Jarryd Price 2009 F.C.C.

1. Light and Matter

Constant
Values:
Plancks constant (h) =
6.626*1034 Js

4.136*1015 eVs
Electron charge (qe) = 1.602*1019 C
Electron mass (me) = 9.109*1031 kg
Photon mass (mp) = 1.673*1027 kg
Speed of light (c) = 2.998*108 ms-1
Youngs double-slit Experiment:
Path Difference:
Path difference is the difference between the
lengths of the paths from each of two sources
of waves to a point.
n Constructive interferance
n 0.5 Destructive inteferance

Photoelectric effect:
Release of electrons from a metal surface as
a result of exposure to electromagnetic
radiation
Current becomes constant for positive
values of V as for a particular light
intensity there are a corresponding
number of photo-electrons emitted. At a
particular voltage, all electrons are
collected to produce the max
photocurrent. Increasing V has no effect
Electrons travel from cathode to anode
Photocurrent vs. Voltage:
The effect of changing light intensity:

Two-slit pattern:

Max photocurrent
to light intensity
The effect of changing light frequency:

Reflection
Refraction
Interference
Diffraction
Polarization
Photoelectric effect

Explained as
waves
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

2. Electric Power
Magnetism:
A Magnetic field describes the property of the
space around a magnet that causes an object
in that space to experience a force due only to
the presence of the magnet
The Right-hand-grip-rule can describe the
direction of a magnetic field or current. Right
hand grips wire, with fingers pointing in
direction of magnetic field and thumb
pointing in direction of conventional current.

A Solenoid is a coil of wire wound into a

cylindrical shape.

Magnetic force on an electric current:

Magnetic field strength force on wire
Current in wire force on wire
Length of wire force on wire
No. of wires force on wires
Only the component of the magnetic field
that is perpendicular to the current causes
the force
The Left-hand rule (FBI) determines the
direction of the force (thumb), magnetic field
(index finger) and current (middle finger). All
fingers must be at right angles to each other.
The Right-hand-slap rule can also be used.
Palm is open with thumb (current)
perpendicular to fingers (magnetic field).
Direction of force is outwards from palm face.
DC Motors:
A DC motor uses the current from a battery
flowing through a coil in a magnetic field to
produce continuous rotation of a shaft. As a
result of the magnetic force, the coil turns 90
degrees. At this point, the current needs to be
reversed by a commutator, so that the forces
can continue to turn the coil another 180 deg.
Current needs to be reversed here too.

E
h
1

T
v

hc

Kinetic energy
hf E ionisation

Threshold Frequency

hf W

E photon W
1
me v 2
2

sin

Power

Threshold frequency = cut-off frequency

Work function
cut-off frequency
Stopping V = Ek(max) at a set frequency
How it supports the particle model:
It shows that photons have a fixed energy
that is related to frequency
An increase in intensity results from a
greater no. of photons rather than a
greater amplitude of a wave
Explained as
particles
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes

Converting Js eVs:
1 eV = 1.602*1019 J
eV J: Multiply by

1.602*10

19

J eV: Divide by

1.602*1019

Making Electricity:

In this diagram, electrons are forced to the

far end of the falling rod. As there is a
separation of charge, an induced voltage is
produced between the ends. This results in
an Emf, a source of voltage that can cause
electric current to flow. If there is a
connecting wire, the electrons will make
their way along it, generating an electric
current.
Electromagnetic induction:
Electromagnetic induction is the generation
of an electric current in a coil as a result of a
changing magnetic field or as a result of
movement of the coil within a constant
magnetic field.

h
2me EK
c
f0

Momentum (p):
Momentum
mv
E

c
h

2me qeV
2me E k

Voltage (V):

Accelerating Voltage

E K(electron)
qe

Work Function (W):

f0 h

m v2
e
2qe

hf E k (max)

hf qeVo

Stopping Voltage:
Stopping Voltage V0

1
hf W
qe

Velocity (v):
Velocity

h2
2me qe 2

Standing waves:
Only waves whose de Broglie wavelength multiplied by an

integer n
set equal to the circumference of a traditional
electron orbit are allowed to exist due to these waves being
the only ones able to constructively interfere to produce a
standing wave.

