The overall coefficients.

Table I shows the component coefficients for each surface . The overall heat-transfer
coefficient for the dry sidewall of the tank (Ud) is calculated as the sum of the
resistances of vapor film , fouling , metal wall , insulation (if any) , and outside air
(convection plus radiation).
Table I
Individual film heat-transfer coefficients
Type
Dry wall Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
Surface
Inside
Wall
constructi

hvw
tM

+ tI

hLw
tM

+ tI

hVr
tM

hLb
-1

tM

-1

constructi
on
Outside
Fouling

kM

kM

kI

Wf.hAw + Wf.hAw +
hRd
hRw

hFd

hFw

kM

kM

Wf.hAr +
hRr

hG

hFr

hFb

Note : Tank roof and bottom are uninsulated.

The outside-air heat transfer coefficient (hAw) is a function of wind velocity as well as
temperature gradient. Data on the effect of wind velocity and T have been
presented by Stuhlbarg [10] and Boyen [2] . With a little bit of manipulation , their data
were replotted , yielding the "wind enhancement factor "(Wf) in Fig. 2 .

By definition :
Wf = hAw / h'Aw = hAr / h'Ar
Eq.(10)
Therefore , once the outside-air coefficient for still air (h'Aw) is known , the overall drysidewall coefficient at various wind velocities can be computed as :
1/Ud = 1/hVw + tM/kM + tI/kI + 1/(Wf.h'Aw + hRd) + 1/hFd
Eq.(11)
Similarly , the overall coefficients for the wet sidewall, bottom and roof surfaces are :
1/Uw = 1/hLw + tM/kM + tI/kI+ 1/(Wf.h'Aw + hRw) + 1/hFw
Eq.(12)
1/Ub = 1/hLb + tM/kM+ 1/hG + 1/hFb
Eq.(13)
1/Ur = 1/hVr + tM/kM + 1/(Wf.h'Ar + hRr) + 1/hFd
Eq.(14)
Eq.13 and 14 assume that the roof and bottom are not insulated , which is generally
the case in temperature climates. We shall now review correlations for the individual
heat-transfer coefficients needed to obtain the overall coefficients.
Individual film heat-transfer coefficients.
The film heat-transfer coefficients may be divided into four categories : convection
from vertical walls , convection from horizontal surfaces , pure conduction , and
radiative heat transfer. Within each category , correlations are presented for several

radiative heat transfer. Within each category , correlations are presented for several
flow regimes.
Vertical-wall film coefficients. These apply to the inside wall (wet or dry) and the
outside wall (still air) . For vertical plates and cylinders , Kato et al. [6] recommend the
following for liquids
and vapors
: . (NPr0,175 - 0,55)
NNu = 0,138
NGr0,36
Eq.(15)
where ,
0,1 < NPr < 40 and NGr > 109
For isothermal vertical plates , Ede [4] reported the following for liquids :
NNu = 0,495 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(16)
where ,
NPr > 100 and 104 < (NGr . NPr) < 109
and for gases :
NNu = 0,0295 . NGr0,40 . NPr0,47 (1 + 0,5 . NPr0,67)-0,40
where ,
NPr 5 and (NGr . NPr) > 109

Eq.(17)

For vertical plates taller than 3 ft , Stuhlbarg [10] recommends :

h = 0,45 . k . L-0,75 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(18)
where ,
104 < (NGr . NPr) < 109
Horizontal-surface heat-transfer coefficients. These coefficients apply to the
roof and inside-bottom surfaces of the tank . The bottom is assumed to be flat. For
[8]
surfaces facing
up
NNu
= :
0,14 (NGr . NPr)0,33
Eq.(19)
For surfaces facing down :
NNu =

0,27 (NGr . NPr)0,25

Eq.(20)

