CHAPTER 1: MUSIC IN ANCIENT GREECE AND EARLY CHRISTIAN ROME

Prelude
- Western culture has roots in ancient Greece and Rome.
- Although little ancient music has survived,
- ancient writings about music, particularly music theory, had a strong influence on later
centuries.
- This ancient heritage was passed on in part by the early Christian church.
I. Music in Ancient Greek Life and Thought
- In ancient Greece, music was linked to the gods and divine powers.
1. Extant(kaybolmam) Greek music
- Greek music was monophonic, but was often performed in heterophony.
- It was usually improvised or learned by ear, not read from notation.
2. Greek theory
- Greek theorists and philosophers (Plato & Aristotle) developed ideas about music
- that profoundly influenced the musical thought of the Middle Ages and survive to this day.
3. Music and poetry
- Music was closely tied to poetry.
- The rhythms of a melody followed the rhythms of its text,
- the pitch contour often followed the inflections of a speaking voice.
Ancient Greek Music: Kithara and Aulos
- The lyre, aulos, kithara were the three main instruments in ancient Greece,
- played alone, accompaniment to singing, dancing, recitation in religious ceremonies, festivals,
contests.
- reaction against the rise of professional musicians, increasing virtuosity, the growing
complexity of music
- led to a simplification of later Greek music and theory.
4. Music and ethos(ruh)
- The Greeks held that music directly affected ethos: ones ethical character.
5. Theory of imitation
- Aristotle wrote that music represents the passions or states of the soul
- arouses passions in the listener, and music stimulating undesirable attitudes should be avoided
6. Music in education
- Plato gave music an important role in education,
- arguing that the right kind of music disciplined the mind and aroused temperance and
courage.
- Aristotle was less restrictive and endorsed music for entertainment and for its role in drama.
7. Greek music theory
- Our modern system of music theory and its vocabulary derive largely from ancient Greece.
8. Music and number
- Pythagoras (ca. 580ca. 500 b.c.e.) basic consonant intervals were produced by simple
ratios:
- 2:1 for the octave, 3:2 for the fifth, and 4:3 for the fourth.
9. Harmonics
- Greek discipline of harmonics (matters concerning pitch) laid the foundation for modern
concepts:
- notes, intervals, scales, and modes.
10. Tetrachords
- Greek scales were constructed from tetrachords, groups of four notes spanning a fourth.
- There were three genera (kinds) of tetrachords: diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic.
11. Transmission of Greek ideas
- Greek concepts are transmitted to the Middle Ages through the writings of early Christians,
- but others were NOT rediscovered until the Renaissance.
II. Roman Music, 200 b.c.e.500 c.e.

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- The Romans adopted many aspects of Greek musical culture.

1. Romes decline
- Romes economic decline halted grand musical productions,
- almost no distinctively Roman traces were left on later European musical developments.
III. The Early Christian Church: Musical Thought
1. Church Fathers
- (writers and scholars) saw in music the power to inspire divine thoughts
- and to influence the character of listeners.
2. Dangers of music
- Many early church leaders opposed listening to music for pleasure.
3. Transmission of Greek music theory
- Greek theory and philosophy were summarized and passed on by early Christian writers,
- most notably by Boethius.
4. Martianus Capella
- Martianus helped to codify the seven liberal arts:
- the three verbal(szel) arts: the trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric)
- the four mathematical disciplines: the quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy,
harmonics).
5. Boethius
- De institutione musica (The Fundamentals of Music) by Boethius (ca. 480524)
- the main source through which Greek music theory was transmitted to the Middle Ages.
Boethiuss Fundamentals
- 3 kinds of music:
- musica mundana (cosmic music), the orderly numerical relations that control the natural
world;
- musica humana (human music), which controls the human body and soul;
- musica instrumentalis, audible music produced by voices or instruments. music primarily as a
science.
IV. The Early Christian Church: Musical Practice
1. Greek legacy(miras)
- Early Christian communities absorbed musical practices from ancient Greece and other
cultures,
- but their leaders rejected pagan uses of music and excluded instrumental music from church
services.
2. Judaic heritage
- Some elements of Christian worship derive from Jewish traditions,
- including the chanting of Scripture and the singing of psalms.
3. Christian observances (dini tren)
- Like the Jewish temple service, the Christian Mass enacts a symbolic sacrifice,
- and worshippers and priests partake in a ritual meal and sing psalms.
4. Psalms and hymns
- As Christianity spread(yaylmak) the church absorbed influences from many areas, including
Syria and Milan.
5. Eastern churches
- Byzantium, later Constantinople: the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire from 395 to
1453,
- its musical practices influenced the West.
6. Western churches
- Between 5th and 8th centuries: different regions produced several distinct Western liturgies,
- bodies of liturgical music.
Sounding and Silent Harmony: Music and Astronomy
- Many ancient Greek thinkers linked music and astronomy
- because both studies were dominated by numerical relationships.

- Medieval Christian philosophers believed:

- these relationships provided the foundation for knowledge about the order of the entire
universe.
- These ideas persisted through the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
7. Chant dialects
- Along with a separate liturgy, each region had its own repertory of liturgical melodies we call
chant.
8. Romes musical dominance
- Eventually, most regional dialects were replaced with a common liturgy
- a set of melodies authorized by the Roman Catholic Church.
9. Gregorian chant
- preserved for centuries by monks and nuns who sang, memorized, and wrote down melodies.

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CHAPTER 2: CHANT AND SECULAR SONG IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Prelude
- Two large bodies of song survive from the Middle Ages:
- sacred plainchant (or chant), used in communal liturgy,
- and secular monophony.
- Both monophonic, passed down from memory
- repertory of chant was changed, expanded, and varied over time.
-many types of medieval song, most secular artful songs were by
- troubadours and trouvres: poet-composers of the 12th and 13th centuries.
I. Western Christian Chant and Liturgy
- for religious services, source & inspiration for later music in the Western art tradition.
- shape is determined by its role in the service.
1. Liturgy (cemaatle ibadete mahsus dualar)
- two main types in early Christian church, the Office and the Mass.
- texts are prescribed according to the church calendar.
2. The Office
- consists of 8 services celebrated at specified times each day.
- Offices: singing of psalms, each with a chant called an antiphon.
3. The Mass
- the most important service
- opens with introductory prayers and chants, continues with the Liturgy of the Word,
- culminates in the Liturgy of the Eucharist (a reenactment of the Last Supper).
- Proper of the Mass texts change from day to day
- Ordinary of the Mass texts are always the same, the melodies may vary.
4. Oral transmission
- chant melodies, learned by oral transmission, were subject to change and variation.
The Experience of the Mass
-Mass: instructional and inspirational for medieval believers, many were illiterate. (okumam)
- Music, sung by a priest, choir, and soloists,
- used to evoke awe(korku), to carry words through large, resonant worship spaces.
- Mass begins with an introductory section (includes the Introit, the Kyrie, and the Gloria).
- followed by the Liturgy of the Word (the Gradual, the Alleluia or Tract, sometimes a sequence,
and the Credo)
- the Liturgy of the Eucharist (includes the Offertory, the Sanctus, the Agnus Dei, and the
Communion).
5. Notation of chant
- Notation helped to standardize chant melodies and promote uniformity.
- 9th century until Middle Ages, all important developments in European music took place north
of the Alps.

II. Genres and Forms of Chant

Chants can be classified in several ways:
1. By the type of text (biblical or nonbiblical, prose or poetry)
2. By the manner of performance (antiphonal, responsorial, or direct)
3. By musical style (syllabic, neumatic, 1 to 7 notes per syllable; melismatic).

- Mass & Office are mostly chanted to recitation formulas,

- some are sung to fully formed melodies.
1. Text setting
- melodies reflect inflection(kvrm) & rhythm of words and their function in the liturgy.
2. Melodic structure
- Each melody divides into phrases & periods, following punctuation in the text.
- Phrases tend to be arch-like: rising, sustaining, falling.
In the Monastic Scriptorium (manastr yazhanesi)
- Monasteries preserved music in manuscripts: (el yazmas)
- A group of monks or nuns engaged in producing manuscripts was called a scriptorium.
- Scriptoria copied text and music, decorated and illustrated pages, and bound books.
- The entire process was laborious and very expensive.
3. Chant forms
- Chants have 3 main forms:
- two balanced phrases, (as in a psalm(ilahi) verse(ayet)
- strophic form, (as in hymns)
- free form
a. Chants of the Office
a. Psalm tones
- are formulas for chanting psalms.
- A psalm tone consists of an intonation,
- a recitation on the reciting tone or tenor,
- a median to mark the middle of the psalm verse,
- a continuation of the reciting tone,
- and a termination.
b. Lesser Doxology
- an expression of praise to the Trinity, is sung at the end of each psalm.
c. Antiphonal psalmody
- one choir sings the first half of each psalm verse, and another choir sings the second half.
d. Antiphons
- Each psalm is paired with an antiphon, sung before and after the psalm.
- Office responsories begin with choral respond, proceed with soloist singing psalm verse,
close with respond
canticle: A hymn-like or psalm-like passage from a part of the Bible other than the Book of
Psalms.
b. Chants of the Mass Proper
a. Introit and Communion
- antiphonal chants.
b. The Gradual and Alleluia
- responsorial chants, highly melismatic, single verse introduced or framed by a respond.
- Many Alleluias include matching phrases at the ends of sections.
c. Responsorial performance
- soloist and choir alternate
d. Offertory
melismatic, like Graduals, but include only the respond.
c. Later Developments of the Chant
a. Chants of the Ordinary

- Gloria and Credo have long texts and are mostly syllabic.
- Kyrie, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei have three-part sectional arrangements.
b. Kyrie
- usually performed antiphonally.
- New antiphons were introduced between the 9th and 10th centuries.
c. Tropes
- expanded existing chants in 3 ways:
- adding new words and music;
- adding new music only;
- adding new words only.
- Tropes flourished in the 10th & 11th centuries; later banned by the Council of Trent (1545
1563)
d. Sequences
- began as tropes in the 9th century, quickly became independent compositions.
- All but a few sequences(bir kai hari hepsi) were eliminated from the liturgy by the Council of
Trent.
e. Liturgical dramas
- also originated from troping
f. Hildegard of Bingen (10981179)
- wrote both words and music for the sacred music drama Ordo virtutum (The Virtues, ca. 1151).
- life in convent allowed her creative outlets & positions of leadership not afforded to women
outside its walls.
Biography:
- entered a convent at the age of 14, in 1150 founded her own convent.
- corresponded with many powerful men who were interested in her prophecies,
- set her own religious poetry to music.
- Her Ordo virtutum is the earliest surviving music drama not attached to the liturgy.
III. Medieval Music Theory and Practice
- Treatises in later Middle Ages addressed practical problems that Boethius did not:
- such as how to sing intervals, memorize chants, and read notes at sight.
1. Church modes
- theorists recognized 8 modes:
- each defined by arrangement of whole tones and semitones in relation to a final and a range.
- Authentic modes have a range that runs up an octave from the final
- plagal modes run from a fourth below the final to a fifth above it.
- Each mode also has a tenor, or reciting tone.
2. Solmization
- Guido of Arezzo (ca. 991after 1033)
- devised solmization syllables to help singers recall where whole tones and semitones occur.
3. The Guidonian hand
- assigned a note to each joint of the left hand as a tool to teach notes and intervals.
4. The staff
- The musical staff allowed precise notation of pitch.
IV. Medieval Song
1. Goliard songs
- Early forms of secular music (11th, 12th centuries) include:
- goliard songs, with Latin texts celebrating vagabond lives of students and wandering clerics
2. Jongleursor minstrels:
- traveling musicians and performers, on the margins of society.
- 11th century, they organized brotherhoods, which later became guilds(loncalar)
3. Troubadours and trouvres
- Troubadours (feminine: trobairitz): poet-composers in southern France in the 12th century
- spoke Provenal. (Occitan)

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- Their counterparts in northern France, called trouvres, spoke langue dol,

- the ancestor of modern French, and remained active through the 13th century.
- Troubadours and trouvres flourished in castles and courts but came from a variety of social
classes.
4. Types of songs
- The songs of both troubadours and trouvres have varied structures and topics.
- Many trouvre songs include a refrain: a segment of text returns in each stanza with the
same melody.
5. Old Occitan lyric
- Many Old Occitan lyrics have the topic of fine amour:
- love in which a discreet, unattainable woman was adored from a distance.
6. Bernart de Ventadorn (ca. 1150ca. 1180),
- one of the most popular poets of his day, rose from a low status to consort with aristocrats.
- His song Can vei la lauzeta mover typifies fine amour.
7. Typical song structure
- Troubadour and trouvre poems are strophic,
- melodies are mostly syllabic with a range of an octave or less.
- Because of their notation, the rhythm of troubadour melodies is uncertain.
- Each line of a canso (love song) receives its own melodic phrase,
- some phrases use repetition to create formal patterns.
8. Comtessa Beatriz de Da (d. ca. 1212)
- countess and a trobairitz, and her song A chantar shows a womans perspective of courtly love.
9. Minnesinger
- knightly poet-composers in German lands of the 12th through the 14th centuries.
- They often sang of idealized love (Minne) and utilized bar form: AAB:
- (A is called the Stollen, and B is called the Abgesang.)
- Minnesinger also wrote Crusade songs.
Eleanor of Aquitaine and Her Courts of Love
-Eleanor of Aquitaine (ca. 11221204)
- member of an aristocratic family, granddaughter of a troubadour, wife and mother of kings,
- a patron of troubadours and trouvres.
10. Cantigas
- Spanish monophonic songs with refrains.
- The most famous collection, Cantigas de Santa Mara, over 400 cantigas in honor of the Virgin
Mary.
CHAPTER 3: POLYPHONY THROUGH THE 13th CENTURY
Prelude
- 11th & 12th cen., prosperity, cultural revival, in scholarship and the arts in western Europe.
- One result was the growth of polyphony in church music,
- monophony remained the principal medium
- polyphony introduced four concepts:
- counterpoint, harmony, notation, composition.
- 2 main types of polyphony were organum and the motet.
I. Early Organum
Polyphony first described in treatise Musica enchiriadis, used organum for 2 distinct kinds of
polyphony:
1. Parallel organum
- added voice (organal voice) appears below a chant melody (principal voice),
- moving in parallel fifths or fourths, making adjustments to avoid the tritone.
- Either or both voices may be doubled at the octave.
2. Contrary and oblique motion

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- 11th cen, the organal voice usually sings above the chant,
- moving in contrary, oblique, parallel, similar motion to the chant
- forming consonant intervals with it (unison, fourth, fifth, and octave).
3. Free and florid organum
- Ad organum faciendum(1100) treatise: Instructions on improvisation of free organum
- portions of the chant, sung by soloists were set polyphonically,
- polyphonic sections alternate with monophonic chant sung by the choir.
- A new type of florid organum: Aquitanian organum, early 12th cen in Aquitaine:
southwestern France.
- florid organum, chant in long notes in lower voice (tenor), upper voice, decorative phrases of
varying length.
4. Organum purum and discant
- 2 main styles of polyphony in 12th cen:
- organum purum(duplum) (many notes in upper voice for each note in lower voice)
- discant (both voices move together at about the same rate).
- 2 types of organum are used in Jubilemus, exultemus.
5. Notation of organum
- Manuscripts for organum use score notation:
- (one part above the other, notes that sound together aligned vertically),
- but do NOT indicate rhythm or duration.
II. Notre Dame Polyphony
- more elaborate style of polyphony, developed at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, late 12th, early
13th cen.
1. Leoninus
- compiled the Magnus liber organi ("great book of polyphony"),
- 2-voice settings of solo parts of responsorial chants: for major feasts of the church year.
- Leoninuss organum, 2 voices, alternates sections in organum style with sections in discant
style.
- choir sections are plainchant, sung in unison.
- sections in discant style use the rhythmic modes in both voices
- tend to appear where there are melismas in the original chant.
Modal Rhythm
- a notation to indicate patterns of long and short notes,
- developed during 12th & early 13th cen.
- These patterns were codified as 6 rhythmic modes, adapted from the principles of classical
poetic meter.
2. Clausula
- A section in discant, in modal rhythm, producing short phrases & lively pacing.
3. Perotinus
- associated with Notre Dame Cathedral, his contemporaries continued editing and updating
Leoninuss Magnus liber.
4. Substitute clausulae
- replaced older discant clausulae with new ones: substitute clausulae.
- tenors in these clausulae often repeat rhythmic patterns and segments of melody.
5. Triple and quadruple organum
- works for 3 & 4 voices. Duplum, triplum, quadruplum are the names of voices in ascending
order above the tenor.
- 3-voice organum: organum triplum, 4-voice organum: organum quadruplum.
- Notre Dame in late 12th through early 13th cen. music, most likely improvised or orally
composed and written down later.
III. The Motet
1. clausula
- early 13th century, clausula could be taken from its original place in a larger polyphonic work

- performed as an independent composition (a motet) with the upper voice (motetus) singing
newly added Latin or French words.
2. Cantus firmus
- tenor of a motet, like that of a clausula, consisted of a borrowed chant melody, or cantus
firmus.
- top two voices use different but topically related texts (sometimes in the vernacular),
- tenor could be played or sung.
- Motets are known by compound titles consisting of the incipits (the first word or words) of
each of their vocal parts.
3. Early motets
- text of the upper voices is a trope(expanded existing chants) on the original chant text.
5. Versatility (ok ynllk) of motet
- motets were sung for secular and sacred occasions,
- tenor (chant) soon lost its exclusively liturgical function
- became raw material for composition.
- Composers reworked existing motets in various ways:
- (1) by writing a new Latin or French text for the duplum;
- (2) by adding a third voice;
- (3) by giving new voices their own texts.
- also wrote motets from scratch.
- upper voices rarely rest with one another or with the tenor.
5. Franconian Motet
- motets from 2nd half of 13th cen, upper voice moves more quickly, longer text than middle
voice while tenor moves more slowly.
-composer and theorist Franco of Cologne (12501280).
6. Role of motet
- motet went through many changes in 13th century:
- from an existing piece with new text to a highly complex and individual work.
The Motet as Gothic Cathedral
- voices in a 13th-cen motet are rhythmically in dependent yet coordinated,
- higher voices moving faster than the lower ones.
- parallels in the architecture of Gothic cathedrals.
IV. Polyphonic Conductus
- 2- to 4-voice setting of a rhymed metrical Latin poem on a sacred or serious topic.
- tenor is newly written, not based on chant.
- voices move in similar rhythms and sing the text together: conductus style.
CHAPTER 4: FRENCH AND ITALIAN MUSIC IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Prelude
- 14th cen, unstable, secular age. Church authority, undermined by move of papacy to Avignon
(13091378)
- schism(paralanma) between rival(rakip) popes (13781417).
- Human reason became an authority in its own sphere, independent of church control,
- human concerns became more important in literature, education, and art.
- Great literary works by Dante, Boccaccio, and Chaucer appeared in vernacular languages.
- A new musical style emerged in France, known as Ars Nova
- after the Ars nova treatise attributed to Philippe de Vitry (12911361).
- The most important new genre was the polyphonic art song.
I. The Ars Nova in France
1. Roman de Fauvel
Typical of the period is the Roman de Fauvel: a satirical poem with interpolated music,
- 34 motets, numerous monophonic songs, many with texts referring to contemporary events.

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2. Philippe de Vitry
- his motets in Roman de Fauvel provide the earliest examples of isorhythm ("equal rhythm").
3. Isorhythmic motet
- motets in Vitrys Roman de Fauvel: tenor features a repeating rhythmic pattern
4. Talea and color
- tenor has a recurring rhythmic pattern: talea
-and a recurring melodic pattern: color.
- One may be longer than the other, their endings may or may not coincide.
- Upper voices may also be isorhythmic in whole or part
- Isorhythm made it easier for singers to memorize music
a. Guillaume de Machaut (ca. 13001377)
- the leading poet and composer of the French Ars Nova.
a. Motets
his isorhythmic motets: longer, more complex than Vitrys. upper voices are often partly
isorhythmic.
b. Hocket
Machaut frequently used hocket: voices rapidly alternate, each resting while the other
sings.
c. Mass
- Machauts Messe de Nostre Dame first polyphonic Mass Ordinary by single composer, as unit
- Gloria & Credo: discant style(mostly syllabic, with the four voices declaiming the long
text together)
- the Kyrie, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Ite, missa est are isorhythmic.
Writing Rhythm
- Ars Nova notation: rhythms that could not be notated in the 13th century.
- long, breve, semibreve could each be divided into either 2 or 3 of the next smaller note value
- triple divisions were perfect (or major), duple imperfect (or minor).
- division of breve: time, division of the semibreve: prolation.
- minim: new note smaller than a semibreve.
- 4 possible combinations of time and prolation produced 4 different meters
- each indicated with a different mensuration sign.
- No longer limited by the patterns of rhythmic modes,
- composers could now write anything that singers could sing,
- they began to attach their names to their works.
- 14th cen, French composers explored these rhythmic innovations
d. Kyrie
- typical of isorhythmic movements of Machauts mass: tenor carries cantus firmus,
- contratenor(bass) isorhythmic & forms harmonic foundation
Guillaume de Machaut
- working for royalty: kings of Bohemia, Navarre, and France.
- first composer to make a special effort to organize his works for future generations.
5. Love songs
- Machauts monophonic French songs in trouvre tradition, in standard poetic forms (formes
fixes).
6. Virelai
- his monophonic virelai Foy porter, Machaut used rhythmic innovations:
- syncopation, imperfect time with minor prolation made possible by Ars Nova notation.
The Standard Refrain Forms of 14th- Century Chansons
- 14th-century chansons: distinct patterns of repeated music and/or text.
- virelai: three stanzas (bba), each preceded by the refrain (A).
- final refrain concludes the song.
- ballade 3 or 4 stanzas, each sung to the same music (aab), ending with a refrain (C)
- rondeau, a refrain (AB) frames a stanza (aab), first half of the refrain (A) sounds midway

through the stanza.

