Process Dynamic and

Control
Hadiyanto
E: hady.hadiyanto [at]gmail.com

Introduction
What is the purpose of a control system?
To maintain important process characteristics at desired targets despite
the effects of external perturbations.

Plant
Perturbations
Market
Economy
Climate
Upsets...

Processing
objectives

Safety
Make $$$
Environment...

Control
2

T>>>

General representation of a control problem

Disturbance
variables(d)
Manipulated
variables (u)

Process

Set point
(ysp)

Controlled
variables (y)

INPUT: (u) Something that you can manipulate

DISTURBANCE: (d) Something that comes as a result of some outside
phenomenon
OUTPUT: (y) An observable quantity that we want to regulate

Control Nomenclature
Identification of all process variables
o Inputs
o Outputs

(affect process)
(result of process)

Inputs
o Disturbance variables
Variables affecting process that are due to external forces
o Manipulated variables
Things that we can directly affect

Driving a Car: An Everyday Example of Process Control

Control Objective
(Setpoint):

o Maintain car in proper lane

Controlled variable:

o Location on the road

Manipulated variable:

o Orientation of the front wheels

Actuator:

o Drivers steering wheel

Sensor:

o Drivers eyes

Controller:
o Driver

Disturbance:

o Curve in road

Schematic of Feedback Loop

Car example

Curve in road

Where the
driver
+
wants to go -

Drivers
brain

Signal
from eyes
to brain

Steering
wheel

Drivers
eyes

Driving
a car

Current
location on
road

Transfer Function

INPUT

Input : Fo, D, ZF, XD

Output : F, CA

Hubungan Input-Output
dinyatakan dalam suatu Fungsi
Transfer

OUPU
T

INPUT

G
OUPU
T

Transfer Function
The transfer function is a model, based on,
Laplace transform of output variable y(t),
divided by the Laplace transform of the input
variable x(t) with all initial conditions being
equal to zero.
Y(s)

U(s)

G(s)

Y (s)
G (s)
U (s)

Transfer Functions
Defined as G(s) = Y(s)/U(s)
Represents a normalized model of a process, i.e.,
can be used with any input.
Y(s) and U(s) are both written in deviation variable
form.
The form of the transfer function indicates the
dynamic behavior of the process.

How to derive a transfer function?

Reactor CSTR with

reaction
Fin
Cin

Fout

(-r)=kC

1. Derive a dynamic equation

2. Check linear or not linear!!, if it is
a non linear, do linearization
3. Derive the steady state equation,
dC/dt=0, CCs
4. Form a deviation state by
substraction of dynamic eq with
steady equation:
C= C-Cs
5. Do Laplace for deviation state
equation( Nr 4)
6. Transfer function is output
variable (C ) divided by input
variable (Cin) in the laplace form

Laplace Transform
Transform from t domain to frequency (s) domain
L( f (t )) f ( s )

f (t )e st dt

Example:
f (t ) C ,

C
L( f (t )) f ( s ) Ce st dt e st
s
0

f (t )

C
s

df (t )
,
dt

L( f (t )) f ( s )

df (t ) st
e dt sf ( s ) f (t ) t 0
dt

Linearization
Function of one variable
F
F ( x ) F ( xs )
x

1 2F
( x xs )
2! x 2
xs

( x xs ) 2 ...
xs

Function of two variables

F
F ( x1, x2 ) F ( x1, s , x2 , s)
x1

F
( x1 x1s )
x2
x1, s , x 2 s

1 2F
( x2 x2 s )
2! x12
x1, s , x 2 s

1 2F
( x1 xs )
2! x22

( x2 xs ) 2 .....

x1, s , x 2 s

x1, s, x 2 s

Linearization
F ( x) x

1/ 2

F ( x)

xs1/ 2

F ( x) (1.5x 3)
2

1 1/ 2
xs
( x xs )
2

Reactor CSTR with

reaction
Fin
Cin

Derive its transfer function !!!