Both equations apply in the range 2x107 < NGr . NPr < 3x1010

Nomenclature.
A
Cp
D
d
g

hF

Area of heat-transfer surface , ft2 ; Ab for bottom , Ad

for dry wall , Aw for wet wall , Ar for roof.
Specific heat at constant pressure , BTU/lb-F
Diameter of tank , ft.
Height of conical roof at center , ft.
Acceleration due to gravity , 4.17 x 108
4.2E+008
ft/h2
Individual film coefficient of heat transfer , BTU/ft 2hF ; hAw for air outside the walls , hAr for air above the
roof , h'Aw and h'Ar for still air , hLw for liquid
between the walls , hLb for liquid near the bottom ,
hVw for vapor near the walls , hVr for vapor near the
Fouling coefficient , BTU/ft2 h-F ; hFw for liquid at the
walls , hFb for liquid at the bottom , hFv for vapor at
the walls or the roof.

hG
hI
hM
hR
k
L
Lw
NGr
NNu
NPr
Q
q
T
T
t
U
Wf

Heat-transfer coefficient for ground , BTU/ft2 h-F

Heat-transfer coefficient for insulation , BTU/ft2 h-F
Heat-transfer coefficient for metal , BTU/ft2 h-F
Heat-transfer coefficient for radiation , BTU/ft2 h-F ;
hRb for bottom , hRd for dry wall , hRw for wet wall , hRr
Thermal conductivity , BTU/ft-h-F ; kG for ground , kI
for insulation , kM for metal wall.
Total length for heat-transfer surface , ft.
Total length for wetted surface , ft.
Grashof number , L3. 2. g. .T / 2
Nusselt number , h.D/k or h.L/K
Prandtl number , Cp./k
Rate of heat transfer , BTU/h
Individual rate of heat transfer , BTU/h ; qb for bottom
, qd for dry wall , qw for wet wall , qr for roof.
Temperature , F ;TA for ambient air , TL for bulk liquid
, TV for vapor , TG for ground , Tw for inside wall , Tws
Temperature difference , F.
Surface thickness, ft ; tI for insulation , tM for metal.
Overall heat-transfer coefficient , BTU/ft2 h-F ; Ub for
bottom , Ud for dry wall , Uw for wet wall , Ur for roof.
Wind enhancement factor.
Volumetric coefficient for thermal expansion , F-1
Viscosity of fluid , lb/ft-h
Density of fluid , lb/ft3 .
Emissivity.

Equivalent coefficients for conductive heat transfer. The wall and insulation
coefficients are derived from the thermal conductivities :
hM=
kM / tM
Eq.(21)
hI =
kI /tI
Eq.(22)
The coefficient for heat transfer to and from the ground is the coefficient for heat
conduction from a semi-infinite solid [9] :
hG =
8 . kG / .D
Eq.(23)
Fouling coefficients. The coefficients hFd , hFw and hFb apply to the vapor and liquid
at the wall, and the liquid at the bottom of the tank , respectively. These are
empirical, and depend on the type of fluid and other factors such as tank cleaning .
Generally , hFd is the greatest of the three , and hFb the least , indicating that the
Equivalent coefficient for radiative heat transfer. The coefficient for sidewalls
and roof depends on the emissivity of these surfaces , and is given by [8] :
hR=

Eq.(24)

With these relationships , we now have the tools to calculate heat transfer to or from
the tank.

EXAMPLE.
ABC Chemical Corp., has a single manufacturing plant in the U.S. , and exports a highviscosity specialty oil product to Europe. The oil is offloaded in Port City , and sored in
a flat-bottom , conical-roof tank rented from XYZ Terminal Co. Ltd. The tank is located
outdoors and rests on the ground . It is equipped with pancake-type steam-heating
coils because the oil must be maintained above 50 F in order to preserve its fluidity.
Other pertinent data are : tank diameter is 20 ft ; tank height is 48 ft (to the edge of
the roof) ; roof incline is 3/4- in per foot ; tank sidewalls are 3/16 - in carbon steel ;
insulation is 1 1/2 -in fiberglass , on the sidewall only.
XYZ Terminal Co. , does not have metering stations on the steam supply to individual
tanks, and proposes to charge ABC Chemical for tank heating on the basis of
calculated heat losses, using the coventional tables [1] , and assuming a tank wall
temperature of 50 F. The project engineer from ABC Chemical decided to investigate
how XYZ's estimate would compare with the more elaborate one described in this
article.
First, the engineeer collected basic data on storage and climate. Oil shipments from
the U.S. , arrive at Port City approximately once a month , in 100,000-gal batches.
Deliveries to local customers are made in 8,000-gal tanktrucks , three times a week
on average. The typical variation in tank level over a 30-day period is known from
experience.
The ambient temperature goes through a more complex cycle, of course. Within the
primary cycle of 365 days , there are daily temperature variations. But in the
seasonal cycle, heat supply is required only during the winter months, when
temperatures
fallatwell
50site
F. are not as well defined, and therefore much harder
Wind conditions
thebelow
storage
to predict. However, we can assume that the wind speed will hold constant for a short
period of time, and calculate the heat loss for this unit period under a fixed set of
conditions.
The wind speed to be used must be based on the known probability distribution of
wind speeds at the site.
The procedure for determining the annual heat loss consists of adding up the heat
losses calculated for each unit period (which could be an hour , 12 hours , 24 hours
, or 30 days , as appropiate). This example demonstrates the calculation of heat loss
for only one unit period , 12 hours , using an ambient temperature of 35 F , a wind
velocity of 10 mph. , and a liquid level of 50% . The other data required are given in
Table II . Note that the liquid temperature is controlled at 55 F to provide a 5 F
margin of safety.

