QUANTUM TUNNELLING COMPOSITE

Kitchen science at its best!

At our Smart Materials, Smart Move conference in March we
were lucky enough to meet David Lussey, the man who
developed QTC and set up Peratech Ltd. to investigate its
properties. The whole audience was gripped by Davids
presentation and I have to say it is some time since I saw
such an enthusiastic presenter.
For the benefit of those who could not make it to Exeter, this
article looks and the what, how, why and where of this
remarkable material.
What is a composite?
A composite material can be defined as an engineered
material made from two or more constituents with
significantly different physical or chemical properties which
remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level within
the finished structure. Composites can either be described
by the type of matrix material, which is often the continuous
phase, or the second phase material which is often the
discontinuous phase. For example a glass fibre-epoxy
composite could be described as a polymer matrix composite
(as the epoxy resin forms a continuous phase within the
material) or a glass fibre reinforced composite (as the glass
fibres make up the second phase). By changing the type,
size, shape and amount of the second phase used, the
properties of the composite can be tailored to meet the
needs of a particular application.
Polymer matrix composites (PMC)
These include glass, carbon and Kevlar fibre reinforced
materials where the matrix material may be a thermosetting
polymer resin or a thermoplastic such as polypropylene.
These materials have been in use for many years and they
can have a huge range of properties. One of the key factors
influencing their properties is the way in which the fibres are
arranged. Traditional fibreglass uses short, chopped fibres,
whereas more modern materials use woven glass or carbon
cloth. The properties can be fine tuned by changing the way
the fibres are woven together.
Carbon fibre composites are now extensively used in a wide
range of applications, including aircraft body panels, F1 car
body shells, sports equipment (bicycle frames, golf club
shafts, fishing rods, oars etc.), prosthetic limbs and armour

This article appeared in

Issue 32 of the SAS
newsletter in Summer
2009.

Metal matrix composites (MMC)

In these materials the metal matrix may be mixed with
another metal, a polymer or a ceramic in the form of particles
or fibres. Magnesium is often used as the matrix material for
MMCs used in space applications. By creating a MMC
physical properties such as density, wear resistance,
coefficient of friction, or conductivity can be controlled. MMC
are used in a range of automotive applications, particularly
for cars used in competition. They are also used in hard
wearing tools (such as cobalt reinforced with tungsten
carbide particles), tank armour and fighter aircraft landing
gear.
Ceramic matrix composites (CMC)
Concrete is the most commonly used composite, in fact it is
the most widely used man-made material in the world. In this
case the ceramic matrix is reinforced with ceramic particles
in the form of sand and aggregates. Other CMCs are made
by mixing metal particles with the ceramic powder to produce
improved electrical conductivity. Bone is a natural CMC in
which hydroxyapatite (a calcium phosphate based mineral) is
reinforced with collagen (a natural polymer) fibres.
What is Quantum Tunnelling Composite?
Put simply, Quantum Tunnelling Composite (QTC) is a type
of polymer matrix composite. It is made by mixing finely
divided nickel powder with an elastomeric binder, typically a
silicone rubber. This in itself is nothing particularly special,
but QTC is unusual in that its electrical resistance varies with
applied pressure. In its unstressed state the material is a
near perfect electrical insulator, however once pressure is
applied the material begins to conduct and if sufficient
pressure is applied metallic levels of conductivity can be
achieved.
How was Quantum Tunnelling Composite discovered?
Like many great scientific discoveries, QTC was a bit of an
accident! David Lussey was trying to create a type of
conducting adhesive for a security system by mixing nickel
powder with silicone bathroom sealant in his kitchen. He
glued two metal plates together with this particular mix and
connected them in a circuit. Nothing happened; the material
was a really good insulator. However, he noticed that when
he flexed the plates a current could flow. After some time
experimenting he realised he had found something which
was very special and took his discovery along to Durham