Fout

(-r)=kC^2

Reactor Thermal mixer

F1

F2

T1

T2

Derive its transfer function !!!

Derivation of a Transfer
Function
dT
M
F1 T1 F2 T2 ( F1 F2 ) T
dt

T T T0

T1 T1 T0

T2 T2 T0

dT
M
F1 T1 F2 T2 ( F1 F2 )T
dt

Dynamic model
of CST thermal
mixer
Apply deviation
variables
Equation in
terms of
deviation
variables.

Derivation of a Transfer
Function
F1 T1 ( s ) F2 T2 ( s )
T (s)
M s F1 F2

Apply Laplace
transform to each
term considering that
only inlet and outlet
temperatures change.
Determine the transfer
T ( s)
F
G ( s)

function for the effect

T ( s)
M s F F
of inlet temperature
changes on the outlet
T (s)
F2
temperature.
G2 ( s)

T2 (s)
M s F1 F2 Note that the
response is first order.
1

Gtot (s) G1 G2

First order Transfer

Function
dY
Y KpU
. (t )
dt
U(s)

Y (t ) Kp.U (1 et / )
Y(s)

G(s)

Kp

Gain constant

Kp
Y ( s)
G( s)

U ( s) s 1
Time constant

time

Second order transfer

function

d Y
dt 2

CA0

dY
2
Y Kp.U (t )
t

r=kCA
CA1

Y (s)
Kp
G(s)
2 2
U ( s) s 2 s 1
Damping factor

V1

CA2

V2

Block diagram
X(s)

Y(s)

X1(s)
Y(s)

G(s)
X2(s)

G(s)

X1(s)
X3(s)

X1(s)
Y1(s)
G(s)

X2(s)

X1(s)

Y2(s)
X3(s)

X2(s)

Exercise
X0

X1

X2

G1

G2

X2

X0

X1

G1

G1
X0

X3
G2
G2

X2

Combining Transfer
Functions

Ex: Feedback Loop

Error

Manipulated
variable
Controlled
variable
Disturbance

ysp

Gc

Gv

Gp
y

Gm

Ex: FF Controller
D(s)

Gff(s)

Gds(s)
Gd(s)

Cff(s)

Ga(s)

Gp(s)

+
+

Y(s)

Combined FF and FB
Control
Cff (s)

D(s)
Gff(s)
Gd(s)

Ysp(s)

+-

Gc(s)

Cfb(s)

++

Gp(s)

++

Y(s)

Response

Process dynamics
Given a dynamic model of the process, it
investigates the process response to various input
changes

Two elements are necessary:

a dynamic model of the process
a known forcing function

u (t )

u (t )

Step input

Pulse input

0
0

time

time

Type of input(u)
Unit step

Unit sinus
u(s)=w/(s2w2)
u(s)=u/s

u
Unit impulse

t
u(s)=d

u
t

First-order systems
Time-domain model

Laplace-domain model

( Dividing by a0 )

dy
P
y K P u (t )
dt

KP
U ( s )
Y ( s )
Ps 1

KP is the process steady state gain

is the process time constant

(it can be >0 or <0)

(it is always >0)

Transfer function of a first-order system:

KP
G (s)
Ps 1

Response of first-order systems

output,y

We only consider the response to a step forcing

function of amplitude A
AKP
0.632 AKP

input,u

The time-domain
response is:

y (t ) AK P 1

A 45 time
It takes
constants for the
process to reach the
newtime
steady state

Determining the process gain

An open-loop test can be performed starting from
the reference steady state:
step the input to the process
record the time profile of the measured output until a new steady state is
approached
check if this profile resembles
if so, calculate KP as:

KP

y ss ,new y ss ,ref
unew uref

(output )

(input ) steady state

y (t ) AK P (1 e t / P )
The gain is a
dimensional figure

process gain can be determined from

The
steady state information only

Determining the time constant

From the same open-loop test:
determine

P graphically (note: it has the dimension of time)

output, y

You need dynamic

information to
determine the process
time constant
AKP
0.632 AKP

time

Determining the values

of KP and P from
process data is known as
process identification

First order

First order Transfer

Function
dY
Y KpU
. (t )
dt

U(s)