Data for ABC Chemical Co. , example

Physical
Properties
Density , lb/ft3
Specific heat ,
BTU/lb
-F
Viscosity , cP
Thermal
conductivity ,
BTU/ft-h-Fof
Coefficient
volumetric
expansion per F
Assumed fouling
coefficients

Table II

Liquid

Air

Vapor *

4.68

0.08

0.08

0.6

0.25

0.25

40.00

0.007

0.007

0.12

0.0151

0.0151

0.000001

0.002

0.002

Assumed fouling
coefficients
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
Thermal
conductivities
Metal walls
Insulation
Ground

1,000
800
1,000
500

BTU/ft2h-F

10.00
0.028
0.80

BTU/ft-h-F

Surface emissivity
Wall and roof

0.9

Temperatures
Vapor in Tank
50
Liquid in Tank
55
F
Outside Air
35.00
Ground
40
* Since the liquid has low volatility , the vapor space is assumed to be
mostly air.
Since the Prandtl and Grashof numbers occur repeatedly in the fim heat-transfer
coefficient equations , and remain relatively unchanged for all the conditions of
interest , let us first calculate their values . Thus , for the liquid phase :
NGr =
L3.2.g..T / 2 =
97,5 . L3. T
NPr =
CP. / k =
484
Similarly , for the vapor phase ,
NGr =
L3.2.g..T / 2 =
Npr =
0.28

1,90 x 107 . L3. T

We can now calculate the individual film heat-transfer coefficients , using the
appropiate L and T values in the Grashof-number equations. This is an iterative
process that requires initial estimates for wall and ground temperatures , plus wall
temperatures.
Coefficient for vapor at wall (hVw) . As an initial approximation , assume that the
wall temperature is the average of the vapor and outside-air temperatures :
Tw =
(50 + 32)/2 =
42,5 F
Then find the Grashof number :
NGr = 1,90x107 x (L - Lw)3 x (TV - Tw)
###
Employing Eq. 15 , find the Nusselt number and then the coefficient ,
k=
0.0151
L=
48.00 ft
Lw =
24.00 ft
then ,
NNu = 0,138 NGr0,36 . (NPr0,175 - 0,55) =
921.1

hVw = NNu . k / (L - Lw) =

0.581

BTU/ft2-hF

Coefficient for liquid at the wall (hLw) . Here , neither NPr nor (NGr NPr) falls within
the range of the applicable correlations (Eq. 16 , 18) . Let us try both , again using an
Tw = (TL + TA) / 2 =
45.00 F
NGr = 97,47 .L3.(TL - Tw) =
###
Using Eq. 16 and 18 , we get two estimates for the heat-transfer coefficient :
k=
0.12
NPr =
484
hLw = (0,495.k / Lw).(NGr . NPr)0,25 = 0.704