7. Rondeau
- Machauts rondeau Rose, liz, printemps, verdure:
- typical lyric style, long melismas, rhythmic sophistication, treble-dominated texture.
8. Ballades
- most serious of the formes fixes, philosophical or historical themes. challenging to write. least
repetitation
II Italian Trecento Music
- 14th cen in Italy was known as the trecento. Most music from the time was not written down
1. Secular songs
- Secular polyphonic songs, cultivated among the elite in certain cities in northern Italy,
especially Florence.
2. Squarcialupi Codex
- richly decorated, 354 pieces for 2 or 3 voices from the 14th, early 15th cen, copied around 1410
1415.
3. Madrigal
- 14th-cen madrigal: for 2 relatively equal voices that occasionally echo each other
- long melismas on the last accented syllable of each line of poetry.
4. Caccia, strict canon, often with a text about hunting
5. Ballata
- polyphonic, late 14th cen, lyrical, AbbaA form resembles a stanza of the French virelai.
a. Francesco Landini (ca. 13251397)
- leading Italian composer of 14th cen. best known for 140 ballate for 2 or 3 voices.
- In a ballata, melismas occur on the first and next-to-last syllables of each line of poetry
a. Landini cadences
Many cadences use the under-third cadence: Re-Si->LA/ do-do
- sixth expanding to an octave is decorated by the upper voice descending a step before resolving
to the octave.
b. French influence
- Italian composers absorb the French style in 14th cen, 15th cen, northern composers settle in
Italy.
Biography: Francesco Landini
from northern Italy, esteemed performer on the portative organ, blinded by disease at a young
age.
- great skill. worked at a monastery, then a church,
- no sacred music survives; known for his secular songs.
c. English music
- distinctive sound, its qualities had an enormous impact on Continental developments in 15th
cen
III. The Ars Subtilior
1. Later 14th century
- at courts in southern France and northern Italy, composers developed the Ars Nova style
- to a height of complexity and refinement: Ars Subtilior.
- This music was intended for professional performers and cultivated listeners.
2. Rhythmic complexity
- Composers, including Philippus de Caserta, tested the limits of Ars Nova notation:
- syncopations, different meters in different voices, rhythmic disjunction,
- as seen in his ballade En remirant vo douce pourtraiture.
Instru&ments and Musica Ficta in 14th-Century Performance
- 14th and 15th cen, polyphonic music, performed by a small group of voices or/and instruments.
- no uniform way of performing any particular piece.
- Instruments were classified as loud (haut or "high") or soft (bas or "low").
- Soft instruments: such as strings, woodwinds, or portative organs, were used

indoors.
- Loud instruments, such as shawms, trumpets, and trombones, were often used
outdoors.
- Performers often altered notes chromatically: musica ficta to avoid tritones, to create
smoother lines.
CHAPTER 5: ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND BURGUNDY IN THE 15th CENTURY
Prelude
- English music made important contributions to the development of an international style in the
first half of the 15th century.
- The influence of English style on Continental composers was celebrated around 1440 in a poem
that praised the contenance angloise (English quality) of "lively consonance."
- new international style, blended French, Italian, English traits, especially in Burgundy,
- most of the leading composers of the late 15th century came from this area.
- Burgundian musicians traveled with their patrons and moved to new posts in other regions,
- their interactions with musicians from all over Europe aided the development of an
international style.
I. English Music and Its Influence
- English music frequently used thirds and sixths, often in parallel motion, as illustrated in
the rota Sumer is icumen in and the carol Alleuia: A new work
1. John Dunstable (ca. 13901453)
- leading English composer in first half of 15th century,
- wrote in all the prevailing genres and styles of polyphony.
2. Dunstables motets
- In some3 of his motets and masses, Dunstable continued to use isorhythm.
- His three-voice sacred works feature style traits common to Renaissance & Middle Ages.
3. Redefining the motet
- 15th century, motet was, any polyphonic composition on Latin text other than Mass Ordinary.
II. Music in Burgundian Lands
- main polyphonic genres of mid-15th century:
- secular chansons with French texts, motets, Magnificats, and settings of the Mass Ordinary.
1. Texture
- Most secular chansons by Burgundian composers were for 3 voices,
- main melody usually in cantus with larger ranges for each voice than in the previous century.
- Burgundian composers: Guillaume Du Fay 13971474, Gilles de Bins, Binchois 14001460
2. Binchois
- spent most of his career at the Burgundian court chapel.
3. Binchoiss chansons
- best known for his chansons. His polyphonic chanson De plus en plus:
- consonant harmonies, treble-dominated style, varied rhythms, sixth-to-octave cadences.
4. Cadences
- traditional sixth-to-octave cadence between tenor and cantus was harmonized with a
contratenor that leapt up an octave to sound the fifth above the tenor, creating a sound like a
VI cadence.
5. Guillaume Du Fay
- most famous composer of his time,
- his music well represents international style of the mid-15th century.
6. Chansons
Du Fays ballade Resvellies vous (1423) blends French and Italian characteristics.
- A later chanson, Se la face ay pale (1430s), illustrates the strong influence of English music.
7. Motets
Many of Du Fays motets were written in 3 voices with a texture resembling the chanson.
8. Fauxbourdon

- In his hymn Christe, redemptor omnium, Du Fay paraphrased the chant in the treble part
- used a technique called fauxbourdon, which was inspired by music from England.
fauxbourdon: the lowest voice sometimes jumps down to the octave, and any of
the accompanying voices may have minor embellishments.
9. Isorhythmic motets
Du Fay and his contemporaries continued to write isorhythmic motets for ceremonial events.
10 . Masses
15th century, standard practice was to set the Mass Ordinary texts as a coherent whole,
- thus creating a polyphonic mass cycle.
Biography: Guillaume Du Fay- born near Brussels, studied at the Cambrai cathedral school.
- served powerful and rich patrons in major cities in Italy and Savoy, then went back to Cambrai,
- returned to Savoy in the 1450s, finished his career in Cambrai, making him a truly international
11. Cyclic masses
- 15th century a variety of means to link separate sections of mass to one another.
- One technique was to use the same general style for all five movements.
12. Motto mass
- same head motive, or motto, to begin each movement.
13. Cantus firmus or tenor mass
- Another way to link movements
- each movement is constructed around the same borrowed melody
- cantus firmus, normally placed in the tenor.
14. 4-voice texture
- standard in cantus firmus masses.
- Below the tenor was a contratenor bassus (low contratenor), or bassus,
- to provide a harmonic foundation; above it was the contratenor altus, or altus.
- top part was called the cantus, discantus, or superius.
- cantus firmus could be taken from a chant, a secular song, or the tenor of a polyphonic
chanson. - cantus firmus mass is named after the source of its borrowed melody.
The Feast of the Oath of the Pheasant
- Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, assembled hundreds of nobles for a banquet
- called the Feast of the Oath of the Pheasant in Lille on June 17, 1454.
- It was a lavish affair with a religious meaning, showcasing food, music, dance,
- characters in costume, to show support for the Eastern church after the fall of Constantinople.
15. Compositional techniques
- Obscuring the cantus firmus by giving it a different rhythm or by placing it in an inner voice did
not diminish its power to unify the mass.
16. Missa Se la face ay pale
- Du Fays cantus firmus mass,
- tenor is taken from Du Fays ballade Se la face ay pale
- Other voices from the ballade are borrowed from in this mass as well.
17. Layered texture in Du Fays masses
- top two voices maintain smooth contours, occasionally exchange motives,
- contratenor bassus is more angular and provides a harmonic foundation.
18. Consonance and dissonance in Du Fays masses
Du Fays style features a careful control of consonance and dissonance.
CHAPTER 6: MUSIC OF FRANCO-FLEMISH COMPOSERS, 1450-1520
Prelude

Renaissance

- musical
: revival of ideas about ancient music
- rather than a revival of a specific set of musical techniques.
- Most prominent composers in 14501520 from France, Belgium, Netherlands.

- greatest composer was Josquin des Prez 14501521

I. The Musical Culture of the Renaissance
1. Musical humanism
- 15th century, all major Greek writings on music were translated into Latin.
2. Power of the ancient modes
- Renaissance: each mode was thought to convey certain emotions.
3. Glarean
- Dodekachordon (The Twelve-String Lyre, 1547), Heinrich Glarean (14881563) - added 4
new modes(authentic & plagal modes on A and C) to the traditional 8.
4. Tuning
- New tuning systems allowed imperfect consonances to sound in tune,
- triads began to appear at cadences.
5. Consonance and dissonance
- new rules for handling dissonance, beauty, order, pleasing the senses.
6. Johannes Tinctoris (ca. 14351511)
- rules for using dissonance Liber de arte contrapuncti
- (A Book on the Art of Counterpoint, 1477).
- Dissonances, limited to passing & neighbor tones on unstressed beats & suspensions.
- rules were further refined by Gioseffo Zarlino in Le istitutioni harmoniche (Harmonic
Foundations, 1558).
7. Music and words
- Humanism encouraged composers to pay increasing attention to the
- meaning, sound, grammatical structure, and accentuation of the texts
8. Music printing
- wider distribution at a lower cost of writings on music and of music itself.
9. Why Italy?
- Humanism and the arts thrived particularly in Italy,
- royalty of small city-state, religious figures sought to outdo one another
- in their patronage of literature and the arts.
10. Composers in Italy
- Many of the composers employed in Italy were from
- France, Flanders, and the Netherlands.
II. Northern Composers: The Generation after Du Fay
1. Jean de Ockeghem (ca. 14201497)
- renowned as the most important of his generation.
2. Masses
- Ockeghem used 4 independent voices of similar character.
- By extending the bass range, he achieved a fuller and darker sound than Du Fay.
3. Tenor mass
- Missa De plus en plus,cantus firmus is tenor of Binchoiss chanson De plus en plus.
4. Cyclic mass
- Missa De plus en plus, all of its movements are based on same borrowed tenor line.
5. Naming masse
- Masses without a cantus firmus were sometimes named for their mode or for a structural
feature, as in Ockeghems Missa prolationum.
6. Canon
- Composers used canon to show off their ingenuity and skill
- employed techniques like retrograde and inversion.
- Missa prolationum uses mensuration canons
7. Missa prolationum
- Ockeghems creativity and compositional virtuosity is evident,
-notated in 2 voices but sung in 4, using the four prolations of mensural notation
8. Chansons

- Ockeghems and Antoine Busnoyss (ca. 14301492) chansons

- combine features from Du Fays generation with new features.
- freely altered, arranged, transcribed for instruments, some became very popular.
Biography: Jean de Ockeghem
- singer, composer, and teacher. born in northeastern France
- worked for French kings for over 40 years.
- His long service in one place encouraged the development of an individual idiom.
9. Medieval and newer features
- chansons from Ockeghems generation, Medieval features, formes fixes
- and the reliance on the tenor for structure.
- Newer features: imitation, greater equality among voices, expansion of range.
Music Printing
- music-publishing changed, how people used notated music during Renaissance.
- movable type music Printing first in 1470s in liturgical books with chant notation.
- Ottaviano Petrucci (14661539) of Venice,
- first to print polyphonic music, from movable type in 1501,
- triple-impression process (staff lines, notes, text)
- to create beautiful, clear collections of music.
- "privilege" that gave him the exclusive right to print music in Venice for 20 years.
- single-impression process used by Pierre Attaingnant (ca. 14941551/52)
- less expensive but also less elegant.
- Most ensemble music was published as partbooks.
- Music printing made possible an awareness of individual achievement
- renown, stimulated the demand for music books, competition among publishers.
III. The Next Generation: Josquin and His Contemporaries
1. Ockeghems pupils
- Many composers of mid 15th century modeled their works on those by Ockeghem.
- Jacob Obrecht 1457-1505, Heinrich Isaac1450-1517, Josquin des Prez 14501521.
- All trained in the Low Countries and worked in Italy and elsewhere,
- their music blends northern and southern elements.
- Isaacs song Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen,
- appealing melody, full triads, clear phrase structure: influence of the Italian style.
2. Odhecaton
- first volume of polyphony printed from movable type:
- Petruccis Harmonice musices odhecaton A
- anthology of chansons from 1470 to 1500 in both older and newer styles.
3. Chansons
- 4-voice chansons in Odhecaton have a fuller texture, more imitative counterpoint,
- clearer harmonic structure, greater equality between voices than earlier chansons.
4. Josquins chansons
- Josquin & others abandoned formes fixes for more varied poetic & musical forms.
- Voices are no longer independent layers,
- but are equal in a flexible texture that includes imitation between voices.
5. Mille regretz
- illustrates the chanson style of about 1520.
Biography: Josquin des Prez
- born and trained in northern France.
- spent much of his career in Italy, serving in Milan, in the Sistine Chapel in Rome
- becoming one of the most sought-after musicians.
- last 17 years of his life, Josquin lived and worked in Cond-sur-lEscaut.
6. Josquins influence
- greatest composer of his time, works were recopied, performed long after his death.
7. Motets

- large number of motets reflects the interest composers had in setting a variety of texts and
exploring word-music relationships.
8. Text and music
- influence of humanism led Josquin & others to match music more carefully to the meaning and
accentuation of words.
9. Ave Maria . . . virgo serena
- Josquins attention to text can be seen in his motet Ave Maria . . . virgo serena.
- Each phrase of text receives its own motivic idea,
- usually treated in a point of imitation.
10. Cantus firmus masses
- Most of Josquins cantus firmus masses are based on secular tunes.
11. Parody mass
- composer borrows extensively from all voices of a polyphonic model
- reworks them to create something new in each movement of the mass.
12. Paraphrase mass
- Josquins Missa Pange lingua
- borrowed melody is paraphrased in all voices in each movement.
- Composers used parody & paraphrase techniques for the same reasons as cantus firmus
techniques:
- to honor patrons, to convey meaning, or even to pay homage to another composer.

CHAPTER
7
Sixteenth-century national genres and styles
notation became an expected social grace
Spanish villancico,
the Italian frottola and madrigal,
a new kind of French chanson,
and the English madrigal and lute song.
Italy
Frottola: strophic, four-part homophonic songs with the melody in the upper voice.
popular songs for the aristocracy
Lauda : strophic, four-part homophonic songs with the melody in the upper voice.
devotional songs
Villanella: light, secular, strophic, homophonic song for three voices.
Balletto: for dancing and singing and had a "Fa-la-la" refrain.
Petrarchan movement
madrigal was connected to renewed interest in the poetry
fourteenth-century Italian poet Petrarch
mood or imagery of the words in the sound of their language
Madrigal
- sixteenth-century madrigal was a through-composed music

- rhythm and sense of its words through a variety of changing musical textures and images
- Madrigal poetry was artful, was often by a major poet.
- performed chiefly for the enjoyment of the singers themselves.
- famous madrigal ensembles was the concerto delle donne at Ferrara
- concert pieces performed for the pleasure of an audience.
Jacques Arcadelt (ca. 15051568) northerner, church music, homophony with occasional imitation
Cipriano de Rore (15161565) leading madrigalist, every detail of his music with the sense of its poetry
-chromaticism for expressive purposes, and most theorists approved of it, citing the ancient Greeks.
-important madrigalists: Orlande de Lassus (15321594), Philippe de Monte (1521 1603), and
Giaches de Wert (15351596).
-Late in the century leading madrigalists were native Italians.
Luca Marenzio (15531599) depicting contrasting feelings and visual details
Striking musical images that almost literally evoke the text were later called madrigalism
Nicola Vicentino (1511ca. 1576) was inspired by the chromatic and enharmonic Greek tetrachords and
explored chromaticism in his writings and music.
Luzzasco Luzzaschi (ca. 15451607) continued Vicentinos interest in chromaticism and in turn
influenced Carlo Gesualdo (ca. 15611613).
Carlo Gesualdo antitheses in poetry through sharp contrasts in harmony, texture, and rhythm and is
known for his use of chromaticism.
Claudio Monteverdi (15671643) composer of the madrigal, variety of expressive techniques, smoothly
changing textures, a sensitivity to the sound and meaning of text, and a free use of chromaticism and
dissonances
outside Italy
French chansons
- first half of the sixteenth century
- new chanson for amateur singers
- syllabic, mostly homophonic, usually strophic, and generally lighthearted.
Pierre Attaingnant
published about 1,500 of these popular chansons.
two principal composers of this type of chanson
Claudin de Sermisy (ca. 14901562)
Some of his chansons were popular for decades
Clment Janequin (ca. 1485ca. 1560) known especially for his descriptive chansons.

Orlande de Lassus attuned to the text, music fit its rhythm, reflected its imagery, and conveyed the
appropriate feelings
England
- Italian culture fashionable, Italian madrigals, such as those in Nicholas Yonges Musica transalpina 1588
- native composers wrote new madrigals
Thomas Morley (1557/81602) wrote English madrigals, canzonets, and balletts.
- balletts, Morleys My bonny lass she smileth is strophic and mostly homophonic with some imitation in
the "Fa-la-la" refrain.
- madrigal collection: The Triumphes of Oriana (1601), in honor of Queen Elizabeth I.
- known madrigal in The Triumphes of Oriana is As Vesta was by Thomas Weelkes (ca. 15731623),
famed for its word painting
The lute song (or air), a solo song with lute accompaniment, prominent in the early seventeenth century.
John Dowland (15631626) Singers accompanied themselves, lute part was notated in tablature.
Flow, my tears, form of the pavane, dark mood of the poetry.
Spanish villancico
most important form of secular polyphonic song in Renaissance Spain
aristocracy, strophic, syllabic, and mostly homophonic.
Juan del Encina (14681529)
Instrumental Music
14501550 increase in distinct styles, genres, and forms of instrumental music written down
1) idiomatic to instruments
2) adapted from vocal music
- sixteenth century, instruments sometimes doubled or even substituted for voices works were transcribed
for instruments
- last quarter of the sixteenth century a new style of self-accompanied singing
- 1590s polyphonic madrigals performed as solo songs with instrumental accompaniment
- Giulio Caccini, a new kind of madrigal for solo voice and instruments
Types of Instrumental Music
instrumental music in the Renaissance
(1) dance music,
(2) arrangements of vocal music,
(3) settings of existing melodies,
(4) variations,
(5) abstract works
Dance music,
- dance treatise Orchsographie by Thoinot Arbeau
- Functional and stylized dance music

- dances for ensemble performance were functional, but most dances for solo lute were stylized
- characteristic rhythm, meter, tempo, and form
- a group of instruments from a single family was called a consort
- dances were often grouped in contrasting pairs, such as the pavane and galliard.
Arrangements of Vocal Music
- source for instrumental music was vocal music
- intabulations of vocal pieces
Settings of Existing Melodies
- Chant settings and organ masses
- antiphonal chants performed in alternation between the choir, singing chant, and the organ, playing a
cantus firmus setting or paraphrase.
- compilation of the organ verses for a complete mass is an organ mass.
Variations
- sixteenth-century invention
- published for the lute, the most popular household instrument
- Spanish vihuela.
- Luys de Narvez (fl. 15261549) Gurdame las vacas, a standard air for singing verses.
- English virginalists
- William Byrd variation using dances and familiar songs as their themes
Abstract Instrumental Works
- independent
- center of musical culture: Venice and St. Marks Church
- wealthy city of traders, second most important Italian city, government used lavish spectacles,
- music, and art as cultural propaganda.
- permanent instrumental ensemble was established in 1568.
- Improvisatory pieces like the prelude, fantasia, and ricercare
canzona
- originated as a work in the style of a French chanson,
- with a typical opening figure (long-short-short),
- late sixteenth century: light, fast-moving, and strongly rhythmic genre
- several themes, imitation, contrasting sections.
Ensemble canzonas
Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 15551612) St. Marks,
- used all of the musical resources,
- divided choirs in instrumental works

CHAPTER
8
Reformation new types of religious music
chorales in the Lutheran Church
Psalters in Calvinist churches
internal reform effects Catholic church music.
Reformation in Germany
Martin Luther (14831546) professor theology,
salvation through faith alone
authority comes from the Bible alone
Lutheran church music - music has central position, entire congregation participate in services.
German Mass, Larger congregations has Latin liturgy, smaller churches Deutsche Messe, German
version of the Mass liturgy
Chorale simple, metrical tune with rhyming verses, Many newly composed, others adapted from chant
Contrafacta secular tunes were given religious words
Polyphonic chorale settings
- older technique: chorale tune in the tenor with a free-flowing accompaniment of three or four voices
- each phrase of the chorale imitatively, as in a Franco-Flemish motet
- chorale tune in the soprano and accompaniment with simple chords
- After 1600, organ plays all the parts while the congregation sang the tune
outside Germany
Calvins views Jean Calvin (15091564) in France, the Low Countries, and Switzerland, accepted predestination, singing
psalms to monophonic tunes and rejected elaboration
French Psalter - collections called psalter, monophonic in churches, polyphonically at home, including
New England
English Protestantism - political reasons, King Henry VIII (r. 150947),
Protestant doctrines under Edward VI (r. 154753), English replaced Latin, the Book of Common Prayer 1549.
blended Catholic and Protestant elements under Elizabeth I (r. 15581603)
English musical style -isolated, late fifteenth, early sixteenth centuries and gradually adopted the newer
style of imitative counterpoint.
Tallis - midcentury English composer was Thomas Tallis (ca. 1505 1585), Catholic and Anglican
liturgies.
Anglican church music Counter-Reformation

Council of Trent - (154563), met to address abuses within the church, clear words of the liturgy, reverent
in tone.
Willaert - Catholic Church music changed little in sixteenth century. Adrian Willaert (ca. 14901562)
humanist movement, carefully matched text to music.
Palestrina Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525/61594) church music in the sixteenth century,
- his Pope Marcellus Mass saved polyphony in the Catholic Church
- renowned for masses but also wrote secular madrigals
- commissioned to revise the official chant books by Council of Trent,
Palestrinas style - essence of the Catholic counter Reformation, expressive musical style, consciously
preserved, imitated as a model for later generations
Masses - techniques: cantus firmus, parody, paraphrase, and free composition.
Pope Marcellus Mass - melodies move by steps in smooth, flexible arches. Leaps are filled in with
stepwise motion in the opposite direction, and chromaticism is avoided.
Form
- each phrase of text its own musical motive, and each phrase overlaps with the next,
- unity by repeating motives and cadencing on important notes in the mode.
- counterpoint is smooth and mostly consonant, with dissonances restricted to suspensions, passing
notes, and cambiatas
- voices move independently within a regular harmonic rhythm
Text declamation - accentuate the words correctly and to make them understandable
Palestrinas Contemporaries
Toms Luis de Victoria (15481611) composed sacred. parody and imitation masses based on his
motets
G
G
G

Orlande de Lassus (15321594) greatest composers of sacred in sixteenth century.

- motets are pictorial and dramatic and in variety of styles.
- composed in all the most significant genres and synthesized national styles.
- over seven hundred motets, interpretation of the text through rhetorical, pictorial, and dramatic devices.
- mastered several national styles, as well as every genre of sacred and secular music.
William Byrd (ca. 15401623) leading English composer of the late Renaissance.
- secular music and both Anglican and Latin sacred music.
- all forms of Anglican music and first English composer to fully apply imitative techniques.
- Latin masses and motets and compiled two books of complete polyphonic Mass Propers for major days
of the church year.

- He was protected by Queen Elizabeth.

Postlude
- 1600 is an approximate date for the end of the Renaissance
- Palestrinas style continued into the seventeenth century and was known as the stile antico or old style.
- Reformation music, especially the chorale, had a far-reaching impact on Baroque composers, including
J. S. Bach.
- The Counter-Reformation ideal, which emphasized moving the listeners emotions, influenced Baroque
aesthetics.

CHAPTER 9: VOCAL MUSIC OF THE EARLY BAROQUE AND THE INVENTION OF

OPERA
1600, beginning of Baroque, Italians created new musical, styles, and genres. music
should move the listeners emotions. Italians dominate musical fashions.

I. General Characteristics of Baroque Music

music that was expressive of the affections
The second practice - Monteverdi - striking dissonances, broke rules of counterpoint for
dramatize poetic texts.
Artusi-Monteverdi controversy - Monteverdi defended himself by saying that in second
practice of 6th cen. expressing the text is more important than following the traditional rules of
counterpoint.
Rhythm and texture - flexible and metric rhythm used in succession to provide contrast.
bar lines became common. 17th-cen. music emphasizes homophony with prominent bass and
treble lines.
Basso continuo - notational system, melody and bass are written out,
harmony by continuo instruments, harpsichord or theorbo.
figured bass: indication of appropriate harmonies
realization of bass varies according to the type of piece and skill and taste of the player. from
plain chords to elaborate improvisations, sensitive to the soloists style
Not all pieces used basso continuo.
The concertato medium - 17th cen., combining voices with instruments, concerted madrigal
or a sacred concerto.
Chords and dissonance - vertical sonorities as chords, and of dissonances as nonchord tones
Chromaticism -express intense emotions, harmonic exploration, distinctive subjects for
imitative counterpoint.
Cantus mollis and durus - early 17th cen., still in church modes, but each mode in two areas,
cantus mollis or cantus durus. last part of 17th cen., composers were writing tonal music,
in major and minor keys.

Tonality - change from modality to tonality was gradual.

II. Early Opera

staged drama composed to a libretto and sung to continuous music.
Forerunners - inspired by ancient Greek tragedy and was influenced by existing musical
genres.
Florentine intermedi -, musical interludes between acts of a play, most direct source for
opera. used dialogue, various types of music, dances, costumes, scenery, and stage effects.
Pastoral drama - earliest opera drew on the subject, style, mythological characters, and use of
music and dance in pastoral dramas.
Greek tragedy as a model - emotional power of ancient Greek tragedies
Girolamo Mei (15191594) - Florentine scholar, researched ancient Greek treatises on music,
Greek music consisted of a single melodic line, sung by a soloist or chorus with or without
accompaniment.
The Florentine Camerata - met at the home of Giovanni de Bardi (15341612) in Florence,
discussed Meis ideas about Greek music. Other important members included Vincenzo
Galilei (ca. 1520s1591) and Giulio Caccini (15511618).
Vincenzo Galilei - in Dialogue on Ancient and Modern Music, 1581, Galilei argued that the
ancient style monody could express the emotions of a text better than polyphony.
Caccinis New Music - Giulio Caccini wrote two types of monody in The New Music, 1602:
airs and solo madrigals
he described different vocal ornaments, explaining how to use them, and he wrote
embellishments singers usually added in performance into the music.
The First Operas
Corsis academy - Camerata moved to Rome, sponsorship of Jacopo Corsi (15611602).
1598, poet Ottaviano Rinuccini (15621621) and composer Jacopo Peri (15611633),
created Dafne, the first opera, modeled on Greek plays.
Peris Recitative -combination of speech and song provides a dramatic delivery of text
- LEuridice - The first surviving opera, Rinuccinis libretto, music, Peri.
- first performance, some music from Caccini substituted for Peris.
- story demonstrates musics power to move the emotions.
- Caccinis setting was more lyrical, and Peris was more dramatic and varied.
Imitation of speech - important for Peri and Rinuccini because, humanists, ones manner of
speaking reveals ones emotions.
Recitative - Peris new style of vocal music, imitated speech by supporting
sustained or stressed syllables with consonant harmonies
and freely using consonances and dissonances for syllables that were unstressed or passed over
quickly in speech.

