ADVANTAGES

Provide very efficient "High-speed" retrieval

Simplicity

The network model is conceptually simple and easy to design.

Ability to handle more relationship types

The network model can handle the one-to-many and many-to-many relationships.
Ease of data access

In the network database terminology, a relationship is a set. Each set comprises of two types of
records.- an owner record and a member record, In a network model an application can access an
owner record and all the member records within a set.

Data Integrity
In a network model, no member can exist without an owner. A user must therefore first define the
owner record and then the member record. This ensures the integrity.

Data Independence
The network model draws a clear line of demarcation between programs and the complex physical
storage details. The application programs work independently of the data. Any changes made in the
data characteristics do not affect the application program.

DISADVANTAGES

System complexity

In a network model, data are accessed one record at a time. This makes it essential for the database
designers, administrators, and programmers to be familiar with the internal data structures to gain
access to the data. Therefore, a user friendly database management system cannot be created
using the network model

Lack of Structural independence

Making structural modifications to the database is very difficult in the network database model as the
data access method is navigational. Any changes made to the database structure require the
application programs to be modified before they can access data. Though the network model
achieves data independence, it still fails to achieve structural independence.

NETWORK MODEL
INTRODUCTIONThe network model is a database model conceived as a flexible way of representing
objects and their relationships. Its distinguishing feature is that the schema, viewed as
a graph in which object types are nodes and relationship types are arcs, is not
restricted to being a hierarchy or lattice.
The network model replaces the hierarchical model with a graph thus allowing more
general connections among the nodes.The main difference of the network model from
the hierarchical model is its ability to handle many to many relationships.In other words
it allow a record to have more than one parent.
EXAMPLE-

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORK MODELThe major advantage of network model are1.) Conceptual simplicity-Just like the hierarchical model,the network model is also
conceptually simple and easy to design.
2.) Capability to handle more relationship types-The network model can handle
the one to many and many to many relationships which is real help in modeling the real
life situations.
3.) Ease of data access-The data access is easier and flexible than the hierarchical
model.

4.) Data integrity- The network model does not allow a member to exist without an
owner.
5.) Data independence- The network model is better than the hierarchical model in
isolating the programs from the complex physical storage details.
6.) Database standards
DIS-ADVANTAGE OF NETWORK MODEL1.) System complexity- All the records are maintained using pointers and hence the
whole database structure becomes very complex.
2.) Operational Anomalies- The insertion,deletion and updating operations of any
record require large number of pointers adjustments.
3.) Absence of structural independence-structural changes to the database is very
difficult.

Network Database
Definition - What does Network Database mean?
A network database is a type of database model wherein multiple member records or
files can be linked to multiple owner files and vice versa. The model can be viewed as
an upside-down tree where each member information is the branch linked to the
owner, which is the bottom of the tree. Essentially, relationships are in a net-like form
where a single element can point to multiple data elements and can itself be pointed to
by multiple data elements.

Techopedia explains Network Database

The network database model allows each record to have multiple parent and multiple
child records, which, when visualized, form a web-like structure of networked
records. In contrast, a hierarchical model data member can only have a single parent
record but can have many child records.

This property of having multiple links applies in two ways: the schema and the
database itself can be seen as a generalized graph of record types that are connected
by relationship types. The main advantage of a network database is that it allows for a
more natural modeling of relationships between records or entities, as opposed to the
hierarchical model. However, the relational database model has started to win over
both the network and the hierarchical models because its added flexibility and
productivity has become more evident as hardware technology has become faster.
Related Terms

Definition of Network Database Model

A network database model is a database model that allows multiple
records to be linked to the same owner file. The model can be seen as an
upside down tree where the branches are the member information linked to
the owner, which is the bottom of the tree. The multiple linkages which this
information allows the network database model to be very flexible. In
addition, the relationship that the information has in the network database
model is defined as many-to-many relationship because one owner file can
be linked to many member files and vice versa.

