Lab Manual

CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Properties & Failure

of Materials
Laboratory Manual
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
Properties & Failure of Materials

Laboratory Manual
Concordia University
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd. West
Montreal, Quebec H3G 1M8
Phone (514) 848-2424 x3174 Fax (514) 848-3175
Written by P. Sakaris & others.
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ii
Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual
General Laboratory Safety Rules

Follow Relevant Instructions
Before attempting to install, commission or operate equipment, all relevant

suppliers/manufacturers instructions and local regulations should be understood and
implemented.
It is irresponsible and dangerous to misuse equipment or ignore instructions, regulations

or warnings.
Do not exceed specified maximum operating conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure,

speed etc.).
Installation/Commissioning
Use lifting table where possible to install heavy equipment. Where manual lifting is
necessary beware of strained backs and crushed toes. Get help from an assistant if
necessary. Wear safety shoes appropriate.
Extreme care should be exercised to avoid damage to the equipment during handling and
unpacking. When using slings to lift equipment, ensure that the slings are attached to
structural framework and do not foul adjacent pipe work, glassware etc.
Locate heavy equipment at low level.
Equipment involving inflammable or corrosive liquids should be sited in a containment

area or bund with a capacity 50% greater that the maximum equipment contents.
Ensure that all services are compatible with equipment and that independent isolators are
always provided and labeled. Use reliable connections in all instances, do not improvise.
Ensure that all equipment is reliably grounded and connected to an electrical supply at
the correct voltage.
Potential hazards should always be the first consideration when deciding on a suitable
location for equipment. Leave sufficient space between equipment and between walls
and equipment.
Ensure that equipment is commissioned and checked by a competent member of staff

permitting students to operate it.
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vii
Operation
Ensure the students are fully aware of the potential hazards when operating equipment.
Students should be supervised by a competent member of staff at all times when in the
laboratory. No one should operate equipment alone. Do not leave equipment running
unattended.
Do not allow students to derive their own experimental procedures unless they are
competent to do so.
Maintenance
Badly maintained equipment is a potential hazard. Ensure that a competent member of

staff is responsible for organizing maintenance and repairs on a planned basis.
Do not permit faulty equipment to be operated. Ensure that repairs are carried out
competently and checked before students are permitted to operate the equipment.
Electricity
Electricity is the most common cause of accidents in the laboratory. Ensure that all
members of staff and students respect it.
Ensure that the electrical supply has been disconnected from the equipment before
attempting repairs or adjustments.
Water and electricity are not compatible and can cause serious injury if they come into
contact. Never operate portable electric appliances adjacent to equipment involving
water unless some form of constraint or barrier is incorporated to prevent accidental
contact.
Always disconnect equipment from the electrical supply when not in use.
Avoiding Fires or Explosion
Ensure that the laboratory is provided with adequate fire extinguishers appropriate to the
potential hazards.
Smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this.
Beware since fine powders or dust can spontaneously ignite under certain conditions.
Empty vessels having contained inflammable liquid can contain vapor and explode if
ignited.
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viii
Bulk quantities of inflammable liquids should be stored outside the laboratory in

accordance with local regulations.
Storage tanks on equipment should not be overfilled. All spillages should be

immediately cleaned up, carefully disposing of any contaminated cloths etc. Beware of
slippery floors.
When liquids giving off inflammable vapors are handled in the laboratory, the area
should be properly ventilated.
Students should not be allowed to prepare mixtures for analysis or other purposes without
competent supervision.
Handling Poisons, Corrosive or Toxic Materials
Workplace Hazardous Material Information System (WHIMIS) training must be obtained

before using chemicals or compressed gases.
Certain liquids essential to the operation of equipment, for example, mercury, are
poisonous or can give off poisonous vapors. Wear appropriate protective clothing when
handling such substances.
Do not allow food to be brought into or consumed in the laboratory. Never use chemical
beakers as drinking vessels
Smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this.
Poisons and very toxic materials must be kept in a locked cupboard or store and checked
regularly. Use of such substances should be supervised.
Avoid Cuts and Burns
Take care when handling sharp edged components. Do not exert undue force on glass or
fragile items.
Hot surfaces cannot, in most cases, be totally shielded and can produce severe burns even
when not visibly hot. Use common sense and think which parts of the equipment are
likely to be hot.
Eye/Ear Protection
Goggles must be worn whenever there is risk to the eyes. Risk may arise from powders,
liquid splashes, vapors or splinters. Beware of debris from fast moving air streams.
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ix
Never look directly at a strong source of light such as a laser or Xenon arc lamp. Ensure
the equipment using such a source is positioned so that passers-by cannot accidentally
view the source or reflected ray.
Facilities for eye irrigation should always be available.
Ear protectors must be worn when operating noisy equipment.
Clothing
Suitable clothing should be worn in the laboratory. Loose garments can cause serious
injury if caught in rotating machinery. Ties, rings on fingers etc. should be removed in
these situations.
Additional protective clothing should be available for all members of staff and students
as appropriate (e.g. lab coats, safety glasses and gloves).
Guards and Safety Devices
Guards and safety devices are installed on equipment to protect the operator. The
equipment must not be operated with such devices removed.
Safety valves, cut-outs or other safety devices will have been set to protect the
equipment. Interference with these devices may create a potential hazard.
It is not possible to guard the operator against all contingencies. Use commons sense at
all times when in the laboratory.
Before staring a rotating machine, make sure staff are aware how to stop it in an
emergency.
Ensure that speed control devices are always set to zero before starting equipment.
First Aid
If an accident does occur in the laboratory it is essential that first aid equipment is
available and that the supervisor knows how to use it.
A notice giving details of a proficient first-aider should be prominently displayed.
A short list of the antidotes for the chemicals used in the particular laboratory should be
prominently displayed.
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Contact
Major accidents and injuries should be reported at once to Security (811). The safety
officer should then be informed.
An Incident Report must be filled out for all accidents.
Execution of the Experiments

Each experiment presented in this manual is performed on a bi-weekly basis. Students are
divided into groups of three to four to perform the experiment. Each experiment must be studied
in advance. If the theory is understood the student knows exactly what to expect in an
experiment and accurate measurements can be obtained very quickly.
Each group is required to work together throughout the semester. In other words, no
switching groups in mid-stream. Students must come to the laboratory at their registered
section. Since the laboratory represents a significant portion of the student's practical
training, it is imperative that the students perform all the experiments. One laboratory
question is posed on the course final examination to test the students knowledge of the
experiments.
An attendance sheet is circulated and it is the responsibility of the student to sign it at each
lab session. The lab instructor is not expected to remember if the student attended and
later forgot to sign the attendance sheet. If a student has missed an experiment due to
illness, he/she will have the opportunity to perform it at a later date if possible provided a
valid medical note is submitted to the laboratory instructor, otherwise a zero grade will be
assessed. If the student has missed a lab session and has provided a valid medical reason
but due to schedule issues cannot perform the lab, he/she will receive a final lab grade
based on the labs performed only. Any student who arrives late (at the discretion of the
instructor) to the laboratory will be deducted 25% on the laboratory report. Arriving 30
minutes after the start of the experiment is considered as a missed lab and not a valid
reason to repeat at a later date.
At the end of each lab, the laboratory instructor must sign the completed data sheet provided in
this manual. This signed sheet must be attached at the end of the laboratory report to be
submitted by the group. Students should always have on hand a 3 floppy disk or flash drive to
copy data files if needed.
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Laboratory Report
Laboratory reports should above all be legible and should contain as much information as
possible. The report should consist of papers stapled together with a title page. The title page
must at least include title, student names with corresponding student ID and the lab section.
Each laboratory report should be divided as follows:
Objective: State the objective clearly in a concise manner in your own words.
Introduction: Background information preparing the reader as to what is done during the
experiment. Do not copy what is written in the manual. Any theory mentioned or
relevant information must be referenced.
Results: Answer all the questions posed in the laboratory manual. All results must be
tabulated and all graphical presentations clearly labeled where applicable. Show sample
calculations with the units clearly identified.
Discussion: Insightful comment on the results and graphs. Discussion of any problems
encountered during the experiment, sources of error and important observations made
should be identified. This component of the report is very important and should not be
overlooked.
References: Use standard practice to reference books, periodicals, web sitesetc.
Data: Compiled data sheet signed by the laboratory instructor at the end of each
experiment session.
STUDENTS MUST FILL OUT THE CONFIRMATION OF ORIGINALITY FOR A LAB

