2 Concise Description of The Soils in The Netherlands
2 Concise Description of The Soils in The Netherlands
2 Concise Description of The Soils in The Netherlands
2.1 Introduction
The main purpose of this thesis is to describe the chemical composition of the soils in the
Netherlands. In this chapter, the most important factors that ultimately determine the soil
composition are reviewed. Most of the soils in the Netherlands were derived from
unconsolidated Quaternary sediments, which acted as the soil parent material. Therefore,
the origin and mineralogical composition of these sediments serves as a starting point for
further insight in the composition of the soils. Hereafter, soil forming processes have lead
to a redistribution of components and the formation of soil horizons, which have
influenced the inorganic composition of the soils as well. In addition to these natural
processes, mankind has had a considerable impact on the composition of the soils, either
indirectly by changing the natural conditions, or directly by adding materials with a
different chemical composition (e.g. fertilizers).
Much research has occurred into the geology and pedology of the Netherlands,
which has been summarized in various standard works (e.g. Zagwijn and Van
Staalduinen, 1975; De Bakker, 1979; De Bakker and Locher, 1987; Locher and De
Bakker, 1987; De Bakker and Schelling, 1989; De Mulder et al., 2003). Moreover, there
is a wealth of related information for example about the historical land use and
agricultural production (see e.g. CBS, 2001). Unfortunately, this information is often only
available in the Dutch language. Moreover, our pedological classification and definition
of various lithological properties shows considerable differences with the classification
systems used abroad (see e.g. De Bakker, 1979).
The purpose of this chapter is to give an introductory overview of the surfacial
geology, pedology and land use history in the Netherlands, which is meant for readers not
familiar with the Netherlands and as the general reference for this study in later chapters.
This description is neither exhaustive nor complete, but it reviews the most important
topics that will be of relevance for the later chapters in this thesis. To ensure clarity and
consistency of terminology, I furthermore describe the geological and pedological
nomenclature used throughout this thesis.
The surface geology of the Netherlands is reviewed in section 2.2 and the
composition of the soil parent material is described in section 2.3. Other natural soil
forming processes are briefly described in section 2.4, whereas the historical land use and
anthropogenic impact on the soils can be found in section 2.5. Having reviewed the major
soil forming factors in the Netherlands, the soil classification system of the Netherlands is
briefy explained in section 2.6. A brief recapitulation, that may also be useful to the more
knowledgeble is presented in section 2.7.
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
23
Table 2.2 Description of major lithological units in the Netherlands and the different formations discerned
(P = Pleistocene, H = Holocene, nomenclature after Weerts et al. 2003).
Geogenesis
Lithology
Formations
Marine deposits
Often calcareous, silty and clayey deposits,
Maassluis (P), Eem (P),
interlayered with (fine) sandy deposits.
Naaldwijk (H)
Fluviatile deposits
Pleistocene formations have fine to coarse
Waalre (P), Sterksel (P), Urk
sands, including gravel, locally some clay
(P), Kreftenheye (P), Peize (P),
and peat layers. Holocene formations are
Appelscha (P), Echteld (H),
more clayey.
Beegden (H+P)
Glacigenic deposits
Various glacial deposits: glacial till and
Peelo (P), Drenthe (P)
boulder clay, fluvio- and lacustro-glacial
deposits (clay to coarse sand)
Local deposits
Either fine to medium, sometimes loamy,
Sand: Stamproy (P), Boxtel (H)
sandy deposits (eolian and local fluvial),
Peat: Woudenberg (P),
loess deposits and peat (various types).
Nieuwkoop (H)
24
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Figure 2.1 Overview of northwestern Europe showing the Netherlands (darker grey) and surrounding
countries. The major sediment sources for the Netherlands during the Quatenary are indicated by arrows
(basemap data from www.esri.com).
During the Pleistocene, the sedimentation was mainly confined to the land
(fluviatile, glacigenic and local terrestrial deposits), whereas during the Holocene, marine
sedimentation together with peat formation becomes more important. The major sediment
sources for the Netherlands are summarized in figure 2.1. Because the Pleistocene and
Holocene sediments form the parent material of most soils in the Netherlands, I start this
chapter with a brief description of their geogenesis and lithological characteristics. PreQuaternary formations, which are rarely found close to the surface, as well as formations
restricted to the North Sea, are left out of this overview (see e.g. Westerhoff et al.,
2003b).
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
25
The Pleistocene - here considered as the period from 2.6 Ma to 0.01 Ma years before
present (BP) is characterized by several alternating warmer (interglacial) and colder
(glacial) periods. During the Pleistocene, both climate as well as tectonics (increased
subsidence) were the main factors that determined the depositional environment in the
Netherlands. As a result of a relatively low sea level, continental sediments were
deposited over what is now the Dutch land surface (fig. 2.2).
At the beginning of the Pleistocene, however, major parts of the Netherlands were
still covered by a shallow sea, which left marine sediments over an extensive area
(Maassluis formation, see figure 2.2). As a result of transgression that started in the Early
Pleistocene (Pretiglien), the depositional environment acquired a more continental
character. Large rivers like the Rhine, Meuse and the North-German (or Eridanos) river
system progressively extended their alluvial plains westwards. These large braided river
systems left thick layers of dominantly coarse sediments including coarse sand and
gravel. The Early Pleistocene sediments of the Rhine, Meuse and the North-German river
system are respectively known as the Waalre, Beegden and Peize/Appelscha formation
(fig. 2.2). Besides these fluviatile deposits from the large river systems, local fluviatile
and eolian sediments were deposited in the southern parts of the Netherlands (Stamproy
formation).
At the start of the Middle Pleistocene (Cromerien), the sedimentation in the
Netherlands was still dominated by fluviatile input. Though the North-German river
system changed its course more northwards, the Rhine and Meuse still delivered large
amounts of sediments to the prograding Dutch delta. The collective deposits of the RhineMeuse system in the central parts of the Netherlands belong to the Sterksel formation
(fig. 2.2). Throughout the Pleistocene as well as Holocene period, the deposits from the
upper course of the Meuse belong to the Beegden formation, which is confined to the
southeast of the Netherlands (fig. 2.2).
In the Elsterien, the northern part of the Netherlands was covered by glaciers as a
result of the second North European glaciation. Here, both glacigenic and periglacial
sediments derived from Scandinavian crystalline massifs were deposited. These
sediments are collectively known as the Peelo formation. The sediments of the RhineMeuse system deposited during the Elsterien and Holsteinien, belong to the Urk
formation. As before, these rivers left coarse grained sediments like sand and gravel. The
local fluviatile and eolian deposits, which formed from the Elsterien up to the Early
Holocene, belong to the Boxtel formation (mainly fine to coarse sand).
During the third North European glaciation in the Saalien, the ice sheets extended
even further into the Netherlands, covering roughly the northern and central parts. As a
26
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Figure 2.2 Simplified lithostratigraphy of Pleistocene formations in the Netherlands (only formations that
crop out at the land surface, nomenclature after Weerts et al., 2003).
result, the older fluviatile deposits in the north were largely covered by ground moraine
(glacial till, boulder clay) of northern origin. These deposits are, together with fluvio-and
lacustroglacial sediments of that period, regarded as the Drenthe formation. In the central
and mid-eastern parts of the Netherlands, ice-pushed ridges were formed that are
currently still found as hills of up to ~100 m. As a consequence, the courses of the Rhine
and Meuse were forced in a more western direction, parallel to the east-west extension of
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
27
the ice sheets. From the Saalien up to the Weichselien, their collective deposits are
regarded as the Kreftenheye formation (mainly coarse sand).
The beginning of the Late Pleistocene (Eemian) was characterized by a warm,
interglacial period. During the Eemian, marine sediments were deposited over a restricted
area, confined mainly to the central Netherlands (Eem formation). At the margins of
these marine deposits, thick layers of peat developed that are known as the Woudenberg
formation.
The fourth North-European glaciation in the Weichselien marks the end of the
Pleistocene. During this glacial period, ice sheets did not extend into the Netherlands, but
the tundra climate in combination with very limited vegetation resulted in wind-blown
deposits forming a cover of one to several meters (cover sand deposits). During this
period both eolian sediments, including sand and loess, as well as fluvio-periglacial
deposits were formed. These sediments are also classified under the Boxtel formation
(fig. 2.2). Whereas loess deposits crop out primarily in the most southeastern part of the
Netherlands, the sandy deposits (cover sands) make up a large extent of the current land
surface. An overview of the lithography of the Pleistocene deposits that are found close
to the surface in the Netherlands is given in figure 2.3.
2.2.3 Holocene
The Holocene is an interglacial period that started roughly 10.000 14C-years ago and
continues up to the present. Compared to the glacial periods in the Pleistocene, the
Holocene is relatively warm and humid. The sedimentation is mainly confined to the
coastal parts of the Netherlands and consists of marine, estuarine and perimarine deposits,
including peat formation. The Pleistocene sediments in the elevated eastern half of the
Netherlands remain largely unaffected by the marine influence. Based on pollen analysis,
five climatic periods are discerned within the Holocene: Preboreal, Boreal, Atlanticum,
Subboreal and Subantlantic period (fig. 2.4).
In the Early Holocene (Preboreal and Boreal), the initially low sea level gradually
rose as a result of melting of the glaciers of the Weichselien, but did not reach the current
coastal border of the Netherlands. The large rivers Rhine and Meuse changed to more
meandering / anastomosing systems, leaving on average finer sediments than during the
Pleistocene. Since then, their collective deposits consist dominantly of clay and fine to
medium sand, and to a lesser extent coarse sand and gravel (Echteld formation). The on
average coarser sediments from the upper course of the Meuse are, as for the Pleistocene
period, assigned to the Beegden formation (fine to coarse sand and gravel).
In the largely unaffected eolian and local fluviatile Pleistocene sediments that
overlie major areas of the Netherlands (sand and loess of the Boxtel formation, figure
2.3), soil formation takes place as a result of extensive vegetation cover and the relatively
warm and humid climate. Local streams and brooks developed in the low-lying areas in
the Pleistocene region. Here, sand or clayey sand was deposited and locally some peat
developed. As for the Pleistocene period, these local terrestrial deposits are regarded as
the Boxtel formation (fig. 2.4).