University where more research could be carried out to

explore the properties of the material further.
Since its discovery in 1995 the properties of QTC and the
mechanisms behind them have been investigated and it is
now used in a wide range of applications.
Why is Quantum Tunnelling Composite better than
conventional conducting composites?
Conducting polymer matrix composites have been around for
some time, but using carbon powder as the conducting filler
materials. These materials will always conduct to a small
extent as the smooth, spherical carbon particles are always
touching and there is always a continuous conduction path.
Their resistance drops as pressure is applied as more
particles can touch each other creating a greater number of
conduction pathways. In its unstressed state a carbon
composite may have a resistance of a few thousand ohms,
reducing to a few hundred when pressure is applied. QTC
has a resistance greater than 1012 in its unstressed state,
reducing to less than 1 when pressure is applied. So it can
be seen that the difference in conductivity is much more
extreme in QTC and a factor of ten change in resistance in
QTC can be achieved with considerable less deformation,
making it far more pressure sensitive than conventional
carbon composites.
How does Quantum Tunnelling Composite work?
In a conventional conducting composite the spherical carbon
particles are always touching to a greater or lesser extent.
As pressure is applied more particles come into contact
increasing the number of conduction paths and decreasing
the electrical resistance of the material.
In QTC the particles do not actually need to touch each
other; conduction occurs via quantum tunnelling (see box on
quantum tunnelling). The nickel particles are not smooth
spheres; rather they are a complex irregular shape with
spikes all over. The particles are surrounded or wetted by an
insulating layer of silicone rubber which prevents them from
touching even when pressure is applied. The spikes on the
particles allow a higher concentration of electrons to build up
at their tips and this decreases the width of the potential
barrier in quantum tunnelling. This reduces the distance and
energy needed for the electron charge to tunnel through and
allow a current to flow. Increasing the pressure on the
material pushes the particles even closer (without touching)

Schematic illustration of particles

in QTC.

allowing a greater number of conduction paths (it decreases

the effective potential barrier and increases exponentially the
probability of tunnelling) and this regime therefore permits a
sliding scale of resistance with applied pressure (see
schematic diagram below).

The applied voltage also has an influence on the properties

of QTC. At low applied voltages the electrons only have a
small amount of energy and cannot tunnel across sizeable
gaps between particles in significant numbers. Thus in the
unstressed state the material is a near perfect insulator.
Applying pressure decreases resistance by reducing the gap
between the particles and increasing the probability of
tunnelling.
If the applied voltage is greater the electrons carry more
energy and when a higher enough voltage is applied the
probability of tunnelling increases significantly, allowing
conduction in the unstressed state. If the voltage is sufficient
QTC will switch to a conductive state which can be
maintained when the applied voltage is removed.
For most sensing and switching operations QTC is operated
outside this switching regime, usually at voltages less than
40V.
Where is Quantum Tunnelling Composite used?
QTC is an inert material that is durable and not affected by
humidity. It is currently available in a number of forms pills,
granules and inks for coatings, and is easy to process. It can
be integrated with conventional hard electronics relatively
easily and used to replace mechanical components which
are less robust. The resistance of QTC changes when
pressure is applied. In addition to simple compression the
change in resistance may be achieved by pulling, twisting, or
bending.
QTC can be used as a switch or sensor and has found a
large number of applications in a wide variety of sectors.
Peratech have worked with companies from NASA to Marks