Monteverdis Orfeo - (1607) earliest opera to achieve a permanent place in the repertory.
different styles of music and drew on a variety of musical resources. the proportions of opera wer
much expanded, and the most modern style was used for dramatic dialogue and impassioned
speeches.
Monteverdi wrote only vocal works, suited to the text. Born and raised in Cremona, hired by the
duke of Mantua, master of music in the ducal chapel, and composed his first operas (LOrfeo and
LArianna) for the dukes court.
- became maestro di capella at St. Marks in Venice. composed no fewer than 250 madrigals and
helped to transform the genre.
Francesca Caccini - few more operas were staged in Florence in the 1620s.
- The court preferred ballets and intermedi, such as La liberazione di Ruggiero (1625), an
opera-like blend of ballet and intermedio by Francesca Caccini (1587ca. 1640).
Opera in Rome and Venice
Rome - In the 1620s, Rome was the center for new developments in opera,
- subjects included religious and comic topics.
- there were two types of solo singing, recitative and aria.
Castrati sang the female roles in Roman opera because women were not allowed to sing on
stage.
Venetian opera - Teatro San Cassiano, the first public opera house,
- opened to a paying public in Venice in 1637.
- Venice had many visitors in Carnival season, wealthy bankers, and a steady audience.
Monteverdis Lincoronazione di Poppea - three operas for Venice.
- two survive: The Return of Ulysses, 1640 and The Coronation of Poppea, 1642).
- In Poppea, he changed styles frequently to reflect the characters and their feelings, using
recitative, aria, and arioso.
Pier Francesco Cavalli (16021676) - leading composer of opera in Venice,
- works in conventions of the period.
Antonio Cesti (16231669) important opera composer. Orontea (1656), one of the most
frequently performed operas in the seventeenth century
Italian opera at midcentury - focused on solo singing, separated recitative and aria, used
varied styles for arias.
- Venetian composers gave music a place of prominence above poetry and drama.

CHAPTER 10: VOCAL MUSIC FOR

CHAMBER AND CHURCH IN THE EARLY
BAROQUE

New genres of sacred music in 17th cen. Early-17th-century music was truly experimental,
middle of the century, new resources had become part of a common musical language.

I. Vocal Chamber Music

secular vocal music in the early 17th cen, instrumental ensembles with voices, private settings
Strophic aria - Italian, solo voice or small vocal ensemble with basso continuo with strophic
arias.
Concerted madrigals - new concertato medium on old polyphonic vocal music in chamber
music.
In Performance: Embellishment and Improvisation in the Baroque - composition as
basis for improvisation, not as an unalterable text. performers were expected to add.
Ornamentation was a means of moving the affections. Ornaments, division, diminution, or
figuration. omitting, rearranging, and substituting sections or adding cadenzas.
Madrigals of War and Love - Monteverdis eighth book of madrigals, Madrigals of War and
Love, 1638. inculdes concertato forms. The Combat of Tancredi and Clorinda, blends mime and
music and that features the concitato genere: rapid repeated notes and extended trills as
symbols of bellicose agitation or anger
Ostinato basses used in many songs and instrumental works of the early 17th century.
Laments - The descending tetrachord was a common ground bass pattern, used for laments.
Cantata - was a new genre of composition for voice and continuo.
Barbara Strozzi (16191677) - born in Venice and, intellectual, studied with Cavalli. Very
prolific composers of vocal chamber music, Strozzi published more cantatas than any other
composer of the time.
Strozzis chamber cantata - Lagrime mie several sections, recitatives and arias,
representative for solo chamber cantata.
Airs de cour - homophonic, strophic, four to five voices or for solo voice with lute
accompaniment. mostly syllabic, diatonic melodies.

II. Catholic Sacred Music

theatrical idiom in works like sacred concertos, which used a dramatic medium to convey the
churchs message.
Stile antico - used both the stile antico (old contrapuntal style) and stile moderno (modern
style)
Large-scale sacred concerto - Large, wealthy churches, major feast days, antiphonal effects
Small sacred concerto - one or more soloists and organ continuo, more common and
economical.
Lodovico Viadana (15601627) was a pioneer of this medium.
Alessandro Grandi (15861630) composed many solo motets that used the new style of
monody.
The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa - Berninis sculpture The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa is typical. it is
theatrical, represents action, and seeks to move our emotions.
Oratorio -religious music dramas performed outside of church services.
Oratorio versus opera - same types of music as an opera, a religious subject, rarely staged, a
narrator, chorus that can participate in the drama.
Carissimis Jephte - leading composer of oratorios Giacomo Carissimi (16051674), whose
Jephte exemplifies the midcentury oratorio.

III. Lutheran Church Music

in Catholic and Lutheran churches in German-speaking regions, theatrical monody and

concertato techniques.
Heinrich Schtz - (15851672), the leading German composer, studied in Venice with
Giovanni Gabrieli. career in the service of the elector of Saxony in Dresden, church music,
sacred, secular music for major ceremonies.

Sacred concertos - Schtz sacred works in collections, variety of styles and techniques.
1636 and 1639,(Small Sacred Concertos) for one to five solo voices with continuo that use Italian
monody to convey the text.
In Symphoniae sacrae II and III (1647 and 1650), large-scale concertos that blend
Gabrielis polychoral style with Monteverdis expressive techniques.
Historia - The Seven Last Words of Christ (ca. 1650s) utilizes a variety of singing styles for
dramatic effect.
Passions - The most common type of historia, Schtz composed three such works.
Legacy - Schtz was best known in Lutheran areas of Germany. His synthesis of German and
Italian elements influenced later German composers.

CHAPTER 11: INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

new instruments, new roles for instrumental music, new genres, and new styles, music
for instruments alone.
many elements from new vocal idioms. two types of instrumental music ensembles and
music for solo lute or keyboard.
golden age of instrument making and composition, for the church organ in Germany,
for the harpsichord (clavecin) in France, and for string instruments in Italy.
Types of Instrumental Music variations, abstract music, and dance music.
1 Variations vary a given melody (variations or partita) or bass line (partita,
chaconne, and passacaglia).
Abstract type music:
1-) improvisatory for solo keyboard or lute (toccata, fantasia, and prelude)
2-) fugal works in continuous imitative counterpoint (ricercare, fantasia, capriccio, and
fugue);
3-) pieces with contrasting sections (canzona and sonata).
Dances independent pieces or linked together in a suite.
Variations or partite
Chaconne and passacaglia - variations over a ground bass, or repeated progression,
usually in triple meter.
ground bass: a short theme, usually in the bass, that is constantly repeated as the
other parts of the music vary.
Abstract Instrumental Works
Improvisatory Genres
Toccatas and other improvisatory pieces were played on harpsichord or organ.
toccatas of Girolamo Frescobaldi (15831643) several brief sections, each focused on
a different figure
Frescobaldi, one of the first composers to focus primarily on instrumental music. organist
at St. Peters in Rome.
keyboard works. known in France, Flanders, and Germany even after his death,
influenced later composers, including J. S. and C. P. E. Bach.

Fiori musicali
Frescobaldis toccatas as service music in three organ masses that appear in a
collection titled Fiori musicali
Johann Jacob Froberger (16161667) studied with Frescobaldi and toccatas alternate
improvisatory passages with imitative counterpoint.
Continuous Genres
Ricercare and fugue serious work for organ or harpsichord. one subject was
continuously developed in imitation.
In the early seventeenth century, the term fugue described such pieces
Fantasia for keyboard, larger scale, more complex formal organization than the ricercare
English consort fantasias leading genre for viol consort in England, imitative fantasia,
or fancy, which could treat one or more subjects.
Sectional Genres
Sonata one or two melody instruments with basso continuo.
solo writing was often idiomatic, imitated vocal style.
Ensemble sonatas In Venice, resembled a canzona, consisting of several sections
based on different subjects
Biagio Marini (15941663) worked at St. Marks in Venice and in Italy and Germany.
His solo violin sonatas resemble instrumental monody, with many idiomatic gestures
Music for Organ
golden age of Organ music in the Lutheran areas of Germany between 1650 and 1750.
Dieterich Buxtehude (ca.16371707) best-known Lutheran composers of late
seventeenth century.
Functions of organ music - Most Protestant organ music served as a prelude to a part
of the liturgy
Toccatas and preludes series of short sections, free style alternated with longer ones
in imitative counterpoint.
Fugue in 18th cen., fugal and nonfugal sections became separate movements, creating
a toccata or prelude and fugue.
opens with exposition, subject in the tonic is imitated by the answer in the dominant.
Other voices alternate subject and answer. Some fugues have episodes.
Chorale compositions based on chorales: organ chorales, chorale variations
and chorale fantasias.
Chorale prelude melody is presented just once in a readily recognizable form
Music for Lute and Harpsichord
in 17th cen. harpsichord displaced the lute
and clavecinists, such as Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de La Guerre (16651729) and
Francois Couperin (16681733) marketed to an amateur public.

Agrments Lutenists developed ornaments, fundamental element of French music.

Style bris The lute style, (broken style), imitated by harpsichord composers, idiomatic
(ifade tarzina uygun)
of French harpsichord style.
Dance Music
Lute dances Stylized dances formed the core of the lute and keyboard repertory.
Binary form - Most 17th-cen. dances were in binary form, used for dances and
other instrumental genres over the next two centuries.
Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de La Guerre the greatest talent, child prodigy, performed
at King Louis XIVs court at the age of five.
known for harpsichord pieces and cantatas, first French woman to write a ballet and an
opera.
Denis Gaultier Typical of the style bris and Denis Gaultiers (16031672) own
personal style is his courante
(The Virtuous Coquette) from (The Rhetoric of the Gods, ca. 1650)
Suites French composers grouped dances into suites. began with unmeasured
prelude,
continued allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue, gavotte, and minuet
Ensemble Music
Italian composers continued to dominate instrumental chamber music
during the 17th and early 18th cen., also in operas and cantatas.
Chamber Music: The Sonata
After 1630, the terms sonata and sinfonia were used more and more to designate
independent instrumental compositions.
Development of the sonata later seventeenth century, multi-movement work with
contrasts between movements.
about 1660, two main types of sonata had emerged:
sonata da camera (chamber sonata) suite of stylized dances often opening with a
prelude,
sonata da chiesa (or church sonata), mostly abstract movements.
generally consisting of four movements. More than one melody was often used,
and the movements were ordered slowfastslowfast with respect to tempo.
Trio sonatas played by two treble instruments with basso continuo
Solo and ensemble sonatas Solo sonatas gained popularity after 1700. Ensemble
sonatas featured up
to eight instrumental parts with continuo.
The Violin Workshop of Antonio Stradivari
Violin makers in Cremona, Italy, developed their art to a level that has never been

surpassed.
Antonio Stradivari (ca. 16441737) most prominent instrument maker, todays leading
string players use his instruments.
Scientists have been unable to determine what makes these instruments sound superior
to others.
Arcangelo Corellis Sonatas
Arcangelo Corelli (16531713) only instrumental music, works served as models for later
composers.
studied violin and composition in Bologna. by 1675, living in Rome. raised
performance standards,
his teaching was the foundation of most 18th-century schools of violin playing.
composed only instrumental works, and they made him famous across Europe.
Trio sonatas Corelli treated the two violins alike, focusing on lyricism rather than
virtuosity.
Corellis style include a walking bass, chains of suspensions, sequences, and a
dialogue between the violins
Church sonatas Corellis church sonatas most often include four movements in the
pattern slow-fast-slow-fast.
majestic first movement, a fugue, a slow duet in triple meter, and a fast dance.
Chamber sonatas Corellis chamber sonatas typically begin with a prelude and
include two or three dance movements.
Solo sonatas Corellis violin sonatas use the same format as his trio sonatas but
demand more virtuosity.
Thematic organization In Corellis sonatas, movements are based on a single subject
stated at the beginning
and then expanded through sequences, variations, and modulations.
Tonal organization Corellis music is tonal, and he used suspensions and sequences to
achieve the sense of forward harmonic motion on which tonality depends
Baroque Ornamentation originated in improvisation, make a performance more
expressive.
A number of treatises were published in the 17th and 18th cen. to help performers
make interpretive decisions.
performers add more extensive embellishments. treatises The Art of Playing on the
Violin (1751) by Francesco Geminiani (16871762)
Influence and reputation Corellis sonatas served as models, his compositions have
become classics.
Music for orchestra In the late 17th century, distinguish between chamber music, one
player on a part, and orchestral music, for more than one player on a part.

Queen Christina of Sweden and Her Circle

Queen Christina of Sweden (16261689) abdicated her throne, settled in Rome in
1655,
patron of intellectual life and the arts. Corelli dedicated his first publication to her and
later served her as a musician.
Ensemble music in Germany
The ensemble sonata and the instrumental suite were popular in Germany,
where musical traditions frequently became part of everyday life.
Many cities employed Stadtpfeifer (townpipers) and had a collegium musicum, a
group of amateurs who performed for their own pleasure.
CHAPTER 12: OPERA AND VOCAL MUSIC IN THE LATE SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY
In the second half of the 17th century, opera spread across Italy and Europe. Venice,
center of opera, distinctive operatic traditions in France, England, and Germany.
Operatic styles influenced vocal music for chamber and church.
I. Italy
stylistic source for composers of operas and chamber cantatas, both used recitative
and aria.
1. Opera
a Singers : By the late 17th century, opera was established in Venice, Naples,
Florence, and Milan. Singers were the stars of opera, higher fees than composers,
arias were the main musical attraction.
b Aria types : many types of aria, end of the century, most prevalent form da capo
aria. Arias reflected the meaning of text in melody or accompaniment.
2. Chamber Cantata
Rome was the center. short, contrasting sections of the midcentury cantata were
replaced by alternating recitatives and arias later in the century.
Singer Power and Singer Worshipthe Diva
Opera, commercial venture. it required successful management by the impresario.
collaboration between librettist and
composer, backstage workers, and star power. diva was the female face of opera,
demanding alterations to a role to suit her
voice. Anna Renzi talent, her image, and standard for the prima donna. Star singers
influenced the development of opera
by guiding audiences tastes.
Scarlatti cantatas
Alessandro Scarlatti (16601725) six hundred cantatas. recitatives used diminished
seventh chords and wide-ranging harmonies for expressive effect.
Da capo aria (ternary form)most common form of aria of Scarlattis operas and
cantatas, conventional, yet flexible. A section opens with a ritornello and contains two
settings of the same text, framed by ritornellos. B section contrasts in key, figuration,
and mood; A section repeats (with or without the opening ritornello) to produce an
ABA form. standard aria form in the eighteenth century) FORM: Ritornello, A,
Ritornello, A1, Ritornello, B, Da Capo

II. France
sound of language influenced opera, different from Italian opera.
Dance and political control
French Baroque music is centered on dance and is marked by elegance and
emotional restraint, characteristics reflecting the kings political control.
1. Opera
Tragdie en musique
under King Louis XIV, Jean-Baptiste Lully (16321687) combined drama, music,
and ballet to create a new French form of opera, the tragdie en musique (later
renamed tragdie lyrique).
Lully composed vocal and instrumental music for the stage,
in 1672, he was given the exclusive right to produce sung drama in France.
born in Italy, dancing talent, at the French court. Louis XIVs highest musical official,
most influential musician in seventeenth-century France. greatest fame from operas.
distinctive orchestral sound by imposing uniform bowing and coordinated
ornamentation.
Quinaults librettos Lullys librettist, Jean-Philippe Quinault, glorified France and the
king; featured serious, mythological plots in five acts
French overture Lullys operas begins with ouverture, two sections, first slow,
dotted rhythms, second fast and imitative.
Divertissements at the center or the end of each act, provided opportunities for dance
and choruses
Adapting recitative to French Lully developed a French style of recitative, more
rhythmic, songful than Italian recitative.
Rcitatif simple, rcitatif mesur, air Lully developed two types of recitative,
rcitatif simple: meter shifts between duple and triple,
rcitatif mesur: more songlike and is measured.
Lullys airs, tuneful melodies, little text repetition, no virtuosic displays, less elaborate
than Italian arias.
String orchestras first large string ensembles, the Vingt-quatre Violons du Roi
(Twenty-Four Violins of the King) and the Petits Violons (Small Violin Ensemble).
model for the modern orchestra, core consists of strings with more than one player
on a part.
2. Church Music
At midcentury, borrowed genres from Italy: sacred concerto, oratorio, in
distinctively French styles.
Petit motet and grand motet in royal chapel on Latin texts, the petit motet (a sacred
concerto for few voices with continuo) and the grand motet (a large-scale sacred
concerto).
Marc-Antoine Charpentier (16341704) Latin oratorio in France, combining
Italian and French styles of recitative and air.
III. England
blended native traditions with French and Italian styles.
Masques court entertainments, shared many aspects of opera, more like French court
ballets than unified dramas.
The Music of la Grande curie, or the Great Stable
court events that took place outdoors, kings best wind and brass players.
Several important families of wind players, such as the Hotteterres, innovations in

instrument building, including inventing the modern oboe.

Mixed genres The first English "operas" mixed elements of spoken drama and the
masque.
only two dramas in the late seventeenth century: John Blows Venus and Adonis and
Henry Purcells Dido and Aeneas.
Dido and Aeneas(1689) incorporates elements of the English masque and of French
and Italian opera.
French and Italian elements overture, homophonic choruses, and scene structure of
Purcells Dido and Aeneas follow the French style, and arias Italian.
Henry Purcell prodigy, most notable positions organist at Westminster Abbey. one of
Englands most important composers, best known for his vocal music and his ability to
fashion English songs that are natural and expressive.
English elements dance in Dido and Aeneas from masque, solos and choruses in
English air style.
English recitatives Purcell fashions melodies that fit the accents, pacing, and
emotions of English text.
Semi-operas Purcell wrote five works in the mixed genre called dramatic opera, or
semi-opera. no native tradition of opera in England.
Ceremonial and Domestic Music for Voice
Occasional music vocal music, large-scale ceremonial works for chorus, soloists,
orchestra, songs for home. also catches, humorous canons.
Church music Anthems and services principal genres of Anglican church music.
The public concert pioneered in London in the 1670s.
IV. Germany blended Italian, French, and native styles in new ways
Opera in Italian was central to musical life in Germany and Austria,
in 18th century, most successful composers of Italian opera were German.
Opera in German first operas in German in Hamburg.
Reinhard Keiser (16741739) adopted Italian recitative and aria styles, variety of
French and German song styles.
Georg Philipp Telemann (16811767) established German style, one of the best
composers of his era.
Lutheran Vocal Music Two conflicting tendencies:
orthodox Lutherans all available resources of choral and instrumental music,
pietists simple music and poetry that expressed the emotions of the individual believer.
Chorales New chorales continued to be composed, many intended for home devotions.
Concerted church music Orthodox Lutheran churches developed the sacred
concerto for public worship, and composers often created multi-movement
concertos.
Johann Pachelbel (16531706) most famous composers working in southern
Germany.
Dieterich Buxtehude organist at the Marienkirche in Lbeck, performed public
concerts of sacred vocal music.
CHAPTER 13: BAROQUE MUSIC IN THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Between 1720 and 1750, Baroque music competed with a simpler, more songful style.
Antonio Vivaldi, Francois Couperin, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Johann
Sebastian Bach, and George Frideric Handel synthesize Baroque trends in Italy,

France, Germany, and England.

I. Italy: Antonio Vivaldi and the Concerto
1. Venice was declining at the beginning of the 18th cen, it still had a lively musical
culture. public festivals, opera, church music, and chamber music.
2. Ospedali Venice, Pio Ospedale della Piet, home and school for orphaned and
abandoned girls, famous musical center.
3. instrumental concerto new genre, emerged in the 1680s and 1690s, most
important type of Baroque instrumental music
4. Types of concerto
1- orchestral concerto, first violin and bass dominated, less contrapuntal than in the
sonata.
2- concerto grosso, contrasted small ensemble(concertino) with large ensemble
(concerto grosso, ripieno, or tutti),
3- solo concerto solo instrument contrasted with the orchestra.
5. Giuseppe Torelli (16581709) was a leading composer in the Bologna school.
6. Three-movement structure For the fast movements of his violin concertos,
Torelli often used a form like the A section of a da capo aria, two passages for a
soloist are framed by a recurring ritornello. (ritornello, A1, ritornello, A2, ritornello)
Antonio Vivaldi (16781741) born in Venice, trained for music and priesthood.
music teacher, director of concerts at the Pio Ospedale della Piet. composed oratorios,
sacred music, and concertos. opera commissions from Venice and elsewhere.
8. Vivaldi best-known Italian composer of the early 18th century and is known today
primarily for his concertos.
9. Piet Between 1703 and 1740, Vivaldi worked at the Piet, taught, composed,
conducted, and maintained instruments.
10. Vivaldis concertos simple but flexible plan, variety through ever-changing
combinations of a few basic elements.
11. Vivaldis orchestra different groupings of solo and orchestral instruments, wide
range of colors and sonorities in his concertos.
12. Instrumentation of the concertos
opposition between soloist(s) and orchestra.
13. Expanded ritornello form fast movements in concertos.
full orchestra-> ritornellos,/ soloist(s) -> episodes.
opening ritornello -> several small units,
later ritornellos -> few units.
opening and closing are in tonic, others confirm the keys of episodes.
14. Slow movement first concerto composer to make slow movements as important as
fast ones.
15. Economy and variety long movements from a small amount of musical material,
concertos exhibit great variety and range of expression.
16. Publications, titles, and programs some concertos on commission, money
through publications. many concertos have fanciful titles and programs.
17. Range of styles Vivaldis music reflects a variety of styles of the early eighteenth
century.
II. France: Couperin and Rameau
Paris-> musical capital, public concerts, private patrons, institutions supporting
musicians and composers.
1. Reconciling French and Italian styles In the early eighteenth century, merits of

French and Italian music were debated, and some composers blended the two styles.
Franois Couperin (16681733) for royalty, teaching aristocrats.
harpsichord suites (ordres) for amateur performers.
Chamber works blended French and Italian styles.
2. Jean-Philippe Rameau (16831764) theorist, founded theory of tonal music,
Lullys successor.
forty years old -> first fame with his theoretical treatise on harmony (Trait de
lharmonie, 1722).
compositions recognized, in the 1730s, first opera. more ballets and operas than
any other
French composer of the eighteenth century.
La Pouplinire greatest fame, hired as organist, conductor, and composer-inresidence to Alexandre-Jean-Joseph le Riche de la Pouplinire.
Operas greatest fame from his operas, Hippolyte et Aricie(1733) and Castor et
Pollux(1737).
Lullistes versus Ramistes Lullys supporters, Lullistes, criticized Rameaus early
operas for their difficulty. Rameau was defended by the Ramistes.
Comparison with Lully theater works resembled Lullys but they also introduced
many changes.
Melodic and harmonic style melodies often triadic, outlining harmonies, rich
palette of chords.
Instrumental music instrumental passages of operas->original, tone painting, novel
orchestration, and independent woodwind parts.
Rameaus Theories
- basic principles of harmony from laws of acoustics,
- chord is primal element.
- fundamental bass defined the harmony of a passage.
- terms tonic, dominant, and subdominant
- formulated the hierarchies of functional tonality.
- modulation as the change in function of a chord.
Airs and choruses moved between recitative and aria styles and included
choruses.
Hippolyte et Aricie The conclusion of Act IV from Hippolyte et Aricie illustrates the
high drama
Rameau as theorist
Trait de lharmonie most influential theoretical works ever, primary tool for
teaching harmony.
III. Germany: Johann Sebastian Bach
In the eighteenth century, German-speaking composers rose to prominence,
combined traits of Italy, France, and Germany.
1- German patrons
States, principalities, and independent cities in German-speaking central Europe
supported music.
In Lutheran Germany, Bach composed for positions, to satisfy patrons, please citizens,
glorify God.
Johann Sebastian Bach (16851750) born in Eisenach, from a large family of
musicians.
virtuoso organist, keyboard player, first positions as church organist at Arnstadt and

Mhlhausen, taught private students in performance and composition.

serving as organist and then concertmaster in Weimar and later as music director at
Cthen.
At Leipzig, most prestigious positions in Germany as cantor of the Saint Thomas School
and civic music director.
2. Cities where Bach worked
composed in every genre, except opera, in different cities throughout Germany.
Bach at Arnstadt, Mhlhausen, and Weimar:
The Organ Works Most of earliest works were for organ and genres employed in
Lutheran services.
Preludes and fugues Like other composers in this period, Bach frequently prefaced
fugues with separate preludes, toccatas, or fantasias.
Vivaldis influence At Weimar, Bach arranged Vivaldis concertos for keyboard and
adopted ritornello form The form of his fugues resembles ritornello form, with the
fugue subject functioning like a ritornello
Chorale settings
Orgelbchlein Weimar, each chorale is stated once, accompanied with counterpoint or
embellished
preludes, images in texts are suggested through musical figures.
Bach at Cthen and Leipzig: The Harpsichord Music in every contemporary
genre.
The Well-Tempered Clavier Each of the two books(1722 and ca. 1740) consists of
twenty-four prelude and fugue pairs, one in each major and minor key
could be played on different types of keyboard instruments, up to the performer.
"well tempered" refers to the keyboards tuning, all semitones are nearly equal in size,
makes it possible to move from one key to another without sounding out of tune.
Pedagogical aims Each prelude has specific technical task, different types of
performance conventions and compositional practices, the fugues use an array of fugal
writing techniques.
Suites harpsichord suites show French, Italian, and German influences.
Goldberg Variations variety of techniques, such as canon, fugue, and quodlibet.
3. Bach at the Princely Court of Cthen: Solo and Ensemble Music
At Cthen, works for unaccompanied violin, cello, and flute, illusion of a
harmonic and contrapuntal texture.
The orchestral suite
1690-1740, new type of orchestral suite dances patterned on those from Lullys ballets
and operas.
Brandenburg Concertos dedicated to the margrave of Brandenburg in 1721, follow
Italian models but expand upon Italian forms.
Collegium musicum Most of his orchestral music, concertos and suites, written in
1730s for the Leipzig collegium musicum. was founded in 1704 by Georg Philipp
Telemann
Other instrumental works
A Musical Offering collection of pieces on a theme by Frederick the Great of Prussia,
The Art of Fugue systematically demonstrates all types of fugal writing.
4. Bach at Leipzig: The Vocal Music
teaching Latin and music, many types of music for Lutheran services in the main
churches.