At the beginning of the Middle Holocene (Atlanticum), the relative sea level further
rose so that large tidal basins and lagoons formed at the present coastal margins of the
Netherlands. Here, (peri)marine, often calcareous, sediments consisting of fine sand and
sandy to silty clay were deposited (Naaldwijk formation). At the margins of the extensive
28
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Figure 2.3 Overview of Pleistocene formations that occur close to or at the surface in the Netherlands
(within at least the first 1-3 meters). The areas in which the Pleistocene formations are overlain by thick
Holocene deposits are left blanc (see also fig. 2.2). The Beegden, Waalre, Sterksel, Kreftenheye, and Urk
formations are of fluviatile origin. Other fluviatile deposits like the Appelscha and Peize formations
(derived from the North German river system) were left out due to their very restricted occurence close to
the surface. The Boxtel formation, and in the south also the Stamproy formation, are of local eolian origin.
The Drenthe and Peelo formations are of glacigenic origin, whereas various includes different preQuaternary as well as Pleistocene formations.
Chronostratigraphy
Age
(Ma
BP)
Marine
Rhine
Eem
Local
Drenthe
Boxtel
+
2)
Woud.
Meuse
1)
Peelo
0.6
Elsterien*
Kreft.
Baltic
++
Glacial
Urk
0.4
Saalien*
Fluviatile
0.2
W*+E
Lithostratigraphic units
Sterksel
Menapien
1.2
Bavelien
Appelscha
1.0
0.8
Cromerien**
Beegden
Stamproy
Waalre
2.0
1.8
Eburorien
1.6
1.4
Waalien
Maassluis
2.4
2.2
Tiglien
Peize
Preatiglien
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
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Figure 2.4 Simplified lithostratigraphy of the Holocene formations of the Netherlands (only formations that
crop out at the land surface, nomenclature after Weerts et al., 2003).
Lithostratigrahic units
Chronostratigraphy
Age (ka
BP)
Subatlanticum
Present 2.6
Subboreal
2.6 5.0
Marine
Fluviatile
Rhine*
Naaldwijk
Atlanticum
5.0 8.0
Boreal
Preboreal
8.0 - 9.0
9.0 - 10
Echteld
Local
Baltic
Meuse
Aeolian
Beegden
Boxtel
Peat
Nieuwkoop
30
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Whereas geology is mainly concerned with the source provenance and lithostratigraphy
of different formations, pedology is concerned with the physical and chemical
characteristics of the upper sediment layer, or parent material, in which soil formation has
taken place. As the soil in the Netherlands is arbitrarily defined as the first 120 cm of
the profile below the litter layer (Locher and de Bakker, 1987), although the depth of soil
formation in these sediments is often much less. Furthermore, the soil profile often
contains different formations with different lithogenetical characteristics.
The different types of parent material in the Netherlands are classically grouped
into five districts: sand, loess, peat, fluviatile and marine clay (see e.g. Stiboka, 1965; De
Bakker and Locher, 1987). Though this classification shows some overlap with the
lithogenetical classification used in geology, there are also many differences. In the
classification of parent materials, most of the glacigenic sediments as well as a part of the
Pleistocene fluviatile deposits are assigned to the sand district (unless overlain by
Holocene clay deposits). In contrast, the loess deposits are within the geological
classification considered as a member of the Boxtel formation, whereas in the
pedological classification they are regarded as a different class of parent material.
In general, the classification of parent materials is more closely related to the
textural properties of the sediment and much less strictly based on their geogenesis. This
is on the one hand caused by the fact that the soil profile is defined for a constant depth,
often irrespective of the geological formations, but also because there was simply more
need for textural information in pedology. Geogenesis for sediments with comparable
texture was often only of secondary importance, mainly for agricultural land use.
In this section I review the geology of the soil profile in the five parent material
districts in the Netherlands. This is to get a more detailed understanding of the
geogenetical characteristics of the parent material and its variation throughout the profile.
Or in a broader sense: to incorporate geological knowledge such as geogenesis and
source provenance into the pedological framework in the Netherlands. In the following
description I have used the classification of parent materials employed for the 1:200.000
soil map (Stiboka, 1961), which in my opinion is the best combination of textural
properties as well as different geogenetical groups (e.g. marine vs. fluviatile). De Gans et
al. (1987) gave a comparable overview in terms of the former geological classification of
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
31
Doppert et al. (1975). For the nomenclature of formations and members, see Weerts et al.
(2003). An overview of the districts can be found in table 2.3 and figure 2.6. The
definitions of lithological properties used in this description are found in Appendix I.
Figure 2.5 Overview of the major Holocene and Pleistocene formations occuring at the surface in the
Netherlands. The various Pleistocene deposits include the Drenthe and Peelo formations, Stamproy
formation, and various fluviatile formations in the ice-pushed ridges, which are found in the central and
eastern parts. The various pre-Quaternary formations are found only in the southern and eastern parts of the
Netherlands and were not described in the text.
32
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Table 2.3 Overview of five soil parent material districts in the Netherlands and the Holocene formations
and members commonly occuring in the topsoil layer (after De Gans et al., 1987; nomenclature after
Weerts et al., 2003).
District
Formation Member
Geogenesis and lithology
Sand
Boxtel
Kootwijk
Eeolian sand (fine to medium sand)
(Naaldwijk) Schoorl
Eolian dunes (fine to medium sand)
Peat
Nieuwkoop Griendtsveen Oligotrophic sphagnum-mosses peat (high moor)
Singraven
Mesotrophic wood peat formed in local streams (brook
deposits)
Hollandveen Meso- to eutrophic reed, sedge and wood peat
Basisveen
Meso- to eutrophic reed, sedge and wood peat
Fluviatile Echteld
Fluviatile deposits of Rhine and Meuse (mainly clay and silt
to fine and coarse sand, locally some peat)
Beegden
Rosmalen
Fluviatile deposits, upper Meuse only (mainly silt to clay)
Wijchen
Fluviatile deposits, upper Meuse only (fine to coarse sand,
some gravel)
Marine
Naaldwijk
Walcheren
Marine and perimarine deposits (mainly fine sand to clay)
Wormer
Marine and perimarine deposits (mainly silty clay to clay)
Zandvoort
Coastal bars, beaches (fine to medium sand)
2.3.2 Districts
Sand district
The parent material in the sand district (fig. 2.6) consists mainly of eolian deposits of the
Late Pleistocene age, the so-called cover sand deposits. These sediments are mainly fine
to medium sized non-calcareous sands, which belong to the Boxtel formation (mainly the
Wierden member). The majority of profiles in the sand district have this parent material
over the full soil profile (De Bakker and Locher, 1987). Other eolian deposits found
within the profiles in the sand district include the Middle Pleistocene deposits which are
partly also of a local fluvial origin (Stamproy formation). This formation occurs within
the deeper profile in the southeasternmost part of the sand district.
Much younger eolian deposits include the inland and coastal dunes. The inland
dunes also belong to the Boxtel formation, but are designated as a different member
(Kootwijk). These are medium sized non-calcareous sands often derived from local
podzols - that overlie Pleistocene formations, especially in the central parts of the
Netherlands. The coastal dunes are restricted to the outermost coastal areas of the
Netherlands. In the geological classification, these dunes are assigned to the marine
formations (Naaldwijk formation, Schoorl member). In this thesis they are however
assigned to the sand district because they are eolian deposits. In contrast to the inland
dunes, the coastal dunes can be calcareous, especially in the deeper profile.
Besides eolian sediments, also a variety of glacial and peri-glacial deposits are
treated under the sand district. These deposits mainly underlie the cover sand deposits,
but are sometimes found at the surface. The occurrence of these formations is restricted
to the northern, central and eastern parts of the sand district, where glacial deposits and
peri-glacial deposits of Elsterien and Saalien age are found (Peelo and Drenthe
formation). These deposits include loamy to clayey sediments like glacial till and boulder
clays, which are mainly found in the north, but also fine to very coarse sandy fluvioglacial sediments (peri-fluvioglacial).
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
33
Figure 2.6 Spatial representation of the five soil parent material districts in the Netherlands (roughly after
Stiboka, 1965; De Bakker and Locher, 1987). The pre-Quaternary formations are not included within these
parent material districts due to their very restricted occurence.
Also treated under the sand district are the dominantly coarse grained, noncalcareous fluviatile sediments of Middle and Late Pleistocene age. The oldest fluviatile
deposits are found in the ice-pushed ridges in the central and eastern parts of the sand
district and consist of pre-Saalien sediments. These were either derived from the
collective Rhine-Meuse system (Waalre, Sterksel and Urk formation) as well as the North
34
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
German (or Eridanos) river system (Appelscha and Peize formation). Beyond the
extension of the glaciers in the southern parts of the sand district, comparable coarse
grained fluviatile sediments occur in the deeper profile. These belong to the Waalre,
Sterksel, Urk and Kreftenheye formations (Rhine-Meuse) and Pleistocene deposits of the
Beegden formation (upper Meuse).
The local fluviatile sediments from small rivers that drain the Pleistocene sandy
area also belong to the sand district. Here, often more loamy to clayey sediments as well
as mesotrophic wood peat are found. The peat, however, is part of the peat district. Other
Holocene deposits, like marine and fluviatile clays and different types of peat commonly
overlie the Pleistocene sands. As such, a wide variety of profiles can be found in the sand
district (see De Gans et al. (1987) for a more thourough discussion).
Loess district
The parent material of the loess district (or loamy soils after Stiboka, 1965) consists of
silty eolian sediments that were deposited during the Saalien and Weichselien (Boxtel
formation, Schimmert member). Commonly, the upper layers of loess deposits eroded
and were re-deposited locally in valleys (colluvial loess). Texturally, loess can be
classified as silty loam or sandy loam (see Appendix I). The upper loess deposits are noncalcareous as a result of extensive decalcification, but calcareous material is commonly
found deeper in the sediment (2.5-3 m). The loess deposits are part of the middle
European loess belt and comparable loess deposits are found in the adjacent countries
Belgium and Germany.
The occurrence of loess close to or at the surface is confined to the southern and
southeastern parts of the Netherlands and covers roughly 2% of the land surface (fig.
2.6). Local deposits occur in the province of Brabant and Gelderland, but the dense
occurrence of loess is restricted to the southeastern parts of the Netherlands. Here it
overlies a variety of Pre-Quarternary formations such as limestones and marls as well as
Pleistocene formations (mainly coarse fluviatile sands, Beegden formation). Locally,
younger fluviatile and eolian sediments overlie the loess.