and Spencer and many products containing the material are

now commercially available.
QTC in Toys and Games
QTC may be used to replace existing switches and sensors
in games controllers and computer mice to give increased
sensitivity for greater control. It can be used to make flexible,
portable musical instruments such as drum kits and
keyboards and can be incorporated in to cuddly toys as a
switch which plays a message when the toy is squeezed. It
can be used in interactive dance mats and the Wii board
takes advantage of the pressure sensing ability of this
material.
QTC in Sport
QTC can be used as a sensor in many areas, from force
sensors in training dummies for boxing to fencing jackets
which incorporate touch sensors. Insoles made from QTC
can be inserted in to training shoes to monitor and evaluate
the weight distribution of athletes whilst running. These
soles are very thin and can easily be placed inside ordinary
training shoes.
QTC in Medicine
QTC sensors can be incorporated into the cuffs of blood
pressure machines to ensure that they are tightened
correctly to reduce inaccurate readings. It maybe used to
replace a gas pressure sensor in a respiratory monitor which
records the expansion and contraction of the chest whilst
breathing. A QTC sensor can be used as a chest
compression monitor to facilitate the delivery of effective
CPR. The sensor detects the frequency and force or the
compressions.
QTC in Clothing
Wearable applications include mp3 player controllers built
into the sleeves of jackets. These allow the wearer to
discretely change track, adjust the volume etc. by pressing
QTC switches incorporated into the garment. The switches
are flexible, durable and washable and attach to the mp3
player via a connector in the inside pocket.
QTC in Tools
QTC may be incorporated into the handles of power tools to
act as a cut out switch or variable controller. The switches
are controlled by touch and are more sensitive than
conventional mechanical switches.

QTC in Robotics
QTC can be used as durable finger pads in prosthetic /
robotic hands which allow the amount of pressure being
applied to be controlled. Peratech have been working with
NASA to develop pressure sensitive gloves for the next
generation Robonaut.
QTC in Keyboards
QTC can be used to make a flexible, durable, portable
QWERTY keyboard which can be connected to a mobile
phone, laptop or other device using Bluetooth.

What is Quantum Tunnelling?

Quantum Tunnelling is a complex concept which can be quite difficult for the scientific
layman to understand. It is concerned with the probability of an electron passing
through or tunnelling through a potential barrier a region where there is a sudden
increase in potential or an electric field blocking the path of the particle. Classical
physics and quantum physics give different explanations for what happens when an
electron comes across such a potential barrier.
A useful analogy
Imagine standing on a harbour at high tide watching the waves in the rough sea break
against the sea wall. If the height of the waves (h) is greater than the height of the sea
wall (H) you will get wet as they can overcome the barrier. If the height of the waves is
less than the height of the sea wall youll remain dry. This is fine in the world of
classical physics, which states that if h<H there is no chance of the water getting across
the wall.
However, in quantum physics you would need to make sure you were wearing your
raincoat! Those of you that have spent time playing at high tide like me will know that if
a wave with h<H approaches particularly quickly, there is a chance it will splash over
the wall even though it is not as tall as it. Thus giving you a surprise and wet feet!
This idea can be scaled down to atomic level where our wave becomes an electron and
our sea wall a potential barrier.
The World according to Classical Physics
In Classical Physics the electron is considered to be a particle. Consider what happens
when this approaches a potential barrier (such as when it reaches the boundary
between a conducting and insulating material). If the energy of the electron is greater
than the energy of the barrier it can cross, but if it is less than the energy of the barrier it
is repelled and cannot cross.
The Quantum Tunnelling explanation
In Quantum Physics particles can also be considered as waves and there is a small
probability of the electron crossing the barrier by tunnelling through it. In QTC the
barrier is the thin layer of insulating silicone rubber separating the nickel particles. As
the waveform of the electron hits the barrier (i.e. the insulating material) its amplitude
decays exponentially. If it has reduced to zero by the time it reaches the other side of
the barrier it will not exit. This represents QTC in the unstressed state. When pressure
is applied the thickness of the silicone is reduced, i.e. the width of the barrier
decreases. In this case the amplitude of the electrons waveform has not decayed to
zero by the time it reaches the other side and there is a finite chance that it can escape
with a reduced amplitude, thus it has tunnelled through the barrier.

Where can I find out

more?
www.peratech.com, the
website of the Company
set up by David Lussey,
is an excellent source of
information about QTC.
SEP also produce a
booklet about this
material with ideas for
how it can be used in
school. Small pills of
QTC suitable for use in
classroom experiments
can be obtained from
TEP and SEP too. For
more information visit
www.sep.org.uk,
www.tep.org.uk or
www.mutr.co.uk.