REPORT PROVIDED ON THE NEXT PAGE (OR AVAILABLE ON
http://www.encs.concordia.ca/scs/forms/labform3.pdf. ATTACH THE FORM TO THE
FRONT OF EVERY SUBMITTED REPORT TO HAVE MARKED.
Students must submit their report to the laboratory instructor at the following laboratory
session (i.e. exactly 2 weeks from the performance date of the experiment). Late reports
are not accepted resulting in a zero grade for the experiment.
The corrected reports will be returned to the students in the next laboratory session or can be
picked up at the laboratory instructors office at least 2 weeks after submission.
Each laboratory report will be marked out of 10 or out of 100 depending on the lab instructor.
Office hours are given at the discretion of the laboratory instructor and are announced in the first
lab session.
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xii
Table of Contents
1.
TORSION
TESTING
Introduction
Material
Apparatus
Procedure
Results
Data
2.
CHARPY
IMPACT
TESTING
Introduction
10
Material
14
Apparatus
15
Procedure
15
Results
16
Data
18
3.
FRACTURE
TOUGHNESS
TESTING
Introduction
21
Material
25
Apparatus
26
Procedure
27
Analysis
28
Results
29
Data
31
4.
HEAT
TREATMENT/HARDNESS/IMPACT
TESTING
Introduction
33
Material
36
Apparatus
37
Procedure
38
Results
39
Data
40
5.
MATERIAL
SELECTION
Introduction
43
REFERENCES
51
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xiv
Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual
Experiment
Torsion Testing
Introduction
Torsional loads are created by propellers on aircraft, transmissions in cars, or by highway signs
that are twisted by wind. Torque is a couple that results from the product of a force applied at a
distance.
The Modulus of Rigidity (or shear modulus), G, is a measure of the stiffness of a material under
shear loading. The modulus of rigidity is defined as:
G=
(1.1)
where is the applied shear stress and is the resulting shear strain.
In this experiment, a torque, T, is applied to the specimen as shown in Figure 1.1. Thus, a
relationship between the applied torque and the shear stress, , is required.
Figure 1.1: Torsion specimen.
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1
To relate the applied torque to the resulting shear stress, the elastic torsion formula is used.
This formula assumes that:
The torsional loading is within the linear elastic limit of the materials being used.
The shaft is in pure torsion or, in other words, no other forces are acting upon it.
The shaft is straight and of constant cross-section.
Plane sections remain plane and a diameter line remains straight during twisting.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.2: The elastic torsion theory.
If the shaft in Figure 1.2 (a) is twisted while keeping the left end fixed, the right end will rotate
to an angle with respect to the fixed end. Figure 1.2 (b) shows a rectangular element on the
surface of the shaft being twisted. The initial abdc configuration of the element has been rotated
and positioned itself as ab 'd 'c . Note that the initial right angled corners are no longer 90. The
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2
decrease of the bac i.e. bab' represents the magnitude of the shear strain because under pure
torsion, is very small and tan () can be approximated as .
Now, bb ' = r.d and ab = dx
Therefore, = r
d
dx
For pure torsion
d
can be assumed constant along the length of the shaft.
dx
Assuming =
(1.2)
= r
(1.3)
Now, shear stress = G = Gr
(1.4)
Figure 1.2 (c) shows the resultant shear stresses. The moment of the shear force acting upon area
dA is equal to G 2 dA and the total torque, T, is the sum of these elemental moments over the
entire cross-section.
Therefore,
T = G 2 dA = G 2 dA = GJ
(1.5)
where J is the polar moment of inertia.

Comparing equations (1.4) and (1.5), the elastic torsion formula for shear stress can be written
as:
T
J
(1.6)
where is the distance from the axis of the shaft to where the stress is acting and J is the polar
moment of inertia with respect to the longitudinal axis.
For a solid circular shaft,
J=
r 4
2
(1.7)
where r is the radius of the shaft.

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3
Note: G = E / 2(1+) where E is the elastic modulus and is Poissons ratio.
Material
Free cutting yellow brass, (ASM C36000) ASTM B-16

Cold drawn free machining steel, (leaded) C12L14
Stainless Steel 304
Electrolytic Tough Pitch Copper
Gray Cast Iron Continuous Cast Bar G2 DuraBar"
The torsion samples are machined and have dimensions as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Standard specimen for torsion machine.
Apparatus
The SM1 MK II Torsion Testing Machine enables forward and reverse tests on standard torsion
specimens and other hexagon-ended specimens or rod specimens with optional circular socket
and pin arrangement. The apparatus is illustrated in Figure 1.4.
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4
Figure 1.4: SM1 MK II Torsion Machine. G- Levelling Handwheel; H- Deflection Arm; J- Adjustable Feet (2); KGearbox Carriage Locking Screw; L Base; M- Input Handwheel ; N- Hexagonal Sockets; P- Torque Meter
Output Socket; Q- Torque Shaft
Procedure
1. Measure the gage length and average diameter of three materials chosen by the lab
instructor using Vernier calipers and micrometers.
2. Study the operation of the test apparatus. Look at the calibration arm & weights. Install it
to see how it fits on the machine. Note that the torque is measured with a displacement
transducer acting against a spring. To get accurate torque-twist curves one must re-adjust
the fixed arm on the apparatus via the large hand wheel. For this purpose there is a dial
indicator to show the position of the arm. It should remain stationary throughout the
experiment.
3. The torque reading is obtained directly via a digital readout. There is a zero adjustment
on the back of the instrument. Select metric or inch readout, and the appropriate scale
(lowest) for the readings you are taking.
4. Measure each specimen at several places along the gage length with a micrometer /
caliper to verify exact size. Also record the exact gage length.
5. Scribe a line along the gage length on each specimen using a fine black permanent
marker. This will allow you to observe for uniformity of twisting.
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5
6. Share the work. Appoint one person to record data, someone to crank, and readjust the
handwheel for the dial indicator, another to call out the values, etc.
7. Load the specimen by turning the crank on the gearbox (60:1 worm gear reduction). It is
important to record the linear elastic portion of the curve accurately. Be careful to
proceed in small load increments initially to get a sufficient number of points in this
sensitive region. Record the degrees of twist of the hand wheel for approximately every 5
in-lbs or (1 N-m) of load increment initially. When in the plastic deformation region, you
may count the number of hand wheel revolutions required to cause a change in load.
8. Make a sketch of the fracture surface for each sample.
Results
1. Draw the T - curves for each material. If some test values appear impossible you might
consider throwing them out. If this is ever the case, you must justify it! Be careful to
normalize data to a common zero value. This is necessary as all mechanical equipment
has play and backlash that needs to be taken up before the load and displacement
readings become meaningful.
2. Obtain the shear modulus, yield shear stress and ultimate shear stress for each material.
How do the computed values compare with published data?
3. Determine the mode of failure for each sample.
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6
Data
Material: Yellow Brass
Gage Length [in / mm]: ________________
1 rev =
Angle
[]
0
1
2
3
4
Gage Diameter [in / mm]: ______________