History
The network database model was invented by Charles Bachman in
1969 as an enhancement of the already existing database model, the
hierarchical database model. Because the hierarchical database model was
highly flaw, Bachman decided to create a database that is similar to the
hierarchical database but with more flexibility and less defaults. The original
and existing hierarchical database has one owner file linked strictly to one
member file, creating a ladder affect that restricted the database to find
relationships outside of its category.
Network Database vs. Hierarchical Database Model

Network Database Model

Hierarchical Database Model

Many-to-many relationship

One-to-many relationship

Easily accessed because of the

linkage between the information

Difficult to navigate because of its

strict owner to member connection

Great flexibility among the

information files because the multiple
relationships among the files

Less flexibility with the collection of

information because of the
hierarchical position of the files

Network Database vs. Hierarchical Database Model

Network Database Model
The files are greatly related

Relational Database Model

Information is stored on separate tables tied
together with other clumps of information

Advantages of a Network Database Model

- Because it has the many-many relationship, network database
model can easily be accessed in any table record in the database
- For more complex data, it is easier to use because of the multiple
relationship founded among its data
- Easier to navigate and search for information because of its
flexibility
Disadvantage of a Network Database Model

- Difficult for first time users

- Difficulties with alterations of the database because when
information entered can alter the entire database
For information go to:
www.wikipedia.com

The Network model replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph thus allowing more general
connections among the nodes. The main difference of the network model from the hierarchical
model, is its ability to handle many to many (N:N) relations. In other words, it allows a record to
have more than one parent. Suppose an employee works for two departments. The strict
hierarchical arrangement is not possible here and the tree becomes a more generalized graph - a
network. The network model was evolved to specifically handle non-hierarchical relationships.
As shown below data can belong to more than one parent. Note that there are lateral
connections as well as top-down connections. A network structure thus allows 1:1 (one: one), l:
M (one: many), M: M (many: many) relationships among entities.

Network data model is the use of graph to represent object and their relationship within an organization.
The advantages of network data model are that is it simple and easy to implement, it can handle many
relationships within the organization, and it has better data independence compared to hierarchical model.
The disadvantages of network data model are more complex system of database structure and lack of
structural dependence.

UNIT 43 - DATABASE CONCEPTS I

Compiled with assistance from Gerald White, California State University, Sacramento
A. INTRODUCTION

Two ways to use DBMS within a GIS

GIS as a database problem

B. CONCEPTS IN DATABASE SYSTEMS

Definition

Advantages of a database approach

Views of the database

C. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Components

Types of database systems

D. HIERARCHICAL MODEL

Summary of features

Advantages and disadvantages

E. NETWORK MODEL

Restrictions

Summary

F. RELATIONAL MODEL

Terminology

Examples of relations

Keys

Normalization

Advantages and disadvantages

REFERENCES
EXAM AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
NOTES
UNIT 43 - DATABASE CONCEPTS I
Compiled with assistance from Gerald White, California State University, Sacramento

A. INTRODUCTION

very early attempts to build GIS began from scratch, using very limited tools like
operating systems and compilers

more recently, GIS have been built around existing database management systems
(DBMS)
o purchase or lease of the DBMS is a major part of the system's software cost
o the DBMS handles many functions which would otherwise have to be
programmed into the GIS

any DBMS makes assumptions about the data which it handles

o to make effective use of a DBMS it is necessary to fit those assumptions
o certain types of DBMS are more suitable for GIS than others because their
assumptions fit spatial data better

Two ways to use DBMS within a GIS

1. Total DBMS solution
o all data are accessed through the DBMS, so must fit the assumptions imposed by
the DBMS designer
2. Mixed solution
o some data (usually attribute tables and relationships) are accessed through the
DBMS because they fit the model well
o some data (usually locational) are accessed directly because they do not fit the
DBMS model
GIS as a database problem

some areas of application, notably facilities management:

o deal with very large volumes of data
o often have a DBMS solution installed before the GIS is considered

the GIS adds geographical access to existing methods of search and query

such systems require very fast response to a limited number of queries, little analysis

in these areas it is often said that GIS is a "database problem" rather than an algorithm,
analysis, data input or data display problem

B. CONCEPTS IN DATABASE SYSTEMS

Definition

a database is a collection of non-redundant data which can be shared by different

application systems
o stresses the importance of multiple applications, data sharing
o the spatial database becomes a common resource for an agency

implies separation of physical storage from use of the data by an application program, i.e.
program/data independence
o the user or programmer or application specialist need not know the details of how
the data are stored
o such details are "transparent to the user"

changes can be made to data without affecting other components of the system. e.g.
o change format of data items (real to integer, arithmetic operations)
o change file structure (reorganize data internally or change mode of access)
o relocate from one device to another, e.g. from optical to magnetic storage, from
tape to disk

Advantages of a database approach

reduction in data redundancy

o shared rather than independent databases

reduces problem of inconsistencies in stored information, e.g. different

addresses in different departments for the same customer

maintenance of data integrity and quality

data are self-documented or self-descriptive

o information on the meaning or interpretation of the data can be stored in the

database, e.g. names of items, metadata

avoidance of inconsistencies
o data must follow prescribed models, rules, standards

reduced cost of software development

o many fundamental operations taken care of, however DBMS software can be
expensive to install and maintain

security restrictions
o database includes security tools to control access, particularly for writing