2
n 2 or
n
Induced EMF:
An emf is induced in a coil when the amount of magnetic
flux passing through the coil changes. The size of the emf
depends on how quickly the amount of flux changes
Lenzs Law states, The direction of the induced current is
such that its magnetic field is in the opposite direction to
the change in magnetic flux.

Losing energy:
All transformers lose some energy in transferring electric power from the
primary side to the secondary. This energy loss occurs in two areas:
In the wires that make up the coils due to resistance (usually minor)
o Minimised by using thicker wires to minimise resistance
o Use a better conducting wire
In the iron core of the transformer. The changing flux in the iron core
produces a changing voltage in each of the turns of the secondary
coils. A circular current (eddy current) will be induced in the core.
o Minimised by layers of insulation in the iron core.
Overall, transformers used in transmitting large quantities of energy are
about 99% efficient. When transmitting energy, a step up transformer is
used to increase voltage, reduce current, and therefore power loss. At
the end of the transmission lines, a step-down transformer is applied.

Magnetic force on electric current:

Peak, RMS, and

peak-to-peak:
V peak
VRMS
2

F nIlB

V peak VRMS 2

1 newton 1 wire x 1 ampere x 1 metre x 1 tesla

V p p 2V peak

2. Formulae

A No magnetic flux passing through the loop

B Magnet approaches coil
C Increase in magnetic flux from left to right
D Induced magnetic field will oppose change in flux
E Induced current generated from induced magnetic field
Producing a larger emf:
An emf produced by a generator can be increased by:
Increasing the number of turns
Increasing magnetic field strength
Increasing area of each coil
Decrease the time for one turn
Transformers:
A step-up transformer produces an output (secondary)
voltage that is greater than the input (primary) voltage
No. of secondary turns is greater than primary turns
As a result, current is reduced
Used to minimise power loss over transmission lines due
to a reduction in current.
A step-down transformer produces an output (secondary)
voltage that is less than the input (primary) voltage.
More primary turns than secondary turns
Increase in current as a result

Magnetic Flux is a measure of the amount of

magnetic field passing through an area. It is
measured in webers (Wb)
Magnetic field strength magnetic flux
Magnetic field area magnetic flux

Where N = the
number of protons
emitted in the time
interval t.

Work Function

h
2me qeV

t
N * E photon

Max wavelength

Power:

Diffraction Ratio:

Significant diffraction
will be evident. The
smaller the value
means less diffraction
is seen.
Ideas of Bohrs model:
1. Each atom has a number of possible stable states, each
state having its own characteristic energy. In each state
the electron is in a stable orbit around the nucleus.
2. An atom can jump from one state to another
Drop to lower state with less energy a photon is
emitted whose energy = energy loss of atom
Jump to higher state with more energy a photon is
absorbed whose energy = energy gain of atom
Least amount of energy is closest to the nucleus
A longer wavelength = less energy = smaller transition

W
h

qeV0

Stopping voltage is to light frequency

Kinetic energy Vs. Frequency

h
p
h

mv
hc

Kinetic energy (max)

If the ratio:

Phenomenon

Energy hf

v
f
vT

Frequency (f):
Frequency

Ionisation

Conditions for diffraction:

If wavelength of radiation is approximately
the same size as the gap it travels through,
then significant diffraction effects will be
observed
Varying the wavelength and slitwidth/separation:
2-slit: Increase - pattern spreads out,
Increase separation pattern narrows,
Increase width no effect
1-slit: Increase - pattern spreads, Increase
separation no effect, Increase slit-width
pattern narrows

Energy (E):

qV0

Hydrogen atom:
Atomic energy level view of the spectral series of hydrogen:

Wavelength:
Wavelength

1. Formulae

Similar patterns due to similar wavelengths

E.g. Electrons that have 600eV have passed through a
voltage equal to 600V
Path difference occurs as waves pass through the foil
causing constructive and destructive interference, which
show as high and low intensity rings.