Y (t ) Kp.U (1 et / )

Y(s)
G(s)

Kp

Gain constant

Kp
Y ( s)
G( s)

U ( s) s 1
Time constant

time

Fitting a first-order model to plant data

Process: white line

Model: yellow line

Model: First Order

File Name: fit_FO.txt

Process Variable

55

50

45

Manipulated Variable

55

50

45
0

500

1000

1500

Time
Gain (K) = 1.51, Time Constant (T1) = 169.6
SSE: 32.88

Second-order systems
Time-domain representation:

d2 y
dy
a2 2 a1
a0 y bu (t )
dt
dt

CA0
2
d
y
dy
2

2
y Ku (t )
2
dt
dt

Laplace-domain representation:

Y (s)
K
2 2
U ( s ) s 2s 1
Y (s)
K

U ( s ) ( 1s 1)( 2 s 1)

r=kCA
CA1

V1

K = process gain

= natural period
= damping
coefficient

CA

V2

Effect of the damping coefficient

The value of completely determines the degree of
oscillation in a process response after a perturbation

>1:

overdamped, sluggish response

0 < < 1 : underdamped, oscillating response

(the damping is attenuated as decreases)

<0:

unstable system
(the oscillation amplitude grows indefinitely)

Second order

The importance of 2nd-order systems

Control systems are often designed so that the
controlled (i.e., closed-loop) process responds as an
underdamped second-order system
actual trajectory

controlled variable

1.4
1.2

1.0
0.8
0.6

0.4
desired value

0.2
0.0
0

10

15
time units

20

25

30

Second order

Performance assessment
t = rise time
r

(set-point tracking problem)

1.4

ts = settling time

1.2
normalized controlled variable

tp = time to first peak

1.05

1.0

0.95
0.8

0.6

a /b = overshoot
b

c /a = decay ratio

0.4

P = period of oscillation

0.2

0.0
0

t
r

5
p

10

15

s
time units

20

25

30

A good decay
ratio is 1/4
(quarter
amplitude
decay)

Try me..

Northern Illinois University

Summer 2005

ME322
Module 3, Slide 50

Peter
A. Lin
Copyri
ght
2001-

Type of input(u)
Unit step

Unit sinus
u(s)=w/(s2w2)
u(s)=u/s

Unit impulse

u(s)=d

u
t

First order

Second order

Second order

Feedback Concept

FB v FF

FB vs FF

FB vs FF

Case of HE

Ratio Control

Method

General Feedback
Control Loop
D(s)

Gd(s)

Ysp(s)

E(s)

+-

C(s)

Gc(s)

Ys(s)

Ga(s)

Gs(s)

U(s)

Gp(s)

+
+

Y(s)

Closed Loop Transfer Functions

From the general feedback control loop and
using the properties of transfer functions, the
following expressions can be derived:

G p ( s ) Ga ( s ) Gc ( s )
Y ( s)

Ysp ( s ) G p ( s ) Ga ( s ) Gc ( s ) Gs ( s ) 1
Gd ( s)
Y ( s)

D( s) G p ( s) Ga ( s) Gc ( s) Gs ( s) 1
Servo , d=0,

Regulator , ysp=0,

Characteristic Equation
Since setpoint tracking and disturbance
rejection have the same denominator for
their closed loop transfer functions, this
indicates that both setpoint tracking and
disturbance rejection have the same
general dynamic behavior.
The roots of the denominator determine the
dynamic characteristics of the closed loop
process.
The characteristic equation is given by:

G p (s) Ga (s) Gc (s) Gs (s) 1 0

PID Control
Algorithm
Integral
Derivative
Proportional

1
de(t )
c(t ) c0 K c e(t ) e(t )dt D

I 0
dt

where e(t ) ysp ys (t )

t

C ( s)
1
Gc ( s )
K c 1
D s
E ( s)
Is

Definition of Terms
e(t)- the error from setpoint [e(t)=ysp-ys].
Kc- the controller gain is a tuning parameter and
largely determines the controller aggressiveness.
I- the reset time is a tuning parameter and
determines the amount of integral action.
D- the derivative time is a tuning parameter
and determines the amount of derivative action.

