jamaica started to change the composition of its debts. Relying more heavily on external
creditors before the early 1990s, Jamaica performed a marked shift towards a more domestic and
private oriented creditor reliance in the following years. Consequently, governments interest
payments have risen from 8.1 percent of GDP in 1997/1998 to 17.0 percent in 2009/2010 (Ibid:5).
Debt servicing consumes large proportions of Jamaicas public capital expenditure. The GOJ is obliged
to dedicate valuable resources to creditor arrangements which could be spent otherwise in order to
improve education, health care or measure to stimulate economic growth. Figure 12 illustrates the
development of interest payments in relation to Jamaicas capital expenditure. It gives clear evidence
that the compensation for high interest rates has been causing stagnation of public investment in
social and economic development over the last decades. Driven by the need to reduce the high
extent of indebtedness Jamaicas government is dictated by constraints in economic planning.
Managing debts rather than investing in social and economic development deeply impacts the lives
of young people on their way to employment: [The] chronic lack of public investment in economic
and social infrastructure [] is a serious impediment to achieving sustained productivity increases
and growth in human capital (Johnston/ Montecino, 2011:4). Earlier in this thesis, it was discussed
how cuts in educational budget demonstrate a challenges to providing adequate training
opportunities and high quality teaching which would positively affect Jamaican youths employability.
The Ministry of Education mentions the burden of debt servicing in its White Paper and summarizes
53

expenditure on education for the period between 1996 and 2000 as follows: the budgetary
allocation to education has fluctuated between 10.6 and 14.5 percent of the Governments budget
with debt servicing and 20.2 to 29.5 percent without debt servicing (MOEYC, 2001).
Figure 12: Interest Payments and Capital Expenditure, Percent of Total Expenditure, 1992-2010
Source: Johnston/ Montecino, Jamaica: Macroeconomic Policy, Debt and the IMF, p.4.
Having said this, debt servicing can be identified as one of the root causes for youth unemployment
in Jamaicas economic context. The pressure of debt servicing limits the governments capacity to
integrate young people into the labor market. Therefore, Streetens theoretical assumption is not
fulfilled. Development efforts are weakened by external factors.
Borrowing arrangements, for example with the IMF, are bond to various macroeconomic
adjustments. Aiming to ameliorate the countrys economic performance, the IMF has attached
conditions to the SBA. The Jamaican government is obliged to undertake a public sector reform, raise
the productivity of public spending and reform the financial sector (IMF, 2010). Such conditions
undermine the sovereignty of the Jamaican government in its economic planning and in its design of
a fiscal strategy. The embarrassing fact is that the government of Jamaica no longer even drafts its
own budget without the assistance of foreign consultants assigned by the lending agencies, and
always in the shadows of some existing or impending loan agreement (Levitt, 2005:138). Focusing
on pro-cyclical polies the IMF program follows an approach aiming to reduce fiscal deficit by raising
taxes and tightening expenditure. However, the GOJ already has been much disciplined with public
expenditure. As can be seen in Figure 13, non-interest expenditure continuously decreased from
54

2006 to 2010. In the past years, budget deficits were caused by higher than expected interest
payments and lower than expected revenues.
Figure 13: Causes of Fiscal Slippage, in % of GDP, 2005-2010
Source: Johnston/ Montecino, Jamaica: Macroeconomic Policy, Debt and the IMF, p.13.
The IMF also limited the GOJs ability to increase public sector salaries which led to a wage freeze
since 2009 (PIOJ, 2011:21.13). Rejecting any retroactive payments for teachers (IMF in Johnston/
Montecino, 2011:17), the IMF complicated negotiations to sign an agreement between Jamaican
Teachers Association and the government. Frustration among teachers escalated triggering unrest
and lower motivations to exert quality teaching. Additionally, [t]he head of the National Education
Trust of Jamaica, Paul Matalo, also warned that the IMF agreement restricted the Governments
ability to build new schools (Johnston/ Montecino, 2011:17). When bondages and conditions by
creditors control public spending in such a significant way, this translates into visible effects for
young peoples employment. All this said it is clear that bondages and conditions made by a creditor
impact the creation of an enabling environment for Jamaican youth to find employment.
Another example that can be enlisted is the conditionality of the IMF program to liquidate Air
Jamaica. The postulation to divest the airline forced the government to lay off 1,800 workers
(Johnston/ Montecino, 2011:19). This contributed to an increase of unemployment among Jamaican
youth and removed opportunities to create jobs in the future. Hence, as a result from debt pressure
the Government is essentially giving up on stimulating the economy, despite depressed demand and
55

high unemployment (ibid:15). Following these examples, another root cause for youth
unemployment in economic terms is the loss of sovereignty of the Jamaican government.
Having analyzed public debts as some of the causalities for youth unemployment, it is important to
identify main actors and capacities. Creditors have a vital role in deepening or easing Jamaicas public
debts situation. First, they have a powerful position with their ability to define the size of interest
rates. Their business understanding and decision-making determines, whether or not Jamaica is able
to manage its debts or if it suffers from the burden of indebtedness and has financial resources
available to integrate young people into the labor market. Ideally, if creditors offered loans at
interest rates and maturities that allowed the Jamaican government to design a pro-growth fiscal
strategy, it would contribute to an overall economic development and to an improvement of
employment opportunities for young people. Second, creditors such as the IMF or the World Bank
can take significant influence in Jamaicas domestic policy making by binding loans to conditional ties.
If measures do not include prospects for development-oriented spending and creating employment
opportunities young people cannot benefit on their way to. Another important actor is the
Government of Jamaica. The GOJ is not in a powerful position in as much as its creditors. Even if the
government wanted to invest public spending in economic and social infrastructure, it loses its
authority to the bondage of debt arrangements. In that sense, the GOJ is stuck in a situation of
stagnation unable fight youth unemployment sustainably. However, the government can find
alternative channels to cope with fiscal deficit. As shown above, Jamaica also receives Official
Development from other international partners. That way, the government can accumulate
necessary resources to create an enabling environment for young people to get ready for the labor
market. Youth in Jamaica were identified as important actors in previous parts of this analysis. As
regards to public debts they cannot contribute significantly to an improvement of their employment
situation. They are rather trapped in a system where institutions on many levels struggle with limited
resources to prepare them for a successful transition into the world of work. If Jamaican youth do
not succeed in finding employment in this particular system, they will try to move into a different
system where they expect better chances to be hired. This raises the point of migration.
MIGRATION is seen as the flow of people moving abroad and sending back financial support to
individuals in their home countries. It is a concept relevant for this thesis not only in terms of
economic opportunities but also due to its interrelation with social and institutional issues. Limited
job opportunities in Jamaica, especially for high skilled workers, induce many Jamaicans to migrate to
other countries in the world to search employment. Migration is an interesting option particularly for
young people who often hope to have better employment opportunities abroad. 73 percent of
respondents of at the Kings Gate Skills Training Centre indicated that they would like to work abroad
56

at completion of their training. To analyze causalities and capacities related to migration, the concept
has to be seen embedded in a broader framework of development theory and the human capability
approach. It is not sufficient to only focus on (gross) income indicators. Rather, non-economic issues
such as social, cultural and political impacts of migration also play an important role for
understanding why a large number of young people in Jamaica remain unemployed. Different
theoretical approaches assume that migration can either help to improve economic development
through free movement of labor or returns from transfer of capital (developmentalist and
neoclassical views), or weaken local economies through increasing dependency, inequalities or brain
drain (historical structural and dependency view). Other approaches such as the more recent new
economics of labor migration (NELM) consider both positive and negative development (Haas,
2007:6). According to NELM, in many developing countries the markets are imperfect in terms of
credit and risk. Only elite groups have access to capital and insurance and poor people need to
develop alternative strategies to overcome such market constraints. As regards to youth
employment, the labor market is imperfect because young people face constraints in accessing
employment and do neither have sufficient capital nor insurance to obtain a suitable job. Migration
then can be a strategy to improve ones own livelihood by moving into more developed regions to
obtain employment. This is based on the theoretical concept of human capability which conceives
development as the process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy (Haas, 2007:2).
Hence, young people can develop their own human capabilities, including higher skills and
employability, by expanding their real freedom through migration. The most common countries that
Jamaicans move to when they migrate are the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. In
2008, approximately 637,000 Jamaicans lived in the United States and 150,000 in the United
Kingdom. In Canada the number of Jamaican foreign born living in the country was at 123,500 in
2006 (Glennie/ Chappell, 2010). The positive effects stemming from successful employment abroad,
and in particular in the three countries U.S., U.K. and Canada, is also reflected in the share of
remittance inflows coming from these countries. Remittances are understood as the money transfers
being sent from workers living abroad to their home countries. In the case of Jamaica, Total
remittance inflows were US$ 1 906.2 million in 2010 (PIOJ, 2011:6.9). This represented a 6.5 percent
increase relative to 2009 and gives evidence of the crucial role that migration plays for Jamaicas
economy. Figure 14 illustrates the countries from which remittances flow into Jamaica. The figure
shows that more than a half of all remittances being transferred to Jamaica are sent from the United
States and that remittances from United Kingdom and Canada are twice as much as from all
remaining countries. Looking at remittances, one can understand that migration not only improves
ones own livelihood but also contributes to a maximization of capital or risk-sharing within one
household or a wider societal context. In that sense, migration has positive effects helping to achieve
57

greater
development
of
particular
communities generate growth through
Figure 14: Share of remittance inflows by source of