Peat district
The profiles in the peat district are defined as having a high organic matter contents over
at least 40 cm of the first 80 cm of the profile (see Appendix I and section 2.6.3). All
surfacial peat belongs to the Nieuwkoop formation and was formed during the Holocene
(fig. 2.6). The mineral layers underlying the peat formations are often of Pleistocene age
(mainly sand), but also of Holocene age (marine/estuarine clays). In the midwestern parts
of the Netherlands, the peat is often overlain by sediments of Holocene age (mainly
clays).
The peat developed under a variety of conditions. In the inland parts of the
Pleistocene sandy area, oligotrophic sphagnum-moss peat developed (Griendtsveen
member). In local rivers and brooks that drain the Pleistocene sandy area, mesotrophic
wood peat formed (Singraven member). The different peat layers that were formed in the
coastal margins of the Netherlands during the Holocene consist of mesotrophic to
eutrophic reed, sedge and wood peat that grew under saline, brackish or fresh water
conditions (Hollandveen member and Basisveen layer).
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
35
Since Roman times, much of the peat has been excavated (see also section 2.5.2).
As a result, there are few profiles left that have peat over the full length of the profile.
The majority of peat lands have a non-organic sandy or clayey top layer, which is often
of anthopogenic origin.
Fluviatile district
The parent material in the fluviatile district consists mainly of fluviatile clay and sand
deposited by the Rhine, Meuse and their tributaries during the Holocene (Echteld and
Beegden formation). These deposits can be calcareous or non-calcareous and often show
a wide variety of grain size distributions ranging from coarse sands to heavy clays. The
deposits of the upper Meuse, assigned to the Beegden formation, are generally much
coarser and consist either of coarse to very coarse sands or of sandy to silty clay. The
various member in the Beegden formation are not discussed here.
The Echteld formation, which was deposited by the collective Rhine-Meuse system
during the Holocene, consists of sandy deposits as well as sandy to heavy clays. Within
the Echteld formation, no further members are discerned. Instead, various types of
lithogenetic groups are discerned which are based on the depositional environment, such
as channel, crevasse and flood plain deposits (see e.g. Berendsen 1982; Trnquist, 1993;
Weerts, 1996).
Commonly, the Holocene fluviatile sediments reach down to 120 cm and show a
distinct fining upward in the profile. Locally, older formations are found deeper in the
profile; most notably coarse sand and gravel (sometimes clay) of the formation
Kreftenheye as well as aeolian and local fluviatile deposits from the Boxtel formation
(sand, loam and locally peat). Further assigned to the fluviatile district are the old
fluviatile clay deposits that locally crop out in the southeastern parts of the country.
These are older sandy to clayey deposits of the Rhine-Meuse and Meuse (mainly
Kreftenheye formation, also Beegden formation).
Marine district
The parent materials in the marine district are of Holocene age and consist of tidal,
intertidal and perimarine deposits of the North Sea (Naaldwijk formation). The deposits
are often calcareous (shell fragments) and their texture ranges mainly from fine sand to
(heavy) clay. Within the marine Naaldwijk formation, various members are discerned.
The Wormer member consists of intertidal deposits and generally shows a fining upward
sequence from fine sand to (heavy) clay. Especially in the southwestern parts of the
Netherlands, this layer is overlain by the younger Walcheren member, which consists of
fine sand and sandy to silty clay. It is also found at the surface of the large polders around
the central lake of the Netherlands. The eolian deposits (coastal dunes) of the Naaldwijk
formation are for this overview assigned to the sand district.
In the west of the Netherlands, the marine parent material often overlies the peat of
the Nieuwkoop formation as well as fluviatile deposits of the Rhine and Meuse (Echteld
formation). In the northern parts of the Netherlands, marine deposits commonly overlie
sandy Pleistocene deposits of the Boxtel formation. Also, large areas in the marine
district consist either of lakes or coastal areas that were reclaimed, thereby uncovering the
underlying marine deposits of the Wormer member (see also section 2.5.2).
36
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
In the previous section, the soil parent material and the formations discerned herein have
been described in terms of geogenesis and texture. The natural range of grain size
distributions in these sediments is shown in figures 2.7a and 2.7b. They reveal
considerable overlap in texture between eolian sediments (sand and loess district) and
non-eolian sediments (marine and fluviatile clay districts), although the formaer are more
silty. In general, for these well sorted sediments there exists a clear relation between
texture and sediment mineralogy in terms of broad mineralogical groups (table 2.4). As
can be seen, the three most important grain size fractions - sand, silt and clay - have their
own distinct composition in terms of the broad mineralogical groups. It will be seen that
the mineralogical composition of the sediments within the various districts forms a
continous range within the limits set in table 2.4.
Figure 2.7a and 2.7b Common textural range found for eolian (a) and non-eolian (b) sediments in the
Netherlands (after De Bakker and Schelling, 1989). For terminology see Appendix I.
Table 2.4 Estimated mineralogical composition of four grain size classes of various Dutch sediments (after
Breeuwsma (1987)), partly combined with the data of table 8 for the clay fraction.
Mineral (group)
Sand fraction
Coarse silt
Fine silt fraction Clay fraction
fraction
Quartz
80-95
65
40
5-10
Feldspars
5-10
20
20
<5
Micas
1-5
10
0 (?)
0 (?)
Chlorite
<3
<5
0 (?)
<10*
Clay minerals
0
0
35
60-80*
Heavy minerals**
0.5
?
?
?
Free Fe2O3***
0.1-3
?
?
2-5
Free Al2O3
0.1-1
?
?
1-3
?
?
?
2.6 7.4
Free SiO2
(?) Absent from original table, but interlayered forms may occur (see text).
* Combined with data from table 8.
** Locally much higher values beach sands.
*** Locally much higher values in seepage areas.
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
37
Quartz (SiO2) is one of the most abundant minerals and occurs as an essential constituent
of many rock types and sediments. It is especially concentrated in the sand fraction (up to
95 wt%) and is a major component of the coarse silt fraction (table 2.4). Quartz is
therefore the dominant mineral phase of sandy and loamy sediments as well as the
lighter clays having up to ~40 wt% clay fraction. Also in the coarser fractions like
gravel and pebbles, quartz is the domiant mineral phase (see Maarleveld, 1956).
Quartz is mainly in the form of crystalline quartz and dominantly occurs as detrital
grains. The coarse grained fluviatile sediments derived from the North-German river
system (Peize and Appelscha formation) generally have higher amounts of quartz grains
(80-90 %) than comparable sediments from the Rhine-Meuse system (60-70 %). In the
latter, both lithic framents and micas/chlorite are more dominant (Breeuwsma, 1987).
Coarse grained sediments from the upper course of the Meuse (Beegden formation) have
even lower concentrations of quartz grains (40-50%) and relatively high concentrations
of lithic fragments (50-60%), which also dominantly consist of siliceous material
(Maarleveld, 1956).
Besides crystalline forms of quartz, amorphous quartz of biogenic origin can play a
role in the total amount of quartz. Compared to sandy sediments, marine and fluviatile
deposits show slightly higher amounts of amorphous silica (Breeuwsma, 1987). In soils
with a humus rich A-horizon, secondary amorphous quartz occurs in concentrations
ranging between 1-4% wt.% (Breeuwsma, 1987).
Feldspars
The feldspar group is described in terms of the three end members: orthoclase
(KAlSi3O8), albite (NaAlSi3O8) and anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8). Solid solutions between
orthoclase and albite are referred to as alkali-feldspars, whereas the anorthoclase-albite
series is termed plagioclase feldspars-series. Very restricted solid solution between Kand Ca-feldspars occur.
Like quartz, feldspars are abundant minerals that occur throughout many rock
types. With respect to texture, highest concentrations of feldspars are found in the
(coarse) silt fraction (up to 20 wt%; table 2.4) and to a lesser extent also in the sand
fraction (5-10 wt%). The highest concentrations of feldspars therefore occur in the loamy
and sandy sediments, as well as the sandy to silty clays.
38
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
The mica-group consists of a variety of platy minerals with a perfect basal cleavage. The
most common non-brittle micas include muscovite, paragonite, glauconite, biotitephlogopite, lepidolite and zinnwaldite. The majority of the micas occur as separate
minerals and form only limited solid solutions. Biotite, however, occurs as a full solid
solution with phlogopite and its compositional boundary is arbitrarily defined as having
Mg/Fe < 2.
The micas are one of the least studied mineral groups of the Netherlands. As
estimated by Breeuwsma (1987), maximum amounts of micas (up 10 wt%) are found in
the fine silt fraction and they generally show the same distribution pattern as chlorite.
From table 2.4 it is clear that the concentration of micas is considerably higher in the silty
clay and loamy sediments, and much lower in the coarse sandy sediments and very fined
grained heavy clays.
Very little is known about the distribution of the various micas in the Dutch soils.
On the basis of a few clayey sediments studied by Van Baren (1934) it is clear that
muscovite is likely to be the most common mica, whereas biotite is not always present
and will occur in smaller amounts. No differentiation was made into the other micas like
paragonite, phlogopite and zinnwaldite, nothing is known about the distribution of these
phases.
The occurrence of glauconite is better understood, mainly due to the fact that it is
more easily recognizable; larger amounts of glauconite give a greenish color to the
sediments (so-called green sands). Its occurrence is however largely restricted to
Tertiary marine sediments (not described here), which are found only very locally close
to the surface (see Zagwijn and Van Staalduinen, 1975). Glauconite does occur in small
amounts in local eolian sediments that were derived from these Tertiary sediments (Van
der Lijn, 1973).
Glauconite is regularly considered under the clay minerals (see e.g. Breeuwsma,
1987). Here, I have followed Deer et al. (1992), mainly because glauconite forms rather
coarse aggregates and is therefore also found in the coarser fractions (sandy to silty
marine sediments).
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
39
Chlorites
The chlorites are a mineral group that closely resembles the micas in many respects.
Besides its common occurrence in many igneous and low-grade metamorphic rocks,
chlorites occur in sediments, either as a detrital or an authigenic phase. The common
formulae for chlorites is (Mg,Al,Fe)12[(Si,Al)8,O20](OH)16, but the chlorite group shows a
wide range of compositions. The Fe2+/(Fe2++Mg)-ratio can lie between zero and unity.
Further mineralogical description of the chlorites falls beyond the scope of this review
(see Deer et al., 1992).
Again little is known about the distribution of chlorite in Dutch soils. Just like the
micas, maximum concentrations ranging to up to 10 wt% of chlorite are found in the fine
silt fraction (table 2.4). However, comparable amounts are also found in the clay fraction
(table 2.6). Here, it might occur as interlayered with clay minerals like vermiculite, which
is a common weathering product of chlorite. The distinction between chlorite and clay
minerals is not clear-cut, but the amount of chlorite will obvisouly be highest in fine
grained clayey and loamy sediments.