Torque
[N-m]
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Angle
[ / rev]
14
15
16
17
18/3
revs
4 revs
5 revs
6 revs
8 revs
10 revs
15 revs
20 revs
30 revs
40 revs
Torque
[N-m]
Material: Mild Steel
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
Gage Length [in / mm]: ________________
1 rev =
Angle
[]
0
1
2
3
4
Angle
[rev]

Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[ / rev]
14
15
16
17
18/3
revs
4 revs
5 revs
6 revs
8 revs
10 revs
15 revs
20 revs
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
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7
12
13
30 revs
40 revs
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8
Material: Cast Iron
Gage Length [in / mm]: ________________
1 rev =
Angle
[]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[ / rev]
14
15
16
17
18/3
revs
4 revs
5 revs
6 revs
8 revs
10 revs
15 revs
20 revs
30 revs
40 revs
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
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9
Material: Copper
Gage Length [in / mm]: ________________
1 rev =
Angle
[]
0
1
2
3
4

Torque
[N-m]
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Angle
[ / rev]
14
15
16
17
18/3
revs
4 revs
5 revs
6 revs
8 revs
10 revs
15 revs
20 revs
30 revs
40 revs
Torque
[N-m]
Material: Stainless Steel
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
Gage Length [in / mm]: ________________
1 rev =
Angle
[]
0
1
2
3
4
Angle
[rev]

Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[ / rev]
14
15
16
17
18/3
revs
4 revs
5 revs
6 revs
8 revs
10 revs
15 revs
20 revs
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
Angle
[rev]
Torque
[N-m]
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10
12
13
30 revs
40 revs
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11
Experiment
Charpy Impact Testing

Introduction
Various types of notched-bar impact tests are used to determine the tendency of a material to
behave in a brittle manner. This type of test will detect differences between materials, which are
not observable in a tension test. The results obtained from notched-bar tests are not readily
expressed in terms of design requirements, since it is not possible to measure the components of
the triaxial stress condition at the notch. Furthermore, there is no general agreement on the
interpretation or significance of results obtained with this type of test.
Investigators of brittle fracture of metals have used a large number of notched-bar test specimens
of different design. Two classes of specimens have been standardized for notched-impact testing.
Charpy bar specimens are used most commonly in the United States, while the Izod specimen is
favored in Great Britain. The Charpy specimen has a square cross section (10 x 10 mm) and
contains a 45 V-shaped notch, 2 mm deep with a 0.25 mm root radius. The specimen is
supported as a beam in a horizontal position and loaded behind the notch by the impact of a
heavy swinging pendulum. The specimen is forced to bend and fracture at a high strain rate. The
Izod specimen, which is rarely used today, has either a circular or a square cross section and
contains a V-notch near the clamped end. The difference in loading between the Charpy and Izod
tests is shown in Figure 2.1.
An impact test can be used to assess a materials fracture resistance. Several such tests have been
devised although in the United States the Charpy Impact Test is the one most widely used. In the
Charpy test, a hammer is mounted on a very nearly frictionless pendulum. It is released from a
specified height, h, and strikes the sample to be evaluated at the bottom of its arc. When it does
so, the material is subjected to a high strain rate, which favors fracture rather than flow.
Moreover, the notch on the specimen on the side of the bar subjected to impact tensile loading
induces a tri-axial state of stress in its vicinity and this also tends to promote fracture vis--vis
flow. Thus, an impact test is associated with a high strain rate and a strong degree of tri-axial
loading, and as such it is a rather severe test of a materials toughness. Additionally, the sample
test temperature can be varied, thereby allowing the determination of the temperature variation
of the toughness.
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12
Figure 2.1: Sketch showing method of loading in Charpy and Izod tests
Subsequent to striking and then breaking the sample, the hammer rises to a height, h, which is
less than that from which it was released. The difference in potential energy, = mg(h - h), is the
energy expended in fracturing the sample and is one datum obtained from the test.
Visual inspection of the impacted specimens fracture surface also provides useful information.
The surface may be fibrous (indicating microscopic shear or rupture) or shiny and crystalline
(giving evidence of microscopic cleavage). Or, for those materials that undergo a change in
fracture mode with temperature, the surface may be part fibrous and part cleavage. The cleavage
portion is found in the central section of the specimen and is surrounded on its periphery by a
region of fibrous (or shear lip) failure, with the percentage of fibrous fracture increasing with
temperature (see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Photograph of fracture surfaces of A36 steel Charpy V-notch specimens tested at indicated
temperatures (in C).
The temperature variation of the impact energy for a low-to-moderate strength BCC material
(e.g., most steels) shows a typical ductile-to-brittle transition. This is a macroscopic
manifestation of the changes in microscopic deformation and fracture modes that take place with
increasing temperature. To a certain extent, the temperature variation of the impact energy for
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13
these materials parallels that of the fracture toughness, and because of this the impact test is a
good qualitative tool in assessing fracture resistance for this material class. As mentioned, the
BCC transition metals show a change in fracture mode from cleavage to fibrous with increasing
temperature, and the temperature at which this occurs is related to (but not equal to) the
transition temperature as defined by changes in impact energy.
For high-strength materials, the impact energies are low, as shown in Figure 2.3. For highstrength materials other than carbon steels (e.g., Ti and Al alloys) the impact energy is fairly
temperature-insensitive and for the same reasons that it is for their lower strength counterparts.
The low impact energies attest to the ease with which fracture is initiated and propagated in
high-strength materials. This can lead to in-service macroscopically brittle fracture in the sense
that it is a low-energy one. High-strength steels display a greater temperature variation of impact
energy than do high-strength nonferrous alloys. This is because steels undergo the microscopic
brittle-to-ductile transition. However, their maximum (or upper shelf) impact energies are still
low -- this is a reflection of their low energy ductile fracture at higher temperatures. The change
in microscopic fracture mode is noted by the appearance of the impact energy sample fracture
surface. A rather sharp transition from cleavage to fibrous fracture takes place in contrast to the
broad, diffuse variation in impact energy over this same range in temperature.
Figure 2.3: Effect of temperature on impact behavior
Plastics
Thermoplastic components are designed for use at room temperature. It might appear that the
data on the impact properties at this temperature would provide sufficient information for design.
However this approach is nave since even indoors, temperatures can vary which can have
significant effect on impact behavior. For components used outdoors, the situations gets much
worse with conditions varying from sub-zero to tropical. In common with metals, many plastics
exhibit a transition from ductile behavior to brittle as the temperature is reduced.
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14
Figure 2.4 is typical of the effects of temperature on common plastics. Apart from the changes
in impact strength with temperature, one can also learn from this diagram that the ranking of the
materials is once again influenced by the test conditions. For example, at 20C polypropylene is
superior to acetal whereas at -20C its impact strength is poor in comparison to acetal.
Some plastics experience the change from ductile to brittle behavior over a relatively narrow
temperature range. This allows a ductile/brittle transition temperature to be quoted. In other
plastics, this transition is much more gradual so that it is not possible to attribute it to a single
value of temperature. In these circumstances it is common to quote a brittleness temperature, TB
(1/4). This temperature is defined as the value at which the impact strength of the material with
a sharp notch (1/4 mm tip radius) equals 10 kJ/m2. This temperature gives an indication of the
temperature above which there are no problems with impact failures. It does not mean that the
material should not be used below TB (1/4) because it refers only to the sharp notch case. When
the material has a blunt notch or is un-notched, its behavior is still good below TB (1/4).
Figure 2.4: Variation of impact strength with temperature for several thermoplastics.
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15
Other factors, which can affect impact behavior, are fabrication defects such as internal voids,
inclusions and additives such as pigments, all of which can cause stress concentrations within the
material. In addition, internal welds caused by the fusion of partially cooled melt fronts usually
turn out to be areas of weakness. The environment may also affect the impact behavior. Plastics
exposed to sunlight and weathering for prolonged periods tend to become brittle due to
degradation. Simple fluids affect some plastics, for example, heating oils act as plasticizers for
polyethylene. The effect which water can have on the impact behavior of nylon is also
spectacular as illustrated in Figure 2.4.
The surface finish of the specimen may also affect impact behavior. Machined surfaces usually
have tool marks, which act as stress concentrations whereas molded surfaces have a
characteristic skin which can offer some protection against crack initiation. If the molded
surface is scratched, then this protection no longer exists
Material
1018 steel
Stainless Steel 304
Plexiglass
HDPE (polypropylene)
Both steel samples are 5 long (L) x 5/16 (w) x 5/16 (D) while the two plastic samples are 5
long (L) x (w) x (D). All samples have a 0.085 deep 45 V-groove cut (Notch) across
one face at the center of the specimen length (see Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: Geometry of Charpy impact specimen
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16
Apparatus
The TMI Model 52004 Impact Tester provides a means of striking a specimen with a known
force delivered by a pendulum-type hammer and measuring the energy absorbed by the specimen
in fracturing. This instrument conforms to all requirements of ASTM D-256 and D-1822.
Height of release of the pendulum is 2 ft, giving a striking velocity of 11 ft/s. Hammers are
interchangeable and are secured to the spindle of the instrument by socket-head screws.
Removable specimen holders for Charpy and Izod tests and a stop for the tension impact test are
screwed down to the base of the instrument. The apparatus is illustrated in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: TMI Impact Tester configured for Charpy Impact.
Procedure
1. Practice the proper method to grip the specimen using the special purpose tongs
provided. Also learn to mount the specimen properly in the impact testing machine.
2. Raise the pendulum. Keep all parts of your body well away from under the pendulum
until the test is completed.
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17
3. Remove specimen from medium using the tongs, without any loss of time, mount it onto
the impact testing machine.
4. Keeping a good distance from the machine, turn the operating lever to the Release
position. The pendulum will swing down, hit the specimen, break it and swing up to the
other side.
5. Read on the scale the value of the impact energy absorbed by the specimen for the
fracture. Record this value. Note the computerized Charpy testing machine outputs the
fracture energy in [J/m] or [ft-lb/inch] based on the specimen width given to it.
Therefore, the specimen width (this is the vertical measurement when the specimen is
mounted in the testing machine) is used to calculate the actual energy absorbed in [J] or
[ft-lb].
6. Repeat the steps 2 to 5 at the various temperatures specified by the lab instructor. The
temperatures can be achieved by immersing the specimen into constant temperature baths
of liquid nitrogen, dry ice, freezer, ice and boiling water.
7. Repeat the steps 2 to 6 for the specimens of different materials specified at the beginning.
8. Gather the broken halves and label them as a set. Determine approximately the percent
brittle failure.
9. Study the fracture surface of all the specimens of any one material and sketch them,
neatly differentiating between the ductile and brittle fracture areas.
Results
1. Plot the Charpy impact energy (y-axis) versus temperature (x-axis) for each material.
Draw a smooth curve through the points. Show the steel curves on one graph and the
plastics on another graph.
2. Obtain the transition temperature from the fracture appearance (50% brittle fracture)
corresponding to the midpoint of brittle fracture for each material. Record these values by
the side of the corresponding curve.
3. Include your sketches of the fracture surfaces here for any one material. Label them
correctly showing the temperature at which the test was done and the extent of the brittle
and ductile fracture surfaces. Calculate roughly the percentage of fibrous fracture in each
sketch.
4. Explain the transition from ductile to brittle fracture at lower temperatures using the
fracture surface sketches which you have made.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
18
5. What is the significance of the transition temperature data for the design of any
mechanical component? Provide examples.
6. Would the impact transition temperature (glass transition temperature for plastics) be a
concern for the material listed below? Keep in mind the crystal structures of the metals
when explaining your answer (i.e., what types of crystal structure experience tough-tobrittle transition?)
a)
b)
c)
d)
Copper water pipe