Church cantatas during Lutheran service after Gospel reading, musical

sermon(vaiz), interpretation of the reading.
Bach composed at least four complete annual cantata cycles, reworking his earlier
works
Chorale cantatas Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BMV 62,
typical Bach cantata: opening and closing choruses and middle movements for soloists
Opening chorus of Bachs cantata Nun komm.. mixes the genres of concerto and
chorale motet.
Solo movements four solo movements of Nun komm.. employ operatic idioms.
Passions St. John Passion and St. Matthew Passion, elements from opera,
cantata, and oratorio to recount the story of Jesuss death. performed at Good Friday
services, with small chorus and instrumental ensemble.
Mass in B Minor assembled from existing works and newly composed movements.
contrasting styles and different current approaches to church music.
5. Reception History Only a few works were published during his life.
Changing tastes
middle of the eighteenth century, considered old-fashioned and difficult.
Bachs influence Musicians and connoisseurs kept Bachs music alive. In the
nineteenth century, rediscovered and became widely known, his reputation soared,
today one of the central composers of Western music.
IV. England: George Frideric Handel
George Frideric Handel (16851759) international renown, success with public
during his lifetime, his music has been performed ever since. born in Germany, studied
music of German and Italian composers. In 1703, moved to Hamburg, played in an opera
orchestra, and composed his first opera. traveled to Italy. greatest successes in London,
served aristocratic & royal patrons, and public.
many instrumental works, best known for Italian operas and English oratorios.
1. Popularity stemmed from his adaptability while working for the public
2. Patrons support from British monarchs. Most of his musical activities for public
audiences.
The Operas composed and directed operas for most of his career.
International style operas combined French overtures and dances, Italian recitatives
and arias, German counterpoint and orchestration.
London operas Rinaldo(1711) his first Italian opera for London, established his
reputation there.
Royal Academy of Music music director, Academy was formed in 171819 by a
wealthy gentlemen with the support of the king.
Recitative styles
Simple recitative with continuo and accompanied recitative with orchestra were two
types of recitative that emerged in Italian opera in the early eighteenth century.
Arias, wide variety of types of arias, some with coloratura (florid ornamentation), for
specific singers. The best music was saved for the prima donna.
Scene complexes freely combining recitative, arias, ariosos, and orchestral passages.
National elements scene complexes and national elements are in his opera Giulio
Cesare
The Voice of Farinelli castrato, legendary for his range (more than three octaves) and
breath control (sustains a note for one full minute). stardom on his early thirties, served
Spanish kings for two decades.

Handel as impresario formed opera company in 1729, continued writing operas until
1741, never achieved the same success with opera as his his earlier works.
The Oratorios in 1730s, devised the English oratorio. performed in theaters.
Prominent choruses In oratorios, chorus more active role in the story. choral style is
dramatic but simpler and less contrapuntal than Bachs.
Saul oratorio (1738) exemplifies the blending of genres
Messiah cosmopolitan style, most famous work, Messiah (1741)
Performing oratorios less expensive than operas, popular with audiences
Librettos Oratorios meant for the concert hall. Most of Handels oratorios were based
on the Hebrew Scriptures.
Borrowings like his contemporaries, borrowed and reworked existing music, using
material that was well suited to its new purpose.
Instrumental Works great amount, published in London, used for home musicmaking.
Ensemble suites two most popular instrumental works,
Water Music and Music for the Royal Fireworks, suites for orchestra or winds
for the king. intended to be performed outdoors
Concertos mixed tradition and innovation in his concertos, they tend toward a
retrospective style
Handels reputation national institution for the English and has remained so since
his death.

CHAPTER 14: THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIOD: OPERA AND VOCAL MUSIC
- preference for naturalness and a desire for wide appeal.
- distinguished between learned style of contrapuntal writing & tuneful, homophonic
galant style.
General Characteristics of the New Style
1- Melody focus on melody led to a musical syntax different from earlier styles.
2- Periodicity The new styles were characterized by periodicity.
- period formed by two or more phrases ending in a cadence,
3- Musical rhetoric
Heinrich Christoph Koch (17491816) referred to music in rhetorical terms,
- like speech, it could move emotions, composition is like an oration.
- showed how to assemble short units into phrases, phrases into periods, periods into
larger forms.
4. Harmony
In contrast to the continuous drive of Baroque harmony,
the pace of harmonic change was slower in the new style
5. Alberti bass
- slower harmonic rhythm by animating the texture through rhythmic means,
- like the Alberti bass in keyboard music.

6. Form
late 18th cen. composers differentiated musical material according to its function in the
form,
each segment of music serving as a beginning, middle, or end of a phrase, period,
section, or piece.
7. Emotional contrasts
Unlike 17th-cen. thinkers, psychologists in the 18th cen. believed that
- human feelings were constantly changing.
8. Form and content no single mood in a movement or section,
instead emotional contrasts within sections or themes.
II. Opera Buffa
- characteristics of Classical music originated in the Italian opera of the first decades of
the 18th cen.
- opera buffa: a full-length comic opera sung throughout, combination of serious &
comic characters.
- Dialogue was set in rapid recitative with keyboard accompaniment.
- Arias used short, tuneful phrases, organized into periods and accompanied by simple
harmonies.
1. Intermezzo type of Italian comic opera. 2 or 3 segments between acts of a serious
opera or play.
2. La serva padrona 1733 best-known intermezzo by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
(17101736)
- rapid changes of melodic figuration& style to convey shifting thoughts & moods of
characters.
- Comic opera grew in importance after 1760
- an important influence on later music in its style,
- preference for naturalness, and its use of national characteristics.
Music and Social Custom in British Society
Amateur music was important in British society in 18th&19th centuries,
especially for women, but relatively few in Britain pursued music as a career.
3. French opra comique French light opera,
- songs alternated with spoken dialogue
- songs were either existing popular tunes (vaudevilles) or newly composed airs
(ariettes).
- Later in the century, opra comique also dealt boldly with social issues.
4. English ballad opera popular with the success of The Beggars Opera (1728)
- Ballad operas consisted of songs that set new words to borrowed tunes,
- parodied operatic conventions

5. German Singspiel
- opera in German with spoken dialogue,
- lively styles native to Germany or influenced by Italian comic opera
III. Opera seria
Aria styles from comic opera were also used in opera seria
1. Metastasio
The Italian poet Pietro Metastasio (16981782),
- librettos were set hundreds of times,
- developed the standard form for opera seria.
- The three acts of an opera seria consist of
- alternating recitative (action) and aria (reflection) with a few duets or larger ensembles.
2. Reign of the singers
- The main interest in opera lay in the arias
- in performing an opera, singers often changed arias or substituted arias from other
operas
- singers embellishments display their voices more than to further the drama.
3. New features of da capo arias
- The da capo aria form evolved over time,
- as composers introduced a greater variety of moods,
- short melodic units, and formal ideas from the sonata and concerto.
The Da Capo Aria and the Abbreviated Da Capo
- The standard aria form was the da capo aria, a basic ABA scheme.
- Its harmonic plan and formal methods are similar to Classical instrumental works.
- For some arias, composers shortened the standard form.
An 18th-Cen. Diva, Faustina Bordoni (17001781)
- one of the great singer-actresses of her time, performing all over Europe.
4. Johann Adolf Hasse (16991783),
- music director at the Saxon court in Dresden,
- leading composer of opera seria at midcentury.
- vocal style follows the natural rhythms and inflections of the text.
IV. Opera Reform
- reform opera: flexible, expressive, varied, and "natural."
- Two of opera reform composers: Niccol Jommelli(17141774)&Tommaso
Traetta(17271779)
- combined French and Italian traits, cosmopolitan opera.
1.Christoph Willibald Gluck (17141787), librettist Raniero de Calzabigi (17141795),
- reformed opera: music serve poetry, advance the plot, synthesizing French&Italian
opera styles.

G
G
G
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In Performance: Vocal Embellishment

- Singers were expected to embellish the written vocal line,
- to enhance the arias expression and to display their vocal prowess.
2. Glucks Orfeo
- recitatives, arias, and choruses intermingle in large unified scenes
3. Glucks other operas
- Gluck brought his new style to Paris
- composed several successful French operas:
- Iphigenia in Aulis, 1774), Armide (1777), Iphigenia in Tauris, 1779).
4. Influence
Glucks operas became models for many others, especially in Paris.
The Rivalry between French and Italian Opera
- querelle des bouffons debate between French intellectuals about French and Italian
opera.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau praised Italian opera, especially its emphasis on "natural"
melody.
V. The New World
- earliest surviving American music is church music
- church musicians drew on their respective national styles.
1. Puritans
- New England Puritans used metrical psalms in worship.
- In 18th cen. amateurs in singing schools sing psalms & anthems, demand for new
music.
2. William Billings (17461800)
- prominent composer of sacred music in New England
- variety of genres: hymns, anthems, and fuging tunes.
- wrote to suit his needs, independent from rules of counterpoint.
3. Moravians
- German-speaking Protestants
- familiar with European trends
- embellished their church services with arias and motets
- collected libraries of secular and sacred music.
Postlude
- New musical idioms of the mid-to-late-18th cen. had their sources in vocal music.
- These new styles had tremendous impact on instrumental music.

CHAPTER 15: THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIOD: INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

- The new musical idiom of the mid-18th cent, developed primarily in opera,
- became pervasive in instrumental music, which gained new independence.
- rise in works for piano, string quartets, symphonies, development of sonata form.

I. Sonata

- Classic period sonata had different meanings, including compositional form or procedure
1. Kochs sonata form
- first-movement form as an expanded binary form, both sections normally repeated.
- first section, with one main period, presents the movements main idea in the tonic
- modulates to the dominant or relative major.
- second section, two main periods, modulates back to the tonic,
- then restates material from the first section in the tonic.
2. Keyboard sonata
- Keyboard works were in great demand by amateurs in mid & late 18th century
- sonatas were most challenging genre for performers and listeners.
3. Domenico Scarlatti (16851757), son of Alessandro Scarlatti, worked in Portugal & Spain
and composed many keyboard works, including 555 sonatas.
4. Sonatas
In his keyboard sonatas, Scarlatti typically used balanced binary form,
- although his style is not galant, he did use a great variety of figuration.
Binary Forms
- Most forms of Classic era modulate from tonic to dominant, then return to tonic.
- Simple binary form: two repeated sections, equal in length, different musical material.
- Balanced binary form: new material in dominant at the end of first section,
- repeats it in the tonic at the end of the second section.
- Rounded binary form highlights the return of tonic by repeating material of first section.
5. Paired sonatas
After 1745, Scarlatti paired sonatas together in his manuscripts.

II. Symphony
1. Early symphonies
Earliest symphonies, ca. 1730, originated from the opera overture,
- influenced by late Baroque concerto, orchestral suite, trio sonata.

2. Giovanni Battista Sammartini (17011775)

- one of the first symphony composers,
- three-movement works contained a variety of contrasting ideas.
3. Mannheim orchestra
- led by Johann Stamitz (17171757),
- it was renowned for its discipline, technique, dynamic range, and crescendos.
4 . Johann Stamitz
- first composer to consistently use four movements
- and a theme after the modulation in his symphonies.
5. Berlin
- symphonists preferred less contrast
- more serious tone marked by thematic development and counterpoint.
Symphony Orchestras
- Italian orchestras consisted mostly of strings, primarily used to support vocalists.
- mid 18th cen wind & brass instruments doubled strings, added color, filled out harmonies.
6. Vienna and Paris
important centers of symphonic activity

III. The Empfindsam Style

adopted by several German composers around mid 18th cen.

1. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (17141788)
- many vocal and instrumental genres
- best known for his keyboard works.
2. Sturm und Drang
- Empfindsam style reached a climax in the 1760s and 1770s
- it has been linked to the literary movement Sturm und Drang (storm and stress).
3. Main characteristics of empfindsam style
sudden surprising changes

IV. Concerto
1. Johann Christian Bach (17351782) Bachs youngest son,
- studied&worked in Italy before going to London.
- There, he had a successful career,
- met the young Mozart, on whom he had a profound influence.
- The first-movement form of concertos was a combination of
Baroque ritornello form (involving orchestral ritornellos alternating with solo episodes)
and Classical sonata form (involving contrasts in key and thematic material).
2. Cadenza
late 18th cen, soloist improvised a cadenza just before the final orchestral ritornello.

Postlude

- In 18th cen., composers combined new styles of vocal music with existing traditions within the
instrumental repertory to create new genres and forms.
- Individual compositions had wide and instant appeal,
- but they were replaced quickly and often by new music.
- prolonged popularity of a few composers, such as C. P. E. Bach and J. C. Bach, was later
overshadowed by Haydn and Mozart.

CHAPTER 16: THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: HAYDN AND MOZART

most successful of late 18th cen: Joseph Haydn (17321809) & Wolfgang Amadeus

Mozart (17561791)
- they synthesized styles to create music that appealed to a diverse audience.
The textbook discusses Haydns works by genre and Mozarts works chronologically and
geographically.
I. (Franz) Joseph Haydn
- worked at the Esterhzy court for nearly thirty years,
- his time at his patrons country estate, Esterhza, greatly influenced his career.
1. Music at Esterhza
- Haydn composed whatever the Esterhzy princes demanded:
- opera, sacred vocal works, orchestral pieces, chamber music, music for marionette
plays.(puppet)
- conducted, trained & supervised all musicians, and maintained instruments.
- Visitors kept him up-to-date on current developments in music.
(Franz) Joseph Haydn
- trained as a choirboy in Vienna, as a young adult, barely supported himself as a
freelance musician.
- first steady job was as music director for Count Morzin.
- 1761, entered the service of the Esterhzy princes,
- this allowed him to hear his music in excellent performances & to experiment with new
ideas.
- His publications brought him fame throughout Europe.
- early 1790s, lived for a while in London, composed, gave concerts, & taught before
returning to Vienna.
II. Haydns Instrumental Music
- Although Haydns music reflected the changing tastes of the times,
- some of his works, especially the symphonies, have highly individual traits.
1. Haydns style and compositional process
- his style was recognized as highly individual.
- His compositions had broad appeal because they combined the familiar with the
unexpected.
2. Overview of the symphonies
- set the pattern for later composers through their:
- high quality, wide dissemination, lasting appeal, and individuality.
1. Symphonic Form
a. Four-movement structure
Beginning in the 1760s, Haydns symphonies typically had four movements
- fast sonata-form movement (often with slow introduction), slow movement, minuet and
trio, fast finale.

- This format became standard for later composers.

b. Oxford Symphony
- no. 92 in G Major, many characteristic of his symphonic techniques
c. First-movement form
created contrasts between stability and instability to help listeners follow the form.
d. Exposition
Each thematic area in the exposition contains a variety of ideas.
e. Development
a variety of techniques to manipulate motives from the exposition.
f. Recapitulation
- sometimes disguised(gizlenmi) or played down(nemini azaltmak) the appearance of
the recapitulation,
- which repeats all themes in the tonic (sometimes altered) and often amplifies the
transition.
g. Second movement
usually songlike themes & simple forms to contrast with the drama and complexity of the
first movement.
h. Minuet and trio
- relaxation, shorter than the second movement, in a more popular style, easy to follow
i. Finale
usually in sonata form, [A B']exp [C"]dev [A B]recap
- rondo form, A B A C A D A ...
- sonata-rondo form,[A B']exp [A C"]dev [A B]recap
- buildup of tension, a climax, and a release.
2. The Symphonies
a. The symphonies of 17681772
- Beginning about 1768, Haydn treated the symphony as a serious work
- that was longer and had greater dynamic extremes, a richer harmonic palette,
- wider ranging modulations, and more contrapuntal textures than his previous
symphonies.
b. The symphonies of 17731788
- Beginning around 1773, Haydn composed symphonies in a more popular style
- that was immediately intelligible yet serious.
c. Paris symphonies 1780s
In the 1780s, Haydn increasingly composed for the public,
- combining popular and learned styles in his Paris symphonies,
- scored for strings, flute, and pairs of oboes, bassoons, and horns.
d. Symphonies No. 8892 (17871788),

Haydn mixed popular and learned styles, giving the works lasting appeal.
e. London symphonies twelve symphonies,
- daring(cretkar) harmonic movements, intensified rhythmic drive, memorable themes,
expanded orchestra
- appealing features aim to please both music lovers and experts.
f. Special effects
often novel effects, appeals to the least experienced listener while rewarding the
connoisseur.(uzman)
3. The String Quartets
- the first great master of the string quartet (a genre intended for amateurs),
- the evolution of his quartets parallels that of his symphonies.
a. Op. 9, 17, and 20
- same four-movement pattern as in the symphony,
- but minuet often before slow movement & unique approach to sonata-form movements.
b. Humor in Op. 33
- six Op. 33 quartets (1781) are light-hearted, witty, and tuneful
- fast or metrical jesting minuets titled scherzo.
- humor in these works is aimed at performers.
c. Later quartets
Each of Haydns late quartets had individual features & juxtaposed diverse styles and
emotions.
4. Keyboard Sonatas
- early keyboard sonatas are suitable for harpsichord, clavichord, or piano,
- but his later ones require the pianos dynamic range.
- written for amateurs to play in private, usually feature three movements in a fast-slowfast format.
III. Haydns Vocal Works
- he considered his vocal works his most successful compositions,
- believing, like his contemporaries, that vocal music was more important than
instrumental music.
1. Operas
Haydns many Italian operas (most of them comic) were successful in their day but are
now rarely performed
2. Masses
- Haydns most important works for the church were six masses (17961802)
- blend traditional elements with a newly prominent orchestra and elements drawn from
the symphony
3. Oratorios

in England, Haydn heard Handels oratorios.

- His own late oratorios, The Creation (1798) and The Seasons (1801),
- show Handels influence and feature depiction in music.
IV. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
- toured as a child prodigy in the 1760s, unable to find a suitable position,
- spent his mature years as a free agent in Vienna.
Mozarts teachers: first teacher was his father, Leopold Mozart,
-through touring, Mozart was exposed at a young age to a wide range of music,
- which influenced his compositions throughout his life.
V. Mozarts Salzburg Years
After touring as a child prodigy, lived chiefly in Salzburg, looked for a position elsewhere.
1. Idomeneo
commissioned to write an opera seria in 1781 for Munich.
2. Piano sonatas
- piano variations for his pupils & piano sonatas for his own concert performances.
- sonatas K. 279 through K. 284 meant to be published together,
- K. 331 is notable for its first movement in variation form & for its finale invokes Turkish
military bands.
Biography: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
- born in Salzburg. composed, performed on harpsichord, and improvised at a very
young age,
- his father took him and his sister Nannerl on tours across Europe as child prodigies.
- In 1781, Mozart moved to Vienna and made a good income composing, teaching
private students,
- performing, and selling his works to publishers.
- He was a master in every medium, is considered one of the greatest musicians of the
Western tradition.
3. Other instrumental music
serenades and divertimenti, violin concertos, and a piano concerto.
VI. Mozarts Vienna Years
1. Freelance in Vienna
- Near the end of his life, Mozart was still actively freelancing,
- but he was not good at managing his expenses and requested assistance from friends.
- Mozarts most famous works came from his time in Vienna
- and show a synthesis of form and content and of galant and learned styles
2. Baron van Swieten
Mozarts music was enriched by influences from three of the centurys greatest
composers:

Haydn, whom he knew personally, and Handel

- and J. S. Bach, whose music he discovered through Baron Gottfried van Swieten.
3. Solo piano works
- first movement of Sonata in F Major, K. 332, exemplifies his style beginning of his
Vienna period
4. The Haydn Quartets
- six quartets (dedicated to Haydn) show a mature capacity to absorb the essence of
Haydns technique
- of pervasive thematic development and display substantial equality between the four
instruments.
Innovations: The Public Concert
- Public concerts and concert series were organized in many cities
- were attended mainly by those of the upper-middle and upper-classes.
- London, Academy of Ancient Music (founded in 1726): the Bach-Abel concerts (1765
1781).
- Paris, Concert spirituel series(17251790)introduced repertoire & composers from
across continent.
- Leipzig, The Gewandhaus Orchestra became one of the most famous orchestras in the
world.
- Public concerts were social events and were advertised by word of mouth and in print
media.
- A typical concert presented a variety of vocal and instrumental genres for various
ensembles.
Cosmopolitan Vienna
- 18th-cen Vienna, a cosmopolitan cultural center, supported innovative composers &
musical styles.
5. Quintets
- Many other chamber works are also classics,string quintets&works for solo wind&string
instruments.
1. Symphonies
- his early symphonies were intended to open concerts or theatrical events,
- his later symphonies were often the main feature on concert programs.
- Mozarts six Vienna symphonies:
- have ambitious dimensions, make greater demands on performers,
- contain harmonic and contrapuntal complexity, end with climatic final movements.
- Each symphony has its own special character.
a. Introductions
- slow introductions to a few of Mozarts symphonies adopt aspects of the French

overture
- create suspense through intense harmony.
b. Finales
- As in Haydns late symphonies, the finales of Mozarts late symphonies,
- like the Jupiter symphony, balance the serious opening movement
2. Piano Concertos
seventeen piano concertos for his own public performance & please a wide variety of
listeners
a. Concerto form
his concertos are in three movements in the order fast-slow-fast.
b. First movement
- blend elements of ritornello and sonata form, as in J. C. Bachs concertos,
- but they also contain individual features
c. Second and last movements
- his second movements resemble lyrical arias,
- his finales are typically rondos or sonata-rondos on themes with a popular character.
d. Cadenzas
- Although the concertos were showpieces, Mozarts cadenzas served a musical
function:
- to balance longer modulatory or development sections.
3. Operas
a. Die Entfhrung aus dem Serail
his operatic fame in Vienna & beyond was established by the Singspiel Die Entfhrung
aus dem Serail (1782).
- Singspiel is characterized by spoken dialogue, which is alternated with ensembles,
songs, ballads, and arias which were often strophic, or folk-like.
b. Da Ponte operas
For his last three Italian comic operas,
The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787), and Cos fan tutte (1790),
- Mozart collaborated with librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte (17491838).
c. The Marriage of Figaro
- followed the conventions of opera buffa, but Da Pontes libretto raised it to a higher
level.
- captured operas characters through his music & showed them interacting dramatically
in ensembles.
d. Don Giovanni
- Da Ponte and Mozart created the first opera about Don Juan that took the character
seriously.