Proportional Control

P Control

Example,

c(t ) c0 K c e(t )
Gc ( s ) K c

Properties of
Proportional Action
c(t ) c0 K c e(t )
Gc ( s ) K c
Kc K p
Y (s)

Ysp ( s )

Kc K p 1

Kc K p 1

s 1

Closed loop transfer

function base on a Ponly controller applied
to a first order process.
Properties of P control
o Does not change order of
process
o Closed loop time
constant is smaller than
open loop p

Effect P to first order

Effect of controller gain

kc

Figure 8.8. Process response with proportional

control.

Increasing the controller gain.

less sluggish process response.
Too large controller gain.
undesirable degree of oscillation or even
unstable response.
An intermediate value of the controller gain
best control result.

Effect P on

nd
2

order

Integral Control

Properties of Integral
Action
c(t ) c0

Kc

e(t ) dt

Based on applying
an I-only controller
Y ( s)
1

to a first order
I p 2
I
Ysp ( s )
s
s 1
process
Kc K p
Kc K p
Properties of I
I p
p
control
I

Kc K p

1
I

2 p Kc K p

o Offset is eliminated
o Increases the order
by 1
o As integral action is
increased, the
process becomes
faster, but at the

Integral Action
The primary benefit of integral action is that it
removes offset from setpoint.
In addition, for a PI controller all the steady-state
change in the controller output results from
integral action.

Proportional Action for the

Response of a PI Controller

Process with a PI
Controller
Kc 2

I 10

Kp 1

Characteristic Equation :
1
2
1 0

10 s
5s 1
Rearrangin g
25s 15s 1 0

p 5
1.5
2

p 5

Applied to a Second Order

Process
K c 1; I 1; K p 1; p 5; 2
Characteristic Equation :

1
2
25s 20s 1
Rearrangin g

1
1 0

25s 20s 2 s 1 0
3

p1 0.764 and a second order

response with p 4.37 and 0.08

Effect of integral time

Figure 8.9. PI control: (a) effect of integral time (b) effect of controller
gain.

Increasing the integral time.

more conservative(sluggish) process response.
Too large integral time.
too long time to reach to the set point after load
upset or set-point change occurs.
Theoretically, offset will be eliminated for all values
I
of
.

Derivative Control

Properties of Derivative
Action
de(t )
c(t ) c0 K c D
dt
K c K p D s
Y (s)
2 2
Ysp ( s ) p s (2 p K c K p D )s 1

Closed loop transfer function for

derivative-only control applied to a
second order process.
Properties of derivative control:
o Does not change the order of the process
o Does not eliminate offset
o Reduces the oscillatory nature of the feedback response

Response of a PID
Controller
ysp

ys
cder

Time

Derivative Action
The primary benefit of derivative action is that it
reduces the oscillatory nature of the closed-loop
response.

Effect of derivative time

Figure 8.10. PID control: effect of derivative

Increasing time.
the derivative time.

improved response by reducing the maximum

deviation, response time and the degree of oscillation.
Too large derivative time.
measurement noise tends to be amplified and the
response may be oscillatory.
D is desirable.
Intermediate value of

Composite Control
PI
PD
PID

Effect PI

Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems

Figure 8.7. Typical process response with feedback

control.
C iscontrol
the deviation
initial slowly
steady-state.
No feedback
makefrom
the the
process
reach a
new steady-state.
Proportional control speeds up the process response
and reduces the offset.
Integral control eliminates offset but tends to make the
response oscillatory.
Derivative control reduces both the degree of
oscillation and response time.