country, 2010
remittances that aim at increasing

income and investing in productive
enterprises. Consequently, this also has
effects for unemployed youth in Jamaica.
The Remittance Survey Project 2010 by
the Bank of Jamaica finds out that most
of remittances are intended to support
either unemployed or people running
their own business, 24.3 and 12.1
percent respectively. The third largest group of remittance recipients is students with a percentage
of 5.7 (Henry, 2010:24). The high importance of remittances for Jamaicas economy not only shows
that migration is one option for young people to improve their own employment situation by going
abroad but remittances being sent from family members working outside Jamaica also help to
support those remaining in the home country to ameliorate their working life (or not working life).
Hence, such private transfers not only present assistance for Jamaican youth to survive in times of
unemployment or to have financial backup when spending more time to search an appropriate job.
Remittances also enable young Jamaicans to engage in education and consequently improve their
employability. However, there is also a flipside to remittances. Critiques argue that migrant
remittances create an artificial and temporary improvement in livelihoods and establish a
dangerous dependency on external revenues (Birks and Sinclair in Haas, 2007:9). This means that
wealth and higher levels of development can only be maintained as long as support from outside the
country keeps persisting. Even though the Bank of Jamaica discovers in its survey that many
respondents have been receiving money for a long time, 19.4 percent for more than 10 years5
(Henry, 2010:23), there is a realistic danger that flows of external revenues decrease when bonds
between sender and recipient weaken. Again, the Remittance Survey Project supports this by stating
that 49.2 percent of respondents agree or strongly agree on the statement: without money from
abroad it would be difficult to survive (Henry, 2010:25). Therefore, remittances are not a
sustainable source of income and young people building their livelihoods on external revenues will
face severe problems to support themselves once financial flows stop. It will confront them with the
necessity to generate their own income which can translate into new challenges to find employment.
Drawing from the abovementioned, one of the root causes impedes youth employment in Jamaica to
The other respondents indicated the reception of remittances as follows: 6-10 years: 17.4%; 3-5 years: 25.0%;
1-3 years: 23.0%; Less than 1 year: 9.8% (Henry, 2010:23).
58

in terms of migration is dependencies. Migration and remittances in particular increase opportunities
for young Jamaicans to find jobs or acquire additional skills. However, if dependencies weaken young
Jamaicans ability to take decisions independently from external factors, these dependencies can
lead to lacks in self-reliance and motivation. Self-reliance and motivation, though, are an important
precondition to successfully combat unemployment. Dependencies on external resources and
inflows of remittances also create inequalities within or among communities. Households having
someone to support them from outside are in a more advantageous position to increase wealth and
opportunities compared to household that cannot benefit from such support. The JSLC finds out that
some communities demonstrate a generally above-average pace of development (STATIN/ PIOJ,
2010:VI) especially in those communities receiving remittances. However, the survey also observes
that a large proportion of households receiving remittances are from wealthier communities. In
2009, 49.3 percent of households in the wealthiest quintile received remittances, whereas in the
poorest quintile only 32.2 percent of households were recipients of remittances (STATIN/ PIOJ,
2010:2.6). This asserts that migration in Jamaica is mostly a phenomenon among highly trained and
skilled professionals from wealthy backgrounds. The noticeable concentration of Jamaicans in the
United States, the United Kingdom and Canada, gives evidence that the diaspora living outside
Jamaica features relevant levels of education and economic potential for participating in the labor
force of the guest countries. The large share of mostly well-educated Jamaicans immigrating to more
developed countries also reveals another challenge for youth employment in Jamaica: even though
local universities in Jamaica perform at levels of international standards and enable young Jamaicans
to compete on global labor markets, there are no sufficient incentives in Jamaica to keep those
young people in the country. Rather, limited opportunities to find jobs on the island induce youth to
use their skills abroad. Recent approximations indicate that over 80 per cent of Jamaicans with
tertiary level education and living outside of Jamaica were trained in Jamaica (IOM, 2010). It brings
to the attention the problem of brain drain which shall be another root cause for youth
unemployment in Jamaica in terms of migration. According to theoretical approaches criticizing
migration, migration provokes the withdrawal of human capital and the breakdown if traditional,
stable village communities and their economics (Haas, 2007:4f). Young, able-bodied people depart
from their home communities and by doing so contribute to an increase in inequality and a loss of
productive human capacity. Less critical theoretical assumptions claim that brain drain can also
translate into brain gain. That is, when those stayed behind are being motivated to pursue
education as a consequence of prospects to move abroad. Additionally, high skilled workers abroad
often are expected to return as entrepreneurs and investors that contribute to economic
development through innovative thinking and transnational operating or to invest in enterprises and
entrepreneurial activities in their home communities or. However, Ms. Nasolo Thompson points out
59