Clay minerals
Clay minerals are basic constituents of many fine grained sediments and (meta-)
sedimentary rocks (e.g. mudstones, shales and slates). In general, clay minerals are
characterized by their small size commonly less than 2 m , their platy interlayered
structure as well as their relatively large, mostly negative surface charge. They are
basically categorized on the basis of the number of silicon tetraeder layers vs. the number
of aluminum octaeders per unit cell, which can be 1:1 or 2:1 (table 2.5). Based on their
basal spacing, clay minerals are further subdivided in four groups: kaolinites (kandites),
illites, smectites and vermicultes (table 2.5).
The clay minerals are of course the most abundant in the clay fraction of sediments where
they comprise 60-80 wt%. They do occur in smaller amounts in the fine silt
Table 2.5 Overview of clay minerals groups and their general composition (after Deer et al. 1992).
Clay mineral
Type
Octahedral
Interlayer
Common
Paragenesis
group
component
cation
minerals
Kaolinites
1:1
di-octahedral
none
Kaolinite,
Alteration of acids
halloysite
rocks, feldspars etc.
Formula: Al4Si4O10(OH)8, little variation
Illites
2:1
Mostly diK
Illite, phengite Alteration of micas,
octahedral
feldspars etc.
Formula:K1-1.5Al4[Si7-6.5Al1-1.5O20](OH)4
Smectites
2:1
Di- or
Ca, Na
Montmorriloni Alteration of basic
trioctahedral
te, beidelite,
rocks, volcanic
nontronite,
material.
saponite
Formula: (0.5Ca, Na)0.7(Al, Mg, Fe)4(Si,Al)8O20(OH)4.nH2O
Vermiculites
2:1
Mostly triMg
Vermiculite
Mainly alteration of
octahedral
biotite, also
chlorites,
hornblendes etc.
Formula: (Mg, Ca)0.7(Mg, Fe3+, Al)6(Si,Al)8O20(OH)4.8H2O
40
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
fraction (table 2.4). In this overview I do not go into the details of clay mineralogy and
interlayering of different clay minerals (e.g. illite-smectite clays). The before mentioned
clay mineral groups will be used without further differentiation.
Various studies exist on the distribution of clay minerals in Tertiary and
Quarternary formations (Tebbens, 1998; Huisman, 2000) and different soils or parent
material types (Breeuwsma, 1985; Breeuwsma, 1987; Van der Salm, 1998). Often, these
studies have specifically focused on the mineralogy of the clay fraction (< 2 m) only. As
can be seen in table 2.6, the range of concentrations of various clay minerals is quite
comparable for the different soil types. In all cases, illite and smectite are the dominant
clay minerals, followed by smaller amounts of kaolinite and vermiculite. Illite, kaolinite
and vermiculites all show a quite narrow range of variation, whereas smectites have a
much broader concentration range. Marine and fluviatile clays have quite comparable
clay mineralogy, though on average, marine clay soils have higher smectite and much
lower vermiculite concentrations compared to fluviatile clays.
Table 2.6 Mineralogical composition of the clay fraction (< 2 m) of various sediment types in the
Netherlands. Remark: Irion and Zollmer (2000) have set the data of the four clay mineral groups to 100%
(average indicated between brackets).
Fluviatile clay
Marine clay
Marine sand
Loess
Mineral group Breeuwsma,
Van der Salm Breeuwsma,
Irion and
Van der Salm
1987
et al., 1998
1987
Zllmer, 2000 et al., 1998
Quartz
5-10
2-5
5 - 10
NA
3-12
Feldspars
<5
<5
<5
NA
<5
Chlorite
<5 -10
5-6
<5 - 10
3-19 (12)
< 3-11
Kaolinite
5-10
11-14
5 - 10
2-23 (10)
13-24
Illites
30-40
31-46
30-40
34-67 (51)
20-41
Smectites
10-35
34-43**
10-50
5-53 (27)
20-38**
Vermiculites
5-20
<5*
NA
Free Fe2O3
3.9-4.3
NA
2.1-3.2
NA
NA
Free Al2O3
1.4-2.4
NA
0.6-1.3
NA
NA
Free SiO2
3.4-4.8
NA
2.6-7.4
NA
NA
* Up to 20 wt% in intermediate marine-fluviatile (brakish) clays.
** Interlayered clay mineral consisting of illite, smectite and vermiculite.
Though micas are not indicated as a component of the clay fraction (table 2.4), van
Baren (1934) found considerable amounts of muscovite in the 1-5.5 m fraction of clayey
sediments. The distinction between muscovite and clay minerals is, like for chlorite, not
always clear and intermediate forms like hydro-muscovite and interlayered muscoviteillite exist. The same applies to the occurrence of chlorite in the clay fraction, which can
range up to 10 wt %, but it is not clear to what degree chlorite is interlayered with
smectites or vermiculites.
Heavy minerals
Heavy minerals consist of a mixed bag of minerals and mineral groups commonly
defined by having densities larger than 2.8 g/cm3. In general, the heavy minerals occur as
minor components (< 1 wt %) in a wide variety of rock types and sediments. The total
amount of heavy minerals in the Dutch sediments is generally below 0.5 wt%
(Breeuwsma, 1987). They are most often used for sediment provenance studies as they
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
41
are generally resistant to weathering and often characteristic for a certain rock type or
geological setting. The provenance studies in the Netherlands were mainly focused on the
(coarse) fluviatile sediments.
Originally, Edelman (1933) discerned six provenances in the Quarternary
sediments of the Netherlands. Currently however, only a broad distinction between
between stable and unstable heavy minerals groups is made (table 2.7). Typical minerals
of the stable heavy mineral suite include andalusite, kyanite, sillimanite and staurolite.
These are typical heavy minerals of the fluviatile sediments from the Meuse (Beegden
formation, also Stamproy formation), which were derived from the more strongly
weathered rocks of the Rhenish and Kempish. Fluviatile sediments from the NorthGerman river system are also characterized by a stable heavy mineral suite (Peize and
Appelscha formation; section 2.2.2). Other stable heavy minerals such as zircon, rutile
and tourmaline are also found, but they are less typical as they also occur in sediments
with unstable heavy mineral associations.
The Pleistocene sediments from the Rhine are derived from the relatively
unweathered crystalline rocks in the Alps and southern Germany. As a result, they show a
dominantly unstable heavy mineral association, characterized by relatively high
concentrations of garnets, epidote, hornblende and augite (Waalre, Sterksel, Urk and
Kreftenheye formation cf. Weerts et al., 2003).
Table 2.7 Overview of common heavy minerals used for provenance studies in the Netherlands
(composition after Deer et al., 1992).
Mineral
Formula
Paragenesis
Stable
Tourmaline
Staurolite
Kyanite/
sillimanite/
andalusite
Zircon
Al2SiO5
ZrSiO4
Rutile/anatase/
brookite
Topas
Al2[SiO4](OH,F)2
Unstable
Epidote
Hornblende
Ca2Fe3+Al2O.OH[Si2O7][SiO4]
(Na, K)0-1Ca2(Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+, Al)5[Si6-7Al2-1O22](OH,F)2
Augite
Saussurite
Garnet
See epidote
Al-silicates contaning variable amounts of 2 to 3 major
cations such as Ca, Fe, Mg and some Mn, Cr and Ti.
(Fe2+, Mg, Mn)2(Al, Fe3+)Al3O2 [SiO4]2(OH)4
Chloritoid
42
TiO2
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
All minerals formed after deposition of the sediment are here considered as secondary
minerals. They consist of a variety of mineral groups, of which the most important are the
carbonates, oxides, sulphides and phosphates. In general, their total concentration is less
than a few wt%, but these secondary minerals can be enriched, e.g. in seepage areas
and/or organic rich sediments.
Secondary carbonates - carbonates formed after deposition of the sediment can
be divided into biogenic carbonates, mainly calcitic shell fragments and carbonates
formed as a result of chemical precipitation. Biogenic calcite (CaCO3) is formed in all
types of marine, fluviatile, or lacustrine environments. These biogenic fragments can
occur in high amounts, especially in sandy marine sediments (up to 30 wt %), whereas
the more heavy clays (both marine and fluviatile) are generally non-calcareous. Also the
Pleistocene deposits are generally non-calcareous as a result of progressive weathering.
Chemically precipitated calcite is often the result from degassing of CO2-rich
groundwater, which e.g. occurs in seepage zones. Thereby, in organic rich sediments like
peat and brook deposits, siderite (FeCO3) can occur.
The most important secondary oxides and hydroxides are those of iron, aluminum,
silicon and possibly manganese. Total free iron concentrations range form 0.1 to 4 wt %
Fe2O3. In local brook deposits with extensive seepage, however, the total concentrations
of secondary iron in the clay fraction can reach up to 50-60 wt% Fe2O3 (Breeuwsma,
1987). Secondary iron mainly occurs in the form of goethite (-FeOOH). In the presence
of abundant Fe3+, ferrihydrite is commonly formed as an amorphous intermediate Femineral. Occasionally, green rust is precipitated as an amorphous intermediate Fe2+/Fe3+mineral. This occurs especially in soils with an alternating groundwater table and
abundant organic material, for example soils formed in brook deposits. In peat, the
goethite polymorph lepidocrocite (-FeOOH) can be the dominant Fe-(hydr)oxide. Also,
the hematite polymorph maghemite (-Fe2O3) is occasionally found (Breeuwsma, 1987).
In general, the concentrations of secundary iron are found to be higher in fluviatile clays
(3.3-4.3 wt.% Fe2O3) compared to marine clays (2.5-3.0 wt.% Fe2O3). On the other hand
the Fe2O3 bound to alumino-silicates is 1-3 wt% higher in marine clays compared to the
fluviatile clays (for a range of total Fe-concentrations between 4-7 wt% Fe2O3;
Breeuwsma, 1987).
Secondary aluminum always occurs in lower concentrations than secondary iron
(0.1 -1 wt % Al2O3), mostly as gibbsite (Al(OH)3). Compared to marine clays, fluviatile
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
43
clays generally contain less secondary aluminum (1-2 wt% Al2O3, compared on a total
Al-concentration of 20 wt% Al2O3; Breeuwsma, 1987). Other commonly occuring
secondary oxides, besides secondary silicon (see under quartz), are those of manganese.