Chromium-plated brass faucet
P.V.C. (polyvinyl chloride) garbage can
Pipeline steel
____________________________________________________________________________________________
19
Data
Medium: Liquid Nitrogen
Temperature [C]: _______________
1018 Steel
Sketch
Stainless Steel 304

Sketch
Plexiglass
Sketch
HDPE
Sketch
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Brittle Fracture [%]
Temperature [C]: _______________
Medium Dry Ice

1018 Steel
Sketch
Stainless Steel 304

Sketch
Plexiglass
Sketch
HDPE
Sketch
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
____________________________________________________________________________________________
20
Temperature [C]: _______________
Medium: Freezer
1018 Steel
Sketch
Stainless Steel 304

Sketch
Plexiglass
Sketch
HDPE
Sketch
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Temperature [C]: _______________
Medium: Ice
1018 Steel
Sketch
Stainless Steel 304

Sketch
Plexiglass
Sketch
HDPE
Sketch
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
____________________________________________________________________________________________
21
Temperature [C]: _______________
Medium: Room
1018 Steel
Sketch
Stainless Steel 304

Sketch
Plexiglass
Sketch
HDPE
Sketch
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Temperature [C]: _______________
Medium: Boiling Water

1018 Steel
Sketch
Stainless Steel 304

Sketch
Plexiglass
Sketch
HDPE
Sketch
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
Impact Energy [J/m]
____________________________________________________________________________________________
22
Experiment
Fracture Toughness Testing

Introduction
Ships, aircraft and rockets are extremely complex engineering systems with many thousands of
components. In the construction of such systems, it is impossible to avoid the presence of flaws
such as cracks. Understanding the strength of materials in the presence of cracks is thus key to
developing reliable aerospace and ocean engineering hardware. This experiment is designed to
illustrate how strength in the presence of cracks, termed Fracture Toughness, is characterized
and measured. You will get to measure the fracture toughness of aluminum - the dominant
material used to build aircraft and spacecraft.
Stress around a crack
Consider the idealized situation shown in Figure 3.1. This shows a uniform material of infinite
extent that contains a semi-infinite horizontal crack coincident with the negative x-axis. The
crack is being pulled apart by a stress acting in the y direction y, that far away from the crack is
uniform throughout the material. The stress concentration near the crack may be determined
analytically if the crack tip is assumed sharp and the material is allowed to deform only in a
linear elastic fashion. Such an analysis shows that, along the positive x-axis,
y =
K
2x
(3.1)
thus the stress increases to infinity at the crack tip. Note that the overall magnitude of the stress
field around the crack is controlled by the parameter K, called the stress intensity. In this
idealized situation, K is proportional to the uniform tension being applied to the material.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
23
Figure 3.1: Crack in a perfectly elastic material under load
The real situation is of course more complicated. Consider the cracked material specimen in
Figure 3.2. Immediately surrounding the crack, the large stresses and the above equation are not
realized because the material does not behave in a linear elastic fashion here. In a metal, plastic
yielding occurs to relieve and redistribute the stresses. In other materials, such as polymers or
ceramics, different types of deformation, such as micro-cracking, may occur. The above equation
is also unrealistic far from the crack where the shape of the specimen and the loading conditions
determine the stress field. In between these regions, however, is a region where the crack
dominates the stress field and the material deforms elastically. This is called the region of K
dominance. Equation 3.1 is valid here.
Fortunately, as long as the plastic zone remains small compared to the specimen size, the region
of K dominance controls the behavior of the crack. This means, for example, that we can use the
stress intensity K to characterize the strength of the stress field surrounding the crack.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
24
Figure 3 2: Crack in a real specimen under load.
Fracture and Fracture Toughness