during the interview that the Jamaican education system is more likely to train Jamaican youth to be
employees rather than employers (Transcript 3). She says that in order to be a successful
entrepreneur, young people need to have entrepreneurial spirit, be creative and know about
processes of production. The Jamaican education system, however, barely focuses on fostering such
entrepreneurial spirit. This unfolds further challenges for Jamaican youth to overcome
unemployment within the Jamaican context and motivates youth to leave the country: shortcomings
in the Jamaican institutional landscape. The interrelation between economic concepts, such as
migration, and institutional concepts, such as ineffectiveness of the educational system become
obvious. [M]any developing countries now face mass unemployment among the highly skilled,
which is often the partial result of misguided education policies [], which do not reflect the true skill
and knowledge needs of developing economies (Haas, 2007:22). As a result, if educational policies
are not reflecting the needs of one country to achieve economic development, highly educated
young people cannot see their future in that country. It causes further brain drain. In the last couple
of years, the GOJ has undertaken many efforts to create better employment opportunities for youth
and stimulate entrepreneurial spirit through targeted programs. However, the large share of high
skilled young Jamaicans going abroad shows that incentives are not yet catchy enough and the
environment in Jamaica is not yet adequate in order to allow a substantial number of Jamaican youth
to create their own business or become successful employers, able to offer employment to others.
Having analyzed causalities of youth unemployment in terms of migrations, the government is seen
as one main actor. The GOJ has the capacity to create an environment for young Jamaicans to find
employment. Work arrangements with other nations such as the United States or Canada are fruitful
and give young people opportunities to work. However, if migration is a result of lacking jobs options
in Jamaica, the government does not fulfill its responsibility to find the right strategies to educate
people responding to the local economic landscape. This includes a wrong focus on curricula that do
not activate entrepreneurial spirit so that young people could become employers instead of
employees. Young people also play a vital role. They are actors that, first of all, seek to combat youth
unemployment through channels available to them. If they have better chances to find a job abroad
they do not only improve their own livelihoods but can also support others back in their home
country. However, when mostly high skilled professionals migrate they contribute to a loss of
valuable resources for the Jamaican labor market. It is not necessarily the case that migrating young
Jamaicans neglect their responsibility to help building Jamaicas economy, especially when they are
sending remittances or plan to return one day. Though, without doubt those workers will be missed
as a driving force to bring the country growth and prosperity and create better employment
opportunities for other fellow Jamaicans in the future.
60
CONCLUSION
Young people are key agents for social change: As the researcher pointed out, they are important
drivers for economic development, and with their motivation and energy they are a valuable human
resource able to contribute a lot to the prosperity of a country. In Jamaica, a large proportion of the
population is under the age of 25 which means that there is a lot of potential, talent and youthful
enthusiasm for the country available. One of the major challenges that impede the full development
of this potential is youth unemployment. High numbers of young Jamaicans searching a job or
working under unsatisfying conditions make it difficult for individuals as well as for society as a whole
to concentrate on the improvement of livelihoods. Youth unemployment threatens to turn their
motivation and energy into discouragement, shifts of values, interpersonal conflicts, underutilized
potential, poorer economic performance, and many more. The Government of Jamaica is aware of
the problem and is actively taking measures to combat youth unemployment with targeted training
programs, initiatives to create better employment opportunities for youth and policy reforms that
aim at making the formal educational system more appropriate to the needs of young people as well
as the economy.
Challenges that make it difficult for young Jamaicans to find employment have been identified within
the context of three thematic areas. Social, institutional and economic aspects influence the ability of
young people to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that help them to enter the labor market
successfully. Challenges in these three categories weaken the employability of youth and significantly
influence the course of young Jamaicans future path. The following is a brief summary of the main
challenges for youth employment that were detected in each thematic area:
First, in the social context youth unemployment was identified as a result of identity issues and
matters of capacity development. Jamaican society is strongly divided along gender lines and tasks.
Responsibilities and behavior is influenced by certain understandings of how men or female should
perform. Jamaican youth grow up in an environment where men are expected to fulfill an income
generating role and are able to comply with hard work. For that reason, young Jamaican men have
lower achievements rates at school compared to their female counterparts. They rather go and work
even though they have not acquired adequate preparation to obtain high-skilled employment.
Additionally, young male Jamaicans who are discouraged with their job situation and come from
poorer communities tend to get involved in criminal activities and violent behavior. Such attitudes
and the lack of appropriate training weaken their chances to be absorbed by the formal labor
market. Young Jamaican women perform better at school and show higher attendance rates.
Nevertheless, in the end they are more vulnerable to unemployment than young males. This is
CONCLUSION
closely connected to their role according to which they are expected to take over domestic tasks and
to cultivate social skills. Even though values have been shifting over the years and more young
people are receiving education and training, youth unemployment is still triggered by such
socialization processes and inherited cultural patterns as well as socio-economic conditions.
Jamaican youth from poor communities were identified to have fewer opportunities to gain decent
employment. They suffer from stress because they cannot easily afford substantial basic utilities,
they tend to engage in more risky (sexual) behavior causing higher threats to health and
independency and they have a weaker position when accessing education due to financial
constraints.
What can be learned from this? Jamaicas social context is very culturally driven which impacts youth
employment in a significant way. Initiatives to create better employment opportunities for young
Jamaicans should acknowledge this socio-cultural influence, increase participation and involvement
of young people in the process of identifying needs and adapt strategies of training according to the
local environment and its necessities.
Second, in the institutional context youth unemployment was identified to be a result of inefficiency
and budget constraints. The educational system in Jamaica is organized in a bureaucratic manner
which aims at achieving collective goals in the most effective way. The major goal of the educational
system in Jamaica is to prepare young people for the job market. However, low quality of teaching
and capacity shortcomings hamper the implementation of effective measures. A large number of
young Jamaicans do not pass examinations, do not obtain certification and lack basic skills such as
literacy or numeracy which are prerequisites for being absorbed by the labor market. This is due to
educational curricula that are not designed appropriately to motivate young people to perform
better at school. Teachers as well often lack adequate qualification. Additionally, training institutions
in Jamaica are not able to absorb all young Jamaicans into their programs. Consequently, there are
fewer training opportunities especially for those who cannot afford private education or youths have
to wait for a longer time to access training. Those Jamaican youths who did not have the chance to
be part of a training program have to enter the labor market without adequate skills. It reduces their
options to find long-term, decent employment because they do not fulfill the requirement
demanded by employers. Additionally, budget constraints make it difficult to improve methods of
teaching and to invest in the expansion of training opportunities. Even though public expenditure on
education makes up a rather large proportion of the national GDP, the spending is not used
effectively. High costs for bureaucratic procedures and an education system that only started to
undertake a modernization process, swallow financial resources that could be better used for
improving young Jamaicans employability.
62
CONCLUSION
What can be learned from this? Jamaicas educational system is based on a bureaucratic organization
that makes it difficult to be flexible towards occurring needs. A modernization process is urgently
necessary in order to make financial resources available. Thereby, the quality of teaching could be
improved. Teachers should be prepared adequately to cope with difficult students behavior.
Third, in the economic context youth unemployment in Jamaica was identified to be a result from
public debts and migration. The country is highly indebted and forced to rely on borrowing from
other countries and international organizations. This causes various liabilities as well as constraints
for Jamaicas government. High debt serving costs swallow large proportions of the national
spending. Money directed to comply with creditor arrangements cannot be used to run or improve
initiatives aiming to integrate young people into the labor market. Additionally, creditors often link
loans to conditions such as policy reforms or expenditure cuts. It weakens the GOJs sovereignty and
its power to take decisions as regards to economic planning or public spending. Such constraints lead
to frustration and impede the delivery of quality teaching. Another finding reveals that many of welleducated young people who do not find employment in Jamaica move abroad to work there.
Remittances are one of the largest contributions to Jamaicas economy. However, migrating
Jamaicans are often well-educated professionals. By leaving the country they draw off valuable
resources for economic development. It is a result of misguided focus of education policies which do
not reflect the needs of the local economy. Increased training of young people to be employers
instead of employees would help to create new job opportunities. Hence, this requires
entrepreneurial spirit which is not being cultivated in Jamaica.
What can we learn from this? The Jamaican government is motivated and ambitious to improve the
employment situation for young people in the country. They have designed many different programs
and initiatives to prepare the Jamaican youth for future jobs but many challenges make it difficult for
those measures to bring about significant change. The government should continue its course to
focus on youth and assess their needs as well as the needs of the economy. The atmosphere in
Jamaica is vibrant and positive. The Jamaican government as well as Jamaican citizens are all working
together and doing their best to reach the optimal result which could be possibly achieved under
such circumstances. Maybe it is a question of time. At the moment, the Government of Jamaica is
taking active steps to survey Jamaican youth and review the national youth policy. Maybe this will
help to design new strategies and combat youth unemployment in Jamaica eventually.
63
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APPENDIX
Transcript 1:
Ms. Sherrian Gray, Technical Specialist on Youth and Social Transformation, Community
Renewal Programme, the Planning Institute of Jamaica
Kingston, Jamaica: 7 November 2011.
SW: So, what is actually the program on?
SG: uhm, the CEAP?Alright, the programme is a program that started from the post Tivali. I dont
know if you know what the is. Or if you have heard about it.
SW. hmh, yeah.
SG:so what it is is is that ared forces, military forces went into Tivali to collect the then known don of
the area. Whats his name. dudus.
SW: yeah, I think I saw his building yesterday
SG: alright, so, what happened is that the program came about because when the armed forces went
in they came about that there were a lot of developmental challenges that we found with tivali
gardens. Uhm, in essence he was , he basically dealt with health care, educational needs,
SW: yeah, I heard he would pay foir the people to go toi the doctor.
SG: right. Everything for them. So, and as well as he had his enforcesrs. Who then would provide
security for the who lived there. With all of this said he basically was the don for the area , he
controlled that .so, when it is that we national security and then we went and then we got him
because of the exiditaion treaty and they send out, the US send out exidiation request for him
because he is also a drug dealer and a trafficer. And when we went and got him there were a lot of
needs that ministry of national security could not resolve
SW: mhm
SG: so, planning institute got the go ahead from the prime minister then to develop drafts,
something that would would deal with these developmental challenges
SW: mhm.
SG: uhm, in doing it as out first response what they realized is that because here are so many
communities in jamaica that are like tivali. Yet they may not be that they have a don like that but
they have the same kind of challenges a wider program was then thought needed to be developed,
hence the community entrepreneurial programme which is a consultated program I was involved in a
draft in a draft as well. And we drafted something and we said we work in a hundred communities
across jamaica about a of them in the Kngstin, st andrew and st cathrin urban area or urban
periphery. Those in the rural areas are mostly under the rural periphery
SW: there are not so many dons
ANNEX
SG: right, right. So, this program has components physical infrasturecture, governance, uhm,
security, youth development and social transformation and entrepreneurship. Which is social
economic development of what its also called inside here. So, those are the components that we
thought needed to be addressed and then deal with. Uhm. But, part of the program is that we are
also going to implement. We will implement the things that need to fill that gap. But one of the
things is that there are millions (???) of programs operating in kingston and st cathrin. All across the
island but but with funders from privat sector funders to IDPs Invest development partners (??) but
there is really no coordinating framework that could capture everything. So, what it is is that we had
said okay, this program is also going to have to tackle part of this which is looking at what happens at
each community level, what are all the things that have been measured to reduce duplication of
efforts make sure that we target things that need to be targeted is that if we need to target youth
between the age oof 15 to 24 specifically who actually have that don. Seperat from maybe other
programs that have been more wider reaching uhm- and another level in government they are
doing other things they are revising the social safety net the social protection issues those things are
being done at other levels and other line (??) ministries. But in here we`re actually actual program
delivery. So, its really to enhance social service delivery at a community level. Basically.
SW: and how do they, for example talking about entrepreneurship, what kind of programs do you
have there, maybe also in that Tivoli area or in general?
SG: in Tivoli you have a merit of programs that have started, its not so much Tivoli. Tivoli I think you
have the one social intervention progam is the citizen security and justice program that is the one
underneath the ministiry of national security, thats an IDB funded project and its a loan, right.
SW: hmh, ok.
SG: now, uh, csjp, for short, works in uuuh, well, it was 31, but I was told by the program manager
recently that they want to move it up to 50. to him. Uhm, I dont think they can manage the 50
because what they do is they actually operate on the ground. literally. I was a part of that program
as well, so I can tell you
SW: and on the ground means with the kids and the young people.
SG: with the kids and the young people, with the older persons, with those who are gunmen. With
everybody. So they deliver on the ground. Unlike some other programs that might do a kind of like a
contract, subcontract. That actually deliver.
SW: so, what is your personal experience form working with the kids, what are some of the main
challneges that they face in daily life?
SG: uhm, daily life
SW: maybe also as regards to employment, to finding a job.
SG: Alright, alright. You are asking a whole lot there. Let me answer it this way. Alright, the kids in
Jamaica and especially those in the inner city they face numerous problem. One of the main ones is