The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and
will reduce, but never eliminate, the steady-state error.
An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error,
but it may make the transient response worse.
A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the
system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.

Proportional Control
By only employing proportional control, a steady state error occurs.

Proportional and Integral Control

The response becomes more oscillatory and needs longer to settle, the
error disappears.

Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control

All design specifications can be reached.

The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

CL RESPONSE

RISE TIME

OVERSHOOT

SETTLING TIME

S-S ERROR

Kc

Decrease
(++)

Increase
(--)

Small Change
(+/-)

Decrease
(+)

Ki

Decrease
(++)

Increase
(--)

Increase
(--)

Eliminate
(++)

Kd

Small Change
(+/-)

Decrease
(++)

Decrease
(++)

Small Change
(+/-)

Tips for Designing a PID Controller

1.

Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be

improved

2.

Add a proportional control to improve the rise time

3.

Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot

4.

Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error

5.

Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall
response.

Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three
controllers (proportional, derivative, and integral) into a single system, if
not necessary. For example, if a PI controller gives a good enough
response (like the above example), then you don't need to implement
derivative controller to the system. Keep the controller as simple as
possible.

Proportional Band
100%
PB
Kc
Another way to express the controller
gain.
Kc in this formula is dimensionless. That is,
the controller output is scaled 0-100% and
the error from setpoint is scaled 0-100%.
In more frequent use 10-15 years ago, but
it still appears as an option on DCSs.

Conversion from PB to
Kc
Proportional band is equal to 200%.
The range of the error from setpoint is 200
psi.
The controller output range is 0 to 100%.

100% 100%
K

0.5
PB
200%
100%
K c 0.5
0.25 % / psi
200 psi
D
c

Conversion from Kc to
PB
Controller gain is equal to 15 %/F
The range of the error from setpoint is 25
F.
The controller output range is 0 to 100%.
15% 25 F
K

3.75
F 100%
100%
PB
26.7%

3.75
D
c

Open-Loop Control - Example

G( s )

1
2

s 10s 20
num=1;
den=[1 10 20];
step(num,den)

Proportional Control - Example

The proportional controller (Kp) reduces the rise time, increases the overshoot,
and reduces the steady-state error.

MATLAB Example

Kp

T( s )

s 10 s ( 20 Kp )
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

Kp=300;

1.2

Step Response
From: U(1)
1

num=[Kp];

step(num,den,t)

0.8
0.7

0.6

0.4

K=300

0.2

0.6
To: Y(1)

To: Y(1)

0.8

Amplitude

t=0:0.01:2;

0.9

Amplitude

den=[1 10 20+Kp];

0.5

K=100

0.4
0.3

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8
0.2

Time (sec.)
0.1
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time (sec.)

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Proportional - Derivative - Example

The derivative controller (Kd) reduces both the overshoot and the settling time.
MATLAB Example

Kd s Kp

T( s )

s ( 10 Kd ) s ( 20 Kp )
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

1.2

Kp=300;

Step Response
From: U(1)

t=0:0.01:2;

0.9

0.6

0.8
0.7

0.4

Kd=10

0.2

0.6

To: Y(1)

den=[1 10+Kd 20+Kp];

0.8

Amplitude

num=[Kd Kp];

To: Y(1)

Kd=10;

Amplitude

0.5
0.4

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time (sec.)

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8
0.3

Kd=20

0.2

step(num,den,t)

0.1
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time (sec.)

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Proportional - Integral - Example

The integral controller (Ki) decreases the rise time, increases both the overshoot
and the settling time, and eliminates the steady-state error

MATLAB Example

Kp s Ki

T( s )

s 10 s ( 20 Kp ) s Ki
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

Kp=30;

1.2

Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

1.2

0.8

Ki=70

0.4

den=[1 10 20+Kp Ki];

To: Y(1)

0.6

Amplitude

num=[Kp Ki];

To: Y(1)

Ki=70;

Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.2
0.4

t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t)

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time (sec.)

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Ki=100

2
0.2

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time (sec.)

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Assignment

Stability