Suppose the load on the specimen in Figure 3.2 increased until it fractures, i.e. the crack grows.
The resistance to fracture may be characterized by the stress intensity at fracture KC, called the
fracture toughness. The fracture toughness and the manner in which the crack grows is heavily
dependent upon the material thickness.
Consider a specimen having a thickness t that is small compared to the diameter of the plastic
zone ro (see Figure 3.3). As the crack is pulled apart, the plastic zone will undergo Poisson
contraction, relieving stresses z acting through the sample in the z direction. We call this
situation plane stress because stresses are only acting in the x-y plane. With large y and z near
zero, the shear stress on the 45o plane between the y and z-axes is at a maximum. The crack
therefore tends to orient itself along this plane as it grows. This type of crack growth is usually
stable and gradual and is characterized as tearing.
Now consider a specimen having a thickness t that is large compared to ro (see Figure 3.4). As
the crack is pulled apart, the material above and below the plastic zone prevents Poisson
contraction from occurring throughout most of the sample. This sets up large z stresses in the
plastic zone. We call this situation plane strain because material is straining only in the x-y
plane. With z comparable to y, the shear stresses are small so the crack tends to orient itself in
a plane perpendicular to y as it grows. This type of growth is usually unstable and is
characterized as cleavage. Note that even with a thick sample there will be a thin regions close to
its surfaces where Poisson contraction will take place and failure on 45o planes will occur.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
25
Figure 3.3: Plane stress fracture. Plastic zone diameter ro comparable to or greater than sample thickness.
Figure 3.4: Plane strain fracture. Plastic zone diameter ro much less than sample thickness.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
26
Thicknesses between those that result in plane strain or plane stress are termed mixed, with plane
strain occuring in the interior and plane stress some significant distance from the surface.
Because the Poisson contraction in a thin specimen relieves some of the stress, the fracture
toughness of such a sample is relatively high. As the sample thickness increases and the form of
the stress distribution changes the fracture toughness falls, asymptoting to a constant value for
plane strain. Because of its independence of sample thickness this asymptote, termed the plane
strain fracture toughness KIC, is considered a material property.
Material
Two specimens of 6061-T6 aluminum (see Figure 3.5) of nominal thickness 1" and 1.5" are
tested. Each sample contains a notch or machined crack. Another two specimens of 1.5" and 2"
nominal thickness are also tested where at the tip of the notch a true crack has been produced by
repeatedly loading (fatiguing) the specimen.
Figure 3.5: Compact specimen. Note definitions of h, t and w and 0.9" length of machine crack from center of dowel
pin holes where load is applied.
To determine their fracture toughness each of the samples will be pulled apart by applying load
to a pair of dowel pins mounted through the holes in each sample. The load on the sample P vs.
the opening of the crack (the displacement v) will be recorded.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
27
Apparatus
To load the sample, an Axial MTS Hydraulic Testing Machine is used (see Figure 3.6). The
machine is also used for performing numerous low and high cycle fatigue tests. This machine is
capable of providing 500 kN axial/compression forces when mechanical jaws are used.
Alternatively, 1 inch diameter hydraulic grips can be fitted which are capable of providing 250
kN axial compression/tension capability. The hydraulic grips are commonly used. The test
machine can be used in either displacement or force control. Control signals can be provided by
the test machines function generator. Alternatively, external analog or digital signals may be
used to provide user-defined input signals.
Figure 3.6: Axial MTS Hydraulic Testing Machine.
To measure the opening of the crack an MTS Laser Extensometer is used. The laser
extensometer points to the side of the specimen on either side of the machine crack opening
where two pieces of reflective tape are attached. The extensometer is operated by the same
controller that runs the testing machine. The controller outputs a voltage signal that is linearly
proportional to the distance between the extensometer jaws.
Measurements will be recorded using a computer with data logging software.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
28
Procedure
Determining the Sample Dimensions (see Figure 3.5)
1. Measure the half height (h) and width (to hole centers) (w) of each of your samples using
the caliper provided.
2. Measure the thickness (t) of each sample using the micrometer.
3. The length of the initial crack (ai), measured from the hole centers will also be needed.
However, it is unlikely that this will be clearly visible until you can examine the fracture
surfaces after the sample is broken.
4. Place two small pieces of reflective tape on either side of opening.
5. Make a sketch of the broken sample
Mounting the Specimen
Load is applied to the specimen through two half-inch diameter dowel pins. The pins pass
through the holes in the specimen and matching holes in two clevis grips. Two pairs of clevis
grips (with 1" and 2" slots) are available. Select the pair of grips that match the specimen under
test. Mount one to the base of the testing machine and one to the crosshead using the dowel pins
provided. If necessary get the operator to move the crosshead up to give you enough space.
Make sure that the flat side of both grips faces to the left. Place the specimen in the slot in the
lower grip. Note that the dowel pin should be a snug fit, but you should be able to push it in by
hand. Don't be tempted to hammer the pin in or you may never get it out. Have the operator
lower the crosshead slowly until the holes in the sample and upper grip line up accurately
enough to push a dowel pin through them.
Running the Test
Set the computer program ready to take data. Ask the operator to begin the test. As the test
begins, watch the sample deform on the monitor. A video camera with zoom capability is used
to view the sample more clearly
As the load on the sample increases, you will begin to see its surface dimple around the crack.
This dimpling is produced by Poisson contraction of the material in the plastic zone. As the
sample begins to fracture, different things will happen depending on its thickness. The sample
may fail suddenly, or it may tear. In the latter case you may hear a popping sound. This is the
sound of the crack intermittently growing. The test continues until fracture. At this time, the
crosshead is raised to completely separate the two halves of the sample. Remove the remains of
the sample from the testing machine and the P-v data is collected and saved on the computer
____________________________________________________________________________________________
29
Analysis
Record your analysis on the data sheet.
Examination of the specimen
Look over the fracture surfaces. The initial crack should be fairly obvious. Measure its average
length ai, allowing for the 0.9" distance from the end of the machine crack to the hole centers,
noting particularly if it is not uniform through the specimen thickness. Look at and sketch (in
plan view and cross section) the fracture itself. How much of the fracture occurs on a 45 plane?
Identifying the load at fracture
Compare your P-v diagram with the samples shown in Figure 3.7. Initially the P-v diagram is
linear because the sample deforms elastically. At fracture the crack will grow changing the
sample stiffness and causing the P-v diagram to depart from a straight line. How this departure
occurs depends on how the sample fractures. If cleavage is dominant then there will be a sharp
break in the P-v diagram at fracture (Figure 3.7, type III). If tearing is dominant (Figure 3.7, type
I) then the P-v diagram will become curved as fracture begins. A mixture of fracture mechanisms
will produce a smooth curve punctuated by discontinuities of unstable crack growth (Figure 3.7,
type II). These discontinuities are called 'pop in' since they produce the audible popping sound.
With such a variety of behavior, a consistent definition of the load at fracture PQ is needed.
Figure 3.7 illustrates this. A line is drawn from the origin with a slope (m5) equal to 95% of the
slope (mt) of the initial linear portion of the P-v curve. The load at fracture is then taken as the
maximum load supported by the sample in advance of the point where OB intersects the P-v
curve. Obviously you need to think about, and quantify the uncertanty in getting PQ as this may
be a major factor in your stress intensity uncertainty.
Determining the Stress Intensity at Fracture KQ
The relationship between the stress intensity and the load applied to the sample is not a simple
one since it depends on the form of the stress field far from the crack where the shape of the
sample and its precise loading conditions are important. To consider these it is necessary to
perform a finite element computation, using the theory of elasticity, of the stress field in the
sample. Such a computation has already been performed for the compact specimen geometry
used in the present experiment. The following function is a curve fit to the results of this
computation
KQ =
PQ
t w
(0.866 + 4.64 13.32
2+
+ 14.72 3 + 5.6 4 *
1.5
(1 )
(3.2)
where = ai/w. Note that this is an empirical form of Equation 3.1 with x replaced by w and the
stress replaced by PQ/tw.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
30
Figure 3.7: Three types of load displacement behavior and the identification of the
critical load (ASTM stds., No. E399). Type I - tearing (plane stress fracture). Type II
- mixed. Type III - cleavage (plane strain fracture)
Determine Plane Stress or Plane Strain