that they cant find employement because they are not literate. Right, theyre basically what we can
call functional literate where they can at least maybe write their name and maybe recognize their
name. but thats as far as it goes. Okay. So if we (youed) to them, so you want to go and give them a
70
ANNEX
job it becomes very difficult. So, when I was at I can tell you what we used to do. We used to find
employemnet for them and we would go to maybe one of the restaurants and we would ask if they
could hire them. The kids cannot pass the basic entrance test because they can not recognize whats
on the paper. So, basically what this tells you is that they fudged through school. What we than had
to do is put them to (meida) classes, literacy and numeracy. Basic stuff. At the community level
within a community center setting and put teachers there that would then get them through to that
level where they could at least be certified as being literate. For those who have problem with
because one of the basic things in jamaica for you to have to be hired you need to have at least 3
CASCs(???), maths, english and another subject. So, if you dont have that youre not gonna get
employed, off the bat.
SW: Do you know the rate, how many actually pass that?
SG: The rates are dismale (???)( in the first couple of years of doing it. Now the rates are up to about
70-80 and we now have kids who through the scholarship programm undernmeath the (7:43-47)
CS3PMand national security like the whole Lets see, the last one that I was part of we had
about 300 to 400 kids all together and about half of them were education and about out of that
number you had about 10 that were that were going to medicine that we funded. So, you have, there
are improvements that have been done but its still very hard for them to move forward and one of
the things that our education system on a whole drives kids towards being employed not being
employers. So, the issue of entrepreneurship Is gonna be very difficult to get them to move from the
point okay, I need to get a job to actually being a job creator and a wealth creator. What has
happened that you have other programs like, uhm, I dont know if you have heard about Air Agency
for Inner city renewal. By Dr Henry Morgan. He is in charge of he has a programme, you can ask
Sonia to maybe introduce you to him, because I think his porgamme is probably very successful. He
has what I think one of them is green houses in trench town. Right, now, uhm, the issue of
entrepreneurship (9:10???) so, people are trying to ???. You have degree programmes being set up
in agricultural entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship a whole whole stuff different in terms of
entrepreneurship. But its basically to encourage people to start being business operators and not
depending on a job being created because the reality is that its not gonna happen. So, if you dont
tratify that nieche youre gonna have some issues in terms of your self survival.
SW: What is done to encourage this? Are there special school or entrepreneurship programs?
SG: ya, you have inititally at the University of the west indies which is a longer standing university
had started to do programs in entrepreneurship, so what has happened is that other universities,
other university groupings have started to put in the same kind of things, we have university, college
caribbean its called UCC for short, that much I can tell you
SW: UCC
SG: Yeah, they have now a degree in social entrepreneurship.
SW: but they are all already well educated, the kids, theyre all university level
SG: yeah, they are university level. One onf the things cuz I did my masters in agricultural
entrepreneurship, youre actually encouraged to go and implement at a community and micro level.
So, I suspect the same occurs for them at that level and its to find persons and assist them to draft
business plans and actually implement the business, let the business run and you basically help them
71
ANNEX
along the way. So, you have that. Uhm, you have the youth programme which I think is a private
sector entity as well. They also have been trying to push the issue of entrepreneurship and I think the
YES programme which was youth entrepreneurship something that the prime minister had endorsed
was also done by another private sector entity. That also pushed the same entrepreneurship which
were to take the kids that were leaving household and then had the desire to go to university and
then get them to do and start their own business.
SW: and is that work at the community level, do they go in there?
SG: uhm, well, they were supposed to, whether they have actually or not, that I dont know. It is
something that Im supposed to be working with them here, so I just got some documents this
morning actually was looking at it ok, lets see if they actually did what they were supposed to do. I
dont know that. I dont think any assement has been done as to how they have been movin forward.
But one of the things that this programme has that are really encouragin is that people are to work in
partnerships. Dont work alone because youre not gonna get that kind of impact . If someone did
something and has learned certain lessons and they did it better than you could have then just piggy
bag on what theyre doing, have a kind of partnership and move forward. So, I know the youth and
the yes programme are supposed to work with this CSGPN Lewy?? and a couple of other entities that
are already existing in government service.
SW: so, theyre working partnerships between the different organisations and they partner
SG: yes, they are. Uhm, typically, you asked me some questions. The education factor is one thing
with a young child, the next issue is a matter of parenting and aprenting control. Uhm, parents, years
ago when our population structure started to change I was told (12:38???) to have younger parents, I
dont think persons were very conscisous as it comes to consequences of what that would mean and
the fact that many parents were also migrating leaving a lot of what we call barrial children. Uhm,
nobody took that into consideration either. So, what we have here is later, are several kids who have
been brought up and its like they exist in a different kind of valid scheme. That word exists in
jamaica. And basically the TV brought them up. Or the streets brought them up. And you then have
to find a way to resocialize them. Now, there are many programmes that have been tried or are
being tried that is supposed to impact on the childrens lives. I can speak of CSGP because it had the
greatest impact, I worked with them. So, I know that uhm, usc (?? 13:31) has various programmes
and it has also been successful. Uhm, but in terms of, when were talking about a cohecy program
that would tackle every part of a childs life that has never been done. Uhm, I was in one that came
the closest which was JA style which was a USAID funded programme but we did not do every
component because were stationed at the ministry of health and obviously if youre stationed at thte
ministry of health thats not gonna be the focus. CSGP what I refer to is a ministry of national security
programme. It has a security background and a security field. It is for violence prevention. So, there is
really not one programme that says okay lets look at the overall development of a human being and
lets just sort out everything for that human being. That doesnt exist in jamaica.
SW: how do you think, uhm, you you said you worked in the communities, so you worked on the
ground and you know pretty well whats going on. Are there any attempts to also include young
people and let them participate in for example the program design?
SG: uhm it depends on which agency. ??? you said. What ofd the main problems is that the
government of jamaica has not really.(pause) drafted a program whole as whole. I think the closest
72
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that came to it was the YES program. Uhm, all the programs are gonna have depends on the funderthere will be some level of youth pariticpation in it. It does not necessarily dictate that it will go
through. Underneath the child care and protection act which we recognize a child from 0 to 18 which
takes in the ban 15 to 18 which will be classified as youth under the UNuhm any program that a
child is to be involved in must have the childs must participate in the development of the plan.
That is within the law. And that is something that they try to enforce but again, the enforcement of
that legislation is problematic because the person who is supposed to be one of the main
implementors also has to be the regulator and monitor of it which is the child development agency.
You cant do both through us. I just said that to them in our report that I . It dont work that way.
So, I dont know if the government is going to be addressing it. I know they want to do changes
within the legislation but Im not quite sure if they are tackling that. It might not be possible right
now because we have some fiscal restraints. So but it is encouraged in the last I can tell you
from 2004 , it was enacted in 2004. so think about from 2004 to now 2011, there has been a lot of
changes and a lot of kids have been you have youth parliament now, we have youth embassadors,
what are the things we have? I think we have them on committees and councils. I know when I had
worked at GCSL (??) I had encouraged youth participation on the CDCs Community Development
committees and any kind of government strucuture for them to have a voice and to activly
participate and to have a voting right. So, I know that some of these things have happened in some
of the communities and I know for CSGPs theres a thrust also and officers that we employed from
communities are all youth. So, they are encouraged to be part of the system and so forth, so yeah
SW: thats nice. Could you actually even connect me to one of those young people that are actively
involved in
SG: yeah, I can. I have ..
SW: or I just write you an email
SG: yeah Mann
SW: yeah, I ask Angie, because thats easier for you
SW: yeah, thats probably easier. Very nice. Maybe one last question, because you said in terms of
working with the UN. How do you think that they actually really uhm how do they find the need
here in this particular context. How well can they actually with their recognize what is needed here.
SG: Oh, you mean in terms of identification of like problem that needs to be addressed.
SW: yeah, exactly, because they sit somewhere else, right and you live here in the reality
SG: uhmalrightevery now and then I have to be diplomaticevery now and then, the UN gets it
right. Every now and then. Its not every area. Uhm, but some programs, and I know when it comes
to youth its a big problem, people cant fully identify what it is that is required. So youth programs
usually run a far far gammacal way. And also, let me tell you, I wont worry the UN because even in
Jamaica really since the child care and protection act in 2004 its really just now that people actually
recognize the need to actually have children participation and recognize that they are gonna be the
next generation of leaders and persons who are gonna run this country. It really and it is the fault
also of the country. So, I cant really expect the UN to have an idea, when the country itself doesnt
have an idea as to where it wants to go. And Ive said that from from the beginning: Any organisation
73
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that Ive worked with said WE must know what we want. Because when funder come along they
will fund something that they think will work they will take another example from elsewhere in the
world, they will modify it here but that doesnt mean its something that we really require that we
really need and I mean, being a Jamaican and having to negotiate with funders, you know, these are
your needs for your logframe and these are our needs. How do we get the two to come together. Its
difficult. Its difficult and I had a difficult job when I was at national security work. That are some of
the challenges. The UN sometimes, as I said, gets it right. Jamaica is a different kind of society. Uhm,
its not so easy to pinpoint what the needs are. Some things might seem obvious but they are not
really the needs they are what was manifested, the symtopms are still there, that need to be treated.
So, one to me and this is one things Ive seen working in the field for whatabout 7 or 8 years,
our problem is a developmental one. We put things to place and we dont monitor and then go back,
modify and change, we put things in place and then we leave it. A nd then when it starting to break
down those structures then we start to have these problems. You know, when people were
migrating in ??? and they let their children behind, whats gonna happen to those kids who may have
an elderly parent, grandmother or something looking after them. Youre gonna have a problem,
because theyre gonna grow without having the void of a familiar context around them. And the
community did not respond in the kind of way they needed to. Because everyone has more demands
in terms of work and a whole else of other things. So, we should re-read it, we should have started to
tackle things ??? within the state within civil society bodies but I think most persons now are seeing
that, you know, the partnership is necessary. The questions is how is the partnership done between
civil society, faith based, the government. Those need to be sorted out a little bit more. We have
examples of some that work well and I think we should really doublicate them.
SW: which one is the one doing well?
SG: uhm, you have like the dispute resolution foundation. They are an NGO and they basically, the
have, uh, we call it subvention, they get it from the minstry of justice, so they do mediation on behalf
of the ministry of justice, they are trying to expand their portfolio to other aspects as well. Uhm, you
have the peace mamnagement initiative which works with the ministry of national security. They also
do, uhm, coalition for the rights of the child, they work well with the child development agency. They
dont get the subvention, they get funding through UNICEF, so UNICEF basically gives them the
money and they do that. You have the Roving care system as well, you have the possiblity program,
they used to get money from the ministry of youth but ministry of youth cut its budget, so they got
cut, but I understand from them they they are supposed to get money from the child development
agency because they have shifted their focus so, there are numerous one that work, I think I think
its a matter of beefing up and then maybe put things as a struggle management system in the NGOs
because they are after all NGOs and you know its quite a bit of volunteer work to keep them up and
running, cuz people have other jobs but uhm, you have them, you have those that work there is
another one, I cant remember the name. the name of her organisation Dr. Beverly Scott, she
operates in St???... she operates a center and she has support not only from CSGP but also child
development AG as well as the member of parliament??? So, she also does work and she deals with
uhm, theres a school ??? she s a clinical ??? She gives, uhm, technical support to that program. So,
there are, there are. There are that one that work.
SW: thats a nice ending. Very positive.
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SG: Listen, I had, I recently had to do, be part of a study for USAid on child justice assessement in the
region and I used to think Jamaica was dismal until I went to the rest of the Caribbean. And then I
went Oh, we are further ahead, thank god, so when I saw that threre is actually worse and their
populations are much smaller than ours we are actually not as bad as we think. I think the things is
that our resources are drying up rightly so, with recession, with a whole lot of other ??? cuz its for
other countries we need to be smarter how we use the resources we have and I think is a crucial
problem. And Jamaica needs to starte out having a whole government restructured and when we do
that then we will resolve other things. I dont think its necessarily a reduction in government
expenditure. In terms of staffing, its just a matter of how the staff does their work. ??? and getting
that kind of mindeset to change. Maybe it might work.
SW: How can that mindset happen
SG: it started already now. With some infusion of the younger persons its just that uhm, you have
younger and older persons in our system and uhm, its either that you need to retire older persons or
whatever. I know that in the national security we started to retire persons . so, those who were in
the retirement age and those who were maybe five years to retirement age we asked them the
question you want to take early retirement and they said yes. So, we said okay, so those older
persons actually come back as consultants. They are just there to make sure that the system works.
But that is something national security was doing when I was there. I dont know if other government
entities would do the same thing. We had a ??? ath that time that belived in succesion planning
because he was a business man so he came with that thrustand that is what we were doing. So, it can
be done, but changes not occur quickly, it takes a little time SW: but its a question of time and then
it maybe happens.
SG: exactly, its a matter of time.
SW: Thank you very much for the interview.
Transcript 2:
Mr. Machel Stewart (MS), Poverty Programme Advisor at UNDP Jamaica