Views of the database

overhead - Views of the database

the database can present different views of itself to users, programmers

o these are built and maintained by the database administrator (DBA)

the internal data representation (internal view) is normally not seen by the user or
applications programmer

the conceptual view or conceptual schema is the primary means by which the DBA builds
and manages the database

the DBMS can present multiple views of the conceptual schema to programmers and
users, depending on the application
o these are called external views or schemas
overhead - Water district database

C. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Components
Data types
o includes:

integer (whole numbers only)

real (decimal)

character (alphabetic and numeric characters)

date

o more advanced systems may include pictures and images as data types

e.g. a database of buildings for the fire department which stores a picture
as well as address, number of floors, etc.

Standard operations

e.g. sort, delete, edit, select records

Data definition language (DDL)

o the language used to describe the contents of the database

e.g. attribute names, data types - "metadata"

Data manipulation and query language

o the language used to form commands for input, edit, analysis, output, reformatting
etc.
o some degree of standardization has been achieved with SQL (Standard Query
Language)
Programming tools
o besides commands and queries, the database should be accessible directly from
application programs through e.g. subroutine calls
File structures
o the internal structures used to organize the data
Types of database systems

several models for databases:

o tabular ("flat file") - data in a single table
o hierarchical

o network
o relational

the hierarchical, network and relational models all try to deal with the same problem with
tabular data:
o inability to deal with more than one type of object, or with relationships between
objects
o e.g. database may need to handle information on aircraft, crew, flights and
passengers - four types of records with different attributes, but with relationships
between them (e.g. "is booked on" between passenger and flight)

database systems originated in the late 1950s and early 1960s largely by research and
development of IBM Corporation

most developments were responses to needs of business, military, government and

educational institutions - complex organizations with complex data and information
needs

trend through time has been increasing separation between the user and the physical
representation of the data - increasing "transparency"

D. HIERARCHICAL MODEL

early 1960s, IBM saw business world organizing data in the form of a hierarchy

rather than one record type (flat file), a business has to deal with several types which are
hierarchically related to each other
o e.g. company has several departments, each with attributes: name of director,
number of staff, address

each department requires several parts to make its product, with attributes:
part number, number in stock

each part may have several suppliers, with attributes: address, price

diagram

certain types of geographical data may fit the hierarchical model well
o e.g. Census data organized by state, within state by city, within city by census
tract

diagram

the database keeps track of the different record types, their attributes, and the hierarchical
relationships between them

the attribute which assigns records to levels in the database structure is called the key
(e.g. is record a department, part or supplier?)

Summary of features

a set of record "types"

o e.g. supplier record type, department record type, part record type

a set of links connecting all record types in one data structure diagram (tree)

at most one link between two record types, hence links need not be named
o for every record, there is only one parent record at the next level up in the tree

e.g. every county has exactly one state, every part has exactly one
department

no connections between occurrences of the same record type

o cannot go between records at the same level unless they share the same parent
diagram

Advantages and disadvantages

data must possess a tree structure

o tree structure is natural for geographical data

data access is easy via the key attribute, but difficult for other attributes
o in the business case, easy to find record given its type (department, part or
supplier)
o in the geographical case, easy to find record given its geographical level (state,
county, city, census tract), but difficult to find it given any other attribute

e.g. find the records with population 5,000 or less

tree structure is inflexible

o cannot define new linkages between records once the tree is established

e.g. in the geographical case, new relationships between objects

o cannot define linkages laterally or diagonally in the tree, only vertically

o the only geographical relationships which can be coded easily are "is contained
in" or "belongs to"

DBMSs based on the hierarchical model (e.g. System 2000) have often been used to store
spatial data, but have not been very successful as bases for GIS

E. NETWORK MODEL

developed in mid 1960s as part of work of CODASYL (Conference on Data Systems

Languages) which proposed programming language COBOL (1966) and then network
model (1971)
o other aspects of database systems also proposed at this time include database
administrator, data security, audit trail

objective of network model is to separate data structure from physical storage, eliminate
unnecessary duplication of data with associated errors and costs

uses concept of a data definition language, data manipulation language

uses concept of m:n linkages or relationships

o an owner record can have many member records
o a member record can have several owners

hierarchical model allows only 1:n

example of a network database

o a hospital database has three record types:

patient: name, date of admission, etc.

doctor: name, etc.

ward: number of beds, name of staff nurse, etc.