The relationships listed on the data sheet are from ASTM Standard No. E399, and are used to
determine whether the sample was in plane stress or plane strain. Specifically, if both conditions
(on KQ and PQ) are met then the sample was in plane strain, otherwise, it was in plane stress.
Note that o is the yield strength of the sample material (276 MPa), h, t and w are the sample
dimensions. See if the answers you get agree with your own judgments based upon how the
sample failed. Would changes to the various parameters within their uncertainty influence the
conclusions here?
Determine the Plastic Zone Size
The relationships listed on the data sheet are from ASTM Standard No. E399, and are used to
determine the size of the plastic zone. As noted above, the plastic zone must be small compared
to the sample size used to generate Equation 3.2 to be valid. How do the results you get here
compare with your impressions of the dimpling during the test? If valid, interpret your value of
KQ as KC or KIC.
Results
1. Calculate KIC as outlined in the data on the specimens tested. Which of the tests
performed (if any) were valid for obtaining KIC? What is this value or can you make a
reasonable estimate from the given data?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
31
2. Would you say that 6061-T6 is a tough alloy? Compare your results to published values
for other widely available aluminum alloys.
3. Discuss the form of the fracture surfaces revealed and whether they are consistent with
the P-v behavior in each case and with the plane stress or plane strain determination.
4. Normally, when performing this type of test, the specimens are cycled (fatigued) until a
crack of at least 0.050 (1.3 mm) appears at the root of the notch. Why is this important?
How much difference does the fatigue crack make to the test results?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
32
Data
6061-T6 Aluminum
1"
Specimen
Material Properties, Initial Sample Dimensions

276
Yield Strength o [MPa]
Specimen half-height h [in] (see Figure
3.5)
Specimen width measured to hole centers
w [in]
Specimen thickness (micrometer
measurement) t [in]
Crack length (measured after fracture
from hole centers = actual crack length +
0.9") ai [in]
1.5
Specimen
1.5"
Specimen
(Fatigued
)
2"
Specimen
(Fatigued)
276
276
276
Determining Load At Fracture

Initial slope of elastic deformation line mt
m5 = 95% mt
Load P5 at intersection of load
displacement curve
and line of slope m5 drawn from origin
[N]
Maximum load Pmax [N]
PQ (chosen according to Figure 3.7) [N]
Determining Stress Intensity At Fracture
Non-dimensional crack length = ai/w
Stress intensity at fracture KQ (Equation
3.2) [MPa-m1/2]
Determining Plane Stress or Plain Strain
2.5(KQ/o)2 [m]
Is 2.5(KQ/o)2 less than t, ai, (w - ai) and
h?
Pmax/PQ
Is Pmax/PQ less than 1.1?
Plane stress or Plane Strain?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
33
Determining Plastic Zone Size

For Plane Strain Compute...
Plastic zone size ro = (KQ/o)2/3 [m]
Plane strain fracture Toughness KIC = KQ
[MPa-m1/2]
For Plane Stress Compute...
Plastic zone size ro = (KQ/o)2/ [m]
Valid? (i.e. Is 4ro less than ai, (w - ai) and
h?
If valid, what is Kc = KQ? [MPa-m1/2]
Fracture Surface Sketches
1 Specimen
1.5 Specimen (Fatigued)
1.5 Specimen
2 Specimen (Fatigued)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
34
Experiment
Heat Treatment / Hardness / Impact

Testing
Introduction
Various types of heat treatment processes are used to change the following properties or
conditions of some materials, for example:
Improve the toughness

Increase the hardness
Increase the ductility
Improve the machinability
Refine the grain structure
Remove the residual stresses
Improve the wear resistance
The following are the general reasons for heat treatment:
Hardening - Steels can be heat treated to high hardness and strength levels. The reasons for
doing this are obvious. Structural components subjected to high operating stress need the
high strength of a hardened structure. Similarly, tools such as dies, knives, cutting devices,
and forming devices need a hardened structure to resist wear and deformation.
Tempering - As-quenched hardened steels are so brittle that even slight impacts may cause
fracture. Tempering is a heat treatment that reduces the brittleness of steel without
significantly lowering its hardness and strength. All hardened steels must be tempered before
use.
Softening a Hardened Structure - Hardening is reversible. If a hardened tool needs to be

remachined, it may be softened by heat treatment to return it to its machinable condition.
Most steels weld better in their soft state than in their hardened state; softening may be used
to aid weldability.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
35
Recrystallization - If a metal is cold worked, grains or crystals deform, become elongated,