Pyrolusite (-MnO2) has been described for the Dutch soils, though so far always in
concentrations less than 0.5 wt % MnO (Breeuwsma, 1987).
Secondary sulphides in the Netherlands include mainly pyrite (FeS2) and less stable
intermediate iron sulphides like mackinawite (FeS) and greigite (Fe3S4). They often occur
in small concentrations in reduced (marine) soils that have increased concentrations of
organic matter (anoxic settings). Iron sulphides occur also in sandy sediments/soils that
are close to an organic layer as well as peat soils. These sediments should then have been
under marine influence in order to have enough sulphur for considerable sulphide
formation. By weathering of the sulphides, jarosite (KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6) forms giving a
typical yellow mottled color to these soils (acid sulphate soils). These soils commonly
occur in coastal and inland reclamations in the marine and peat districts.
Another group of secondary minerals includes the phosphates. The most common
are phosphates of calcium (apatite, hydroxy-apatite), iron (vivianite, strengite) as well as
magnesium/ammonium (struvite) and aluminum (variscite). However, no detailed
information on their occurrence in the Dutch soils is available. In general, the total
amount of phosphate minerals in the soils is less than 0.1 wt %. Vivianite
(Fe3(PO4)28H2O) occurs in organic rich reduced fluviatile sediments. High
concentrations of vivianite and possibly strengite (Fe(PO4).2H2O) can occur also in brook
valley deposits, where they often occur together with siderite.
2.4 Soil forming factors
2.4.1 Introduction
In pedology, soils are classified according to the compositional and textural variations
that occur throughout the profile. As mentioned, the soil profile in the Netherlands is
arbitrarily defined as the 0-120 cm layer of the sediment (excluding the litter layer). The
different layers observed in the soil profile can have a geogenetic origin (different
formations/laagpaketten) or a pedogenetic origin, e.g. as a result of organic matter
accumulation in the topsoil or transport of secondary Fe/Al-(hydr)oxides. In the latter
case, these layers are termed horizons which are the basic properties used in further soil
classification (section 2.6.3).
In contrast to geogenic layering, which was described in the previous sections,
these horizons result from various soil forming processes. These soil forming processes
in turn are governed by a variety of soil forming factors, which are: parent material,
climate and vegetation, topography and hydrology, time (soil age) and human impact.
The parent material is described in the previous section and here only the climate,
vegetation, topography and hydrology and soil age are reviewed. In the Netherlands, the
human impact on soil forming factors such as hydrology, topography and soil age, as
well as on the geogenic layering of the profile has been extensive. The human impact on
soils will therefore be further worked out separately (section 2.5).
The following is largely based the work of De Bakker (1979), De Bakker and
Locher (1987) and Locher and De Bakker (1987)
44
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Soil formation in the Netherlands essentially started after the last glacial period
(Weichselien) when the temperature rose and vegetation started to stabilize the
unconsolidated sediments. During the Holocene, the temperature was rather constant and
the climate was comparable to the current climate. Only during the Atlanticum the
average yearly temperature probably a few degrees above the current temperature
(Westerhoff et al., 2003).
Currently, the Netherlands have a moderate sea climate (Cfb according to Kppen)
and average daily temperatures range from 2 C in January to 16 C in July and the
relative humidity is generally between 80-90% (Huisman et al. 1998). The coastal parts
of the Netherlands have slightly milder winters and cooler summers compared to the
inland areas, but the regional differences are restricted as a result of the limited size and
flat topography of the Netherlands. The average annual precipitation in the Netherlands is
750 mm, which is rather constant over the land surface (10-15% deviation; Huisman et al.
1998). While the spatial variation of the average precipitation is small, temporal
fluctuations are much more pronounced. The interannual variability ranges from 400 1200 mm/year, whereas the mean monthly precipitation ranges between 40-50 mm in
early spring to 80-90 mm in summer.
Due to the seasonal variation of climatic parameters, the evapotranspiration also
varies throughout the year. Between October and March a precipitation surplus of 300
mm is built up, whereas a maximum deficit of 100-150 mm accumulates between April
to September (Huisman et al. 1998). The mean annual evapotranspiration for the whole
of the Netherlands is in the order of 550 mm, leading to an average yearly precipitation
excess of 200 mm. The precipitation excess results in a net leaching of the soils (De
Bakker, 1979).
The natural climax vegetation under this climate would be a deciduous forest
consisting of alder, ash, beech, birch, elm, hornbeam, oak and willow with variable
undergrowth (De Bakker 1979). Before human interference, these rather monotonous
forests covered large parts of the Netherlands during the Holocene. As a result of
extensive land cultivation (section 2.5) there is virtually no natural vegetation left in the
Netherlands. In contrast to climate, the role of natural vegetation on various soil
formation processes in the Netherlands, except for formation of peat soil, is less well
understood and probably of minor importance compared to the impact of agricultural land
use.
2.4.4 Topography & surfacial hydrology
The Netherlands has very little elevation differences and gently slopes from the southeast
(322 m above mean sea level) to the northwest (several meters below mean sea level).
The elevation of the extreme southeastern part of the Netherlands is due to its location on
the northern foothills of the Ardennes massif. The remaining part of the Netherlands has
a more or less flat topography, except for the relief formed by glaciers during the
Weichselien (ice pushed ridges) and the wind-blown inland and coastal dunes. In the
coastal parts of the Netherlands, local minima in elevation (down to 6.6 m below mean
sea level) occur in drained lakes and coastal reclamations. With respect to the elevation,
the Netherlands can be divided in a high Pleistocene area (including Holocene dunes),
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
45
which lies well above sea level, and a low Holocene area (clays and peat), which lies at
or below sea level (see also fig. 2.6).
The average altitude in the Pleistocene area is mainly between 2.5 and 30 m, but
ranges up to 200-300 m in the loess district. The Pleistocene sand and loess districts are
well drained and the surfacial run-off of excess rainwater is generally restricted (0-50
mm/year). The local occurrence of less permeable layers close to the surface (e.g. the
glacial till in the north of the Netherlands) and shallow water tables result in an increased
overland run-off of 50-250 mm/year. Groundwater recharge is in the order of 100-200
mm/year and even > 300 mm/year for the highly permeable sandy and loamy areas. The
groundwater flow pattern is horizontal and the groundwater discharges in (local) rivers.
The deeper groundwater flow of the Pleistocene area can even reach the coastal zone,
including some large polders. During the last few centuries, the area has been further
drained by a network of ditches and canals.
Except for the coastal dunes, the soils in the Holocene area lie close to, or even
below sea level (generally between +2.5 and 2.5 m.). The area mainly consists of
relatively impermeable clays and peat on clay and shows a relatively shallow
groundwater table. Therefore, the area receives hardly any recharge from local
precipitation (< 10 mm/year) and the excess precipitation is thus mainly removed by
overland run-off (> 200 mm/year). Often, the fresh ground water only forms a thin layer
overlying the brackish water (Cl- > 150 mg/l) derived from seawater found deeper in the
aquifer. Locally there is seepage of brackish ground water to the surface water in these
areas. This is enhanced by the artificial lowering of the ground water table by a dense
network of drainage pipes, ditches and canals, which are continuously pumped.
For soil formation in the Netherlands, the depth to the ground water table is often
regarded as the most important hydrological parameter (De Bakker, 1979; De Bakker and
Locher, 1987). As a result of variable recharge, the depth of the ground water table shows
a clear yearly fluctuation. During the summer period, the ground water table in the
Netherlands is commonly well below 80-120 cm. In the some of the low lying areas,
however, the groundwater table is found at depths of less than 50 cm. In winter, the
highest groundwater levels are found, ranging between 25-40 cm over large parts of the
Netherlands. Only in the elevated sandy soils (e.g. ice-pushed ridges), the water tables are
found at depths well below 80 cm.
2.4.5 Time
Time is an important soil forming factor as it determines to which extent the other soil
forming factors have collectively acted on the parent material. With the factor time, the
duration of soil formation processes in the toplayer is meant, which is not necessarily the
same as the time since the deposition of the sediment. In addition to natural
sedimentation, mankind has had an enormous impact on soil age through large scale
reclamation of inland and coastal areas. The historical land reclamation is here described
in very broad terms and is further worked out in section 2.5.
As is clear from the previous sections, the soils in the Netherlands either have a late
Pleistocene (sand and loess) or late Holocene age (most of the clay deposits and peat).
See figure 2.4 for an overview of their distribution. The oldest soils in the Netherlands
which are 12000-10000 years old, are found in the loess district as well as in large parts
of the sand district. Similar ages hold for the soils that formed in older sediments, for
46
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
example the Pleistocene fluviatile deposits that are exposed in the ice-pushed ridges.
Locally, younger soils are found in the sand district, for example in brook deposits
formed during the Holocene. The eolian sediments deposited in the late Holocene include
coastal dunes, which vary in age between 4300 to less than a few 100s of years old, and
the inland dunes (500-50 years old). In these sediments, soil formation is often restricted
to the first 20 cm of the profile.
The peat soils have formed during the late Holocene and their top layer will
generally be much younger than a thousand years. However, most of the peat in the
Netherlands has been disturbed through excavation. In these areas, the remaning peat
layer can have a considerable older age. In some cases, the peat layer has been
completely removed. As a result, older sediments like Pleistocene sand and older marine
clays have recently become exposed to the surface. The age of these former peat soils is
then related to the time of excavation, generally somewhere between 1200-1900 AD,
unless soil formation had already taken place (paleosols).
The soils of the marine district are mainly of a late Holocene age; more than three
quarters of the marine sediments are even younger than a thousand years. Only the socalled marine old-land deposits (formation Naaldwijk, laagpakket of Wormer) are
somewhat older (900-3500 years). The younger soils of the marine district were largely
reclaimed from the sea and inland lakes that resulted from peat excavation practices. In
the period from 1200 to 1930 AD, some 500000 ha of land were reclaimed from tidal
marshes (coastal polders: 400000 ha) and lakes (drained lakes: 100000 ha) with a
maximum activity around 1600-1625 (see De Bakker, 1979). In the period 1933-1968, an
additional 165000 ha was reclaimed from the large central lake in the Netherlands
(IJsselmeer), which was until 1930 connected to the sea (then called Zuyder Zee). The
four so-called Zuyder Zee-polders - the Wieringermeerpolder, Noordoost-polder, Oost
and Zuid Flevoland are the youngest soils found in the Netherlands (see fig. 2.10a).
Most of these reclaimed soils consist of marine clays.