BTU/ft2-hF

hLw = (0,45.k / Lw0,75).(NGr.NPr)0,25 = 1.415

BTU/ft2-hF

To be conservative , we use the higher value :

hLw =
1.415 BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for vapor at roof (hVr) . We consider this a flat plate with :
Diameter
20.00
=
ft
and use Eq. 20 , again with :
Tw =
42.5
F
k=
0.0151
NGr = 1,90x107 . D3 (TV - Tw) =
###
hVr = (0,27.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,25 = 0.154 BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for liquid at tank bottom (hLb) . Assume that the ground temperature
(TG) is 5 F above ambient , and use an average of liquid and ground temperatures
as a first approximation for the tank-bottom temperature :
Tw = (TL + TG)/2 =
(TL + Tamb + 5 ) =
47,5F
Then , figure the Grashof number , and use Eq. 19 to get the coefficient :
NGr = 97,47.D3.(TL - Tw) =
###
NGr . NPr =
###
hLb =
1.105 BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for outside air at roof (h'Ar) . Assume :
Tws = Tw
since the roof is uninsulated , and get the coefficient for still air from Eq. 19 :
NGr = 1,9x107.D3.(TWs - TA) =
###
hAr = (0,14.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,33 = 0.663 BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for outside air at wall (h'Aw) . Assume that the temperature drop
across the film is one-fourth of the drop from the inside fluid to the outside air
(averaged for the wet and dry walls) , and use Eq. 15 to find the coefficient :

T =
17,5/4 = 4,375 F
NGr = 1,9x107.L3.T =
hAw =
0.51
BTU/ft2-h-F

###

Conduction coefficients for ground , metal wall, and insulation (hG , hM , and
hI) . These are straightforward from Eq. 21-23 :
hM = kM / tM =

640

BTU/ft2-hF

hI = kI / tI =

0.224

BTU/ft2-hF

hG = 8 . kG / .D

0.102

BTU/ft2-hF

Radiation coefficients for dry and wet sidewall , and roof (hRd , hRw , hRr) . As
for the outside-air film coefficients , assume that :
Tws = TA + 0,25 (Tbulk - TA)
where ,
Tbulk is the temperature of the liquid or vapor inside the tank , if the surface is
insulated.
For the uninsulated roof , assume that :
Tws = TA + 0,5(TV - TA)
Then ,
Tws =
38.75 F
for the (insulated) dry sidewall ,
Tws =
40.00 F
for the wet sidewall ,
Tws =
42.5
for the roof.
F
Using Eq. 24 , find the coefficient for each of the three cases :
hRd =

0.757

BTU/ft2-hF

hRw =

0.759

BTU/ft2-hF

hRr =

0.765

BTU/ft2-hF

Closing in on results.
Table III summarizes the heat-transfer coefficients just calculated , including the
corrections for wind - h'Aw and h'Ar are multiplied by 3,3 and 3,1 , respectively ,
based on data for 10-mph wind in Fig. 2 . Substituting these individual coefficients
in Eq. 11-14 , we obtain the U values TABLE
listed inIIITable III.

Heat-transfer coefficients after first iteration

Coefficient
hVw
hLw
hVr
hLb
hG
h'Ar

Dry wall Wet wall

Roof

Bottom

0.5815
1.415
0.1537
1.105
0.102
0.6635

hAr*
h'Aw
hAw*
hM
hI
hF
hR
U*
* For 10-mph wind.