- first scene mixes the styles of opera seria and comic opera to develop three levels of
characters:
- a noble class that sings in opera seria styles
- a lower class that sings in opera buffa styles
- characters like Don Giovanni, who pass easily between the two styles.
- references to familiar styles & departures from their conventions
- are crucial to Mozarts depiction of characters and their feelings.
e. Cos fan tutte is an opera buffa that includes some of Mozarts most melodious music
f. Die Zauberflte 1791, a Singspiel, contains many 18th-century musical styles and
traditions
- references to the teachings and ceremonies of Freemasonry.
Mozart and His Father
- complex relationship with his father, Leopold, who was an unselfish mentor when
Mozart was young
- but turned unforgiving when Mozart moved to Vienna and married against Leopolds
wishes.
4. Church Music
- wrote church music from an early age.
Requiem
unfinished at his death & completed by his student & collaborator Franz Xaver Sssmayr
(17661803).
Postlude
- only Haydn and Mozart achieved widespread fame and composed such complex
music.
- By the early 19th century, some of their works had become classics.

CHAPTER 17: LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN (1770-1827)

Prelude
- late 18th & early 19th cen: political and economic revolution,
- reflected in the career & highly individual compositions of Ludwig van Beethoven (17701827).
- wrote slowly and deliberately, guided "inspiration."
- Beethovens career is usually divided into three periods:
- (1) 17701802, when he mastered the musical language and genres of his time;
- (2) 18021816, when he asserted his individualism;

- (3) 18161827, when his music became more introspective. (own conscious thoughts and
feelings)
I. First Period
1. Patrons
first decade in Vienna, performing as a pianist, teaching, publishing, receiving gifts from
generous patrons.
Biography: Ludwig van Beethoven
- born in Bonn, studied piano & violin with his father and other musicians.
- In 1792, moved to Vienna, took lessons from Haydn, found aristocratic patrons.
- After overcoming a crisis in 1802 related to his gradual loss of hearing,
- wrote music of great depth and scope that soon made him the most popular composer alive.
- devoted himself entirely to composition, wrote at his own pace.
- After 1815, Beethoven became increasingly withdrawn from society.
2. Piano sonatas
- often used contrasts of style to delineate (betimlemek) the form and broaden the expressive
range.
3. Sonate pathtique (1799)
- dramatic, fantasia-like slow introduction that recurs twice in the first movement
- a serious & intense sonata-rondo final, with thematic & harmonic connections to the other two
movements
4. Op. 18 string quartets
- first six string quartets (Op. 18), published in 1800, demonstrate his individuality in their use of
themes
- surprising modulations and turns of phrase, and formal structure.
1. First SymphonyC Major (1800),
used model of Haydns and Mozarts late symphonies, yet he also distinguished his own style.
II. Second Period
- By his early thirties, renowned as a pianist and composer,
- had many generous patrons, was sought after by publishers.
1. Notebooks and sketchbooks
- composed with great deliberation(dnme),
- keeping notebooks with sketches and creating music in which each part was related to the
whole.
2. Personal crisis
- a way of viewing his music after 1802 is as a narrative/drama, perhaps reflecting the struggle of
his own life.
3. Eroica Symphony (18034)
- first work to fully exemplify his new approach, longer than previous symphonies & has title
celebrating a hero.
4. First movement
- of the Eroica symphony: transformations of the first themes main motive,
- the motives interaction with a leaping figure from later in the first theme group

G
G

- can be interpreted as a story of a heros challenge, struggle, and final victory

5. Dedication to Napoleon
- Beethoven first titled the work "Bonaparte,"
- but changed the title several months after Napoleon crowned himself emperor.
6. Funeral March
The Eroica symphonys second movement is a funeral march
- that evokes the style of French Revolutionary processions. tren alay
7. Fidelio
- Beethovens only opera, expresses the humanitarian ideals of the French Revolution
- went through three revisions before it was a success.
8. Rasumovsky Quartets Op. 59.
- pushed the boundaries of chamber music conventions
- tested the limits of amateur players
9. Middle symphonies
Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Symphonies between 1806 and 1808.
10. Fifth Symphony Op. 67
- portrays struggle and ultimate(en byk) triumph(zafer) by moving from C minor to C major
- developing the famous opening four-note figure that recurs in various guises in the other three
movements.
11. Pastoral Symphony
Sixth Symphony, five movements, each with a title suggesting a scene from country life
In Performance: Beethovens Tempo
Beginning with Beethoven, performers began to subordinate their interpretations of music
- to the composers vision and score indications, including indications of tempo.
- In the 18th century, tempo was decided by the conventions of courtly dance.
- As these dances disappeared from the repertory, many composers, including Beethoven,
- turned to the metronome (invented around 1815) to specify tempo.
- Todays musicians follow Beethovens markings but also modify them,
- taking into account acoustics, performing conditions, and instruments.
12. Symphonies No. 7 and 8 1812.
The Seventh is expansive(genileyen) and the Eighth is much more condensed(younlatrlm)
13. Overtures
also wrote several overtures, with forms that resemble the first movement of a symphony.
14. Piano sonatas
composed ten piano sonatas between 1800 and 1805, and each has individual features.
15. Waldstein (1804)and Appassionata sonatas (1805)
- challenge traditional forms with evocative (anmsatc) themes and strongly contrasting textures.
16. Piano concertos
- composed on a grand scale with the soloist often coequal with the orchestra.
III. Third Period
At the height of his renown, his deafness, family problems, ill health forced him into greater
isolation.

1. Climate in Vienna
- Larger political and economic changes in Vienna
- slowed the pace of Beethovens composition & prompted a change in his focus and style
2. Characteristics of late style
- Most of Beethovens late works were addressed to connoisseurs,
- introspective & concentrated, extremes from the sublime to the grotesque,
- invoked but altered classical conventions.
3. Variations
- In his late variations, he preserved only a few basic elements of his themes through very
diverse variations.
4. Continuity
- In his late style, he emphasized continuity by blurring divisions between phrases and
movements.
5. Improvisatory passages
- Many late works include passages that have an improvisatory character or resemble recitative;
- these suggest how Beethovens improvisations might have sounded.
6. New sonorities
Beethovens search for new expressive means in his late works gave rise to new sonorities,
- which insisted on the composers vision at the expense of performer freedom and audience
comfort.
The Immortal Beloved
- The woman Beethoven referred to as his "Immortal Beloved" in an impassioned love letter
- discovered after his death may have been Antonie Brentano.
7. Fugal texture
- frequently used imitative counterpoint, and especially fugue, in his late works.
8. Form
- re-conceived the number and arrangement of movements in his late works.
9. Quartet Op. 131 C-sharp Minor, Op. 131,
- arrangement of forms, keys, tempos illustrates how Beethoven simultaneously invokes
- and departs from tradition in his late works.
- varied the traditional sequence of movements & sought ways to integrate movements more
closely.
- late sonatas and quartets were written for connoisseurs
- who were likely to appreciate complex compositional techniques and intertwining of tradition
and innovation.
10. Missa solemnis
- as late private works, last two large public works reexamine the traditions of their respective
genres.
- Missa solemnis was not a liturgical work,
but a mass for concert performance shaped as a unified five-movement symphony.
11. Ninth Symphony(1824)
- popular, but not financial, success.

- combined tradition & innovation, disparate(farkli) styles, profound emotional expression in this
work.
- extended finale refers back to the previous three movements
- includes solo voices & chorus in music that draws on tradition yet is unprecedented in shape
and scope.
Postlude
- became a cultural hero, his life story helped to define the Romantic view of creative artist as
social outsider.
- Many of his compositions, especially those from his middle period,
- were immediately popular for their revolutionary elements and have remained so ever since.
- one of the great disruptive forces in music history, had an impact on later composers of
instrumental music.

CHAPTER 18: THE EARLY ROMANTICS

Prelude
- first generation: new ways to engage the established musical genres of the 18th cen.
- writers: music evoke emotions, words cant, cause its free from concreteness of words &
images.
- orchestra: Central to public concert life
- German art song, Lied, most suitable for literary & lyrical tendencies of Romanticism.
- ballad, form of long narrative poem imitating a folk ballad,
- inspired composers to use varied themes & textures,
- to make the piano part as important in expressing the poetry as the voice.
- Lieder composers often grouped their songs into collections and song cycles.
- Improvements in piano manufacturing&design made it ideal for home music-making&public
concerts.
- chamber music in early 19th century came from composers strongly influenced by the
Classical tradition,
- such as Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Schumann.
I. Franz Schubert (17971828)
- prolific composer, made significant contributions to song, symphony, solo-piano, chambermusic
1.Lieder
characteristics of Romantic Lied: exemplified in the songs of Schubert, over six hundred Lieder.
a. Melody
beautiful melodies that capture the character and situation of their poetry
Biography: Franz Schubert
- studying music as a child, became a schoolmaster, in his fathers school.
- composed in his free time with astonishing speed.
- never held a salaried musical position & gained most of his income from publication.

G
G
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- Best known for his Lieder, prolific composer in all genres.

a. Harmony
used harmony as an expressive device and often modulated to the mediant or submediant.
b. Texts
- set poetry by many writers, including Goethe,
- wrote two song cycles on poems by Wilhelm Mller:
- Die schne Mllerin 1823
- Winterreise (1827)
c. Form
always chose forms that suited the shape and meaning of the text.
For example, used modified strophic form to depict contrast or change.
Strophic form (also called "verse-repeating" or chorus form) is the term applied to songs in
which all verses or stanzas of the text are sung to the same music. The opposite of strophic
form, with new music written for every stanza, is called through-composed.
d. Accompaniments
- figuration of accompaniment fits poems mood and personality of protagonist(leading character)
- Gretchen am Spinnrade piano suggests spinning wheel & Gretchens agitation as she thinks of
her beloved
e. Erlknig
triplets in the accompaniment suggest a galloping horse and the anxiety of a father,
while the singer presents three different characters, each with distinctive music.
f. Der Lindenbaum
from Winterreise, conveys the meaning of the poem through form, melody, accompaniment, and
harmony.
2. Orchestral Music
a. Unfinished Symphony
- material from the introduction for the development section
- focusing main thematic areas on memorable, lyrical melodies like his songs & piano works.
b. Great" Symphony in C Major
blended Romantic lyricism & Beethovenian drama within an expanded Classical form.
Solo Music for Piano
- in 19th cen. the piano became the main instrument for music-making in the home,
- creating a steady demand for piano music.
- wrote marches, dances, lyrical works suitable for the amateur market
- larger works, including eleven sonatas,
- Wanderer Fantasie(1822), for more accomplished performers.
a. Sonatas
-typically, lyrical themes that resist development & often use three keys in the exposition, rather
than two.
The Industrial Revolution and Music-Instrument Manufacture
- Manufacturing innovations in Industrial Revolution, made musical instruments widely available
& less costly. - - design of the piano improved, its new capabilities were exploited by composers

and performers.
- harps were developed that could be played in any key.
- New brass instruments were invented,
- valves were added to trumpets and horns, enabled to produce all the notes of the chromatic
scale.
- Modern wind instrument design,
- improved percussion construction,
- the saxophone
4. Chamber Music
modeled his first quartets on those by Mozart and Haydn and wrote them for his friends to enjoy,
- last three quartets (1824-1826) conceived more as dramatic pieces of concert music than as
entertaining diversions for amateur players.
String Quintet
In his String Quintet in C Major (1828),
- treats all five instruments as equals,
- develops musical ideas in a symphonic way,
- presents contrasting moods and styles within and between movements.
II. Hector Berlioz
1. Symphonie fantastique (1830)
musical drama whose words are not sung, but are written in a program given to the audience.
2. Ide fixe
- main theme, or fixed idea represents the obsessive image of the heros beloved
- appears in every movement, transformed to suit the drama.
- Throughout the five movements, Berlioz bends the standard structure of the symphony to serve
narrative and autobiographical purposes.
Hector Berlioz
- taught himself to compose in his teens and eventually studied at the Paris Conservatory.
- In 1830, composed Symphonie fantastique,
- an attempt to express his obsession with Harriet Smithson in the context of a Beethovenian
symphony.
- many compositions inspired by literature.
- His music was far too radical for steady support,
- so he turned to writing music criticism, organizing his own concerts, and conducting.
3. Harold en Italie 1834
his second symphony, features a solo viola & was inspired by a poem and Berliozs own visit to
Italy.
4. Romo et Juliette 1835
"dramatic symphony" in seven movements for orchestra, soloists, and chorus.
5. Church music
- Grande Messe des morts (Requiem, 1837)
- Te Deum (1855)
- are of huge dimensions and belong to a patriotic, rather than liturgical, tradition.

6. Berliozs influence
- his radical approach influenced how other composers wrote program music
- and used instrumental color, harmony, expression, and form.
Program music: the piece is designed according to some preconceived narrative,
or is designed to evoke a specific idea and atmosphere.
The Symphony Orchestra
- Romantic orchestra was more than twice the size of that used by Haydn and Mozart,
- many more strings & a greater number and variety of winds, brass, and percussion.
- Individual instruments were also more powerful.
- Orchestras were now led by conductors, who used a baton to beat time and cue entrances.
- Audiences first complained about the "noisiness" of larger orchestras
- but grew accustomed to their sounds and colors over time.
III. Felix Mendelssohn(18091847)
- blended influences from Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, and his own contemporaries.
1. Orchestral Works
- his mature symphonies, overtures, and violin concerto follow Classical models,
- show the strong impact of Romanticism.
a. Italian Symphony (No. 4, 1833)
- accommodates tuneful themes in Italian styles within the developmental structures of Classical
forms.
b. Overtures
- imaginative use of figuration, orchestral color for musical depiction
- in his Midsummer Nights Dream Overture (1826)
- set the standard for all subsequent concert overtures.
c. Violin concerto in E Minor (1844)
- linked the three movements,
- reworked concerto form,
- new ways to reinterpret yet continue the concerto tradition.
d. Oratorios
rooted his oratorios St. Paul and Elijah in Baroque tradition while creating something new and
up-to-date.
Felix Mendelssohn
- a prodigy, composing seriously by age eleven,
- supported by his family, best teachers, at the center of Berlins intellectual life.
- achieved success as a composer, pianist, conductor, music director, founder of the Leipzig
Conservatory.
2. Piano Works
a. Songs Without Words
- best-known piano works are his Lieder ohne Worte
- capture the lyrical qualities of Lieder & exemplify his belief that music can express what words
cannot.
IV. Robert Schumann(18101856)

- concentrated on composing works of a single major genre for a year or more

- at a time before moving to a different genre.
Robert Schumann and Clara Schumann
- After university studies in law, Robert Schumann aimed to become a concert pianist,
- studying with Friedrich Wieck, Claras father.
- While Robert suffered a career-ending injury and turned to composition and criticism,
- founding the journal Neue Zeitschrift fr Musik
- Clara Schumann (18191896) one of the leading concert pianists in Europe.
- After their marriage(1840) Clara toured less but continued to perform & compose while raising
eight children. - Her husband suffered physical & psychological illnesses, confined to an asylum
for last two years of his life.
- After his death, Clara performed, taught, and edited and promoted Roberts music.
1. Piano Music
a. Character pieces
- Most of his piano works were character pieces,
- short works in colorfully named collections.
b. Titles and meanings
- used evocative titles to stimulate the imagination;
- but their main function was to encourage close attention to the special features of each piece
- and to indicate possible avenues for exploration.
c. Ciphers and motives, unity and diversity
- musical ciphers(ifre) to invite extramusical interpretation and to give unity to an entire work.
2. Songs
- Lieder composer, he was Schuberts first important successor.
- wrote more than 120 songs(1840) the year of his marriage, including the song cycle
Dichterliebe
a. Music and poetry
- Schumann thought that music should capture a poems essence in its own terms
- and that voice and piano should be equal partners.
b. Dichterliebe
Im wunderschnen Monat Mai from Dichterliebe, uses unresolved harmonies to create a sense
of longing.
3. Symphony and Chamber Music
a. Symphonies
modeled his symphonies on those of Beethoven, Schubert, and Mendelssohn.
b. Symphony No. 4 in D Minor
- an integrated cycle in four movements played without a break.
- combines traditional forms with a continuous process of variation.
c. Chamber works
built on the tradition of Haydn and Mozart without simply imitating them.
- Piano Trios (1847) his most influential chamber works.

V. Clara Schumann
Women were discouraged from composing large concert works,
- but pieces for piano were accepted as extensions of private music-making.
- she wrote several collections of Lieder, using an approach to song that paralleled Roberts.
- Her performances pleased critics, she greatly influenced piano-playing and concert life in the
19th century.
- In her Piano Trio in G Minor, she combined traits from Baroque, Classic, and Romantic
models.
VI. Fryderyk Chopin(18101849)
- composed almost exclusively for piano.
- wrote for performers & audiences of all levels,
- opened new possibilities for the piano.
Biography
- was born near Warsaw in Poland. After studying at the Warsaw Conservatory, he toured as a
concert pianist.
- His pieces with Polish character were very popular.
- In 1831, he moved to Paris where he met the leading musicians and entered the highest social
circles.
- He made a living by teaching, publishing, and performing at private concerts and in salons.
1. Dances
- Chopins waltzes evoke the Viennese ballroom,
- his polonaises assert the spirit of Poland,
- and his mazurkas capture the popular Polish ballroom dance
2. Nocturnes
short works with embellished melodies over sonorous accompaniments.
3. Preludes
show the influence of J. S. Bach.
In Performance: Tempo Rubato
- Chopins playing style was more personal than theatrical,
- he used tempo rubato, holding back or hurrying the tempo, as an expressive technique.
A Ballad of Love
- novelist George Sand 18041876, a freethinking woman,
- developed a romantic relationship with Chopin that coincided with his most productive years.
4. Ballades and scherzos
longer and more demanding one-movement piano works.
5. tudes
twenty-seven tudes combine virtuosity with significant artistic content.
VII. The Americas
Drawing-room ballads and parlor songs in Great Britain and North America
- were usually strophic or in verse-refrain form, and the piano supported the singer.
1. Stephen Foster (18261864)
- leading American song composer of the 19th century

- the first American to earn a living solely as a composer

2. Louis Moreau Gottschalk (18291869)
- first American composer with an international reputation.
- music was designed to appeal to a middle-class audience and the amateur performer.

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CHAPTER 19: OPERA AND MUSIC DRAMA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Prelude
- Opera popular with audiences of all classes and professions.
- issues spoke to a broad audience, used a variety of subjects and settings.
- music became the most important element of an operas success,
- a permanent repertory of operas began to emerge.
- Paris the operatic capital of Europe and French grand opera designed for middle-class
audiences.
- In Italy, Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, and Verdi created a new Italian tradition in opera,
- their works have been performed ever since.
- Singspiel, root of German opera,
- composers intensified its national features while absorbing Romantic elements from French
opera.
I. French Grand (and Not So Grand) Opera
1. Meyerbeer
Librettist Eugne Scribe (17911861) and composer Giacomo Meyerbeer (17911864),
- the leaders of French grand opera,
- works with exciting historical plots and spectacular stage effects.
2. Les Huguenots (1836)
- typical grand opera combining glorious singing & entertaining spectacle
- enormous cast, a ballet, dramatic scenery, & lighting effects
- serious artistic statement.
- closing scene of Act II integrates expression of deep personal feelings into crowd scenes
- by using a variety of styles and gestures
3. Other grand operas
Grand opera was admired and emulated by later composers.
4. Berlioz, Les Troyens (185658)
- drew on grand opera and older French opera traditions.
5. Opra comique
spoken dialogue instead of recitative, comic or romantic plots, on a smaller scale than grand
opera.
6. Opra bouffe (bfe)
- founded in the 1850s by Jacques Offenbach (18191880),
- satirized operatic and social conventions.
- Offenbachs work influenced developments in comic opera in England,
- as illustrated by The Pirates of Penzance, operetta by Arthur Sullivan (18421900)
7. Lyric opera
- featured romantic plots and focused on melody.
8. Gounods Faust
- most famous lyric opera is Faust by Charles Gounod (18181893).
9. Bizets Carmen
Georges Bizet (18381875) combined exoticism and realism in Carmen, is set in Spain.
- It provoked outrage at its premiere, become one of the most popular operas of all time.
The Musical Attraction of "the Other"
- timbres, rhythms, and melodic gestures they associated with other nations
- or simply unusual sounds to evoke a distant land or foreign culture.

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- exoticism, its history extends back into the 18th century.

- In the 19th century, exotic settings and plots were often used in opera.
II. Italian Opera
1. Gioachino Rossini (17921868),
- most popular and influential opera composer of his generation,
- blended opera buffa & opera seria in his operas
- established new conventions for Italian opera.
2. Bel canto
helped establish bel canto,
- elegant singing style, contrasted with the heavier dramatic style that dominated by
midcentury.
Biography
- trained at Bologna Conservatory, commissioned to write his first opera at age eighteen.
- had to compose quickly, reworked music from his previous compositions to create new operas.
- moved to Paris, director of the Thatre Italien.
- stopped writing operas at forty, last forty years in financial comfort, composing in other genres.
3. Patter arias
- clever lines are sung with great speed.
4. Rosinas aria
- Una voce poco fa (her cavatina, or entrance aria), from The Barber of Seville,
- conveys her character through changes of style, including both bel canto and patter segments.
- two main sections: 1: a slow, lyrical cantabile 2: a fast, brilliant cabaletta.
5. Rossinis style
- operas:tunefulness, snappy rhythms, clear phrases, spare-tutumlu-orchestration, simple
harmonic schemes
6. Vincenzo Bellini (18011835)
- preferred serious dramas with fast action.
7. Normas aria
- Bellini is known for long, highly embellished, intensely emotional melodies,
- as in the cantabile section of Casta diva, the cavatina for the title character in Norma (1831)
cavatina: a short song of simple character
8. Gaetano Donizetti (17971848)
- one of the most prolific Italian composers of his generation.
1. Giuseppe Verdi (18131901)
- dominant figure in Italian music for fifty years after Donizetti.
a. Opera and nationalism
- Although Verdi supported, identified with Italian Risorgimento (yeniden dirilme),
- his operas are NOT overtly nationalist.
b. Italian approach to opera
- Verdi took more time to compose than his predecessors,
- to calculate most effective setting to enhance an operas dramatic impact on the audience.
c. Verdis style
- captured character, feeling, situation in memorable melodies.
- strict training in harmony & counterpoint, knowledge of past music, colorful orchestration.
d. Early operas
- stories of personal tragedy,
- 1853 Il trovatore (The Troubadour) and La traviata (The Fallen Woman).
e. La traviata
- Many features of Verdis mature works are embodied in La traviata.
Biography
- Verdi studied music as a child, then took his first post in Busseto, where he was married.
- suffered great personal losses with the deaths of his two children and wife
- before moving to Milan to begin his opera career.