SW: Yes, just to explain a little bit. I am a German student doing development and international
relations have worked with the ILO before and there I worked with the Youth Employment Network.
So, youth employment was my topic an we also worked with Jamaica. So; i am writing on about
youth employment in Jamaica. But would like to understand better the context in which young
people try to find employment and what challenges they face. So, I think i was actually quite
interesting when Kacy told me about the poverty eradication campaign for example. You know, you
work on other features that make part of the context that young people are from. So, could you
maybe explain m a bit more in detail what the poverty eradication campaign is about?
MS: Ok, alright, let me back focus again. We have several units here at UNDP, we are in the poverty
reduction unit. You now the use the word poverty reduction rather than eradication, different
mindsets, different background, its not something I believe that can be eradicated but something
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which can be reduced. Both in terms of the amount of people living in poverty and in terms of what
poverty entity, living in poverty entity is. If you could ad vision our world, I am gonna go side by .
where the poorest person in the world lived like at a average suburban identity in the united states
four bedroom house, two car garage, kids and garden, if that person is considered poor and
everybody else i the world lives like bill gates, then thats not so much of a problem. So thats how
we are trying to do, we are trying to say a rising tight lifts our ships. So, when we are talking bout
reducing poverty e are talking about both, the normal persons who experience poverty and the
???quality of life.
In Jamaica, UNDP we have recognized that one of the issues which constraints poverty reduction
efforts in jamaica is just a lack of fiscal resources on the part of the government and a lack of capacity
among those who are poor to change their own lives. So let me deal i those in order??? poverty as
you know has many dimensions . There is the physical state of being poor, lead to your
infrastructure, your sanitary facility, access to electricity, access just to water, your basic needs.
There are also other manifestations looking at your social welfare in terms of access to education,
good quality education and then life opportunities following that. In the grant scheme of things, if
you are born poor, and you dont get some sort of transformational opportunity, you live and die
poor, you go to poor quality schools, youll have poor levels of health, you probably only interact
with fellow persons that also live in poverty, you marry somebody else who lives in poverty, your
children will become poor etc. if government has in place some social protection mechanisms, basic
healthcare being free, basic education being free but also insuring that the quality of both, education
and healthcare is at an efficient level, to ensure that persons will be able to escape poverty. So, if you
are able to get good health and be properly educated and you have a good nutrition, then it probably
is that your educational outcome will be different. youll be able to improve your education, youll
be able to get higher paid jobs, youll able to escape. Thats the theory. Now, in jamaicas context
because of debt, government mismanagement, etc we dont have adequate healthcare or education.
For the members of the poor. The social protection mechanisms we have, conditional cash transfers,
the funding from violent?? (4:43) from them are at subsistence level and oftentimes cant allow for
some to access high quality education etc. in terms of geographic location, poverty is highest in rural
areas and then found in pockets of urban areas. But the levels of school and hospitals available in
these areas are lower than whats found in urban areas or suburban areas. So, right, when you map
geographical areas in terms of levels of poverty, and you map that again in terms of resources that
the government provides, education, healthcare, water, etc. you find at lower levels f poverty are
associated with lower levels of service provision. So we are trying to help the government identify
fiscal space in order to improve the services delivered to these areas. So we have helped them with
the jamaica debt exchange, we were an intergovernmental partner in getting the government to
repair some of his high cost debt in favor of lower costs that basically extend the repayment ??? so
thats one thing. We also help them to implement the current conditionalized associated with many
of the international agencies, so, the IMF, the world bank and the IADB have conditionalities which
they attached to their financing, and until you accomplish these conditionalities you cant access it.
But we have programs which assist the government in implementing some of these conditionalities
where that be the discouraged ?? responsibility framework on legislation, the technical...
SW: how does the collaboration with the government look like on a daily basis? How well does it
work?
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MS: cooperation is not so much the issue, we have very good relationships we cooperate very good,
uhm, the issue has to do with the pace of implementation. They themselves, again because of their
fiscal space, suffer from a capacity issue in terms of their asortic ?? capacity. They sometimes do not
have sufficient staff to do what is needed to get this completed, sometimes they cannot identify
where consultants are needed, they have a problem identifying sufficient consultants to get the
work done. Uhm, and then it competes in general, there is not a dedicated project to...?? so it
competes with their regular day to day housekeeping responsibility. And if you think about it, if you
have a job an if you read the comportances of your job (7:40) that you have so much only have an
amount of time that anything else is going to limit your amount of time that you have on your regular
assets. You are going to choose the regular assets. So, we have those issues. But in terms of
willingness, in terms o understand what needs to be done, there is clear understanding on that. Its
just implementation pace at itself that is slow. So thats looking at the government side n terms of
what we an do because it is the government in terms of their policy network, in terms of their fiscal
space. On the other side of it getting people in their own in need capacities. What we have now is a
project working rural youth. Its called the rural youth employment project ...for short. We have it on
our website as well. Basically with this rural youth project what we do is working with young people
in rural areas to develop businesses based on agriculture and agro-processing. So, what we d with
this project, we provide them with the training in various areas o agriculture, in various crops, in
various aspects of animal husbandry
SW: they happen in the communities?
MS: it happens in the communities, it happens on the actual farm, it happens in the actual facilities,
though some of the agro-processing like juice manufacturing etc. we need to bring them into the
institutional home of the project, the centre for research council where we actually do retrain in
hands on with test-equipment, etc. Yeah, the (9:09) thats one plan, thats training them. The other
plan has to do with making community owned, ahh, community owned, but commercially operated
pulse harvest facilities. Ahhm, whether these are punnet processing facilities or these are meat
processing facilities. Goat houses, etc. And these facilities are now put in the communities so that the
youth are able to access them for the post harvest production.
SW: So this is again focusing youth?
MS: Its youth, all that Im telling about is youth. Ahhm, Im gonna divert to say that why we are focus
on youth. Its a matter that its the youth most able or most nimble in adjust their live chances. Its
not everything possible, its much harder to work with those who are past the youth age, who are
already existent in the state. So we can work with the generations upcoming. then its a easier task.
Plus there is a high over representation of youth in unemployment and poverty and finally there is a
relationship the ability to keep your youth engaged and sated ? and satisfied and peace and harmony
in society. Idle hands do idle things. Uhm, plus when you looking at technology and the ability to
move from one step to the other (10:43) you notify that youth are more embracing new technology
and new ways of doing things than other in the population. So we are working with the youth.
The other thing we are trying to do is to even as we do that integrated within the projects is a plan to
have some pile up youth selected a small subset of six or seven who we will give full support in terms
of business access, marketing etc. for them to commercialize their enterprises. So, they can move
from their subsistence selling on the corner or selling down the street to link them to tourism
industry and agro-processing industry. The idea be that these will be a demonstration who will then
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utilize their knowledge that they have gained to help the other youth the come up the same
development path. So, those are the two main aspects of poverty reduction that we are actually
doing.
Uhm, we do, the third element thats related to poverty reduction whats matter directly related to it
and that is looking at improving Jamaicas data management and its use of monitoring and
evaluation mechanisms. Why is it important? It is important because we need to know who are the
poor, where are they found, what are their needs and what can be done to help them. So we want to
move towards a more evidence based policies (12:23) so, we support the national statistical office
statin in developing a harmonized framework of data statistics, so when we get data from the
ministry of health and we get data from the ministry of education, data from the ministry of national
security, data from the ministry of social security, we can be sure that the data is ..roast ??, accurate
and is measured in the same thing. So they are all using the same ruler, line or markation. So that is
what we are focusing on. Thats in terms of development on the evidence side. And then in terms of
monitoring and evaluation we are helping the government to establish various. M&E frameworks
looking at the national development plan, vision 2030, uhm doing assessments and evaluations who
we can learn lessons of plants farm??? And using them to incorporate them into their programs
SW: so what measures so far do you use to identify the needs of the young people?
MS: well, what we are working on basically we have some older data, some poverty mapping which
was done way back in 2002 thats almost ten years now. We use information from our theres an
annual document thats been produced, theres two document, one is the economic and social
survey and we have another one called the survey of living conditions also produced by the Im not
sure if you have seen that one. Thats the Jamaica survey of living conditions
Most of literature we use of agency (13:58) and we use them I have another copy here, yes its n
old copy from 2006.
SW: is it possible to get one of those, for example of the living conditions survey?
MS: you know the planning institute of Jamaica, they produce them and theyre on sale there.
SW: ok
MS: right, they produce this an essj, the economic and social survey. But these are the bibles of
development workers in Jamaica because these are worldwide known recognized publications. This
has been going on for 20 years. 22 years now actually and so it has data tracking back to jamaicas
living conditions. Here this speaks about consumption, health education, housing. Everything. So,
those are what we use. And even though we use them we recognize that there is a flaw in terms of
uniform interrogating. So you can use it to see whats happening in the housing sector, whats
happening in education sector, whats happening in the health sector. But its much harder to pull
out interrelationships between health education and housing. So, I couldnt look at this and say
which parishes or which communities are very low as health care and education. Cuz I would not
compare and see data pointetc. uhmwe use these and then we also have discussion with
government panels and stakeholders. And at this point, 90-99% of what we do is with the
government, we work with NGOs at this point not because we have anything against NGOs its just
that in terms of efficiency and efficacy with the limited funds that we have in that sense that we are
working with the government in areas that they are already working, what this unit does partly is
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that we look to see what are all initiatives that are offered by various donors, various agencies, the
government itself and we can come in as leverage point or point of interconnectingness to bring
these barriers of these things together. So that we move from a situation what the literature will tell
you about development across silos. Stranded little project with no relationship, so what we try to
do is try to be a bridge between these silos. So, almost everything we do is value adding to
something someone else is doing. So that we can maximize the effort.
And then, strange enough, I have found myself handling, bundling donor coordination in Jamaica. So,
thats another part of what we do here as well. So, that is pretty much what we do.
SW: ok. that sounds very interesting and its very broad. Do you actually already have evaluations
rural youth employment project
MS: we dont have any evaluation yet, because its just, its been operating for round about 18
months.
SW: so what are there some of the challenges of implementation?
MS: okay, challenges of implementation, uhm, as usual one of them is institutional arrangements,
bureaucracy, we work with implementing agencies which are usually attached to a government
department, so thats one, the bureaucracy of getting everything, the procurement done,
bureaucracies of getting consultants hired
Other challenges we have is keep the youth interested in what we are doing. Identifying suitable
trainers
SW: how do you manage that to keep the youth interested?
MS: well, all sorts of, what we did was handpick those who showed the most dedication in terms of
preparing for it. Cuz we asked them to prepare and assisted them to prepare a business plan. What
we said was, okay you want to become a member of this project, you might as well decide that you
wanna do it through groups rather than individuals, we said, okay, easy, the matter is you prepare a
business plan. We get them a consultant to assist them to do the preparations for a business plan
and then those business plans were given to review board that looked through it and found those are
the ones suitable and then the persons on the ground also told us who showed the most attitude
towards (Spirit) (18:33) committed, you have to commit a lot of time, you have to commit some kind
of leadership etcdedication. And so we chose those who showed the most dedication. The other
thing was that we made an requirement to them that at the end of the day, whatever knowledge and
funding they obtained will remain in the communities for their use but that it had to be, they
recognized for them to any point they had to show that it is economic supporting, so if you put up a
facility in a community to process honey , they have to know that at the end of the day the facility
will remain in the community and operate there and we allow it to operate there but more important
that they have to pay to use it as an economic post-cost ensure so that it can be sustainable. You
cant just give it to them and say they can use it without paying the bills
So, once they know that now then they recognize that they have to be committed for this to benefit
fto them. We also provide them with good training, we also we are even going as far as to provide
them with ?? literacy training at little cost to them. And what we have also been doing is to get
additional funders, other agencies, other ongoing programs to provide liquid and non-liquid
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contributions. So, theyve gotten scholarships to go to some small scholarship, small training
programs. Community members have donated long leases of land , 20 years and they know, okay we
are landless youth, have nothing to do except standing at the corner but here it is, a community
member has seen our potential and has bought into this idea and has given us land to use.
The other thing we do is we have community workshops which is very important thing where we get
the senior is a community to buy into the idea and monitor and mentor the youth, so we get the
shop keepers, business owners. So we get into the communities, we say we want to work with youth
and we require you to just mentor, if you see them not going to the right around training courses, if
you see them not working or pulling their weed on the palm, speak to them, you are their elders, you
are their community leaders, they look up to you. Got this community workshops, bought in, give
them leadership training, group dynamics training. So what were trying to do is give them as much
of a head start or a contribution to their sustainability as we possibly could. Yes, were gonna have
some drop out, so far we have not experienced much of that.
SW: Okay. Well, then thank you very much for the interview.
Transcript 3:
Ms. Nasolo Thompson (NS), National Project Officer at the International Labour Office
Jamaica
SW: So, I know that youth employment and entrepreneurship is not quite child labor. Yet, uhm, what
I think is very interesting to look at is also the context, where they are coming from like what are
challenges in their communities, where would they turn to or also informal sector. Issues like that.
Do you work with that? Or maybe just tell me about your work.
NT: Okay well, what we do is, this is an ILO project, its funded by the European Union, and our focus
is the elimination of child labor through education. Jamaica is a signatory to the convention on child
labor and on minimum age on employment. So just through a, you know, international relations
perspective, we are obliged to work towards these kind of goals and the ILO, well actually the MDG
have set the target of elimination of child labor through education until 2014 or something. To which
we are actively working. Our main role and as Im sure you are familiar with we have been worked
with this before is that we are a facilitatory agency. We dont actually implement on the ground, we
collaborate with various partners, we help them to make the decisions on how to resolve these
issues. So, in our project we work with NGOs, we work with the various government agencies,
ministry of labor, ministry of education, and the police force, you know, child development agency,
the ministry of health, a bunch of different stakeholders. And we see, you know, what is the best way
that we can assist them to make you know problematic and institutional and legislative reforms in
order to work towards this elimination of child labor through education goal. so, for example with
the ministry of education we help them to develop a curriculum with a child labor focus, a curriculum
that can be inserted in the overall curriculum to raise awareness for child labor and children and help
them make better decisions. So, when it comes to your topic area of now the background and where
they are living and that kind of thing I know that you are leaving today but I can push you on the
phone to somebody who can help you a lot with that because she works in the community with the
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kids, I only can give you my kind of administrative kind of standpoint which is very she is on the
ground, shes in the trenches kind of thing.
Uhm, just to uhm, so, okay, so what we see a lot in Jamaica happening in terms of child labor
specifically is that it has a very long history, the culture is long. Its a long historical culture going right
back to the plantations you know slavery this kind of things, so, uhm, children working in very
familial, its multigenerational, community, you know very specific in terms of the type of labor that
they do. if you have for example a community that focuses a lot on fishery for example tend to
have the children involved in fishery related child labor kind of thing versus agricultural type of labor
whatever, this kind of things. Uhm, theres a parallel kind of relationship between or corolla kind of
relationship between child labor and education. Uhm, weve in this just and this is not backed by any
research that Im currently aware of, this is just sort of in your work you hear you see. Theres been
over the last, maybe 50 years, theres been a shift, very dramatic shift in the sources of income that
Jamaicans, you know, poorer people have been able to access and the corresponding shift in their
attitudes towards education. So, whereas before, 50 years before, education as very much an elite
thing, right? So, for example my grandfather who is Jamaican went to I think he finished school at
primary school, right? So he was really, he was one of these self made men read a thousand books
and he, through his own self education he managed to achieve a lot but his real focus was that his
kids should definitely go to secondary and where possible to tertiary institutions and obviously that
carried down the line. But you have a lot of people who are saying to themselves we are going
through the education system and we will not be able to get jobs, right? Which comes back to the
youth unemployment issue. Its a huge problem, right? But the youth employment issue is not simply
that they are going to school and are not able to get jobs because its not just an absorptive issue.
Right, so, the economy and the labor market cannot absorb them is one part of it right but another
part is what can they, what skills do they are going to bring to the table that makes them absorbable.