and in doing so harden and strengthen a metal. There is a limiting amount of cold work that a
particular metal can be subjected to. In rolling of steel into thin sheets, you can only reduce
the cross-sectional area so much before it gets too hard to roll. At this point it would be
desirable to return the grains to their original shape. Heat treatment can accomplish this. The
transformation of cold-worked grains to an undistorted shape is called recrystallization. Very
large coarse grains can also be refined by recrystallization. This type of heat treatment is
essential if a steel is to be subjected to severe cold working in rolling, drawing, etc.
Stress Relief - One of the most frequent reasons for heat treatment is to remove internal stress
from a metal that has been subjected to cold working or welding. Stress relieving is a heat
treatment used to remove internal strains without significantly lowering the strength. It is
used where close dimensional control is needed on weldments, forgings, castings, etc.
Hot-Working Operations - Most metal shapes produced by steel mills are at least rough
shaped at elevated temperatures. Heat treating is required to bring the rough metal shapes to
the proper temperature for hot-forming operations. Forging, hot rolling, roll welding, and the
like are all performed at temperatures of sufficient magnitude as to prevent the formation of
distorted grains that will harden the metals. Hot-working operations require dynamic
recrystallization which is achieved by working at the proper hot-work temperatures.
Diffusion of Alloying Elements - One of the criteria for hardening steel is that it has
sufficient carbon content. Low carbon steels can be hardened, at least on the surface, by heat
treating at an elevated temperature in an atmosphere containing an alloying element that will
diffuse into the steel and allow surface hardening on quenching. Carbon is frequently
diffused into the surface of soft steels for surface hardening. Using this same principle,
elements such as chromium, boron, nitrogen, and silicon can be diffused in the surface of
steel for special purposes.
As stated above, heat treatments can be used for a variety of reasons. Annealing treatments are
generally used to soften a metal either after a cold working process or prior to a machining stage.
Annealing of steels involves heating to specified temperature (depending on carbon composition)
holding and then cooling slowly. For many non-ferrous metals, slow cooling is not always
required. Spherodizing is a particular form of annealing used in higher carbon steels to produce
a microstructure of Fe3C spheroids in a ferrite matrix which is considerably softer and hence
easier to machine than the same steel in the normalized or quenched and tempered state.
Normalizing of steels is similar to annealing except that cooling is slightly faster being
performed in air (on the bench) as opposed to in the furnace. The microstructure in annealed and
normalized steels will generally be a mixture of ferrite, pearlite and cementite depending on
carbon content, with finer pearlite (and hence stronger material) being produced for normalized
material. These are diffusion transformations requiring time.
In steels (and rarely in some other materials) it is possible to produce some meta-stable phases
such as martensite by a diffusionless transformation brought on by a fast change in temperature
called quenching. The martensite produced in steels is very hard and very brittle. This makes
for good wear resistance but poor impact resistance. Tempering is carried out to reduce the
____________________________________________________________________________________________
36
brittleness without a large drop in strength and hardness. The ability to form this martensite
depends on the carbon content of the steel (more carbon more martensite is possible, the
temperatures used the alloying elements in the steel and the severity of the quench. This is
known as the hardenability of the steel. Ideally one would prefer to be able to handle large
samples all the way through. This requires a high hardenability. This is produced by alloying.
Steels that are classified as being highly hardenable are those that prevent the formation of
phases such as pearlite or bainite. These steels generally have isothermal cooling curves that
have significant changes in shape and position of the curves. The change in shape and position
are predominately due to carbon and alloying element content. Alloys with lower carbon content
have these curves shifted upwards and to the left. When this occurs, the quench rate must be
extremely fast in order to form martensite. Therefore, steels with higher carbon content (curves
shifted downwards and to the left) can readily form martensite because slower cooling rates still
produce martensite. Steels that are alloyed with elements such as nickel, chromium, manganese,
silicon, and molybdenum have a drastic effect on the isothermal cooling diagrams by changing
the shape of the curves. These elements act as austenite stabilizers and delay transformations
from occurring. This is evident by the "inverted nose" in the isothermal transformation diagrams.
Martensite can then readily form at moderate cooling rates due to the delayed transformation to
pearlite or bainite. Another type of curve that is useful in comparing martensitic transformation is
the continuous cooling curve diagram. Examples of these curves are those for 4140 steel (see
Figure 4.1) and 1045 steel (see Figure 4.2), which comparatively display the effects of alloying
elements on martensite transformation. As evident in the CCT curve of 4140, martensite can
form at slower cooling rates when compared to the CCT curve of 1045. These two curves show
only the effect of alloying elements; however, if one were to compare the effect of carbon
content utilizing 1045 and 1080 CCT diagrams then one could conclude that 1080 steel can form
martensite at lower cooling rates than 1045 steel, thereby making it more hardenable.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
37
Figure 4.1: CCT diagram for 4140 Steel
Figure 4.2: CCT diagram for1045 Steel
Material
1018 steel
1045 Steel
O-1 tool steel
The samples are machined 2.5 long (L) x 7/16 (w) x 7/16 (D) with a 0.085 deep 45 Vgroove cut (Notch) across one face at the center of the specimen length (see Figure 4.3).
____________________________________________________________________________________________
38
Figure 4.3: Geometry of Charpy impact specimen
Aparatus
All specimens are heat treated in a Lindberg/Blue M Split Hinge Tube Furnace (see Figure 4.4)
using an independent digital temperature control module. Temperatures can reach 1200C. The
process tube (3 inch diameter) is made out of quartz,. fitted on to the tube adapters located on
both ends of the furnace.
Hardness tests are performed on a Rockwell Hardness Tester.
Impact tests are conducted on a 240 ft-lb Charpy / Izod Impact tester
Figure 4.4 Lindberg/Blue M Split Hinge Tube Furnace.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
39
Procedure
Each lab section will test 2 samples of 1018 steel, 2 samples of 1045 steel and 2 samples of O-1
tool steel of various heat treatments (see Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Heat Treatments on Steel
Steel
1018
1018
1045
1045
O-1
O-1
XI
Quench
Q&T 540C
Quench
Q&T 540C
Quench
Q&T 540C
XJ
As-Receive
Q&T 425C
As-Receive
Q&T 425C
As-Receive
Q&T 425C
XL
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
TJ
Q&T 205C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 205C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 205C
Q&T 705C
TL
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
XN
Quench
Q&T 540C
Quench
Q&T 540C
Quench
Q&T 540C
TN
As-Receive
Q&T 425C
As-Receive
Q&T 425C
As-Receive
Q&T 425C
TP
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
TO
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
Air-Cool
Q&T 650C
XP
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
Table 4.1: Heat Treatments on Steel (contd)

Steel
1018
1018
1045
1045
O-1
O-1
TI
Q&T 205C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 205C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 205C
Q&T 705C
XK
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 760C
XM
Q&T 425C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 650C
TK
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
TM
Q&T 205C
Q&T 740C
Q&T 205C
Q&T 740C
Q&T 205C
Q&T 740C
XO
Quench
Q&T 540C
Quench
Q&T 540C
Quench
Q&T 540C
Each lab group will quench a sample. Other samples with differing quenching and tempering
conditions as shown in Table 4.1 have been prepared already. Samples are inserted into the tube
furnace (preheated to 900C). This is the austenitizing temperature. Let the argon gas flow
slowly. It will minimize the formation of an oxide film that you would later need to remove in
order to obtain accurate hardness readings. Wait 15 minutes for the samples to acquire furnace
temperature, then quench in water (or oil), or let air cool as per Table 4.1. Repeat the hardness
measurements on each sample and record. Stand clear when the lab instructor is removing the
samples from the furnace. Use the box furnace (preheated) for tempering. Hold the samples at
the tempering temperature for 2 hours. Quench in water. Repeat the hardness tests.
Use the Rockwell hardness testers on each sample by taking the average of at least 3 readings. A
range of hardness will be encountered throughout this experiment so you may need to switch
scales. Use the Rockwell C scale (150 kg) for hardened material in conjunction with the
Rockwell B scale and 1/16 ball penetrator (100 kg) for softer states. Refer to the chart posted in
the lab above the Rockwell testers for conversions and the applicable range of each scale. The B
and C scales are most often quoted in the literature along with Brinell hardness so these readings
may be helpful to compare your results to expected values.
Using the Charpy / Izod impact tester, break all your samples (steels and non-ferrous alloys) and
record the fracture energy absorbed.
Use the time to study photomicrographs of various materials. Also take the opportunity to view
some polished and etched samples of carbon steel under the optical microscope.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
40
Results
1. Using the cumulative results from all the lab groups, plot values of hardness versus
impact energy for all materials
2. Comment on the transition in fracture energy in relation to the visible fracture surfaces
and results of the hardness tests for all the materials.
3. Plot a graph showing hardness versus tempering temperature for all steels. Comment on
the graph.
4. Plot a graph showing impact energy and tempering temperature for all steels. Comment
on the graph.
5. Supposing one was to make a cold chisel from O-1 tool steel, recommend a heattreatment process. What hardness and toughness combination are you aiming for? Is O-1
the best choice for this application? If not, discuss what else might you select?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
41
Data
1018 Steel
Specimen No. Heat Treatment
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Rockwell Hardness
(HRC or HRB)
Charpy Impact Energy

[ft-lbs]
Rockwell Hardness
(HRC or HRB)

[ft-lbs]
As-Receive
Air-Cool
Quench Only
Q&T 205C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 540C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
O-1 Tool Steel