Also the soils in the fluviatile district are mainly younger than a thousand years,
though soils developed on the elevated natural levees generally have a somewhat older
age. The periodically flooded, more clayey areas such as flood basins were largely
reclaimed during the last thousand years. The sediments of the so-called old fluviatile
clay soils (section 2.3.2) have ages ranging from 3000 to 5000 years. Soils formed in
these sediments can be found locally in the mid eastern parts of the Netherlands (socalled brick soils, see section 2.6.3).
2.5 Agricultural land use and reclamation
2.5.1 Introduction
The territory of the Netherlands, including the inland as well as territorial waters of the
North Sea, measures some 41.528 km2, of which 33.873 km2 is considered as total land
surface (CBS, 2004). As in many deltaic areas, the Netherlands with its 16.105.000
inhabitants is a densely populated country (average density of 475 inh/km2). About one
third of the population is living in the three major cities in the midwest of the
Netherlands: Amsterdam, Rotterdam and the Hague (collectively known as the
Randstad).
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
47
Figure 2.8 Overview of basic land use types in the Netherlands in the year 1989 (data from CBS, see
www.cbs.nl).
In total, about 17% of the available land surface is built-up area like cities,
industrialized areas, roads and roadsides (5.754 km2). Most of the land surface (70 %),
however, is used as agricultural land (23.508 km2), whereas only 13 % is used as
production woods (3.233 km2) and natural areas (1.379 km2). The latter include seminatural heath lands, small forests and various types of wetlands. Figure 2.8 gives a spatial
overview of the distribution of the various basic land use types in the Netherlands.
48
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Table 2.8 Overview of the amount of land used for the production of various crops and their yield in 2000,
together with a historical overview of the yield of grain, potatoes and sugar beet (CBS, 2001; CBS, 2004).
Total amount of arable land in the year 2000 amounts to 806.000 ha. Others inlcude grass seed, peas and
carrots.
Area (1000 ha) Aarable land (%) Production (106 kg) Yield (100 kg/ha)
2000
2000
2000
2000 1998 1951 1900 1851
total grain
192
24
1473
258 231 117 82
58
wheat
137
17
1143
83
rye
6
1
29
48
barley
47
6
288
61
oat
2
0.2
13
65
total potatoes
consumption
plant/seed
starch
180
87
42
51
22
11
5
6
8127
5961
2166
887
462
425
683
503
307
135
sugar beet
feeding corn
onions
brown beans
coleseed
hemp
others
111
205
14
1
1
4
98
14
25
2
0.1
0.1
0.5
12
6728
821
3
3
27
606
500
435
321
586
30
30
68
Especially during the last two centuries, the population of the Netherlands
increased rapidly: from ~2 million inhabitants around 1800 to ~16 million inhabitants in
2000 (fig. 2.9a). Besides further urbanization and industrialization of the Netherlands,
agricultural practice was strongly intensified. This resulted in an increase of the crop
production and live stock by a factor of 2-5 over the last 200 years (table 2.8, fig. 2.9b).
This increase could, amongst others, be realized through application of large scale soil
improvement techniques, such as fertilizing (fig. 2.9c) and improved drainage.
Because of the tremendous impact mankind has had on the soil profile and soil
properties, it should be considered one of the most important soil forming factors in the
Netherlands. In the following sections, the historical and more recent land reclamation
and agricultural land use patterns are reviewed in relation to soil type. Much of the
historical information was taken from Barends et al. (2000), whereas the more recent land
use patterns were derived from Maas et al. (1995) and CBS (2001). Finally, various soil
improvement techniques are discribed.
2.5.2 Historical land use and reclamation
At the start of the Neolithicum (~7000 BP), the first agricultural activities occur in the
Netherlands. The first settlements developed on the relatively fertile loess soils in the
southeastern parts of the Netherlands. The elevated loess soils were mainly used as arable
land, whereas grassland for cattle and hay production was located in the lower valleys.
At around 6000 BP, cultivation of the Netherlands extended further towards the elevated
sandy soils in the southern part of the Netherlands. On these soils, small patches of arable
land were created, whereas the low lying areas and brook valleys were used as grassland
and hayland, mainly for cows. Large heath lands formed as a result of progressive
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
49
Figures 2.9a, 2.9b and 2.9c Population, live-stock and agricultural land use types over the past 200 years,
and the use of fertilizer during the past century (CBS, 2001).
deforestation of the rather unfertile sandy soils, which were used for grazing livestock
(mainly sheep). For a long time, large forests remained that were used for wood
production.
50
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
The elevated arable lands in the sand district were locally raised with sods of heath
and forest litter, which was often first used as absorbent in animal stables. This soil
improvement technique started around 1300 in the southern sandy soils and slowly
extended to the east and the north of the Netherlands, resulting in the formation of
plaggen- or thick earth soils (section 2.6.3). These raised arable lands, so-called essen
or enken, were first mainly used for the production of rye and later also hemp and
barley. Of course, this led to further infertility and degradation of those soils were the
sods/plaggen were derived from. At around 1500 AD, large open sandy areas started to
erode as a result of overgrazing and sod-cutting for plaggensoils (Kootwijk member of
the Boxtel formation, section 2.3.2). From the 17th and 18 th century onward, the extent
of arable land further increased as a result of more effecient fertilizing methods
(potstal-approach) and larger live stock.
The coastal area in the west and northwest of the Netherlands used to be covered
with large areas of peat and swamps that were located behind the coastal dunes. The
human settlements in this area date already from ~3000 years BP, but were first restricted
to the coastal dunes. Here, the elevated old beach sands were locally used as arable land
(rye and potatoes). The low lying peat lands that were located behind the dunes, were
increasingly used as grassland, or were excavated. First, the surfacial dry peat was
excavated, especially after 1100 AD, but later also the peat below the water level was
excavated by dredging. These excavations resulted in the formation of large lakes, which
were increasingly reclaimed after 1500 by artificial drainage using mills and pumps
(droogmakerijen). Together with reclamation of periodically flooded land from the sea,
this has lead to a strong increase of the areal extent of marine clay soils in the western
coastal area. Most of these reclaimed soils are quite fertile and were commonly used as
arable land (grain).
Peat excavation in the north and northeastern parts of the Netherlands started much
later as a result of much lower developement compared to the south and east of the
Netherlands. Excavation here started around 1600 AD and continued until the last
century. In contrast to the mid- and northwestern reclamations, the subsurface often
consisted of poor, Pleistocene sand, which was mixed with the remaining lower peat
layer in order to improve the soil structure. Though the soils in the so-called peat colonies
were used mainly as arable land, some livestock was needed to provide sufficient
manure.
A part of the peat was not excavated and these areas make up the remaining peat
soils in the Netherlands. Most of this peat has permanently been used as agricultural land
and is mainly found in the midwest and northwest of the Netherlands. Due to its
infertility and difficult hydrological properties, these soils were cultivated the latest
(~2000 BP). Especially the low-lying meso- and eutrophic peat was used as agricultural
land, whereas the elevated oligotrophic peat was used for fuel. As such, drainage of these
peat lands was very important, which was achieved by creating a very dense network of
ditches and canals. Thereby, the topsoil was often raised with mud to improve the soil
stability. In the early times, the peat was both used as grassland for cattle, but also and as
arable land in the better drained parts. From the 15th century onward, dairy farming
became the dominant activity in these areas and since then the land has been dominantly
used as grassland.
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
51
The first settlements in the marine realm are found in the northern areas and date
from ~2600 BP. In order to prevent periodic flooding, the people raised patches of land
with mud, organic waste and manure, so-called dwelling mounds (or terpen). These
dwelling mouds became redundant when the northern marine area became fully endyked
around 1200. From this moment on, people started to actively reclaim land from the sea,
resulting in the first polders in the Netherlands (section 2.4.4). Both endykement and
reclamation allowed the use of much larger amounts of land for agricultural production,
mainly for cattle (cows and sheep), but also for crop production like barley, hemp and
also beans.
In the southeastern marine area, the first settlements were probably disturbed by
transgression between 1700 to 1400 years BP. As a result, the southeastern marine area
became inhabited after 1400 years BP. The people first lived on the natural elevated areas
(Old Land). As a result of successive endykement and reclamation in the period 12001910 AD, large areas areas of fertile land were created (New Land). These soils were
mainly used as arable land for crop production. Later, fruit orchards were planted on the
more heavy clay soils.
The soils in the fluviatile clay district show signs of significant habitation since
2000 BP. Cultivation was at first restricted to elevated natural levees. These were used
for dwelling as well as for agricultural purposes, the low lying flood basins were grazed
during the summer period, whereas the intermediate areas were kept as grassland and for
hay. After large scale endykement that was finished around 1300 AD, the low lying flood
basins could be used permanently. Most of these soils are difficult to work and have a
poor drainage, so they were often used as grassland or for horticulture. As the dykes did
not fully protect the land from periodic flooding, people commonly lived on dwelling
mounds.
2.5.3 Recent land use and reclamation
At the beginning of the 20th century, large parts of the Dutch landscape were turned into
agricultural land. Due to local variations in soil properties like fertility and highly
variable ground water tables, this landscape was very diverse and the relations between
soil properties and agricultural land use type were quite strict. For example, most
elevated soils were used as arable land, whereas the low-lying soils with a poor
hydrology were used as grassland for cattle (cows). On the relatively unfertile soils with
low ground water tables, extensive heath lands were found that were still grazed by
sheep. These heath lands and forests were largely cultivated in the period 1900-1950. The
poor and very dry sandy soils are currently used as production forest (dominantly
coniferous) or remained (semi-) natural areas (heath lands). The richer sandy soils with
better hydrological properties were largly turned into agricultural land (now mainly
grassland).
Around 1900, the bulk of the arable land is found on both the marine clay soils in
the northeast and southwest as well as on the loess and sandy plaggen soils in the
southern parts of the Netherlands (fig. 2.10a). The most important crops grown on these
lands include potatoes, grain and sugar beets (table 2.8). In total, their spatial extent is
about equal to the soils with dominantly grasslands or with a mixed land use type (arable
land, grassland and horticulture) (fig. 2.8a). Horticulture, including fruit orchards, plays a
52
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Figure 2.10a and 2.10b Overview of dominant agricultural land use types in the Netherlands in 1910 and
1986 (after Maas et al., 1989). Mixed landuse in both figures refers to areas with grassland, arable land, and
horticulture. No data in figure 2.10a refers to areas that were reclaimed after 1910.
minor role in the agricultural landscape. It is mainly found on heavy fluviatile clays in the
central parts of the Netherlands (fig. 2.8a).