0 Central Maximum

Where n = 0, 1, 2...
Anti-node:
Point at which constructive interference
occurs
Node:
Point at which destructive interference occurs
Diffraction:
Diffraction is the spreading out or bending of
waves as they pass through a small opening
One-slit pattern:

X-Rays and electrons through foils:

Electrons/x-rays fired through a thin polycrystalline metallic
foil.
Produces a pattern demonstrating diffraction of electrons
by the atoms of the foil evidence for wave-like
behaviour.
Results in a series of rings of high intensity (bright) due to
constructive interference, as well as low intensity (dark)
regions due to destructive interference

A changing current (AC) in the primary coil produces a

changing magnetic field, which is propagated through the
iron core to the secondary coil, where the changing
magnetic field induces a changing emf in the secondary coil.

Where:
F Magnetic force on current
n Number of wires
I Current in each wire
l Length of wire
B Strength of magnetic field.

I RMS

I peak

I p p 2 I peak

Magnetic force on a charge:

Magnetic flux:

Where:
F Magnetic force on charge
q Charge of particle
v Speed of charged particle
B Strength of magnetic field.

Where:
Magnetic flux (webers)

F Bqv

Bperpendicular A

B Component of magnetic field

strength perpendicular to area

Converting kWh to joules:

1kWh 3.6 *106 joules

1 watt 1 joule per second
1 joule 1 watt second
EMF:

Blv

N B * A

t
t

Where:
Induced emf (volts)
l Length of wire in mag. field
v Speed of rod across field
N Number of turns in coil
Other formulae:

I peak I RMS 2

E VIt ~ E VQ ~ Q It ~ V IR

Power:
If there is no energy loss:

Powerin Powerout
Vprim I prim Vsec I sec

P VI
Ploss I 2 R
Transformers:

V prim / sec N prim / sec

V
V prim

sec
t N prim N sec

V prim
Vsec

N prim
N sec

Jarryd Price 2009 F.C.C.C

3. Synchrotron
The Synchrotron:
A synchrotron is a particle accelerator
in which the final path of the particle
is a circle of constant radius.
A particle accelerator is a large
expensive machine that accelerates
charged particles to speeds close to
the speed of light, and aims them at a
target to gain an understanding of the
atomic structure of that target.
Order of electron movement:
Electron gun LINAC Booster ring
Storage ring Beamline
Experimental station
Storage ring:
216m in circumference, radius of
34.3 m
Must be low air pressure inside
the storage ring so that the
interaction of electrons and air
molecules doesnt occur
Electrons are now at maximum
possible speed, and are deflected by
strong bending magnets into a
circular path. At this point,
synchrotron radiation is emitted
along tangents to the circular path as
the electrons shed energy in the form
of photons. The beam of radiation
then passes through a series of
magnets (undulators or wigglers) with
alternating polarity. Undulators
produce brighter radiation of a
specific frequency, while wigglers
produce brighter radiation of a
shorter wavelength.

4. Random
Voltage vs. Time graph produced:
When a loop enters a magnetic field
at a constant speed, flux increases at
a constant speed, and therefore a
constant voltage is produced.

Electron gun:
Electron gun A thin wire is heated by a current to
about 1000 degrees (C). Electrons in the wire are
attracted off the surface of the wire by a voltage to
the positive plate where it passes through a hole and
forms a beam. (low voltage source)

When the loop moves from position

1. to position 2., the flux into the
page decreases. To oppose this
change in flux a current is induced
from Q to P to provide magnetic flux
into the page.

R eff 3.0 2 0.5 4

Current:V IR
12
3A
4
Voltage over floodlight:

V IR 3 3 9V

If another floodlight was installed

in parallel, resistance would
change, and therefore current.
How light is produced in an
incandescent (filament) light globe?
The thermal (random) motion of free
(unbound) electrons produces a
continuous (broad) spectrum. Light is
incoherent.
Describe how the spectrum of the
light from an incandescent light
globe differs from the spectrum of
light from a mercury vaopor lamp?
The spectrum from a mercury vapor
lamp is discrete (quantised) while the
spectrum from an incandescent light
globe is continous (broad)

Electric field (E):