And you find that a lot of them leaving school have no certification, I think its 70 percent have no
certification at all. So, they dont achieve any certification from high school, so, uhm, a lot of the skills
necessary to be absorbable by the formal work space are lacking. Literacy, proficiency in English,
numeracy and social soft skills, you know, interpersonal relations, conflict resolution, those kind of
things are definitely uhm its a challenge of many people coming out the school system. And parts
of it is the weight that the families or the parents place on education. Because historically, if you
went to school, just even high school, you could get a job. So, there was a goal. But then, when you
mass produce these tons of educated people, the pool of what so, let me be clear, 50 years ago
when you went to high school and you got a job in a bank then you were good. Now, a thousand
people go to high school, there is not a thousand jobs in the bank, so youre leaving and then what
Now you need a first degree to get a teller in the bank, okay? You need a masters degree to be a a
second grade teller, Im exaggerating, so, uhm, its because people look at it and say, boy, you
know tertiary education is private, its subsidized by the government but its private, so you need to
have money in order to pay for it and its very expensive. Even for families that have parents who are
working. Alright? Its very expensive. Because we have an increasing working poor. Thereyou know
the global economic crisis is definitely an impact of that. Peoples disposable income has really
shrunk, uhm, so, they would definitely finding it difficult, so now the question becomes what is the
value of education in this particular context? If I can earn money and survive doing things that do not
require formal education, then Im going to pursue that. This is what we see happening quite often,
so we have the situation where the parents or the family or whoever says, yeah its important that
you go to school, its important but on X day you need to come out of school to do 1,2,3,4,5. Right?
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Because we need to do this for the family. So, uhm, its very common for children not to go to school
on a Friday, very very common for a number of reasons: if its an agricultural environment, then they
are helping their parents to get everything together, to go to the market on Saturday, ok? If they are
in an urban setting then they are traders, then they are helping their families prepare in order to
trade what is there, what was brought by the people from the rural areas to trade it on the markets,
because just because you produce it doesnt mean you trade it. Right? Or at least to the third part
because there is also the intermediary. So, there is thats very common uhm, but then theres also
a lot of stress. You know, you have a lot of research coming out about this stress levels that people
are encountering are very very high.
SW: Even in Jamaica.
NT: yes, they are very very high, because they deal with a lot of social pressure. You have, you know,
financially really really difficult, you know, uhm, cost of living is very high, our how should I put this?
Our recorded inflation is still in the double digits anduhm so there is a lot of issues that people are
facing, there is, uh, social instability, organized crime is very significant, to a lot of people in a lot of
communities and then you have the corresponding sort of facilitory issues such as migration which
are really really significant. Because, when you have the primary bread winner who tends to be also
the primary care giver migrating then you have the situation where the kids and whomever else are
not getting the kind of attention that they actually would have gotten historically, and so you have
about a generation and a half pushing to generation. many many people were not really raised by
their parents, right, its shifting now somewhat, there was a huge exodus between the 60s and the
70s and rte kids stayed here and they were raised by you know by the neighbor looking on them
occasionally. And so, its within that context that you have a very difficult sort of social landscape
that people live in. its really really difficult. And they find ways and ways to kind of cope with that
(10:03). And uhm, its my impression based on, you know just years living here, that the value of the
education system can provide has diminished over the years. So, uhm, its a problem. But child labor
is not just a function of access to education because you can have access and chose not to
adequately engage with it in order to achieve, okay? Because of course you can earn money running
drugs or all kind of different things.
SW: does that actually also happen that you know, young people, when they are smart and they get
some sort of education, that they can actually use that knowledge to earn more money in like the
drug business? they learn methods, they learn
NT: yeah, possibly. I mean, more ..oncefive, function of you know how much money, you know
your economic status. You know what I mean. But at the same time, the choices that people that
people make are limited to how many they have. Right? So, I dont know how much, I mean how
much business knowledge you can gain going to through 18- going to high school. Seriously, I really
dont know if you gonna get a lot. And just reflecting, just looking at myself, and what I knew when I
was going to high school versus what I know now so, I dont know. But uhm, you know I think there
are also a lot of other issues like masculinity, you know identity issues, what is considered masculine,
what is considered not masculine versus not feminine. Is going to school considered a masculine
activity or not. I know there was somebody doing some field survey, It was a very small survey, but
they were getting some feedback that boys felt that their speaking standard english which is a precondition to succeeding in the academic system was a feminine thing, so they associated it with
homosexuality (12:16) so they wanted to speak their pattowa as a demonstration of their
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masculinity. Okay, but that has implications because it means that when you come to the formal
education system as well as the formal labor market you know your skills set, when it comes to that
your english is somewhat diminished. So, there is all kind of things going on that impact which I
way, you know, when you said everyone is pushing for entrepreneurship I raised my eyebrow
because entrepreneurship requires innovation. Okay? And innovations cultivated. Yet you have spark
of innovation that just happen because you have, boy, you know, someone sees a gap in the market
any says, oh well, I really need toI dont know what you know I have like 10 yachts and I have to
have a yacht facility, you know what Im saying, right? But more often or not innovation is something
thats cultivated. You know you train people to be innovative, uhm, and you train them to see
opportunities, to look for, uhm, things to take risk, those kind of things. Yeah, uhm, and
entrepreneurship really definitely rests on innovation and success of innovation, especially at this
time in our sort of global history we look at what is needed in the labor market, what is being
successful, where entrepreurship has been really successful, even on a small scale. Its pretty
sophisticated. You know, and its not to say that uhm that these people are not, I mean, the formal
education system doesnt necessarily prepare you for that type of thinking.
SW: thats a very interesting point. Yeah, its good that you mention that. So, then what do you think,
then should the government do to provide jobs for those who cannot be entrepreneurs?
NT: wha thats a tough question. That is a tough question. Uhm, you know, the government is quite
forth thinking in a lot of ways and in a lot of areas and they do labor market trending and to see, you
know, whats gonna be needed in the next 5 to 10 years. But I dont necessarily think that.. you
know, its a much more, as Im sure youre aware, there is a big gap between what happens in
academia and between what happens, you now, in reality. And so there is a lot of solid research and
you know, recommendations on what should be done. You know but on the ground thats a whole
different story. So, they need to definitely, you know, look at global trends, you know we need to
position ourselves as a country to take advantage of whats happening in terms of outsourcing and all
those kind of things, I mean, I know, outsourcing is kind of old head but there are other things that
are coming and that we need to be aware of em but you know, you need to be ahead of the curve to
take advantage of it in 10 years. You cant in 10 years say, Im gonna do it now because then its
over. (15:42)
SW: okay so, you are working with the ILO and these kind of international organizations here in
Jamaica. How do you actually think, for example, just looking at global trends, and the whole what is
given as tools from international organizations, how well do you think does that actually help here on
the ground or how do you think should they actually better identify the needs?
NT: well, I dont really know, uhm, there are a lot of tools that are given but there are so many layers
because you have the tool, right, and you can even implement the tool but then can you sustain the
implementation of the tool, is one point? And then, does anybody want the tool, is the next point?
Because for example, I mean, you have to think of HEART/ NTA, and you know HEART is, I think its
20, 30 years old now, Im not sure exactly. What they are continuing to train people in is not
necessarily what people can do in terms of work. So they do try to keep up the labor market, the
local labor market, theyre train a lot of people in customer service, and they train a lot of people in
all kind of different areas, in computing, and uhm data entry, all kind of different things, right? But,
you know, what data entry facilities do we have here that are going to absorb those people with
those data entry skills?
83
ANNEX
For example, okay. We are not necessarily attracting people from overseasto entry companies here
orAnd even when they do, do they have the recommended skillsthe tools. Well, You know
Jamaica is a income countrycompared to.Ahm I just dont know
SW: So let me explain. Im trying to be a bit critical. Having some offices, you know, in Geneve or
New York and they tell this little country of what to do. I rather want to hear from the Country Office:
We need actually something else.
NT: Ahm, It depends, You see. That is very much a function of your funding. Right? How flexible you
are. How flexible you are in your Country Office is very much a function of how flexible you are. If
your money is coming from a donor, it depends which donor, where is where your money is coming
fromSo, for example you have money from, say, the US Department of Labor or the US
Government, okay? The US Government every four years have majorbecause they have a new
president, okay? So for example there isactivities the US Government provides with their money.
You will find nothing that has to do withorganization. You find nothing that has to do with abortion.
You find nothing that has to do with whatever, for example, okay? So, if you are in a country that
requires any of those things, you have to be very creative to be able to use the fundsthe issue in
your country. Because Im telling you the interior agency, the UN, it has, how to say? It has a
significant, how to say? A significant involvement in the decision of how funds are madewant
tothe project planswant to..But we do not determent the parameters of how the money is
spent. All right? So if the EU for example says: You did not..So wenot gonna pay.So can we be
more nimble on the ground. You know one of the big issues with the UN systemtrying very hard to
do it through a UN-form, is just bureaucracy, You know. It is just like a super heavy bureaucracy. And
we are just not nimble. We are just not let on our feet. You cant just up and decidesomething
happened. There are some agencies that have more flexibilityThey get their money in a different
way, they get.so they have more control.different thing, right? Where the money comes from is
the key, key, key, key, you know. Where the money comes from and what other rules are there of
how to spent the money makes a huge difference. Huge. In fact it is all.
SW: That sounds rather frustrating.
NT: Well I mean, you know, I mean, okay, take my situation: Im also, we have to work with partners,
right? We can not make human natural decisions and say, this is how we think it is supposed to work.
Now the fact that I have ex. Experience and is totally relevant. At the end of the day I precisely
dissolve into the organization, right? I represent the ILO, which is an UN-agency and we have
constituents. And if we do not consult.encourage our constituents we have a major infinancial
crisis.not even.. We need to make sure, and it is very time-consuming. You can not just say: This is
a great idea and everybody agree that it is a great idea and then go through. No, no, no. Like, let me
give you an example: Right now we are doing some training with the Jamaicaforce on.. We are
talking about this now, I think its going a year, and we are just starting because a lot of people
consults it, right? And this, I okay, is just the beginning parts of it, okay. Everyoneand agree and
how we gonna move forward. Than we said, okay, we decided we gonna start with doing a baseline
research in order to asses and to make sure what we gonna do is something based on a
substantialOkay, do the research. The report must be submittedThe report needs to be
approved, by various people. Not myself, I just write commends. It needs to be approved and in the
proposed training program.. must be considered not just by myself and what my input might be,
but by the .Office inbecause they have oversight for us. By the office in Geneva because they have
84
ANNEX
direct responsibility. And the Reason Office in Peru, because they have done some in Brazil
andon child labor. So they are..we have experience..And thats a three month process.
Thats a three month process and because, I mean it is not number one priority, you know they get
the e-mail and think: Okay I will get back to it and put out this file and that file and this file, so. But
then you get a good result in the end, you know. And you know at the end of the day, your partners
are involved, they agree, there is some amount of sustainability because they feel ownership of it,
right? And its of what is required. It is a very delectate balance between the Government and the
non-government. You, know the UN signs agreements with the Governments, right? And we execute
primarily through Government agencies. We have a little moneyNGOs, no problem. But our
agreements are with Governments. So if the Government and Jamaica is an excellent example of this,
has a position on an issue that the NGOs differ drastically on, you have a small problem. So for
example takeSupporting activities with men have sex with men, to prevent increased rates of
..okay? Alright, no problem, we know we need to.gay men, becausethere is a big issuer. There
are a lot of men live a double life.so they have wives, girlfriends and kids.both sides of the fence
and then .one community is.with the other. And on the one hand you have a Government that
says: We do not engage at that lever with the gay community, right? We just not gonna do it. For
whatever reason, no problem, so, okay. And then you have the donor, who says: No, no, no we not
giving the money to do this, right? We dont support this for whatever reason, okay? Or, or, okay
because of signly agreement with the Government as well, right? And now we are the three of us.
Of the same level.we need to negotiate how we gonna get this done.You dont care who exactly
they are, right? They are at risk, okay? And so you are able to resolve, those kind of things, but it is a
very delicate balance between what the Government.because the Government has to maintain a
particular position internationally, right? So if I standwe are just a little project, alright. when
you are over what is the relationship between the Government and the Jamaican ILO. That is much
more important than what happens right now right here in your project Its a bunch of stuff. And it
is big and wide and its frustrating.
SW: But also a bit fun, bit exciting.
NT: A little bit, yeah, I mean, you know I, when I went to university, my, my, I grew up in a sort of,
you know UN-world, right? And so I was like: Yes thats what I wanna do, I wanna help the world, you
know? But nobody told me, nobody. So if this is what you wanna do, Im telling you its 99 percent
administration, okay?
SW: I worked one year there. Im like, I was also motivated like that but you know, I start considering
it again.
NT: Im not even gonna. Okay 90, be generous, its 90 percent administration, so if you wanna go out
in the field, this is not for you. This is not for you. Of course depending on which agency. If you
working with, ahm, a disasteragency, you gonna be out there, but even then.regulationyou
have.you have corruption to deal with. I mean its Its very heavy administrative. So if you wanna
go, ahm, save the world and be out there helping people, this is not the way to do it.
SW: Alright, thats a statement Im taking from Jamaica home.
NT: Yeah, you know if you were out. I mean, you can take time, you can go out, you know, and you
can go into this community and into that community.right? You not gonna be interacting with the
stakeholders that way, you know, but you gonna do it through intermediary agencies and you can
85
ANNEX
have a.but you not gonna be like in the thick of it, you know? And thats like, as I say..bodies out,
then youre in the thick of it, but otherwise, you know?
SW: Cool, then I, I think I have a lot to digest
NT: It is not as easy as people think it is, you know. Its a mindset.a mind set. And its very, and the
thing is historically. You now back in the history of, ahm, education in the western world, right. It was
designed for two things. One to take the kids of the street and two to create, ahm, a suitable labor
market for industry to be able to utilize. That was the purpose of it, right? It wasnt really designed
to, you know, kind of spark innovated thinking or, you know, a university level perhaps, right? But
most peopleuniversity, okay? And so, and even now most universities, at first degree level, its
really just about getting a job, its not really about, its just getting skills in order getting a job. It is
not really about, you know, the of the thought-process or, you know the analysis or the
investigation. It is at the master or doctor-levelby no problem, very few people go that far. I mean
globally, you know what I mean. So its a tricky, tricky thing to say you wanna sparkyou know,
withoutIf you want to havein fifteen years, the ones enduring in grade one, right? So thats age
five or so80 percent of the whole thing is already fixed, alright? So you have to have a system
where you are allowed to think freely. And let them be creative and let their minds go and then
resolve problems on their own. Its an entire cultural shift, that we just have made, you know? And
which is, you know, one of the reasons why we dont have time.not really. There is lots of other
issues but one big issue is that, its our mindsets. You have to be .and just have to go there and
think: Yeah I can do it. And Im going against the.And Im not just gonna look for a job and take a
risk and So even if, even if you have a situation where you say, look, I, I make.I need you to make
theOkay? In order for you to make a . You need to at least understand how muchyoull need,
alright? How you gonna form the material.keep it safe, how you gonna ship it. There is a lot.to
make oneSo, I dont know, its a much, much harder than as it look.
SW: Okay, interesting.
NT: Much harder, so. You know, but at the same time we are a very creative bunch. But we are only
creative in specific areas.
SW: Which is?
NT: Okay, lets say.creative in specific areas. Were creative across the.You know we are actually
very good at things like, ahm, small skill. There is a lot of, ahm economics, economics in the
Caribbean.
SW: I have met very, very well educated Jamaicans.
NT:. Things like the music and that kind of thing and there are a lot of areas of success, but its not
documented. So you not really, you dont get so much. Good luck with your pieces. I dont know
what conclusion you can possible reach.
SW: I will see.
NT: But, yeah, its hard, you know. I hope someonewe need to help them. We need to help them.
There are a lot of people who really need us.future. I mean, what are we gonna give them? .I
mean what? I just dont know. ...the whole culture is.I mean its., you know? Its a good thing, in
86
ANNEX
many communities..Many women have children with multiple different partners. Okay, no problem
you may say, but.raise all the eight, or six or four children on their own and none of these partners
are providing anything substantialto this children. So, when shes out to work, who is gonna
supervise them? My neighbor, for example, her daughter is seven and they have some kind of, there
is some kind oftest .and they are starting to prepare right now for it, it is a year from now. And so
over this week her school is saying, oh they gonna be doing the test, to help, you know the
preparation for this assessment. Now, she has a fulltime job and she is a single mother and every
night she is there with her daughter going over the materialthe child is seven, okay? If you have
four kids, right? Or five kids or six kids and, you know, you are working day, working night, you are
not working, you dont have any kind of formal environment,for you just sit down with all five of
them or four of them prepare them for these test.if they dont pass the test theyre not going into
the next grade. They are not going to a good school. Theyre not gonna get a good job. And its
significant what is happening at grade four, so, you know.
SW: Well, youre doing your best. Thank you very much for the interview.
87
ANNEX
89
ANNEX
90
Results Kings Gate Skills Training Centre