After the second world war, the demand for self-sustainability with respect to crop
production led to the reclamation of more arable land (the Zuyderzee-polders, figure
2.10a). Whilst the area of new arable land grew, existing arable land and mixed land use
was increasingly changed into grassland (fig. 2.10b). The grasslands were needed for the
rapidly expanding livestock (fig. 2.9a). In that period the area of land used for
horticulture also increased, including green house horticulture (mainly in the midwest).
Most of the arable lands on the clayey soils are now used for crops like potatoes, various
cereals (wheat, barley and rye) and sugar beets. Other products, which are produced in
smaller quantities include beans, carrots, onions and coleseed. Some of the heavier clay
soils are used for fruit orchards. Arable land in the sandy district is mainly used for the
production of animal food (maize and turnips). Locally, these lands are used for
consumption potatoes or sugar beets (e.g. peat colonies).
Currently, the majority of soils in the Netherlands are used as grassland, which
include sandy, peaty and clayey soils that are often less well suited for crop production
(fig. 2.10b). On these grasslands cows, and to a much lesser extent sheep, are kept. The
remaining live stock is mainly formed by pigs and chicken, which are concentrated in the
southern, central and eastern parts of the country. Peat lands are often not suitable for
crop production, unless the peat layer has been excavated (e.g. peat colonies). They have
often been used as permanent grassland for cattle and hay.
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
53
Until the beginning of of last century, the crop yield and live stock production was
restricted by fertility and physical limitations of the soils. Due to extensive use of soil
improvement techniques such as deep-ploughing and fertilizing, current agricultural land
use has increasingly become independent of soil type. Some of these soil improvement
techniques are reviewed here, mainly because they were applied at a large scale and had a
significant impact on the physical properties and layering of the original soil profile.
The physical soil properties that can restrict production are texture, organic matter
content, density, layering of the profile and local topography. In general, soils with either
a very high or a very low clay content and soils with a high or very low organic matter
content are most difficult in terms of agricultural workability and production (Van Wijk
and Willet, 1987). In order to improve these restrictive properties, three approaches can
be discerned: whole profile improvement, topsoil improvement and leveling (Windt,
1969).
Whole profile improvement aims at improving soil moisture supply and rootaeration by textural changes of the full profile in combination with an optimal depth of
the ground water table. This can be achieved by deep-ploughing (1-2 m) or deep-mixing
(up to 4 m) of the profile, sometimes applied in combination with improved drainage
(drainage tubes). Historical examples include the excavation of the northeastern peat
areas (peat colonies) and subsequent reclamation by drainage, followed by mixing of the
remaining peat layer with the Pleistocene sand.
Whole profile improvement was also applied to many clay-on-sand soils in the
marine district (southwestern parts and young inland polders). Also, the sandy soils with
a shallow impermeable layer e.g. glacial till, which are found in the north of the
Netherlands, were often improved by deep-ploughing/mixing. Very poor sandy soils that
were reclaimed in the 1900-1930 period were often also mixed over at least 80 cm of the
profile.
Improvement of the topsoil aims at better soil workability and stability, which is
especially important for soils used for grazing (disturbance by cattle). Problems of this
kind occurred for example in heavy clay soils in the marine and fluviatile district, and
clay and organic matter poor soils in the sand district. Often this was solved by mixing
the toplayer with different subsoil material by deep-ploughing, and this approach
therefore overlaps with the whole profile improvement approach. Topsoil improvement
techniques for peat soils mainly include bringing up and mixing of sand as well as other
material e.g. dredged mud and compost. Increased drainage (drainage pipes) also led to
better stability of these soils and was therefore applied on a large scale.
Leveling of local topographical differences and upscaling of land parcels was
needed to allow the efficient mechanization of agricultural practice. Reduction of local
variations in topography yielded more constant soil moisture retention properties of the
land. Though small scale leveling has been applied since the first agricultural activities,
large scale mechanical leveling was only possible after the 1950s. This approach was
however not without negative consequences and was therefore applied only locally (Van
Wijk and Willet, 1987). Upscaling of land parcels was achieved by filling up ditches and
joining parcels. This frequently involved swapping parcels between land owners, which
occurred extensively throughout the Netherlands.
54
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
As is clear, the effect of soil profile improvement techniques on the original soil
profile has been considerable. Though there is no overview of the full extent of soil
profile improvement practices in the Netherlands, it is clear that large areas were
disturbed and lost their original geogenic layering and/or hydrology. Moreover, the large
scale application of land additives like fertilizers (see fig. 2.9c), which amongst others
has lead to a remarkable shift in the original vegetation, imply that not only in a physical
sense, but also in a chemical sense, these soils can not be regarded as strictly natural.
2.6 Soil classification
2.6.1 Introduction
As a result of the restricted age of the parent material and a moderate climate (section
2.4), the soils in the Netherlands are poorly developed compared to those in other parts of
the world. Thereby, the human influence on the soil and the soil profile has been so
extensive that it should be considered as a serious soil forming factor in itself (section
2.5.6). As a result, the Dutch soil classification system deviates significantly from other
classifications like those of the Food and Agriculture Organiztion of the United Nations
Table 2.9 Soil forming processes used for classification of the two highest levels of the Dutch soil
classification system (nomenclature after De Bakker and Schelling, 1989; FAO, 1998) and their occurrence
within the various soil parent material districts.
Order process
Order
FAO
Suborder process
Suborder
District
Strong organic
Peat soils Histosols
Formation of
Earthy peat soils Peat
matter
mineral top layer
accumulation
(often also
anthropogenic)
Raw peat soils
Podzolization
Podzol
Podzols
Non-amorphous
Moder podzol
Sand
(Clear podzolic B- soils /
humus (moder)
soils
horizon)
Podzols
formation
Amorphous humus
Humus /mull
(mull) formation
podzol soils
(xero and hydro)
Clay illuvation
Brick
Luvisols
Formation of
Hydrobrik soils
Loess
(brick layer)
soils
hydromorphic
(Fluviatile
features/gley
clay)
Xerobrick soils
Anthropogenic AThick earth soils Sand
Development A1- Earth
Fimic
horizon / mineral
horizon
soils
Anthrosols
Marine
earth layer
/gleysols
Formation of
Hydroearth soils clay
hydromorphic
Fluviatile
features /gley
clay
Xeroearth soils
(Loess)
Little soil
Vague
Fluvisols
Soil ripening
Initial vague
Marine
formation
soils
/arenosols
soils
clay
Fluviatile
Hydrovague
Formation of
clay
soils
hydromorphic
(Sand)
features /gley
Xerovague soils
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
55
As mentioned in the introduction, the current Dutch soil classification system has a strong
focus on soil formation processes and pedogenetic layering within the profile. It has a
hierarchical structure consisting of four levels: Order, suborder, group and subgroup (De
Bakker and Schelling, 1989). At the highest levels (order and suborder), the differential
criteria that are used are related mostly to dominant soil formation processes (table 2.9).
Towards the lower levels (groups and subgroups), geogenic layering of the profiles
becomes increasingly important for further classification.
At the highest level of the classification, five orders are discerned: Peat soils
(strong organic matter accumulation), podzolic soils (podzolization), brick soils (clay
illuvation), earth soils (thick A1-horzion) and soils that show very little soil formation
(vague soils). Apart from the hierarchy in four levels, there is also a hierarchy of
criteria within one level, which means that the sequence in which they are applied is
important too. For example, at the highest level podzolization is considered a more
important process than the development of an A1-horizon. As such, there can be podzol
soils with a clear A1-horizon, but there will be no earth soils with extensive
podzolization.
The differential criteria used at the level of suborder are related to soil forming
processes like gley-formation and ripening. Most important herein is the presence or
absence of groundwater, which is often related to gley-formation. Gley is often found in
clayey soils, but in sandy soils, these processes are defined on the basis of other criteria
than gley formation (see below). Further, physical ripening of the mineral soil (for earth
and vague soils) and the anthropogenic influence on the topsoil (for earth and peat soils,
table 2.9) are used as differentiating criteria. Podzol soils are further classified according
to the humus type (moder vs. mull) as well as the occurrence of ground
water/hydromorphic features in the profile. In total, thirteen suborders are discerned
(table 2.9).
56
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Figure 2.11 Overview of the five major soil types in the Netherlands (after soil map 1:50.000, Steur and
Heijinck, 1987). Areas that consist of inland water or built-up areas were left blank. The so-called soil
associations areas with close occurences of two or more soil types were also left blank.
Only at the two lowest levels (groups and subgroups) are differences in parent
material and the geogenic layering within the profile used as further distinguishing
criteria (not shown). In total, 60 different soil classes are discerned at the level of
subgroups and a description of these classes is considered beyond the scope of this
overview (see for their formal definitions and description De Bakker and Schelling,
1989). The definitions and characteristics of the higher levels (order and suborder) as
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
57
well as their occurrence within the previously described soil districts will be summarized
next. The terminology used for the basic soil horizons is given in table 2.10.
Table 2.10 Description of the major soil horizons used in the Dutch soil classification system (after De
Bakker and Schelling, 1989).
Horizon
Description
A0
Organic rich horizon consisting of fresh to partially degraded organic material, which is
still recognizable as such
A1
Mineral or organic horizon in which the organic material is partially or fully degraded
by biological activity
A2
Mineral horizon, often lighter colored (bleached) as a result of eluvation of Fe/Alsesquioxides and/or clay minerals.
B
Mineral horzion, often darker colored as a result of illuvation of humic substances,
Fe/Al-sesquioxides and/or clay minerals from the upper horizons
B2
Strongest developed part of the B-horizon
C
Mineral or organic horizon that is little to not affected by soil formation
D
Mineral or organic horizon little to not affected by soil formation, but containing
different material than topsoil
G
Mineral or organic horizon comparebale to a C-horizon but under anaerobic conditions
DG
Mineral or organic horizon comparebale to a D-horizon but under anaerobic conditions
Peat soils have been formed during the Holocene on both marine clays and older sandy
deposits, which used to cover large areas of the Netherlands (see e.g. Stiboka, 1965).
Within the current classification, peat soils are defined by having peaty material sensu
lato (including moerig, see Appendix I) over a depth of at least 40 cm within the first
80 cm of the profile. This means that these soils can have a substantial mineral topsoil
(either sandy or clayey) and/or have sand or clay deeper in the profile. The sandy deeper
soils can have a podzol B-horizon derived from earlier soil formation.