2.057
0.51
1.683
640
0.224
1,000
0.7565
0.1516

0.51
1.683
640
0.224
800
0.7594
0.1828

640

640

1,000
0.7651
0.1457

500
0.0933

What remains to be done ? When we began the calculations , we assumed that the
outside-wall temperatues were related to the bulk-fluid temperatures by :
Tw = TA + 0,5 . (Tbulk - TA) for uninsulated surfaces
Tws = TA + 0,25 .(Tbulk - TA) for insulated surfaces
In order to calculate accurate coefficients for heat transfer , we must now obtain
better estimates of these wall temperatures. This requires an iterative procedure that
can be programmed and run on a computer.
For dry wall , the rate of heat loss is given by all three of the following :
qd = Ud.Ad.(TV - TA)
Eq.(25)
qd = hVw . Ad . (TV - Tw)
Eq.(26)
qd = (hRd + hAw).Ad.(Tws - TA)
Eq.(27)
Solving Eq. 25 and 27 for Tws yields :
Tws = (Ud/(hRd + hAw)).(TV - TA) + TA
Eq.(28)
Similarly , solving Eq. 25 and 26 for Tw yields :
Tw = TV - (Ud/hVw).(TV - TA)
Eq.(29)
Using the same approach , now calculate Tw and Tws for the wet wall , and Tw for the
roof and bottom of the tank.
To find the correct wall temperatures , use the initial estimates of U and h values in
Eq. 28 and 29 (and in the parallel equations for the other surfaces) to get new Tw
and Tws values . Table IV shows these temperatures after a second iteration . Using
these new temperatures , recompute Grashof numbers , individual heat-transfer
coefficients and overall coefficients , and then iterate again to get a new set of Tw and
Tws values . When the current and previous iteration's temperature estimates are the

TABLE IV
Second iteration yields closer temperature estimates
Temperature
Tw (inside) , F
Tws (outside) , F

Iteration Dry wall Wet wall

2
1
2
1

46.0
42.5
35.9
38.75

52.7
45
36.5
40

Roof

Bottom

35.75
42.5
35.75
42.5

53.7
47.5
-

Table V lists the individual and overall coefficients after the second iteration .
Although it is clear that additional iterations are needed , let us accept these values
as sufficiently accurate for the present purpose . Then we can obtain the total heattransfer rate (Q) by using the U values in Eq. 1-5 and summing.

Table V lists the individual and overall coefficients after the second iteration .
Although it is clear that additional iterations are needed , let us accept these values
as sufficiently accurate for the present purpose . Then we can obtain the total heattransfer rate (Q) by using the U values in Eq. 1-5 and summing.
TABLE V

Heat-transfer coefficients after second

iteration
Coefficient

Dry wall Wet wall

Roof

Bottom

hVw
0.463
hLw
0.98
hVr
0.181
hLb
0.619
hG
0.102
h'Ar
0.31
hAr*
0.96
h'Aw
0.317
0.317
hAw*
1.047
1.047
hM
640
640
640
640
hI
0.224
0.224
hF
1000
800
1000
500
hR
0.75
0.7514
0.75
U*
0.1393
0.1655
0.1636
0.0875
* For 10-mph wind.
Table VI shows the calculated heat-transfer rates through each boundary , and the
total rate . Note that the roof and bottom of the tank account for only slight heat
loss , despite being uninsulated.
TABLE VI

Rate of heat transfer during unit period

U,
Area ,
T ,
BTU/ft2h2
ft
F
F
Dry wall
0.1392
1508
15
Wet wall
0.1655
1508
20
Roof
0.1636
315
15
Bottom
0.0875
314
15
TOTAL
3645
Note : Total for 12-h period is 111.904 BTU.
This , of course , is for the unit period of time , when wind speed
is half full , and the air is 35 F .
Surface

q,
BTU/h
3148.7
4991.48
773.01
412.125
9,325.3
is 10 mph , the tank

Table VII shows how the results of unit-period heat losses can be tabulated and
added to get the cumulative heat loss for a month or year. Of course , this requires
climatic data and tank-level estimates for the overall time-period.

TABLE VII
Summing losses for unit periods
yields heat loss for 30 days
Period

TA

Liquid
level ,
%

Wind
speed ,
mph

Heat
loss ,
BTU

Period

TA

Liquid
level ,
%

F
1
50
35
2
50
27
3
43
42
42
93
55
59
56
48
60
49
60
Total for 30-day period :

Wind
speed ,
mph
10
5
0
30
20
15

Heat
loss ,
BTU
111,904
392,407
42,591
0
12,368
0
###

Comparison with other methods.