1 What is the title of your training programme?
Count of n
2 Why did you choose Kings Gate Skills Training Centre?
Count of n
HK
HK/H
7
47%
a
11
5
33%
b
3
FoodPrep
1
7%
c
1
99 Total
2
15
13%
100%
d
e
0
2
73%
20%
7%
0%
1
0
2
0
3
3
0%
0%
1
0
2
1
0%
f
0
Total
15
13%
0%
100%
4
10
99
2
Total
15
20%
67%
13%
100%
3
3
4
6
99
5
Total
15
7%
20%
40%
33%
100%
1
0
2
0
3
4
4
4
99
7
Total
15
0%
0%
27%
27%
47%
100%
1
0
2
0
3
4
4
3
99
8
Total
15
0%
0%
27%
20%
53%
100%
1
0
2
0
3
5
4
4
99
6
Total
15
0%
0%
33%
27%
40%
100%
1
0
2
1
3
6
4
2
99
6
Total
15
0%
7%
40%
13%
40%
100%
3. I believe the training will help me to

3a. improve use my skills and abilities
Count of n
3b. find a job
Count of n
3c. gain more self-confidence
Count of n
3d. earn lots of money
Count of n
3e. share my knowledge with others
Count of n
3f. give something back to my community
Count of n
ANNEX
4. Very good chance of finding employment after training