Peat soils are further subdivided on the basis of the organic matter content of the
topsoil, which can be mineral (earthy peat soils) or organic (raw peat soils). The so-called
raw peat soils are rare and are found locally throughout the Netherlands, often in nature
reserves. Earthy peat soils are more common and often used as agricultural land. Here,
the mineral top layer can be of depositional origin (marine/fluviatile clay) or the result of
leveling. The latter can be achieved with sand (in the Pleistocene areas) or with clay-rich
material (dredge mud), or city waste (toemaak) in the Holocene areas. Often, these peat
soils were excavated first, after which the remaining peat was covered. As a result, large
areas of peat soils have disappeared during the previous centuries (see section 2.5).
It should further be noticed that the other soils which will be defined below - can
have an organic layer within the first 80 cm as well, but then the thickness of the layer is
less than 40 cm (so-called moerige layer). These intermediate profiles occur rather
commonly in hydro-podzol, hydro-earth or hydro-vague soils. Within the major
classification of the soil map 1:50.000, these soils are therefore grouped separately under
the moerige soils (Steur and Heijnck, 1985). As these properties are used at a lower
classification level (groups) they are not further discussed here.
58
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
Podzol soils
Podzol soils formed exclusively in the sandy Pleistocene sediments (fig. 2.11). They are
defined by the presence of a clear podzol-B-horizon below a depth of 20 cm and the lack
of a thick anthropogenic A1-horizon (< 50 cm.). The definition of a clear podzol Bhorizon is based on the extent and intensity of the illuvation of both humic substances
and Fe/Al-sesquioxides, giving a typical orange/reddish color to this horizon. B-horizons
where only humic substances (or only sesquioxides) are illuvated are not considered as
podzol-B-horizons. The same is true when clay minerals are transported down the profile,
which is reserved for the brick soils. The exact definitions for this horizon are too lengthy
to be explained here: the reader is referred to De Bakker and Schelling (1989) for a
formal definition and De Bakker (1979) for examples.
Depending on the type of humic substances (amorphous vs. non-amorphous), two
types of podzol soils are discerned: humus podzol soils and moder podzol soils. Humus
podzols are further divided based on the presence of hydromorphic features in the profile.
The moder podzol soils are restricted to areas with low groundwater tables and often
related to parent material rich in alumino-silicates (mineral rich sands). Humus podzol
soils are found in areas with both low or higher ground water table and are often related
to mineral poor sands. The dry podzol soils are characterized by iron coatings around
the grains in the deeper profile and there can be a clear bleached A2-horzion. These
features are absent in the wet hydro-(humus)podzol soils that then have a whitish or
grayish (sometimes blue/greenish) color below the B-horizon.
Brick soils
Brick soils in the Netherlands were all formed in loamy or clayey material, mainly loess
and to a lesser extent some old fluviatile deposits (fig. 2.11). Brick soils are defined by
the preeminence of a textural-B-horizon (brick layer) that starts within the first 80 cm of
the profile. The textural-B-horizon is characterized by the illuvation of clay minerals and
sometimes also Fe/Al-sesquioxides, which is shown by a darker (browner) color and
denser consistency of the material. The thickness of this horizon should at least be 15 cm
and it should contain at least 10% clay fraction within the most illuvated part (De Bakker
and Schelling, 1989).
Further subdivision of the brick soils into xero- and hydro-brick soils, are based on
the presence (or absence) of hydromorphic features, which for brick soils are
characterized by the occurrence of rusty mottles and manganese concretions in the A2
and B2-horzion.
Earth soils
Earth soils have been formed mostly in the sandy Pleistocene deposits, but are also found
on Holocene clay and sand deposits (fig. 2.11). Earth soils are characterized by a
substantial mineral (humus rich to moderately humus poor) A1-horizon, which was
formed by biological degradation of organic material and/or raising with organic
material, heath sods and dredged mud. The A1-horizon should have a thickness between
15-50 cm (and not have any clear B-horizon, or be >50 cm thick (anthropogenically
raised; Ap-horizon). The A1-horizon should consist of humus rich or moderately humus
poor material (see Appendix I). In the latter case, the A1- horizon should be distinctively
darker than the C-horizon.
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
59
Further subdivision of the earth soils into xero- and hydro-earth soils, is again
based on the presence or absence of hydromorphic features, which for earth soils depends
also on the type of parent material. In general, the hydro-earth soils have a non-aerated Chorizon within the first 80 cm depth and/or have non-ripened material within the first 80
cm. This applies mainly to clayey soils, where also rusty or gray mottles should begin
within 50 cm. In sandy soils there is an absence of iron coating around the grains below
the A-horizon.
Vague soils
The vague soils make up a considerable part of the Netherlands (fig. 2.11) and give its
pedology a rather unique character. Vague soils are characterized by the lack of
substantial soil formation and occur commonly in the younger Holocene deposits (both
clay and sand) in the Netherlands. These soils are actually defined as having none of the
previously defined characteristics, that is that they lack a substantial organic layer (peat
soils), a clear B-horizon (podzol or brick soils) and a clear A1-horizon (earth soils).
Especially in (recently) reclaimed coastal areas and inland lakes, the time of soil
formation is very restricted (700-30 years, section 2.5) and these soils have only
developed a shallow A-horizon. Also, the inland and coastal dunes are of very restricted
age and show very little horizon formation. As such, the composition of these soils will
be largely comparable to that of the unaltered parent material.
2.7 Summary
The main purpose of this thesis is to describe and understand the bulk inorganic chemical
composition of the soils and their parent material in the Netherlands. This chapter gives
and introductory overview of those aspects that ultimately govern the bulk chemical
composition of these soils, which are: (i) the surface geology, which makes up the parent
material of these soils, (ii) the natural soil forming processes that have acted on this
parent material, as well as (iii) the human influences on the soil profile and soil
formation. Because the bulk soil chemistry is most directly related to its primary and
secondary mineralogy, special attention was paid to the occurrence of various minerals in
these soils.
The surfacial geology of the Netherlands is dominantly made up of Quaternary
sediments, which were mainly derived from the rivers Rhine, Meuse and to a lesser
extent also the Scheldt. The surface geology of the Netherlands can be divided in a
Pleistocene lithology, made up of coarse river deposits and various glacigenic deposits,
which are largely overlain by locally reworked terrestrial sediments. In contrast, the
Holocene lithology largely consists of clayey marine and fluviatile sediments alternated
with extensive peat layers. The Pleistocene deposits are mainly found in the elevated
northern, eastern and southern parts of the Netherlands, whereas the Holocene deposits
are mainly confined to the low lying coastal areas in the southwest, west and north.
The shallow Quaternary sediments formed the parent material of most soils in the
Netherlands. On the basis of the lithogenesis of the top soil layer, five parent material
districts, or regions, were discerned; the sand, loess, peat, marine clay and fluviatile clay
district. The first two consist of mainly local eolian sediments with a Pleistocene age,
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G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
whereas the non-eolian sediments have a (Late) Holocene age. If, however, not only the
top layer is considered, but the whole soil profile instead (defined as 0-120 cm below the
litter layer), various lithogenetic formations/members are commonly observed in these
soil profiles. As a result, the classification of the soil parent material districts often crosscuts the lithogenetic classification used in geology.
Soil formation in the Pleistocene deposits (sand and loess) started around the end of
the Pleistocene, but much later in the recent Holocene deposits (marine and fluviatile
clays and peat). During the Holocene, the climate has been rather constant and classifies
as a moderate sea climate. The average daily temperatures range between 2 C in January
and 16 C in July and the yearly precipitation varies between 400-1200 mm. Due to the
restricted evapotranspiration, there is an average precipitation excess of ~200 mm,
resulting in a net leaching of the soils. The Netherlands has very little elevation and can
be divided in a high Pleistocene area, which lies on average 2.5-30 m above mean sea
level, and a low Holocene area, which lies between 2.5 m above to 6 m below mean sea
level. Whereas the sandy Pleistocene areas are generally well drained (ground water table
generally > 80 cm), the more clayey Holocene deposits are much less permeable and
have a shallow ground water table (25-120 cm).
In the Netherlands, mankind has had an important impact on the soil profile and
soil forming processes since the Neolithicum. Much of the peat layers that used to cover
the Netherlands have been excavated for fuel since Roman times. Also, the unfertile
sandy soils were raised with heath sods and forest litter, often mixed with animal manure,
resulting in so-called plaggen soils (anthrosols). More recently, mechanical
improvement of the soil profile, such as deep-ploughing and leveling was commonly
applied throughout the Netherlands. Furthermore, a considerable part of the coastal areas,
as well as inland lakes, were reclaimed mainly in the period 1200 to 1976. Most of these
soils hardly show any soil formation.
The current land surface of the Netherlands (excluding the inland water) amounts to
33.873 km2, which supports a population of about 16.1 million inhabitants. About 70% of
the land surface is used for agricultural purpose, whereas some 17% is of the land surface
consists of built-up areas. The remaining 13% is used as production forest and nature
reserves. Especially during the last century, the population as well as the agricultural
production and livestock strongly increased. In addition to mechanization and physical
improvement of the soil profile, the increased agricultural production was realized
through the application of fertilizers and other land additives. Since the last decades the
agricultural land use, which consisted up to then of roughly equal amounts of grassland
and arable land, has been shifting towards more grassland for livestock (mainly cows)
and arable land for animal feed, at the expense of arable land for crop production for
human consumption.
The current classification of major soil types in the Netherlands is based on natural
as well as anthropogenic soil forming processes that occurred in these relatively young
soils. The classification of course only applies to the relatively undisturbed soils found in
agricultural or semi-natural areas, which make up about 80% of the current land surface.
In total, five major soil types (orders) are discerned: Peat soils (strong organic matter
accumulation), podzol soils (podzolization), brick soils (clay illuvation), earth soils
(thick A1-horzion) and soils that show very little soil formation (vague soils). The
geogenetic layering of the profile as well as the geology of the parent material is
G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.
61
considered a less important criterion, which is used only for further classification into
lower levels. Both the podzol and the uncommon brick soils are found exclusively in the
Pleistocene areas. Earth soils are dominantly found in the Pleistocene areas, but also
occur in the Holocene area, to which the peat and vague soils are confined. As such, the
Dutch soils in general are characterized by a restricted horizon formation and a
considerable human influence on the soil profile.
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G. van der Veer (2006), Geochemical soil survey of the Netherlands, NGS 347.