Aerstin and Street [1] offer a very simple method for calculating heat loss from tanks.
For a tank with 1,5 in of sidewall insulation, and a wind speed of 10 mph , the
recommended overall U (based on k = 0,019 for the insulation) is 0,14 for T = 60
F and 0,14 for T = 100 F. Adjusting these values for k = 0,028 and T = 17
F , as in our example , yields an overall U of 0,206 BTU/ft2h-F . The total exposed
surface is 3.331 ft2 (tank bottom not included) , and thus the overall rate of heat
transfer by their method is :
Q=
0,206 x 3331 x 17
11,666 BTU/h
This compares with a heat loss of 8.913 BTU/h (for the exposed surface) calculated
by the procedure of this article-see Table VI . Thus their method yields a result 31%
too
high in[10]
this
case.
Stuhlbarg
takes
an approach similar to that proposed here , but his method differs
in how the outside tankwall film coefficient is computed. Stuhlbarg recommends the
use of a manufacturer's data table , and does not explicitly distinguish between the
bulk liquid temperature in calculating the proper heat-transfer coefficient.
The algebraic method of Hughes and Deumaga [5] resembles the one presented in this
article in many ways. But it does not recognize differences between liquid and vapor
temperatures inside the tank , nor does it account for the interaction between T
and wind speed in calculating a wind-enhancement factor . Finally , even though their
procedure requires iteration , the focus of the iterative efforts is to get better
estimates of fluid properties , not tankwall temperatures.
Conclusions.
Our engineer at ABC Chemical was able to negociate a significant reduction in the
heating charges proposed by the XYZ Terminal Co. , which had used a shortcut
method for its estimate , because the procedure presented here is rational and
defensible. A rigorous solution of the interations can easily be reached on a digital
computer or even a programmable calculator , and the effort pays off in better design
or operation criteria.
Mark Lipowicz , Editor.
References.
1. Aerstin F. , and Street G. , "Applied Chemical Process Design" .
2. Boyen J. L. , "Thermal Energy Recovery" .
3. Cordero R. , "The cost of missing pipe insulation" .
4. Ede A. J. , "Advances in Heat Transfer " . Vol. 4.
5. Hughes R. , and Deumaga V. , "Insulation saves energy".

6. Kato, Nishiwaki and Hirata , Intl. J. , of Heat and Mass Transfer.

7. Kern D. Q. , "Process Heat Transfer".
8. Perry R. H. , and Chilton C. H. , "Chemical Engineers' Handbook".
9. Rohsenow W. M. , and Hartnett J. P. , "Handbook of Heat Transfer".
10. Stuhlbarg D. , "How to Design Tank Heating Coils".
The Authors.
Jimmy D. Kumana is Chief Process Engineer at Henningson ,
Durham and Richardson , Inc. , P.O. Box 12744 , Pensacola , FL.
32575 , where he is involved in all aspects of engineering
design . He holds a B. Tech. , degree from the Indian Institute of
Technology , and an M.S. , from the University of Cincinnati ,
both in chemical engineering. Mr. Kumana is registered as a
professional engineer in four states , and is active in AIChE as
chairman of his local section. He holds a patent on distillation of
Samir P. Kothari was a process engineer with Henningson ,
Durham and Richardson , Inc., when this article was written . He
recently joined Hoffmann La Roche Inc., Nutley , N. J. 07110 ,
where he is engaged in designing chemical process plants. Mr.
Kothari holds a B.S. , degree from M. Sayajirao (India) and a n
M.S. fro the University of Cincinnati , both in chemical
engineering . He belongs to AIChE and has written several

1)

Calcualtion Heat Losses from Tank

Heat Losses from Tank classified as below

qd = Ud Ad (TV - TA)
For dry sidewall :
qw = Uw Aw (TL - TA)
For wet sidewall :
qb = Ub Ab (TL - TG)
For tank bottom :
qr = Ur Ar (TV - TA)
For tank roof :
Q = qd + qw + qb + qr
Total :
Area of Lossed
Ad = D (L - Lw)
Aw = D Lw
Ab = D2 / 4
Ar = ( D /2) (D2/ 4 + d2)0,5
2)

Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.

6
7
8
9

Overall Heat transfer -coefficient

Table below shows the component for each surface .

Individual film heat-transfer coefficients

Type
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
Surface
Inside
Wall
constructi
on
Outside

hvw
tM + t I
kM
kI

hLw
-1

Wf.hAw + hRd

tM + t I
kM
kI
Wf.hAw +
hRw

hVr
-1

tM
kM

hLb
-1

Wf.hAr +
hRr

tM
kM
hG

-1

Fouling

hFd

hFw

hFr

hFb

Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.

1
2
3
4
5