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

[ft-lbs]
As-Receive
Air-Cool
Quench Only
Q&T 205C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 540C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
1045 Steel
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Rockwell Hardness
(HRC or HRB)
As-Receive
Air-Cool
Quench Only
Q&T 205C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 540C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
____________________________________________________________________________________________
42
Fracture Sketches
1018 Steel
As-Receive
Air-Cool
Quench
Q&T 205C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 540C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
As-Receive
Air-Cool
Quench
Q&T 205C
Q&T 315C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 540C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
1045 Steel
____________________________________________________________________________________________
43
O-1 Tool Steel
As-Receive
Air-Cool
Quench
Q&T 205C
Q&T 425C
Q&T 540C
Q&T 650C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 705C
Q&T 760C
____________________________________________________________________________________________
44
Experiment
Material Selection
Introduction
The Cambridge Engineering Selector (CES) is a computer system contains programs for
selection, manufacturing processes and shaping of materials. The use of selection charts and
selection criteria is discussed in lectures, and this knowledge is assumed. This lab aims at
showing how the CES software can be used to create any materials selection chart as an aid to
materials selection in the design process.
CES contains a large database of materials and their properties. Charts are created using
specified axes (e.g. density, strength, modulus or user-defined functions etc.), where materials
can be plotted as a bar or bubble for the range of their properties. A performance index can be
plotted to select those materials which optimize performance (such as mass, cost, corrosion
resistance etc.). Additional stages can be added to refine the selection. The output can be
transferred to a Microsoft Word document for your final report. You can save your work in a
project file, which stores the current status of your session. Also, you can copy and paste the
graphs and the results from CES into a Word document.
Materials Data
The Generic database contains information on a broad range of materials (e.g. aluminum alloys,
steels, polymers, ceramics.). More refined information is available in other databases (e.g. the
light alloys database contains data for individual alloy compositions and heat treatments). The
generic database is usually used at the start of a design study and is suitable for all the design
exercises in this lab.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
45
General Question
Plot a graph of compressive strength vs. price:
1. Using the Highlight utility of CES. Locate and label the following common civil
engineering materials:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Concrete
Limestone or Sandstone
Low Carbon steel
Plywood
2. Locate and label these common aerospace materials:

a)
b)
c)
d)
Titanium Alloys
Beryllium Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers
____________________________________________________________________________________________
46
Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Department

CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
MECH 321
Laboratory #5
Material Selection
by
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
Lab Section: _________ Date: _________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
47
Objective
Address the design process of a solid circular cantilever beam from the perspective of materials
selection; that is, for some application, selecting a material having a desirable or optimum
property or combination of properties using the CES software.
Introduction
For this portion of the design process, you will establish criteria for selection of stiff-light and
strong-light materials for this cantilever beam. It will be assumed that the force and length of the
beam are specified, whereas the radius may be varied.
A cylindrical cantilever beam is subjected to a force, F, as indicated in Figure 1. The beam-end
deflection is:
FL3
3EI
where L, E and I are the length, modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia of the beam,
respectively.
Here, I is moment of inertia, which for a solid cylinder is:
I=
1 4
r
4
The stress imposed on the unfixed end is:

=
FLr
I
Figure 1: Cylindrical cantilever beam.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
48
Stiff-Light
Develop an expression for the mass of material required in terms of force, deflection, length,
density and modulus of elasticity of the material. Consider the mass, m, of any given quantity of
material is just the product of its density () and volume (r2L). Group the material properties of
density and modulus of elasticity as one set in your solution.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
49
Strong-Light
Develop an expression for the mass of material required in terms of force, length, density and
strength of the material. Consider the mass, m, of any given quantity of material is just the
product of its density () and volume (r2L). Group the material properties of density and
strength as one set in your solution.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
50
The best materials to be used for a stiff-light and strong-light beam are those having low / E
and /2/3, respectively. In terms of material suitability, it is sometimes preferable to work with
what is termed a performance index, P, which is just the reciprocal of these ratios; that is,
E
P =
P =
2/ 3
In this context, we want to utilize a material having a large performance index.
Results
To examine the performance indices of a variety of materials, use the material selection charts or
CES software. These are plots of the values of material property versus those of another
property. Both axes are scaled logarithmically. Taking the logarithm of the performance indices
equations above will yield a family of straight and parallel lines all having a finite slope. Each
line in the family corresponds to different performance index.
Using the CES software, create the following stages,
Select those metal alloys with stiffness performance indices greater than 3.0 (in SI units).
Plot Youngs Modulus (Y-Axis) versus Density (X-Axis).
Select those metal alloys having strength performance indices greater than 18.0 (in SI
units). Plot Elastic Limit (Y-Axis) versus Density (X-Axis).
Plot None (Y-Axis) versus Price (X-Axis).
____________________________________________________________________________________________
51
Discussion
Which material would you select if stiffness, strength and price are to be considered relative to
this application? Justify your choice.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
52
References
Deiter, G.M., Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA, pp 338344.
Callister Jr., W.D., Material Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 5th Edition, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 2000, pp 112-134.
Instruction Manual, SM1 MKII Torsion Testing Machine, Tecquipment Ltd., England.
http://www.me.tulane.edu/Faculty/Rubinstein/Courses/Me264/LabIns/experiment_3.pdf
Crawford, R.J., Plastics Engineering, 3rd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1998,

pp 147-156.
Manual, TMI 43-1 Instructions, New York.
http://www.tam.uiuc.edu/courses/TAM224/Lab_manual/09_impact+fracture.pdf
http://www.aoe.vt.edu/aoe3054/manual/expt5/text.html
http://overlord.eng.buffalo.edu/cie/facilities/seesl/a22.html
http://kcgl1.eng.ohio-state.edu/~ms_unocic/Lab_1.htm
http://www.lindbergbluem.com/catalog/furnaces/1200C_Split.shtml
http://itll.colorado.edu/bench/web/Experiments/index.cfm?Exp=6&Page=background/the
ory.html
____________________________________________________________________________________________
53

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CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Properties & Failure

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

Properties & Failure of Materials

Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual

General Laboratory Safety Rules

Before attempting to install, commission or operate equipment, all relevant

It is irresponsible and dangerous to misuse equipment or ignore instructions, regulations

Do not exceed specified maximum operating conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure,

Locate heavy equipment at low level.

Equipment involving inflammable or corrosive liquids should be sited in a containment

Ensure that equipment is commissioned and checked by a competent member of staff

Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual

Badly maintained equipment is a potential hazard. Ensure that a competent member of

Avoiding Fires or Explosion

Smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this.

Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual

Bulk quantities of inflammable liquids should be stored outside the laboratory in

Storage tanks on equipment should not be overfilled. All spillages should be

Handling Poisons, Corrosive or Toxic Materials

Workplace Hazardous Material Information System (WHIMIS) training must be obtained

Smoking must be forbidden. Notices should be displayed to enforce this.

Avoid Cuts and Burns

Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual

Facilities for eye irrigation should always be available.

Ear protectors must be worn when operating noisy equipment.

Guards and Safety Devices

A notice giving details of a proficient first-aider should be prominently displayed.

Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual

An Incident Report must be filled out for all accidents.

Execution of the Experiments

Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual

References: Use standard practice to reference books, periodicals, web sitesetc.

STUDENTS MUST FILL OUT THE CONFIRMATION OF ORIGINALITY FOR A LAB

Properties & Failure of Materials Laboratory Manual

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Figure 1.1: Torsion specimen.

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

For pure torsion

Now, shear stress = G = Gr

where J is the polar moment of inertia.

where r is the radius of the shaft.

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Note: G = E / 2(1+) where E is the elastic modulus and is Poissons ratio.

Free cutting yellow brass, (ASM C36000) ASTM B-16

Figure 1.3: Standard specimen for torsion machine.

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Gage Length [in / mm]: ________________

Gage Diameter [in / mm]: ______________

Material: Mild Steel

Gage Length [in / mm]: ________________

Gage Diameter [in / mm]: ______________

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Properties & Failures of Materials Laboratory Manual

Material: Cast Iron