- poured himself into music, several works that quickly became part of the permanent opera
repertory.
- Later, Verdi slowed his production of new operas,
- eventually retiring and living off the royalties from his music.
- His publisher persuaded Verdi to come out of retirement to write his two last operas.
f. Middle period
- wrote fewer operas in his middle period,
- experimented with Parisian grand opera, daring harmonies, comic roles, and other new
resources.
- This period culminated in Aida(1871).
Typical Scene Structure of Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera
- Rossini & his librettists developed a scene structure:
- all solos, ensembles, choruses contributed to advancing the plot.(hikayenin konusu)
- scene includes:
-1 orchestral introduction,
-2 a scena (orchestrally accompanied recitative),
-3 a primo tempo (first movement),
-4 a tempo di mezzo,
-5 a cabaletta: (two part musical form for arias, name of the more animated section)
g. Reminiscence motives (hatrlatan ey)
Verdi unified his works dramatically and musically by using reminiscence motives.
h. Late works
- After ten years of retirement, Verdi wrote two late operas on plays by Shakespeare, Otello and
Falstaff.
i. Otello (1887),
- Verdi completely realized a sense of continuity in music and action.
j. Falstaff (1893)
Verdis last opera, took comic opera to a new level, particularly in the ensembles.
Verdis Otello, Act IV
1 - conclusion of drama unfolds without pause,
2 - contrasting lyrical arias with dialogue and interludes to carry the action.
III. German Romantic Opera
1. Characteristics
- Der Freischtz (The Magic Rifleman(avci eri), by Carl Maria von Weber (17861826),
- established German Romantic opera,
- characterized by plots from medieval history or legend,
- supernatural elements; country settings; and themes of good versus evil.
- German operas often used a folklike style, chromatic harmony, and orchestral color for
dramatic expression.
2. Der Freischtz
- rustic choruses, marches, dances, airs, and arias in Italian style.
- The famous Wolfs Glen scene uses melodrama: (spoken dialogue over music),
- daring (cretkar) chromatic harmonies, and orchestral effects to represent eerie (rktc)
events.
1. Richard Wagner and the Music Drama
a. Goals and writings
Richard Wagner (18131883), composer of German opera,
- argued in his writings that the function of music was to serve dramatic expression.
Biography
- early 1830s, began writing operas, gaining his first great success in 1842 in Dresden,
- where, he directed opera, conducted, and composed at the Saxon court.
- After fleeing Germany during the 184849 insurrection(ayaklanma), Wagner settled in
Switzerland,

- where he wrote his most important essays and began Der Ring des Nibelungen.
- new patron in King Ludwig II of Bavaria, who sponsored his later operas.
- Wagner built the festival theater at Bayreuth
- where several of his operas were performed, including the Ring cycle.
b. Gesamtkunstwerk
- poetry, scenic design, staging, action, music must work together to form a
Gesamtkunstwerk.
- In his music dramas, vocal lines are part of a complete texture in which the orchestra plays a
leading role.
c. Other writings
- published writings address not only music but also literature, drama, political and moral
topics.
d. Early operas
- drew on Meyerbeer in his grand opera Rienzi (1842)
- influenced by Weber in Der fliegende Hollnder (The Flying Dutchman, 1843).
e. The Ring cycle
- Der Ring des Nibelungen (1874) is a cycle of four operas
- linked by common characters and musical motives.
- A leitmotive is a motive associated with a particular person, thing, emotion, or idea,
- Wagner organized each music drama around a number of leitmotives.
- used leitmotives to form what many commentators called "endless melody."
f. Schopenhauers influence
- Some of later dramas were influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer (17881860),
- thought; music was one art that could give immediate expression to feelings in concrete form
without words.
g. Tristan und Isolde
- Wagner depicts the passion of two lovers whose ardor(evk) can be consummated(tamamlan)
only in death.
Leitmotives in the Ring Cycle
- melodic relationships among motives,
- dramatic point that certain characters, scenes, and ideas were bound up with one another.
- Dozens of such motives bound the operas into a unified whole.
- technique of depicting character and mood influenced later composers of opera, film, and
television scores.
h. Prelude
In the Prelude to Tristan und Isolde,
- communicates desire & yearning, by using chromatic harmony, delayed resolutions
i. Tristan chord
FBD-sharpG-sharp, evokes yet evades (cevap vermekten kamak) traditional harmonic
expectations.
(fa, lab, dob, mib)
j. Act I
- Throughout Act I of Tristan und Isolde,
- strings together leitmotives in what eversequence makes sense (while constantly varying them)
- to convey the actions and emotions of the drama.
k. Leitmotives in Tristan
- leitmotives with similar features to show relationships among characters, objects, and
emotions.
Wagners Reception, Nationalism, and the Jews
- Wagners anti-Semitic essay Judaism in Music (1850)
- appropriated by the Nazi movement in Germany.
- In this essay, Wagner attempted to obscure his deep debt to Meyerbeer, who was Jewish.
Wagners influence

- More has been written about Wagner than about any other musician;
- his writings and music dramas affected virtually all later operas, an impact on the other arts
as well.
CHAPTER 20: THE LATER ROMANTICS
Prelude
- 19th century, strong belief in progress, a growing interest in music of the past.
- Scholars unearthed, published music of earlier periods from their own nations,
- editions of complete works of major composers.
- old and new music was available to Performers and audiences
- which satisfied the desire to hear new pieces as well as familiar ones.
- Brahms - Wagner: two sides of a dispute: absolute vs program music,
- tradition versus innovation, and Classical versus new genres.
I. Franz Liszt
1. Style
Franz Liszt (18111886)
- influenced by Hungarian music, Viennese and Parisian virtuosos, by Chopin.
Biography
- enormous impact on music as a piano virtuoso, composer, conductor, and teacher.
- studied piano and composition in Vienna and Paris,
- taught piano at age sixteen, pursued a career as a virtuoso until 1848.
- devoted the rest of his career to composing, conducting, and teaching.
- worked in Weimar and Rome, where he took minor orders in the Catholic Church.
2. Paganinis influence
influenced by violinist Niccol Paganini (17821840),
- who heightened both the technique and the mystique of the virtuoso.
3. Liszts virtuosity
- Liszt was a virtuoso, giving solo piano recitals (a concept and term he pioneered)
- and changing the way pianists performed in concert.
1. Piano Music
a. Un sospiro
shows the high level of technique Liszt applied to the piano.
b. Transcriptions
Much of Liszts piano music consists of transcriptions of vocal and instrumental music.
c. Hungarian elements
- Liszts Hungarian Rhapsodies used Hungarian tunes and ornamentation styles.
d. Sonata in B Minor
- Liszts one-movement Piano Sonata in B Minor uses thematic transformation.
e. Late works
Liszt experimented with chromatic harmony, especially in his late works.
2. Orchestral Music
a. Symphonic poems
- 13 symphonic poems, programmatic works for orchestra
- whose content and form were suggested by a person, story, artwork,
- or something else outside music, identified by their titles and usually by programs.
b. Thematic transformation
- a process of transforming a theme or motive into new themes,
- to provide unity, variety, and narrative-like logic to a composition.
c. Faust Symphony
refers to characters and episodes drawn from Goethes Faust.
d. Choral music
reinterpreted the past, often deriving melodies from plainchant.
e. Liszts influence

- his symphonic poems, chromatic harmonies, thematic transformation

- profoundly influenced other composers.
II. Anton Bruckner(18241896)
- absorbed Wagners style and ideas into the traditional symphony
- wrote church music that united the technical resources of 19th-century music
- with a reverent approach to sacred texts.
1. Symphonies
11 symphonies, none explicitly programmatic.
a. Influences
- influenced by Beethovens 9th Symphony, Wagner, his own experience as an organist.
2. Choral Music
- his religious choral music blends modern elements
- with influences from the Cecilian movement.
III. Johannes Brahms(18331897)
- used almost all the musical languages of his time
- drew heavily on elements from past classics,
- integrating them into music that appealed to a wide range of listeners.
Biography
- studied piano as a child,
- developing a love for past composers and for Hungarian popular music.
- was close to Robert and Clara Schumann,
- who were instrumental in launching his career.
- made his living as a concert pianist, conductor, and composer.
- leading German composer of his time in every genre
- except opera and an important influence on twentieth-century music.
1. Piano Music
- a highly individual style, marked by broken-chord figuration and cross-rhythms.
Short piano works
- 1880s, 1890s, issued his greatest contribution to keyboard literature:
six collections of intermezzos, rhapsodies, and other short pieces.
2. Chamber Music
a large body of chamber works for a wide range of instrumentations.
a. Piano Quintet 1864
influenced by Schubert and Clara Schumann for his Piano Quintet.
b. Developing variation
- Throughout all of his work, including his Piano Quintet,
- Brahms used what Arnold Schoenberg called developing variation:
- a musical idea is varied to create a string of interrelated but different ideas,
- producing both unity and variety.
3. Symphonies
- Brahms felt the almost overwhelming influence of Beethoven
- and composed symphonies with great care and deliberation.
a. First Symphony (1876)
- fully absorbs Beethovens influence but also blends it with other models and new ideas.
b. Third Symphony 1883
- wide melodic spans, cross relations, metric ambiguity,
- all illustrated in his Third Symphony
c. Fourth Symphony 1885
- finale is a chaconne: a set of variations on a basso ostinato
- that he adapted from a Bach cantata
d. Choral works
All of Brahmss choral music was composed for amateurs.
e. Ein deutsches Requiem 1868

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- Biblical passages rather than the liturgical Requiem text

- combines Baroque procedures with rich Romantic harmonies.
f. Brahmss place
- often called a conservative,
- was a model for 20th-century composers
- in creating new, individual music that drew deeply on the past.
IV. Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
1. Looking westward (batya ynelen)
- two main camps among Russian composers:
- those who pursued professional training in the Western mode
- and those who opposed academic study as a threat to their originality.
2. Conservatories
Anton Rubenstein (18291894) founded the St. Petersburg Conservatory
- with a program of training on the Western model,
- his brother Nikolay Rubenstein (18351881) founded the Moscow Conservatory
3. Ballets
Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (18401893)
- most famous and frequently performed ballets
- in the permanent repertory, including The Nutcracker (1892).
Biography
- studied law in St. Petersburg, then enrolled in the Conservatory.
- taught at the Moscow Conservatory and suffered severe bouts of depression.
- His career changed dramatically under the patronage of Nadezhda von Meck;
- he quit teaching, composed full-time, and traveled around the world as a conductor.
- leading Russian composer of the 19th century
- embraced his cultural heritage while reconciling it with Western European styles.
5. Fifth Symphony(1888)
- noteworthy for its lyricism, orchestration, drama created by a recurring theme.
6. Pathtique Symphony Sixth (1893)
- novel elements, a waltz in quintuple time and a closing slow movement.
- third movement begins with light character, evolves into a triumphant march.
V. Bedrich Smetana and Antonn Dvok
1. Bohemia
- Bohemian composers Bedich Smetana (18241884), Antonn Dvok (18411904)
- better known outside their native land for their instrumental music than for their operas.
2. Smetana
- sought to create a national music in his String Quartet No. 1, From My Life (1876), - in his
cycle of six symphonic poems: M Vlast (My Country, ca. 187279).
3. Dvok
- In his symphonies, Dvok emulated Beethoven and Brahms.
4. Symphonies
- Dvoks best-known symphony is No. 9 in E Minor (From the New World, 1893),
- written during his time in the United States
- drawing on the music of Native Americans and African Americans.
5. Operas
wrote operas in Czech and based on Czech themes.
6. Slavonic Dances (1878 and 188687),
- used Czech dance rhythms and his own folklike melodies to achieve a national idiom
Biography
- born and trained in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic)
- became an advocate of nationalism in music,
- combining Czech elements with the mainstream European musical tradition.
- a professor of composition at the conservatory in Prague

- traveled widely and served for three years as director of a musical academy in New York.
Postlude: The Beethoven Legacy
- profound influence on later composers.
- associated with the idea of progress and the veneration of novelty.
- musical style and personality reflected the 19th centurys interest in the individual.
- Later composers sought to differentiate their music from his,
- typically by extending some elements of his music while rejecting others.
- Schubert introduced songlike themes into the symphony.
- Berlioz found precedents in Beethovens symphonies
- for the program and thematic drama of his Symphonie fantastique.
- Other composers blended the careers of performer and conductor as Beethoven had.
- Brahms continued the symphony in an individual way,
- Wagner saw the choral finale of Beethovens Ninth Symphony
- as pointing to the union of music with words and drama.
CHAPTER 21:
MUSIC IN THE LATER NINETEENTH CENTURY: EUROPE, NATIONALISM, AND THE
CLASSICAL TRADITION IN AMERICA
Prelude
1. Rise of national styles
a. An international style was created in the 18th century.
b. The 19th century saw a movement toward nationalism.
a. Emphasis on native literature and linguistic traditions
b. Interest in folklore
c. Patriotism
d. Craving for independent identity
c. Germany and Italy became unified countries
d. Musical nationalism was particularly strong in Russia and in the countries of eastern Europe.
2.Other trends
a. France explored new paths of making music.
b. Italian opera became more realistic.
c. The Austro-German classical tradition was transplanted to the United States.
II. The Austro-German Tradition
1. Wagnerian influence
a. Many composers fell under the spell of Wagner.
b. Most sought to find their own voice while exploring his innovations in harmony and
orchestration.
c. Preferred genres
a. Solo song with piano accompaniment
b. Symphony and symphonic poem
c. Opera
2. Hugo Wolf (18601903)
a. Wolf is best known for adapting Wagners methods to the German lied.
b. Wolf composed 250 lieder, mostly during periods of intense activity between 1887 and 1897.
c. published five principal collections of songs,
- each devoted to a single poet or group, thereby stressing an equality of words and music.
d. Like Wagner, he worked toward a fusion of poetry and music, and of voice and piano.
e. Lebe wohl! (Farewell!), from the Mrike songbook, reflects Wagners influences
a. The arioso vocal line has speechlike rhythms.
b. Continuity is sustained in the piano part.
c. Chromatic harmonies are inspired by the idiom of Tristan und Isolde.
III. Gustav Mahler (18601911)
1. His Life

a. leading Austro-German of symphonies after Brahms, one of the great masters for voice and
orchestra.
b. influenced Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern.
2. Symphonies
a. conveyed a sense of life experience in his symphonies.
b. Many project or imply a program
c. Songs played a large role
a. Themes from Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen appear in his Symphony No. 1.
b. Voices are included in four symphonies.
c. Symphonies Nos. 2, 3, 4: themes from Mahlers songs based on texts from Des Knaben
Wunderhorn
d. Orchestration
a. Huge numbers of performers, extending up to Symphony No. 8, the Symphony of a
Thousand
b. Great imagination in the combination of instruments, often only a few playing at a
time
3. Song cycles with orchestra
a.Kindertotenlieder 19014 is based on poems by Friedrich Rckert
a. The spare use of instruments creates a chamber-music-like transparency
b. The post-Wagnerian harmony intensifies the emotions.
b. Das Lied von der Erde 1908
a. Mahler created this work for tenor and alto soloists with orchestra.
b. The poems are translated from Chinese.
c. texts alternate between frenzied(cokun) grasping(agzl) at dreamlike
whirl(kouturma) of life
- and sad resignation(vazgeme) at having to part from all
its joys and beauties.
IV. Richard Strauss (18641949)
1. His life
a. He was a dominant figure in German musical life.
b. A famous conductor, he led most of the worlds best orchestras.
2. Symphonic poems
a. Strausss works are modeled after the program music of Berlioz and Liszt.
a. Colorful orchestration
b. Thematic transformation
c. Programs are often based on literature.
b. Strausss depictions range from representational to philosophical.
c. Don Juan
a. His first complete mature work, it established his reputation.
b. Events in the life of Don Juan are depicted: a graphic sexual climax and his death at
the end.
c. Most of the work evokes boldness(cesaret) and romance.
d. Till Eulenspiegel: impudent(arsz) trickster(hilekar) figure originating in Middle Low
German folklore.
a. A representational telling of a tricksters exploits
b. Two themes for Till are leitmotifs.
c. The work can be heard with an understanding of the story or as a colorful concert
work.
d. Strauss called the form a rondo, referring to the recurring themes.
e. Also sprach Zarathustra
a. A musical commentary on Nietzsches long prose poem
b. Nietzsche: Christian ethic should be replaced by the ideal of a superman, who is above
good and evil.
c. Much of Strausss work is philosophical, but there are some moments of direct

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representation.
3. Don Quixote
a. Depicts the adventures of the knight Don Quixote and his squire(kavalye) Sancho Panza
b. Variation structure
a. Much of the work sounds like chamber music.
b. Don Quixote is represented by a solo cello, which is joined by solo violin and English
horn
c. The bass clarinet and tenor tuba represent Sancho.
d .Themes are altered using thematic transformation.
4. Operas
a. Strauss turned to opera after establishing himself with symphonic poems.
b. Salome (1905)
a. Strauss adapted the libretto from a one-act play by Oscar Wilde.
b. decadent version of biblical story, Salome performs Dance of the Seven Veils(rahibe
bal)
- and entices(akl elmek) Herod to sever the head of John the Baptist.
c. Strauss created harmonically complex and dissonant music that greatly influenced
later composers.
d. Strauss depended on the listener hearing the dissonance in relation to an eventual
resolution.
c. Elektra (19068)
a. This is the first of seven operas to librettos by Viennese playwright Hugo von
Hofmannsthal.
b. Adapted from a play by Sophocles, it dwells on insane hatred and revenge.
c. The dissonance at times is even more extreme than in Salome.
d. Der Rosenkavalier 190910
a. The opera depicts a sunny world of elegance, eroticism, and nostalgia
b. This sentimental comedy features Viennese waltzes.
V. National Trends: Russia
1. Opera
a. Opera was a vehicle for a distinctive Russian identity.
b. The Czar used opera as propaganda for his absolutist government.
2. Mikhail Glinka (18041857)
a. The first Russian composer to be recognized internationally
b. A Life for the Tsar (1836)
a. This pro-government historical drama established Glinkas reputation.
b. This is the first Russian opera sung throughout.
c. The recitative and melodic writing have a distinctly Russian character.
c. Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842)
a. Glinkas second opera is based on a Pushkin poem.
b. The music features whole-tone scales, chromaticism, and dissonance.
3. The Mighty Handful
a. A group of five composers stood against the professionalism of the conservatories.
a. Mily Balakirev (18371910)
b. Aleksander Borodin (18331887)
c. Csar Cui (18351918)
d. Modest Musorgsky (18391881)
e. Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov (18441908)
b. Only Balakirev had conventional training in music, but they all studied Western music on
their own
c. They incorporated aspects of Russian folk song, modal and exotic scales, and folk polyphony .
4. Modest Musorgsky
a. studied with Balakirev, was the most original.

b. worked as a clerk in the civil service.

c. Principal stage works
a. Boris Godunov was based on a Pushkin play.
b. Khovanshchina (The Khovansky Affair) was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov.
d. The realism of Russian literature is reflected in Boris Godunov.
5. Coronation Scene from Boris Godunov
a. The vocal melody is sometimes speechlike.
a. The text is treated syllabically, and the music follows the natural accents of speech.
b. The melody lacks lyrical melodic lines and symmetrical phrasing.
b. Much of the singing is a fluid arioso similar to Russian folk songs.
a. Narrow range
b. Repetition of short motives
c. Tendency to rise at beginnings of phrases and to sink slowly at cadences
c. Harmony
a. The music is tonal, but his progressions are novel.
b. juxtaposes distantly related harmonies, and usually joins them by a common tone.
d. The opera is built from large blocks of material.
e. The scene alternates dominant seventh chords with roots a tritone apart.
f. A contrasting section culminates in a chorus.
a. The chorus is accompanied by the first traditional harmony in the scene.
b. The people sing a genuine folk melody.
g. The tune is developed and contrasted with other material.
6. Instrumental works
a. Night on Bald Mountain (1867), a symphonic fantasy
b. Pictures at an Exhibition for piano (1874, later orchestrated by Ravel)
a. set of ten pieces, inspired by an exhibition of sketches, paintings, and designs by Viktor
Hartmann.
b. Several of the images are rendered in character pieces
- that are joined by a theme meant to represent the walking viewer.
c. image of a commemorative gate to be built at Kiev
- was set as a grand processional(topluca yaplan) hymn with Western and Russian
elements
7. Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov
a. studied with Balakirev and other private teachers.
b. a career in the Russian Navy, became a professor at the St. Petersburg Conservatory in 1871.
c. an active orchestra conductor and a master of orchestration.
d. As professor and conductor he championed the works of Glinka and other Russian
nationalists.
e. wrote a harmony treatise and taught some important students, including Glazunov and
Stravinsky.
f. edited two collections of folk songs and incorporated folk tunes into his own compositions.
g. best known for his programmatic orchestral pieces.
a. These works display his genius for orchestration and characterization.
b. 4 movements Sheherazade (1888) represent 4 stories as told to the Sultan by his wife,
- who is represented by a solo violin.
h. Rimsky-Korsakov completed 15 operas.
i. The Golden Cockerel (19067) diatonic for the real world, chromatic for the supernatural
world.
VI. National Trends: Other Countries
1. Edvard Grieg (18431907) in Norway
a. distinctive nationalist style with a series of songs, short piano pieces, and orchestral suites.
b. Norwegian elements:
a. Modal melodies and harmonies

b. Dance rhythms
c. The nationalist style can best be seen in:
a. Songs on Norwegian texts
b. Peer Gynt Suite (1875)
c. Sltter, a collection of Norwegian peasant dances arranged for piano.
d. The piano style has some similarities to that of Chopin, but folk elements predominate
e. Some works were international in character, Piano Concerto in A Minor (1868).
2. Edward Elgar (18571934) in England
a. First English composer to gain international recognition in over two hundred years
b. didnt adopt a distinctive national style and drew upon the styles of both Brahms and Wagner.
c. The Dream of Gerontius (1900), an oratorio, is influenced by Wagners Parsifal.
VII. New Currents in France
1. General trends
a. Paris was the principal center of both concert music and opera.
b. Concerts and musical styles were often tied to politics.
c. The Paris Conservatory was a model for conservatories all over Europe.
d. The government supported performances of works by French composers.
e. Two principal strands of music dominated prior to the emergence of impressionism.
a. A cosmopolitan tradition transmitted through Csar Franck
b. A French tradition, embodied in the music of Gabriel Faur
2. Csar Franck (18221890) and the cosmopolitan tradition
a. Born in Belgium, studied at the Conservatoire and became professor of organ there in 1871.
b. Musical characteristics
a. Classical genres, forms, and counterpoint
b. Thematic transformation and cyclic unity
c. Wagnerian harmony
c. Prelude, Chorale, and Fugue (1884) for piano
- mixes Baroque forms and procedures with the thematic and harmonic methods of Liszt and
Wagner.
d. Franck is considered the founder of modern French chamber music.
e. All three of his major chamber works are cyclic and incorporate thematic transformation.
a. Piano Quintet in F Minor (1879)
b. String Quartet in D Major (1889)
c. Violin Sonata in A Major (1886)
3. Gabriel Faur (18451924) and the French traditions
a. The French tradition drew upon works from Couperin to Gounod.
a. Music was viewed more as sonorous form than as expression.
b. Order and restraint(kstlama) are fundamental
c. Music is more lyrical or dancelike than epic or dramatic.
b. Biography
a. Faur studied under Saint-Sans and held several posts as organist
b. founder of the Socit Nationale, which sought to preserve French traditions.
c. professor of composition at Paris Conservatoire 1896, served as director from 1905 to
1920
d. large works include the Requiem (1887) and two operas.
e. composed primarily smaller works; songs, short piano works, and chamber music.
c. developed a new style in which melodic lines are fragmented and harmony is less
directional.
d. Before you depart from the song cycle The Good Song, 1892)
a. Fragmentary melodic phrases
b. harmony dilutes(etkisi azalm) the need for resolution and creates a sense of repose
(skun).
VIII. New Currents in Italian Opera

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1. Verismo
a. This operatic movement parallels realism in literature.
a. It presents everyday people, generally from the lower classes.
b. Two verismo operas have entered the permanent repertory.
a. Cavalleria rusticana (1890) by Pietro Mascagni
b. The Clowns, 1892 by Ruggero Leoncavallo
2. Giacomo Puccini (18581924)
a. most successful Italian opera composer after Verdi.
b. blended Verdis vocal style with Wagners approach, including leitmotifs.
c. Major works:
a. La bohme (1896)
b. Tosca (1900)
c. Madama Butterfly (1904)
d. Turandot (1926)
d. Madama Butterfly
a. Music moves seamlessly(przszce) between dialogue and brief aria-like moments
b. The most important melodies are in the orchestra.
c. The Western musical style is touched with exoticism.
IX. The Classical Tradition in the United States
1. lots of Germans immigrated to the United States in the middle of the 19th
century.
a. German musicians had a strong commitment to their national traditions.
b. German immigrants filled American orchestras and taught all levels of instruction.
c. German tastes and style dominated American music in the classical tradition until
World War I.
2. American composers in the German tradition
a. John Knowles Paine (18391906) became Harvards first professor of music.
b. George Whitefield Chadwick(18541931)studied at New England Conservatory,
was its director.
c. Horatio Parker (18631919), student of Chadwick, taught at Yale, first dean of its
School of Music.
d. Edward MacDowell (18601908) first professor of music at Columbia University.
e. All of above composers studied in Germany, their styles were deeply rooted in German
tradition.
f. They had varying attitudes about nationalism
a. Parker wrote in international style reflected in his oratorio Hora novissima
(1893).
b. Chadwick employed pentatonic melodies and distinctive rhythms
- in his Symphony No. 2 in B-flat (188385) and Symphonic Sketches
(18951904).
c. MacDowell opposed overt nationalism, wrote several nationalist works,
Second Indian Suite
3. Amy Marcy Beach (18671944)
a. Biography
a. Beach was a child prodigy.
b. Excluded from the top universities, cause woman, studied privately in Boston and
taught herself.
c. internationally recognized and inspired many women in later generations.
b. She composed several large-scale works.
a. Mass in E-flat (1890)
b. Gaelic Symphony (189496)
c. Piano Concerto (1899)
d. Piano Quintet (1907)

c. She also wrote about 120 songs and other piano and choral works.
d. Style
a. ethnic flavor: Irish tunes in Gaelic Symphony, Native American melodies in String
Quartet (1929).
b. Most of her works follow German traditions.
e last movement of Beachs Piano Quintet embraces late-19th-century chromatic harmony.