o need to link patients to doctor, also to ward

o doctor record can own many patient records
o patient record can be owned by both doctor and ward records

network DBMSs include methods for building and redefining linkages, e.g. when patient
is assigned to ward

Restrictions

links between records of the same type are not allowed

while a record can be owned by several records of different types, it cannot be owned by
more than one record of the same type (patient can have only one doctor, only one ward)

Summary

the network model has greater flexibility than the hierarchical model for handling
complex spatial relationships

it has not had widespread use as a basis for GIS because of the greater flexibility of the
relational model

F. RELATIONAL MODEL

the most popular DBMS model for GIS

o the INFO in ARC/INFO
o EMPRESS in System/9
o several GIS use ORACLE
o several PC-based GIS use DBase III

flexible approach to linkages between records comes closest to modeling the complexity
of spatial relationships between objects

proposed by IBM researcher E.F. Codd in 1970

more of a concept than a data structure

o internal architecture varies substantially from one RDBMS to another

Terminology

each record has a set of attributes

o the range of possible values (domain) is defined for each attribute

records of each type form a table or relation

o each row is a record or tuple
o each column is an attribute

note the potential confusion - a "relation" is a table of records, not a linkage between
records

the degree of a relation is the number of attributes in the table

o 1 attribute is a unary relation
o 2 attributes is a binary relation
o n attributes is an n-ary relation

Examples of relations
unary: COURSES(SUBJECT) binary: PERSONS(NAME,ADDRESS) OWNER(PERSON
NAME,HOUSE ADDRESS) ternary: HOUSES(ADDRESS,PRICE,SIZE)
Keys

a key of a relation is a subset of attributes with the following properties:

o unique identification

the value of the key is unique for each tuple

o nonredundancy

no attribute in the key can be discarded without destroying the key's

uniqueness

o e.g. phone number is a unique key in a phone directory

in the normal phone directory the key attributes are last name, first name,
street address

if street address is dropped from this key, the key is no longer unique
(many Smith, John's)

a prime attribute of a relation is an attribute which participates in at least one key

o all other attributes are non-prime

Normalization

concerned with finding the simplest structure for a given set of data
o deals with dependence between attributes
o avoids loss of general information when records are inserted or deleted
overhead - Normalization

consider the first relation (prime attribute underlined):

o this is not normalized since PRICE is uniquely determined by STYLE
o problems of insertion and deletion anomalies arise

the relationship between ranch and 50000 is lost when the last of the ranch
records is deleted

a new relationship (triplex costing 75000) must be inserted when the first
triplex record occurs

consider the second relation:

o here there are two relations instead of one

one to establish style for each builder

the other price for each style

several formal types of normalization have been defined - this example illustrates third
normal form (3NF), which removes dependence between non-prime attributes

although normalization produces a consistent and logical structure, it has a cost in

increased storage requirements
o some GIS database administrators avoid full normalization for this reason

a relational join is the reverse of this normalization process, where the two relations
HOMES2 and COST are combined to form HOMES1

Advantages and disadvantages

the most flexible of the database models

no obvious match of implementation to model - model is the user's view, not the way the
data is organized internally

is the basis of an area of formal mathematical theory

most RDBMS data manipulation languages require the user to know the contents of
relations, but allow access from one relation to another through common attributes
Example: Given two relations: PROPERTY(ADDRESS,VALUE,COUNTY_ID)
COUNTY(COUNTY ID,NAME,TAX_RATE)

to answer the query "what are the taxes on property x" the user would:
o retrieve the property record
o link the property and county records through the common attribute COUNTY_ID
o compute the taxes by multiplying VALUE from the property tuple with
TAX_RATE from the linked county tuple

REFERENCES
Standard database texts:
Date, G.J., 1987. An Introduction to Database Systems, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Howe, D.R., 1983. Data Analysis for Data Base Design, Arnold, London.
Kent, W., 1983. "A simple guide to five normal forms in relational database theory,"
Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 26:120.
Tsichritzis, D.C. and F.H. Lochovsky, 1977, Database Management Systems, Academic Press,
New York.

The relational model in GIS:

van Roessel, J.W., 1987. "Design of a spatial data structure using the relational normal forms,"
International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 1:33-50.
EXAM AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Compare the four database models (flat file, hierarchical, network and relational) as bases for
GIS. What particular features of the relational model account for its popularity?
2. Polygon overlay has been called a spatial analog of a relational join. Do you agree?
3. Summarize the arguments against organizing spatial databases as flat files.
4. Why do you think the term "relation" was chosen for a table of attributes in the relational
model?