Count of n
5 How are you paying for your training?

Count of n
1
0
2
0
3
5
4
10
99
0
Total
15
0%
0%
33%
67%
0%
100%
a
2
b
4
c
3
d
2
e
1
Total
15
13%
27%
20%
13%
7%
100%
1
0
2
0
3
5
4
9
99
1
Total
15
0%
0%
33%
60%
7%
100%
1
0
2
0
3
3
4
6
99
6
Total
15
0%
0%
20%
40%
40%
100%
1
1
2
0
3
3
4
5
99
6
Total
15
7%
0%
20%
33%
40%
100%
1
0
2
0
3
1
4
7
99
7
Total
15
0%
0%
7%
47%
47%
100%
1
5
2
1
3
1
4
0
99
8
Total
15
33%
7%
7%
0%
53%
100%
1
4
2
1
3
2
4
0
99
8
Total
15
27%
7%
13%
0%
53%
100%
a
3
b
0
c
0
d
2
e
5
f
11
6. What does your family think of your training?

6a. They think it will help me to find a job
Count of n
6b. They think it will help me to improve my character
Count of n
6c. They think it will help me to provide for my family
Count of n
6d. They are proud of my achievements during the training
Count of n
6e. training keeps me away me from helping at home
Count of n
6f. They think it is too expensive
Count of n
7. What would you like to do after finishing this programme?

Count of n
Total
15
ANNEX
8. To whom would you go to get information on job offers?

Count of n
20%
0%
0%
13%
33%
73%
100%
a
5
b
7
c
2
d
4
e
3
f
2
g
9
h
1
i
4
j
2
33%
47%
13%
27%
20%
13%
60%
7%
27%
13%
1
2
2
3
3
3
4
2
99
5
Total
15
13%
20%
20%
13%
33%
100%
1
0
2
2
3
5
4
4
99
4
Total
15
0%
13%
33%
27%
27%
100%
1
4
2
3
3
3
4
5
99
0
Total
15
27%
20%
20%
33%
0%
100%
1
0
2
0
3
7
4
8
99
0
Total
15
0%
0%
47%
53%
0%
100%
1
0
2
1
3
5
4
5
99
4
Total
15
0%
7%
33%
33%
27%
100%
1
3
2
1
3
1
4
3
99
7
Total
15
20%
7%
7%
20%
47%
100%
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
99
7
Total
15
13%
13%
13%
13%
47%
100%
9. How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

9a. Security of working for someone outweighs own business
Count of n
9b. Own business more desirable than other careers
Count of n
10 When someone works hard they can find employment

easily?
Count of n
11. Why, in your opinion, is it difficult for young people to find a job?
11a. Because their education is not good enough
Count of n
11b. no jobs available in the field they wish to work
Count of n
11c. Because it is difficult to find information on available jobs
Count of n
11d. Because it is very complicated to apply for a job
Count of n
ANNEX
11e. Because they have to stay home with the family

Count of n
11f. Because they are involved in drug or criminal activities
Count of n
12 From a poor community, more trouble finding a job?

Count of n
14. What do you do in your free time?

Count of n
1
4
2
2
3
3
4
0
99
6
Total
15
27%
13%
20%
0%
40%
100%
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
99
7
Total
15
13%
13%
13%
13%
47%
100%
1
0
2
4
3
7
4
4
99
0
Total
15
0%
27%
47%
27%
0%
100%
a
5
b
2
c
0
d
3
e
3
Total
15
33%
13%
0%
20%
20%
100%

Jamaican Youths On Their Way To Employment Stefanie Weck

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JAMAICAN YOUTHS ON THEIR WAY

United Nations Common Country Assessment for Jamaica

2. Organization of the Thesis

Primary & Secondary

Challenge Identity. Root causes: Manliness, gender socialization

Challenge Capacity Development. Root causes: Poverty, risky behavior

Challenge Effectiveness. Root causes: Quality of teaching, capacity issues

Challenge Budget. Root causes: Budget cuts, dependency on donors

Challenge Migration. Root causes: Dependencies, brain drain

Chadwicks (1996) Civil Service Reform in Jamaica

2. Considerations on Sources and Limitations of Study

conceptualization, explicitly implicitly. (Staab/Studer, 2003:3)

1. Why focus on Youth?

2. Situational Background and Definitions

Box 1: Jamaica map

public health, showing an average of

Source: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 2012

Figure 2: Distribution of youth by activity in the labor market

neither students, nor working,

primary activity is one of the

Source: YEN, Benchmarks for Youth Employment 2010, P.14.

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Figure 3: School Enrollment and Attendance by Sex in %, 2009/2010

(ibid: 4.4). Learning

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Figure 4: Prevalence of Poverty by Region, in %, 2000-2009

decline of poverty can be

Tows3 remained to record

poverty. Poverty affects

Source: STATIN/ PIOJ, Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2009, p.2.7

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Source: PIOJ, Economic and Social Survey Jamaica, p. 24.5

carnal abuse. If young people do not feel safe in their

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Source: NCYD, National Youth Policy 2003, p. 30

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Causal & Capacity Gap Analysis

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Figure 7: Distribution of teachers by qualification, 2010

enough have more difficulties to

catching students attention. For

disturbing the course of teaching.

outcome is low because teachers

Source: PIOJ, Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 2010, p. 22.13

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC CONCEPTS