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CHAPTER 22: THE EUROPEAN MAINSTREAM IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY

Prelude
- In competing with past composers,
- living composers sought to secure a place for themselves
- by offering something new while continuing a tradition.
I. The First Modern Generation
major composers inEurope combined
- tradition with innovation & national identity with personal style
1. Claude Debussy (18621918)
- influences from Wagner, French tradition, Russian composers, medieval music, Asian music
- create individual works, had an impact on almost all later composers.
Biography
- began studying at the Paris Conservatoire at the age of ten.
- influenced by Russian composers, Wagner, new artistic movements in Paris.
- By 1908, he was Frances leading modern composer,
- making his living as a music critic and through publications.
a. Style
Debussys music is often called impressionist, but it is closer to symbolism.
b. Piano music
- Symbolist traits are evident in his piano music.
- Each motive is associated with a particular figuration, harmony, scale, dynamic level, range,
- creating a succession of distinct musical images.
c. Harmony
- tonal focus but emphasized the sound rather than its resolution.
- evocative(armc) titles, suggesting a visual image.
d. Orchestral music
require a large ensemble, a variety of tone colors and textures.
- Prelude to "The Afternoon of a Faun, 18911894,
- Nocturnes (18971899),
- La Mer (, 19031905).
e. Nuages
- from Nocturnes: interaction of motive with timbre, scale type, etc
f. Songs and stage music
- songs to texts by several major French poets,
- music for dramatic projects, ballets, one opera, Pellas et Mlisande (18931902).
g. Influence
- changes in harmony, orchestration, emphasis on sound itself
- made him one of the most influential composers in the history of music.
2. Maurice Ravel (18751937)
encompasses a variety of influences while carrying a distinctive stamp.
a. Distinctive traits
- Unlike Debussy, Ravel often treated colorful harmonies as dissonances needing resolution,
- added sevenths to tonic and subdominant chords.
b. Varied influences
1 - ideas from older French music, the Classic tradition, the Viennese waltz, Gypsy

music, blues, Spanish idioms

2 - to create a diverse set of original works.
3. Spain: Manuel de Falla(18761946)
- combined specific national elements with the neoclassical approach popular after World War I
- to produce music that is both nationalist and more broadly modern.
4. England: Ralph Vaughan Williams (18721958)
- After centuries of domination by foreign styles,
- in the early 20th century sought a distinctive voice for English art music, drawing on folk songs.
a. English style
- Williams cultivated a national style, wrote both art music and utilitarian music,
- using elements from each tradition in the other.
- imitation of British folk tunes, assimilation of the modal harmony of 16th-century English
composers.
5. Czechoslovakia: Leo Janek(18541928),
their language and traditions allowed Eastern Europeans an independent identity
a. National style
- leading 20th-century Czech composer,
- created a national style through a distinctive melodic idiom based on:
- peasant speech, song, procedures more similar to Musorgskys or Debussys than to Germanic
tradition.
b. Operas
- dominated the Czech stage between the world wars, later became part of the international
repertory.
6. Finland: Jean Sibelius (18651957)
- 1890s, Finlands leading composer: symphonic poems on Finnish topics,
- 7 symphonies, a violin concerto for an international audience.
- distinctive sound marked by modal melodies, simple rhythms, repetition, pedal points, and
strong contrasts.
7. Russia: Sergei Rachmaninov(18731943) and Alexander Scriabin (18721915)
- their works illustrate the wide variety of personal styles in this period.
a. Rachmaninov
- a virtuoso pianist, is best known for his piano music.
b. Prelude in G Minor (1903) - innovative textures, individual melodies within traditional harmonies and ABA' form.
c. Style
-combines elements from Romantic tradition with a unique approach to melodies and textures.
d. Alexander Scriabin (18721915)
- began in the manner of Chopin
- gradually evolved an innovative harmonic vocabulary: complex chord can serve as a kind of
tonic.
e. Vers la flammeOp. 72
-unique harmonic process: tone poem for piano
II. Tonal and Post-Tonal Music
- Strauss, Ravel, Vaughan Williams, Rachmaninov, etc, active in this period wrote tonal music.
- Debussy, Falla, Janek, Scriabin, wrote in post-tonal idioms that moved beyond common
practice tonality.
1. Arnold Schoenberg (18741951)
- moved beyond tonality to atonality and then to the twelve-tone method.
a. Tonal works
- in a late Romantic style.
Biography
- born in Vienna, studied violin as a boy, received minimal instruction in theory and
composition.

- After moving to Berlin, worked at a cabaret and taught composition,

- returned to Vienna, taught Alban Berg and Anton Webern
- became acquainted with expressionist painters.
- formulated the twelve-tone method in the 1920s.
- After the Nazis came to power, emigrated to the United States, taught at UCLA.
- one of the most influential composers of the 20th century
b. Developing variation
- After turning toward chamber music, applied the principle of developing variation to his own
works.
c. Nonrepetition
- asked of each work that it not simply repeat but build on the past.
d. Atonal music
- experimentation with novel harmonic progressions led to what he called "the emancipation of
dissonance,"
- since dissonances were freed of the need to resolve to consonance,
- in 1908, began to compose pieces that others called atonal.
e. Coherence in atonal music
- To organize atonal music, Schoenberg relied on:
- developing variation, integration of harmony & melody, chromatic saturation, gestures from
tonal music.
f. Compositional process
- To integrate melody & harmony, manipulated notes & intervals of motives
g. Pitch-class sets
- generated melodies and harmonies for a composition from sets, or pitch-class sets.
Expressionism
- early 20th century, some German and Austrian painters embraced expressionism,
- developed from the subjectivity of Romanticism.
- painters aspired to convey an introspective experience.
- Schoenberg and Berg, two leading exponents of expressionism in music,
- angular melodies, fragmented rhythms, discordant harmonies to convey extreme, irrational
states of mind.
h. Chromatic saturation
- Atonal music can be shaped through chromatic saturation,
- the appearance of all twelve pitch-classes within a segment of music.
i. Atonal works
- one-character opera Erwartung (1909) exemplifies expressionism,
- portrayed extreme emotions through dissonances, exaggerated gestures, pushed non-repetition
to an extreme.
j. Pierrot lunaire 1912
- song cycle for a womans voice and chamber ensemble.
k. Sprechstimme
- approximates written pitches in the gliding tones of speech, while following the notated rhythm
exactly.
- Pierrot lunaire has expressionist features (such as Sprechstimme) and uses many traditional
elements.
Schoenbergs Piano Suite, Op. 25
- some of his methods: division of the row into segments (three tetrachords, or groups of four
notes)
- that are used as sets, analogies between row transpositions and keys, and references to
tonal music.
1. Twelve-tone method
- developed the method to lend formal coherence to atonal music without text.
- basis of 12-tone is row or series: used in original form(prime), inversion, retrograde,

retrograde inversion.
m. Return to form
- evoked traditional forms, structural functions of tonality by focusing on motives, themes, longrange repetition.
n. Schoenberg as modernist
- problems Schoenberg addressed as modernist, the way he faced them did much to shape
musical practice in the 20th century.
o The Second Viennese school
- Schoenberg and his students Alban Berg and Anton Webern are known as the Second Viennese
School.
2. Alban Berg (18851935)
- adopted Schoenbergs atonal and twelve-tone methods
- greater popularity by infusing his music with the familiar forms, expressive gestures,
characteristic styles of tonal music.
a. Wozzeckpremiered in 1925
- expressionist opera in three acts with continuous music and orchestral interludes linking acts.
- highlights the drama and organizes the music through the use of leitmotives,
- or pitch-class sets identified with the main characters, and traditional forms.
- References to tonality, familiar types of music
- helped him to convey strong emotions in a language that listeners could understand.
b. Twelve-tone works
- often chose rows that allowed for tonal-sounding chords and chord progressions.
c. Violin Concerto
- designed the row with 4 interlocking minor and major triads, which gives this twelve-tone
work a familiar sound.
3. Anton Webern (18831945)
- trained as a musicologist and absorbed ideas about music history that influenced his
development as a composer.
a. View of music history
- believed that twelve-tone music was the inevitable result of musics historical evolution.
b. Weberns style
- passed through the stages of late Romantic chromaticism, atonality, and twelve-tone
organization.
c. Economy of means
- sought to write deeply expressive music, yet his music is extremely concentrated.
- usually brief, spare in texture, canonic, and without tonal references.
d. Symphony, Op. 21
The first movement illustrates his twelve-tone procedures, canons, instrumentation, form, and
Klangfarbenmelodie.
e. Klangfarbenmelodie
- The first movement of Weberns symphony exemplifies Klangfarbenmelodie (tone-color
melody).
f. Influence
- Webern never gained wide popularity,
- but his reputation and his influence on other composers grew steadily after World War II.

Postlude

- music of early 20th century was remarkably diverse, its reception has varied.
- While some of this music may sound late Romantic in spirit or technique,
- all of it is modern in its overwhelming sense of measuring itself against the past.
CHAPTER 23: MUSIC, POLITICS, AND THE PEOPLE IN THE EUROPEAN

TWENTIETH CENTURY
Prelude
- 19th cen writers: classical music an autonomous art,
- music never fully escaped politics.
- between the world wars: new links between music and politics.
- music must be relevant to social needs,
- music more accessible to audiences and amateurs,
- nationalism continued to be strong
- governments sponsored musical activities directly.
- new sounds within the Classic tradition,
- others explored new territory in the avant-garde movement.
I. The Avant-Garde
- Avant-garde composers challenged the very notion of classics, sought to focus on the present.
A. Erik Satie (18661925)
- used wit (ince espri) in his music to satirize convention.
- early piano pieces challenged Romantic notions of expressivity through:
- deliberate plainness, modal harmonies, and puzzling dynamics.
a. Piano works
- 1900 - 1915: several sets of piano pieces, surreal titles, parodistic music, satirical commentary
in the score.
b. Larger works
- ballet Parade (19161917): ballet with music
- question listeners expectations and fix attention on the present.
- His antisentimental spirit influenced later composers.
B. Futurism
- Italian futurists favored machines and noise over traditional instruments and pitches.
- Like Satie, they focused on the experience of listening in the present moment
- and rejected the music and aesthetics of the past.
II. France
a. Notions of classicism
- During and after World War I, neoclassicism became the prevailing trend in France, allied with
patriotism.
- Conservatives identified classicism with: balance, order, discipline, and tradition
- while more progressive composers saw classicism as universal and not national.
B. "Les Six" (The Six)
- sought to escape old political dichotomies, wrote highly individual works
- drew on a wide range of influences, including neoclassicism.
- The most successful members of this group were Honegger, Milhaud, and Poulenc.
a. Arthur Honegger (18921955)
- Pacific 231 (1923), an orchestral impression of a train,
- for his oratorio King David (1923).
b. Darius Milhaud (18921974)
- prolific in every genre, blended neoclassicism with other influences from jazz to Schoenberg.
c. Francis Poulenc (18991963)
- drew especially on the Parisian popular chanson tradition associated with cabarets and revues.
III. Igor Stravinsky(18821971)
- started as a Russian nationalist, became a cosmopolitan,
- elements of Russian music became part of a common international modernist practice.
Biography
- raised in St. Petersburg, studied composition privately with Rimsky-Korsakov.
- early 1910s, Sergei Diaghilev commissioned him to write ballets for the Ballets Russes in Paris;
- these ballets made Stravinsky famous.
- World War II, moved to the United States, settling in Hollywood.

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- Most of his late works are serial and many are religious.
A. Russian Period
- most popular works are three ballets from early in his career, composed for the Ballets
Russes.
a. The Firebird (1910) stems from Russian nationalism and from Rimsky-Korsakovs exoticism.
b. Petrushka (1911)
- distinctive stylistic traits emerge:
- repetitive melodies and rhythms over static harmony,
- blocks of sound that interrupt and alternate with one another without transitions,
- sharp dissonances that are often octatonic or derived from superimposed triads.
- carnival atmosphere by borrowing and elaborating Russian folk tunes and Viennese waltzes.
c. The Rite of Spring 1913
- The typical characteristics of Stravinskys mature idioms:
- reduction of meter to pulsation via unpredictable accents or silences and rapidly changing
meters
d. Ostinatos and juxtaposed blocks
- ostinatos to create static blocks of sound, which he juxtaposed with one another.
a. Layering
- frequently layered two or more independent strands of music on top of one another.
b. Timbre and orchestration
- often identified a musical idea with a particular timbre or used changes of timbre to provide
variety.
c. Small-ensemble works
- During World War I, turned toward small combinations of instruments to accompany stage
works.
Stravinskys Notorious Ballet
- The premiere of Stravinskys ballet The Rite of Spring defied the audiences expectations.
- explosive rhythms and unpredictable harmonies
- accompanied by the bold and unorthodox choreography by Vaslav Nijinsky (18881950)
- exotic sets and loose-fitting primitive costumes designed by Nicholas Roerich.
B. Neoclassical Period (1919)
- ballet Pulcinella (1919), applied the methods distilled in The Rite of Spring
- to arrangements of 18th-century pieces by Pergolesi and others.
a. Neoclassicism revisited
- With Pulcinella, turned to neoclassicism, a broad movement from the 1910s to the 1950s
- composers revived, imitated, or evoked the styles, genres, and forms of pre-Romantic music.`
a. Uses of neoclassicism
- in Neoclassicism he used tools he had developed in his Russian period
- while claiming a place in the classical tradition of the West.
- adopts an anti-Romantic tone, reflecting a preference for balance, objectivity, and absolute
music.
b. Symphony of Psalms (1930)
-his neoclassicism & its continuity with his earlier style are both evident
c. Neotonality
- Symphony of Psalms is neotonal: reiteration(tekrar) and other means to establish a tonal
center,
- rather than traditional functional harmony.
d. Schoenberg and Stravinsky
1 Both sought to revitalize(diriltmek) traditional forms in an entirely new musical
language.
C. Serial Period From about 1953,
- adapted techniques from serial music (an extension of twelve-tone methods)
- particular genius lay in assimilating new ideas into his own personal sound.

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a. Influence
- element in Russian music and traits became commonplace in modern music,
- making him one of the most influential composers of the century.
IV. Bla Bartk(18811945)
- Modernists found elements in their own national music
- distinctive voice while continuing the classical tradition.
- Bartk: individual modernist idiom by synthesizing elements of:
- Hungarian, Romanian, Slovak, and Bulgarian peasant music with elements of classical
tradition.
7 Biography
- music lessons from a young age and studied piano and composition in Budapest.
- virtuoso pianist: performed all over Europe, edited keyboard music by Bach, Haydn, Mozart,
etc.
- ethnomusicologist: collected, edited and published, and wrote about folk music.
- arranged peasant tunes, created original works based on them,
- blended characteristics of them with those of Classical and modern music.
- composed his most famous pieces shortly before World War II.
- In 1940, immigrated to the United States, settling in New York.
a. Classical and modern influences
- drew on the Classical tradition from Bach to Brahms for his early compositions,
- then absorbed influences from Strauss, Debussy, Schoenberg, and Stravinsky.
b. Peasant music
- search for an innately Hungarian music led him to collect and study peasant music,
- often with fellow composer Zoltn Kodly (18821967).
c. Stylistic evolution
- first achieved a distinctive personal style around 1908,
- his later works are his best known.
- Mikrokosmos (19261937) is a series of graded piano pieces that summarizes his style.
d. Bartks synthesis
- synthesized peasant music with classical music by emphasizing what the traditions have in
common:
- a pitch center, diatonic scales, and motives that are repeated and varied
- what is most distinctive about each
- classical forms and counterpoint, irregular meters, modal scales, melody types, ornamentation,
other traits of specific peasant traditions.
e. Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta (1936)
- exemplifies his synthesis and his personal style.
- His approach to neotonality is novel,
- yet alludes both to the chordal motions and the tonic-dominant polarity of classical music
- and to the ways peasant melodies establish a tonal center
f. Melodic structure
- his melodies reflect the procedures of varying small motives:
- typical both in classical music and in the peasant music of Hungary and Bulgaria,
- sometimes mix modes, as do some Hungarian songs.
g. Form and counterpoint
- fugue, sonata, rondo, canon, inversion, cyclic form,
h. Peasant elements
- elements from traditional peasant styles:
- Bulgarian dance meters, ornamental style of Serbo-Croatian song (parlando-rubato), melodies
over drones.
i. Bartk as modernist
- synthesis of classical and peasant traditions created new works
- with a strong personal identity and rich connections to past music.

V. Germany
- Music and politics were linked closely in Germany under the Weimar Republic (191933),
- the Nazis (193345) attacked modern music and banned leftists and Jews from public life.
A. New Objectivity
- Neue Sachlichkeit of the 1920s opposed complexity and favored music that was widely
accessible,
- objective in expression, and connected to current concerns.
a. Ernst Krenek (19001991)
Jonny spielt auf (1927) embodied the ideals of New Objectivity and was attacked by the Nazis for
its use of jazz.
B. Kurt Weill (19001950)
- a supporter of New Objectivity, sought to entertain everyday people rather than intellectual
elites.
a. Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (1930),
- Weill and playwright Bertolt Brecht collaborated
- an allegorical opera about failures of capitalism.
b. The Threepenny Opera (1928),
- by Weill and Brecht, adapted from The Beggars Opera, parodied American hit songs
- great success before being banned as decadent by the Nazis in 1933
c. Career on Broadway
- emigrated United States, wrote successful Broadway musicals in the spirit of New Objectivity.
C. Paul Hindemith (18951963)
- among the most prolific composers of the 20th century, important teacher and performer.
a. Interwar period
- moved from expressionism to neotonal, avoided Romantic expressivity, focused on musical
procedures.
b. Gebrauchsmusik
- late 1920s, began composing Gebrauchsmusik (music for use),
- music for young or amateur performers, modern and challenging yet rewarding to perform.
c. Mathis der Maler 193435
- opera, written after the Nazis came to power, examines the role of the artist in relation to
politics.
d. Harmonic fluctuation
- From the 1930s, neo-Romantic style, developed a new harmonic method: harmonic
fluctuation,:
- phrases start with relative consonance, move toward greater dissonance, and return to
consonance.
D. Music under the Nazis
- The Nazis established a Reich Music Chamber to which all musicians had to belong.
a. Degenerate" music (yozlam)
- Nazis attacked most modern music, no coherent Nazi style:
- government focused more on performance than on composition,
- exploiting the great 19th-century German composers as symbols of alleged German superiority.
b. Carl Orff (18951982) is best known for Carmina burana (1936), contributions to music
education.
VI. The Soviet Union
- The Soviet government controlled every realm of life, including the arts.
a. Composers organizations
- early 1920s, the Association for Contemporary Music promoted modernism and contacts with
the West,
- the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians supported simple tonal music with wide
appeal.
- Both were replaced in 1933 by Stalins Union of Soviet Composers.

b. Socialist realism versus formalism

- Beginning in 1934, Soviet authorities promulgated (ilan etmek) socialist realism:
- accessible, melodic, folklike music on patriotic or inspirational topics,
- condemned what they called formalism.

B. Sergey Prokofiev(18911953)
- initial reputation as a radical modernist.
- After touring outside Russia, accepted commissions from the Soviet regime
- for works in a more popular style (including Alexander Nevsky) returned
permanently in 1936.
- During World War II, absolute genres, his music was labeled "formalist" by the
authorities in 1948
C. Dmitri Shostakovich(19061975)
- spent his entire career within the Soviet system, reaching international fame at a
young age.
a. Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District 1934

- achieved great success with this opera, but attacked in the official press in 1936.
b. Fifth Symphony
- modeled on Mahler and Tchaikovsky
- outwardly conformed to socialist realism,
- conveying emotions experienced in a totalitarian regime.
c. Seventh Symphony (1941)
- programmatic work about the heroic defense of Leningrad or/and complaint against Stalins
repression.
d. Later works
- In 1948, he was denounced, wrote music for the regime as well as himself.
- The apparent double meanings in Shostakovichs music
- reflect the fact that he could never say precisely what he felt under Soviet rule.

Postlude
- interwar period includes some of the most widely performed works
- many forgotten the political circumstances
- Today, many people are challenging the notion that classical music as autonomous art
- and seek to understand the circumstances surrounding its creation.
- What seems most important about classical music of this period is its great variety.
CHAPTER 24: VERNACULAR MUSIC AND THE CLASSICAL TRADITION IN
AMERICA
Prelude
- Diverse classical & popular musical idioms developed in the US, during the 19th and 20th
centuries.
I. Diverging Trends in 19th- and Early-20th-Century America
- Musical life was influenced by its ethnic diversity,
- by the rapidly emerging distinctions between classical, popular, and folk music.
1. Band Music
- earliest bands attached to military units, in 19th century, amateur local bands, common
everywhere.
a. John Philip Sousa (18541932)
- most successful bandmaster
-between Civil War & World War I was the heyday(altn a) of professional bands
b. Repertory

- repertory of 19th-cen.-bands consisted of: marches, dances, arrangements of arias and songs,
- transcriptions of pieces by classical composers, and virtuosic display pieces
c. African-American bands
- Brass bands, black churches, dance orchestras were among the main training grounds for
African-American musicians.
2. Popular Song
- Songs also reflected the diverging tastes and needs of the American public.
a. Art song versus popular song
later 19th cen: widening gulf between art songs (precisely notated) and popular songs
(entertain)
b. Subjects
- variety of topics and were used for every possible cause.
c. Form
- interplay of novelty with conventions: standard form of verse and refrain.
- refrain, sometimes scored in parts, became known as the chorus.
- The key to success: catchy phrase, or hook, that could be repeated and varied.
Vaudeville is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment.
d. Tin Pan Alley 19201955f
- name for a district in New York City, beginning 1880s, numerous publishers specializing in
popular songs
Innovations: Recorded Sound and Its Impact
- recording, most significant impact on musical culture of any innovation since printing press
-1877, Thomas Edison 1st sound recording with phonograph, later modified with wax cylinders &
motor.
-1887, Emile Berliner recorded on a flat disc, simplified the duplication process.
- not well suited to orchestral music, but featured famous singers:
- they achieved first time kind of immortality only composers had experienced.
- 1920s, new electrical methods of recording and reproduction increased sales and competition.
- companies made new improvements, LP (1946), magnetic tape (1950s), CD (1983).
- recordings altered the way we listen to music,
- exposed(maruz brakmak) composers to musical styles and ideas outside their ordinary
experiences.
3. Music of African Americans
- music showed many common elements.
a. Characteristic traits
- Some common elements of African-American music:
- call and response, improvisation, syncopation, layered rhythms, and bending pitches.
b. Spirituals
- African-American form of music with the greatest impact in the 19th century
c. Dissemination(yaygnlatrma)
- end 19th cen: spirituals as folk music, popular songs, sources for melodic material for classical
composers.
II. Vernacular Styles
- impact of prosperity(refah) and technology on music
- the growing importance of African Americans were apparent in American vernacular music.
1. Ragtime
- featuring syncopated rhythm over a regular, marchlike bass: style popular from 1890s through
1920s.
2. Scott Joplin (18671917)
- leading ragtime composer, best known for his piano rags.
- typical rag: Maple Leaf Rag (1899): march form in duple meter, syncopated melody over a
steady bass
1. Popular Song and Stage Music

- 1920s. rich time for American popular music.