E

V
Vm1 Fq NC 1
d
mv 2
r

Magnetic field:
F Bqv

Beamline:
Synchrotron radiation is directed into an experimental station.
First it passes through a monochromator, where only a specific
wavelength and frequency is allowed to pass. A monitor
detector measures the intensity of the beam. At this point, the
beamline is directed onto a sample, which is rotated to help
build a comprehensive image. An analyser crystal selects the
scattered radiation, while numerous detectors are positioned to
record diffraction patterns
Characteristics of synchrotron radiation:
Spectrum Mainly X-rays, continuous spectrum, any frequency
Brightness No. of photons/second. Can be up to 1019 photons
Divergence Radiation spreads out like a cone along beamline
Polarisation The radiation from a synchrotron is polarised
Duration Radiation comes in pulses, lasting one billionth of sec.
Comparison

Brightness

Synchrotron

Extremely
Continuous and wide Very narrow
intense
Very intense Single frequency
Narrow
Intense
Narrow, continuous Wide
but not smooth

Laser
X-Ray tube

Spectrum

Diffuse scattering:
Diffuse scattering of X-rays involves the
broadening of the pattern due to thermal
motion of atoms and electrons. Scattered
photons have longer wavelength and
lower energy. Diffraction pattern is
broadened due to increased temperature.
Momentum is conserved during the
scattering process

Commutator:
A commutator reverses the polarity of
the output every half rotation to
produce DC.
In a DC generator, a commutator
reverses the direction of flow of the
output every half rotation, thus
converting AC to pulsed DC
The purpose of a split ring commutator
in a DC motor is to reverse the current
every half rotation and therefore
ensure the coil will continue to turn in
the same direction.

Voltage/current in a circuit:

Floodlight supplied from two wires,

each with a resistance of .5 ohms
When operating, the floodlight has
a resistance of 3.0 ohms
What is the voltage across the
floodlight?

3. Formulae

F Eq qvB ma

Emf (V) vs. Time graph:

When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field,
an emf votage is produced. If the rotation
speed was increased by a factor of 2, the
voltage amplitude on the graph would
double and the period would halve.
Induced current due to voltage:

Linear Accelerator:
Linear Accelerator (LINAC) A device that uses an electric field to increase the speed of charged particles.
It consists of a series of accelerating chambers to accelerate electrons to 99.995% speed of light.
Requires an AC voltage so the chambers can change from positive to negative and vice versa
Electrons accelerate in the gaps due to the positive attraction of the next tube

Compare and contrast Faradays law and

Lenzs law:
Faradays law gives the magnitude of the
induced voltage, while Lenzs law gives
the direction.
Describe how the wave-particle duality
of electrons can be used to explain the
quantised energy levels of an atom?
Electrons have a de Broglie wavelength.
Electrons will only exist in states where a
standing wave can be formed around the
nucleus. Accordingly, only specific
wavelengths and their associated
energies would be allowed.
Explain the formation of bright and dark
regions in terms of the wavelike nature
of light?
The different regions are an interference
pattern where the bright bands resulted
from constructive interference (or path
difference 0, , 2, etc.) and the dark
bands from destructive interference (or
path difference , 1 , etc.)
Explain the formation of bright and dark
regions in terms of the wavelike nature
of light?
The different regions are an interference
pattern where the bright bands resulted
from constructive interference (or path
difference 0, , 2, etc.) and the dark
bands from destructive interference (or
path difference , 1 , etc.)

Booster ring:
Accelerating chambers increase energy by 30 times.
However, speed increases marginally to 99.999994%
speed of light while mass increases substantially due to
the effect of relativity.
Braggs law:
When X-rays are fired at a crystal, they are scattered by
each atom in the crystal. The scattered X-rays can
constructively or destructively interfere with each other,
depending on the angle of collision with the atoms

Divergence
Therefore, if X-rays of a particular wavelength are fired
at a crystal, there will be constructive interference at the
values of the grazing angle which satisfy the equation:
n 2d sin , Where: n Integer, d Distance between
planes, - Angle that reflected rays are seen

Flux vs. Time graph and Voltage vs. Time graph:

At a speed of 10 revolutions per second, a 40 turn coil produces an
emf of 2.0Vrms, and a light globe glows dimly.
Flux vs. Time graph:

Collisions and scattering:

Compton scattering (inelastic)
Collision of a photon with an
electron that results in a scattered
photon with a longer wavelength,
lower frequency and less energy.
Energy difference appears in the
electron.
Thomson scattering (elastic)
Photon is scattered by an atom
without any loss of energy or any
change in its wavelength and
frequency. Occurs in Bragg
diffraction, with low energy X-rays
Photoelectric effect Involves a
photon hitting a metal surface and
giving up all of its energy to a
single electron, ceasing to exist
Pair production The X-ray is so
energetic the interaction results in
the annihilation of the photon and
the creation of the electronpositron pair. Momentum and
charge are both conserved

An X-ray of frequency
2.5x10^18 Hz is directed
towards graphite and
rebounds with frequency
of 2.34x10^18. What is
the speed of the electron
when it is knocked
forward by the X-ray?

1
hfin hf out mv 2
2
2h f in f out
m
1.53x107

Voltage output vs. Time graph:

Calculate the velocity for

electrons of energy 5keV?

me 9.11*1031
E 5*103 eV 8*1016

Maximum and minimum voltage values are

Slip rings:
The purpose of slip rings in an
AC generator is to take the
alternating current produced
from the generator and
transfer it to an external load.
One slip ring is electrically
connected to one side of the
coil and the other slip ring is
connected to the other side
of the coil. A generator that
uses slip rings will produce an
AC output voltage.
Particle over wave model for
existence of a threshold
frequency:
If the wave model is applied,
then an electron can
continuously accumulate
energy so that it eventually
has enough to escape from
the metal surface irrespective
of the frequency of the light,
but this does not happen in
reality.
Different synchrotron
radiation:
The undulator consists of less
powerful magnets than the
wiggler, and this produces
smaller deflections of the
beam. This results in
radiation that overlaps for
specific wavelengths, and so
is brighter for specific
wavelengths. The multipole
wiggler uses stronger
magnets and produces a
continuous spectrum of
radiation that is less bright
than that of the undulator.

Vpeak VRMS 2

Generator OR Alternator:
A setup where a coil is rotating
within a magnetic field is a
generator. An alternator is
similar, but the magnet rotates
inside the stationary coils, where
current is induced.
Transformers in a transmission
system require an alternator,
since a changing magnetic flux is
needed to induce an EMF in the
secondary coil

1 2
mv
2
2 Ek
v
m
v 42*106 ms 1
Ekinetic

Circular Motion:
mv 2
Fcentripetal
qvB
r
mv
p
v2
r

Bq Bq a
Work:
W EK Vq

1 2
mv
2

Amount of electrons:

No.electrons / sec

I
q

Energy deposited:

Edeposited

I
E
q

E Energy of electrons
Braggs law:
n 2d sin

nmax

2d

Other formulae:
q
l 2 r
I ~v
t
t
T

Advantages of Synchrotron radiation:

1. Synchrotron X-rays are collimated and
parallel, coherent and high intensity. Any
required wavelength in the emittance
spectrum can be selected. Conventional Xrays do not possess these features.
2. Synchrotron X-rays have the right energies to
interact with many light atoms, whereas
conventional X-rays have specific energies to
interact with heavier atoms.
3. Brightness is extremely intense, which allows
shorter exposure time or to select an almost
monochromatic beam or clearer images.
4. Tuneable can select out the frequency
needed
5. Polarisation
6. Divergence Very narrow
How is Bragg diffraction used to select
desirable wavelengths from the synchrotron?
Maxima occur that are dependent on the
lights wavelength
Different wavelengths will be at different
maxim
By rotating the crystal block, light of the
desired wavelength can be directed through
a very narrow opening.

Current in transformers:
A transformer requires
alternating current because it
relies on the transfer of
constantly changing flux (which is
created in the primary coil by the
alternating input current). This
flux is carried by a central iron
core and induces voltage and
current in the secondary circuit.
DC current will not work because
it will only lead to a constant
magnetic field and thus no
change in flux.
Transformers in terms of
electromagnetic induction:
A changing current in the primary
coil produces a changing flux.
This changing flux also threads
the secondary coil and induces a
voltage.
Incandescent refers to the
thermal vibration of electrons
that lose energy as photons.
Light never displays properties of
mass, but may display properties
of momentum, acceleration and
energy
Jarryd Price 2009 F.C.C.C