- most successful songwriters were writing for Tin Pan Alley, musical theater, and movie
musicals.
a. Musical comedy
- or musical, a show featuring songs and dance numbers: introduced by George M. Cohan
b. Characteristics
- Musicals were collaborations, some were primarily vehicles for star entertainers,
- but there was increasing interest in plot-driven musicals with close integration of music and
story.
c. Show Boat (1927),
- with music by Jerome Kern (18851945)
- book and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II
- integrated musical, brings together a number of traditions and musical styles to serve dramatic
ends.
d. Oklahoma!
- Richard Rodgers (19021979)& Oscar Hammerstein, Broadways best-loved shows:
- beginning with Oklahoma!: a musical about American rural life with dramatic, comedic
subplots, portrayed through dialogue, song, and dance.
e. Leonard Bernstein (19181990)
- conductor, classical composer, major presence on Broadway, best known musical West Side
Story 1957
2. The Birth of Film Music
a. Sound in film
first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927
- New technologies in late 1920s made it possible to synchronize recorded sound with film.
- two categories
- (1) music heard, performed by the characters in the film, called diegetic music or source
music,
- (2) background music, called nondiegetic music or underscoring.
b. Movie musicals
- The 1930s were the "golden age" of the Hollywood musical.
c. Film scores
- 1930s, Hollywood studios fostered the rise of film scores, fully integrated into the dramatic
action,
- guiding the viewers emotional responses and giving depth to the events on screen.
- important early example: King Kong(1933) by Max Steiner(18881971)
- used leitmotives, coordinated with the action on screen.
3. The Jazz Age
- African-American music and musicians played an increasingly influential role in the 1920s,
- as blues and jazz gained wide currency and jazz became an emblem of social liberation.
a. Blues
- express the feelings suggested by the words through a variety of elements including blue
notes.
b. W. C. Handy (18731958)
- Classic blues singers joined aspects of oral tradition with elements of popular song.
- Handy standardized the twelve-bar blues form,
- which is illustrated in Back Water Blues by Bessie Smith (18941937).
c. Jazz
- The 1910s saw the early development of jazz.
d. Jazz contrasted with ragtime
- Jazz players extemporized arrangements that distinguished one performer or performance
from another.

- Jazz style is marked by anticipated beats, swinging rhythms, etc, exp: Jelly Roll Morton
(18901941)
e. New Orleans jazz
- leading style after World War I, centered on group variation of a given tune ,
- developed in New Orleans by:
- cornettist Joe "King" Oliver (18851938), trumpeter Louis Armstrong (19011971).
f. King Oliver and Louis Armstrong
- The recordings of King Olivers Creole Jazz Band in Chicago embody the New Orleans jazz
style.
- The ensemble is divided into the "front line" of melody instruments and the rhythm section.
- After presenting a tune, group repeats its harmonic progression in a series of choruses:
- each featuring different instruments
g. Big bands 1930s,
- popular, divided into three sections (brass, reeds, and rhythm).
Jazz Improvisation
- crucial element of the musical language of jazz.
- In his performance of West End Blues, Armstrong:
- transforms the tune composed by Oliver while retaining its original harmonic framework.
- His recording features both his virtuosic trumpet playing and his
- scat singing : A technique in jazz in which the performer sings nonsense syllables to an
improvised or composed melody.
h. Swing
- popular dance craze in America, the number of swing bands exploded in the 1930s.
4. George Gershwin (18981937)
- composer of jazz-influenced classical music,
- including the "jazz concerto" Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and his opera Porgy and Bess (1935).
a. Musicals
- Gershwin also wrote popular songs and musicals,
- the harmonic progression from his song I Got Rhythm
- used so often for new jazz tunes that the progression got the nickname "rhythm changes."
5. Duke Ellington (18991974)
- leading composer of the Jazz Age(1920s) and one of the most influential American composers.
a. Cotton Club years
- From 1927 to 1931, Ellington developed his individual style
- began to gain national recognition at the Cotton Club in Harlem.
- His compositions and arrangements highlighted the individual sounds of his musicians.
Biography: Duke Ellington
- Born in Washington, D.C., studied piano from the age of seven.
- By seventeen, he had formed his own band, which he moved to New York in 1923.
- His band was known around the world through its recordings and international tours.
b. The 1940s
- peak of Ellingtons creative abilities.
- Cotton Tail, a contrafact based on I Got Rhythm, illustrates his music from this era
contrafact: is a musical composition consisting of a new melody overlaid on a familiar harmonic
structure
c."Beyond category"
- Ellington believed that jazz could serve as art music as well as dance and entertainment music.
6. Later Developments in Jazz
- After World War II, financial support for big bands declined,
- bebop (or bop) emerged, built around virtuosic soloists supported by small combos.
a. Bebop
- typical bebop combo had a rhythm section and one or more melody instruments.
- combined traditional jazz elements with complex harmony and rhythm, chromaticism,

- and more improvisation, and it was meant for attentive listening, not for dancing.
b. Anthropology
- characteristic example of bebop is Anthropology by:
Charlie "Bird" Parker (19201955) and Dizzy Gillespie (19171993).
- Anthropology begins with an introduction followed by the head (the primary tune)
- and then several choruses, and concludes with a final statement of the tune.
c. After bebop
- 1950s, musicians pioneered new jazz styles,
- seeking paths for individual expression by extending the methods and ideas of bebop.
- Miles Davis (19261991) major figure in several trends, including cool jazz and modal jazz.
d. Free jazz
- Ornette Coleman (b. 1930) and his quartet introduced free jazz,
- John Coltrane (19261967) developed a personal avant-garde style.
e. Third stream
- merging jazz and classical music to create what Gunther Schuller (b. 1925) called "third
stream."
f. Jazz as a classical music
- By 1970, the jazz world had developed its own roster of classics
- treated as kind of classical music, studied in written histories and college courses, performed by
ensembles.
III. Modernism and Americanism: Charles Ives
- Charles Ives (18741954) composed in 4 distinct traditions:
-American vernacular(anadil) music, Protestant church music, European classical music,
experimental music - in his mature music combined elements of all four to convey rich musical
meanings.
1. Traditional influences
- Ives grew up surrounded by American vernacular music,
- he composed many pieces in the styles of the day.
- As a child and later as a professional church organist:
- Ives sang, heard, played all styles prominent in American Protestant church music.
2. Experimental music
- preserved most of the traditional rules, but changed others in order to see what would happen.
- several polytonal pieces
- others explored unprecedented levels of dissonance and rhythmic complexity.
3. The Unanswered Question
- Ivess experimental pieces were private studies and were not published or performed for
decades,
but one, The Unanswered Question (1908), later became well known.
Biography: Charles Ives
- began his musical training as a child, studied music theory and composition at Yale with
Horatio Parker.
- As a teenager and young adult, Ives was a church organist.
- When his music failed to attract positive reviews, he focused on his insurance business.
- He still composed in the evenings and on weekends, but published nothing until the 1920s.
- By the time of his death, most of his major works had been performed and published.
- Ives is now widely regarded as the first to create a distinct body of American art music.
4. Syntheses
- From 1902 on, Ives wrote only in classical genres,
- styles and sounds of the other traditions.
- some of his works like Third Symphony, used cumulative form:
- employs the procedures of thematic fragmentation and development of European sonata form
- but reverses the normal course of events so that
- the themes are developed before they appear in full near the end of the movement.

5. Programs
- later pieces, like: Three Places in New England, are programmatic,
- celebrating aspects of American life and using American tunes and styles to convey meaning
6. Collage
- layer multiple borrowed tunes in a musical collage to suggest the process of remembering
experiences.
7. Variety
- frequently mixed styles within a single piece to evoke a wide range of extramusical references
- and also to articulate musical form.
8. General Booth
- synthesized all four traditions of his music in his song General William Booth Enters into
Heaven (1914).
9. Ivess place
- Although Ives had little influence on others until after World War II,
- his work had a tremendous impact on younger generations of American musicians.
IV. The Classical Tradition Through Midcentury
- between two world wars, distinctive national style, gained attention from an international
audience.
1. North and South of the Border
a. Canada
- thriving(byyen) musical life that developed along patterns similar to those in the US.
b. Claude Champagne (18911965) first Canadian composer to achieve an international
reputation.
c. Brazil
- Heitor Villa-Lobos (18871959), important Brazilian composer,
- drew together traditional Brazilian
- pays tribute to Bach with a blend of Baroque and Brazilian folk elements.
d. Mexico
- from 1921, government supported bringing the arts to a wide public
- promoted nationalism drawing on native Indian cultures.
e. Carlos Chvez (18991978),
- first composer associated with the new nationalism,
- wrote ballets and symphonic works with Aztec elements and works that were not overtly
nationalist.
f. Silvestre Revueltas (18991940)
- combined melodies modeled on Mexican folk and popular music with a modernist idiom.
2. The United States
- new links with Europe, many studied with Nadia Boulanger in France
- several European composers immigrated to the United States.
a. Ultramodernists and Americanists
- interwar period several new currents like: ultramodernist and Americanist trends.
b. Edgard Varse (18831965)
- born and trained in France, moved to New York in 1915
- influenced by Debussy, Schoenberg, and Stravinsky.
c. Spatial music and sound masses
- from 1920s, Varse imagined music as spatial,
- with sound masses characterized by timbre, register, rhythm, and pitch changing
-and interacting in unconventional ways.
- In his music, percussion was on equal footing with other instruments.
d. Hyperprism
- pitch, instrumental color, gesture, rhythm interact to suggest sound masses colliding and
changing.
- After World War II, Varse used electronic means to create new sounds.

e. Influence
- In Varses music, the listener must put aside expectations
- and simply observe the interaction of bodies of sound.
- Varses ideas had an enormous influence on younger composers in the United States and
Europe.
f. Henry Cowell(18971965)
- In his experimental pieces, tried out new techniques: tone clusters and playing on the strings of
the piano
- new textures, and other new procedures.
- From the 1930s on, Cowell created a more accessible musical language:
- often incorporating American, Irish, or Asian elements.
- Cowell promoted and published music by modernist and ultramodernist composers
g. Ruth Crawford (19011953)
- experimented with dissonant counterpoint, rhythmic independence of parts, serial
techniques,
- then turned from composition to editing and arranging American folk songs.
- In her String Quartet (1931), combines string quartet tradition with her constant search for new
procedures.
h. Aaron Copland (19001990)
- became the most important American composer of his generation
- through his own compositions and his work for the cause of American music.
i. Early works
- Jazz elements and strong dissonances
j. Americanist style
- In 1930s, 1940s, sought to appeal to a larger audience by reducing his modernist technique to
its essence,
- combining it with simple textures and diatonic melodies and harmonies.
k. Appalachian Spring (194344).
- Americanist idiom is exemplified in this ballet
- widely spaced sonorities, open octaves, fifths, diatonic dissonance became an American musical
emblem
l. William Grant Still (18951978)
- incorporated specifically American idioms into art music and broke numerous racial barriers.
m. Afro-American Symphony 1930
- African-American musical elements within traditional framework of a European 4-movement
symphony.
n. Virgil Thomson (18961989)
- composer and critic, sought to write music that was simple, direct, playful, and focused on the
present.
0. Four Saints in Three Acts 192728
- Thomson collaborated with Gertrude Stein on this opera,
- absurdist work that places a variety of musical styles and idioms in surprising juxtapositions.
p. Americanist works
- Much of Thomsons other music is more overtly Americanist
q. Diversity of styles
- Art music in America during the interwar period encompassed a variety of styles
- as composers sought a place in the crowded classical repertoire.
Postlude
- Through new technologies, American popular music, jazz, and film music
- reached audiences throughout the Western world,
- by the 1970s, canons of classics, centered around music that was popular between the wars, had
developed. - Many musicians emigrated to America during and after the World Wars,
- American composers won international reputations by incorporating American styles and

sounds into their music.

CHAPTER 25: THE CHANGING WORLD OF MUSIC SINCE 1945

Chapter Outline
Prelude
- postwar years, composers shared less common ground, little consensus on style, aesthetic, or
purpose.
I. Heirs(miras) to the Classical Tradition
- Many postwar composers used traditional media, developing individual styles within the
classical tradition
1. Olivier Messiaen (19081992),
- most important French composer born in the 20th century, organist,
- teacher of important younger composers.
- many pieces on religious subjects: Quartet for the End of Time, 1941
a. Music as contemplation (derin dnce)
- sought to embody ecstatic(kendinden geirici) contemplation in music,
- focusing on a few ideas that are juxtaposed rather than developed.
b. Harmonic stasis (duraanlk)
- repeated chord series to create a sense of stasis or meditation.
c. Rhythmic stasis
- treated rhythm as a matter of duration, not meter,
- sometimes using repeated patterns of durations like those of medieval isorhythm.
d. Ethereal (ruhani) sounds
- preferred beautiful timbres and colorful harmonies.
2. Benjamin Britten 19131976
- English composer, concerned primarily with communicating emotions and ideas,
- including humanitarian concerns, in his music
a. Homosexuality
- several of his operas have themes related to homosexuality
- Peter Grimes 194445
- established his reputation
- first English opera since Purcell to enter the international repertory.
c. War Requiem (196162).
expressed his pacifism
3. Tonal Traditionalism
- Many 20th-century composers developed individual styles without departing radically from
the past.
a. Samuel Barber (19101981)
- The American composer, offered a novel blend of traditional tonality with modern resources
II. Serial and Nonserial Complexity
- After World War II, young composers in Germany and elsewhere adopted twelve-tone
methods:
- adapting them to their own purposes.
1. Politics and institutional support
- Government and university support for serial music was crucial, since there was never a large
audience for it.
2. The Darmstadt school
- The ideas fostered in centers for new music, like Darmstadt,
- inspired experiments by composers from many countries.
1. Extensions of Serialism
- Beginning in the late 1940s, composers applied serial procedures to parameters other than

pitch,
- such as duration and dynamics, resulting in total serialism.
a. Milton Babbitt (b. 1916-2011)
- first applied serial principles to duration in his Three Compositions for Piano (1947).
- His music grew even more complex because of the maximum interrelatedness of its musical
materials.
b. Karlheinz Stockhausen(19282007)
- Independent of Babbitt, composers in Europe explored similar ideas.
- Stockhausen used complex serial processes to create Kreuzspiel (Cross-Play),
- continued to develop serial procedures but also moved in many other directions,
- combining serialism with other methods
c. Pierre Boulez(b. 1925- 2016)
- best-known piece, Le marteau sans matre (The Hammer without a Master, 195355),
- fused serial methods with a sensitive musical realization of the text.
- unique approach to serialism that provided him with flexibility and expressive potential.
d. The listener
- Totally serial compositions are based on principles,
- but they give listeners an impression of randomness, appealed principally to a small set of
enthusiasts.
e. The new virtuosity
- In the postwar years, a new generation of extraordinarily proficient performers encouraged
composers to write pieces to challenge their skills.
f. Luciano Berio (19252003)
- Each work in Sequenza, for a different unaccompanied solo instrument,
- composed for a specific virtuosic performer.
g. Elliott Carter (b. 1908-2012)
- only the most proficient performers could play
- developed what he called "metric modulation."
- String Quartet No. 2 (1959),
- each instrumental part a distinctive personality that interacts with the others.
III. New Sounds and Textures
- One prominent strand in 20th-century music was the exploration of new musical resources.
1. New Instruments, Sounds, and Scales
- Some composers built new instruments and explored new scales.
a. Harry Partch (19011974)
- developed new instruments that could play in scales based on pure intervals.
b. George Crumb (b. 1929)
- used ordinary instruments and objects to create new sounds.
- unusual effects provide material for juxtaposition and variation and usually evoke extramusical
associations.
2. Non-Western Styles and Instruments
Composers explored music of other cultures with respect for its uniqueness.
a. Colin McPhee (19001964)
- transcribed Balinese gamelan music for Western instruments , works that drew on Balinese
materials.
b. Henry Cowell
- After World War II, several works that blended Asian and Western elements.
c. Lou Harrison 19172003
- 1960s and 1970s combined his interest in just intonation
- penchant(tutku) for inventing new instruments with his enthusiasm for the music of Asia.
3. Electronic Music
- Electronic recording, production, manipulation of sounds, first explored in art music
- but ultimately became more significant for popular music, especially after 1970.

a. Musique concrte
- Pierre Schaeffer pioneered
- entailed recording sounds, manipulating them, and assembling them into collages.
b. Electronic sound
- Some new sounds were produced electronically,
- beginning with electronic instruments like the theremin and the ondes martenot.
c. Electronic music studios
- made possible a whole new realm of sounds.
d. Karlheinz Stockhausen
- recorded sounds alongside electronic ones: Gesang der Jnglinge (195556)
e. Varses
- Pome lectronique (195758)
- combined electronic sounds with recorded ones,
- represented the pinnacle(zirve) of his concept of spatial music.
f. Synthesizers
- Electronic sound synthesizers made the process of recording and mixing much easier,
- in the mid-1960s, popular artists also began using them.
g. Role of performers
- The electronic medium gave composers complete, unmediated control over their compositions.
h. Milton Babbitt
- audiences expect to have performers to watch and respond to,
- composers began to create works that combined prerecorded tape with live performers
- Babbitts Philomel (1964).
4. Music of Texture and Process
- Inspired by Varses concept of spatial music and by electronic music,
- some composers wrote pieces creating interesting and novel textures,
- organized by gradual or sudden processes of change.
a. Iannis Xenakis (19222001)
- among the first composers to write music based on texture and process for acoustic
instruments:
- Metastaseis (19531954).
b. Krzysztof Penderecki (b. 1933)
- Threnody: To the Victims of Hiroshima (1960)
- one of the best-known pieces based on texture and process:
- high clusters, glissandos, and special effects on string instruments to create music that sounds
electronic.
- also used similar techniques in dramatic works.
c. New thinking
- Pieces using new sounds and textures demand new thinking about music from their listeners
and composers
IV. The Avant-Garde
- In some discussions of 20th-century music, all postwar developments are lumped together as
avant-garde
- but this view of history does not account for the different motivations behind those
developments.
- Modernist, experimentalist, and avant-garde composers had different motivations
- Modernist, seeking a place in the classical repertoire,
- experimentalist trying new methods for their own sake,
- avant-garde challenging accepted aesthetics while focusing on the present.
1. John Cage (19121992)
- leading composer of the postwar avant-garde.
- late 1930s and 1940s, focused on new sounds,
- experimentation with timbre culminated in his invention of the prepared piano,

- essentially a one-person percussion ensemble.

- 1950s, 1960s, created opportunities for experiencing sounds as themselves,
- not as vehicles for the composers intentions.
a. Chance
- chance operations, in Music of Changes for piano (1951) and other works,
- to make some of the decisions normally made by the composer.
In Performance: John Cage and Musical Notation Music of Changes: using chance
operations to make certain choices within parameters he had designed in advance,
- yet he notated precisely every detail of the music.
b. Indeterminacy
- Different from chance
- composer leaves unspecified certain aspects: the precise notes and rhythms or the coordination
of parts.
- By using chance and indeterminacy, Cage invites the listener to simply hear sound as sound
- not to expect music to communicate meaning.
c. Blurring the boundaries
- 1950s, created pieces that blurred the boundaries between music, the other arts, and the rest of
life.
2. Indeterminacy in Works of Other Composers
a. Morton Feldman (19261987)
- inspired by New York abstract expressionist painters to trust instinct and reject compositional
systems
- and traditional forms of expression, as seen in his Projection I for solo cello.
b. Earle Brown (19262002)
- December 1952 (1952) in graphic notation in which nothing is specified.
c. Significance of indeterminacy
- Indeterminate pieces utilize new kinds of notation,
- never performed the same way twice,
- drawing into question the nature of "the musical work."
3. Digital Technologies
- Since the 1970s, new digital technologies altered the ways musicians work with music &
listeners consume it.
a. Sampling
- One significant new technique is sampling, patching together digital segments of recorded
sound.
b. Computer music
- Advances in computing offered new possibilities that composers explored,
- including computer-synthesized sounds and computer transformations of sound.
Digital Technologies
- 1970s, early 1980s, music joined the digital revolution,
- musicians in both popular and classical traditions were using digital synthesizers.
- Some musicians combined live performers with synthesized or computer-generated music.
V. Minimalism and Postminimalism
- Minimalism, approach to music, materials are reduced to a minimum and procedures
simplified.
- began as an aesthetic but became a set of techniques,
- composers absorbed a variety of influences
- leading musical style of the late 20th century.
1. Minimalism in art
- Minimalist artworks focused on basic forms and materials and did NOT seek to express
feelings.
2. Early minimalism in music
- paralleling minimalism in art:

- La Monte Young (b. 1935) and Terry Riley (b. 1935).

1. From Avant-Garde to Widespread Appeal
- Three other Americans brought minimalist procedures into art music intended for a broad
audience.
a. Steve Reich (b. 1936)
- developed a minimalist effect called phasing.
- attracted a wide range of listeners,
- by the 1980s, applied minimalist techniques to works with significant emotional content,
postminimalist.
b. Philip Glass (b. 1937)
- emphasizes melodiousness, consonance, and simple harmonic progressions.
- secured his reputation with a series of major works.
c. Einstein on the Beach
- opera, premiered in 1976, avoids narrative, consists of repeated musical figures sung on
solfge syllables
- played on electronic instruments, woodwinds, and solo violin.
d. John Adams (b. 1947)
- began his career writing minimalist works like Phrygian Gates, 19771978
- then blended minimalist techniques with elements from popular and classical music in works
- like his orchestral fanfare Short Ride in a Fast Machine (1986).
- won a broad and enthusiastic audience by integrating traditional procedures with minimalist
ones
e. Influence of minimalism
- Since 1970s, 1980s, minimalist techniques grown increasingly common in popular music and
film music.
2. Interactions with Non-Western Musics
- Many currents in Western music were inspired by the music of Asia and Africa.
a. Bright Sheng (b.1955)
- Some composers, including Chinese-born Sheng drew directly on Asian music,
- as in his solo cello suite Seven Tunes Heard in China (1999).
- Such works go beyond 19th-century exoticism in the respect they show for the intrinsic value of
the traditions on which they draw
VI. The New Accessibility and Other Trends
- many composers made a living teaching at universities, repeat performances of their music was
difficult.
- others sought to attract wider interest by writing more accessible music.
1. Accessible Modernism and Radical Simplification
Some composers wrote accessible music in a modernist idiom.
a. Gyrgy Ligeti 19232006
- Vertige 1990, the constant repetition of simple material reflects the influence of
minimalism,
- while the texture of overlapping continuous lines comes from electronic music.
b. Ellen Taaffe Zwilich (b. 1939)
- joins continuous developing variation with older formal devices of recurrence and contrast.
c. Arvo Prt (b. 1935)
- used simple materials influenced by Baroque and medieval traditions to create a highly
individual style.
- method tintinnabuli: simple diatonic melody with other voices that sound only the notes of
tonic triad.
2. Quotation, Collage, and Polystylism
- composers borrowed existing music, evoking older music through quotation & collage to carry
new meanings.
a. Postmodernism

- all styles were equally available as musical material, to be employed as the composer saw fit.
b. Alfred Schnittke (19341998)
- followed new Western trends during the 1960s
- then turned to "polystylism,"
- combination of new and older styles created through quotation or stylistic allusion.
3. Neo-Romanticism
- adopted the tonal idiom of 19th-century Romanticism, a trend known as neo-Romanticism.
a. George Rochberg 19182005
- turned from serialism to quotation in the 1960s,
- moved to a mix of neo-Romanticism and early modernism in the 1970s.
b. David Del Tredici (b. 1937)
- embraced neo-Romanticism to create whimsical(acayip fikirli),
- immediately comprehensible music,
- texts from Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland in Final Alice
4. Extramusical Imagery and Meanings
- extramusical meanings & imagery,
- hoping that listeners would accept unusual sounds if their meanings were clear.
a. Sofia Gubaidulina b. 1931
- spiritual dimension, sonata Rejoice!
- transcendence from ordinary reality to a state of joy.
b. R. Murray Schafer (b. 1933)
- wide variety of styles,
- most striking innovation is "environmental music."
c. Joan Tower 1938
- Many works are based on images.
5. Evoking Popular Musics
- incorporated elements from popular music
- to connect to listeners directly while creating a distinctive musical personality.
a. stor Piazzolla (19211992)
- combined the Argentine tradition of the tango with elements of jazz and classical music to
create a new style.
b. Osvaldo Golijov (b. 1960)
- draws on classical styles, Piazzollas style, synagogue music, and klezmer
c. Michael Daugherty (b. 1954)
- combine modernist structural principles with elements of popular music.
d. Direct communication
- 1990s, most composers sought to maintain individuality
- yet write music that nonspecialist audiences could grasp.
Postlude
- today is too diverse, trends change too quickly to know now what music of the recent past will
be remembered in the future.