3.

Transport of energy:
radiation
specific intensity, radiative flux
optical depth
absorption & emission
equation of transfer, source function
formal solution, limb darkening
temperature distribution
grey atmosphere, mean opacities

Energy flux conservation

No sinks and sources of energy in the atmosphere
all energy produced in stellar interior is transported through the atmosphere
at any given radius r in the atmosphere:

4 r F (r ) const . L
2

F is the energy flux per unit surface and per unit time. Dimensions: [erg/cm2/sec]
The energy transport is sustained by the temperature gradient.
The steepness of this gradient is dependent on the effectiveness of the energy
transport through the different atmospheric layers.
2

Transport of energy
Mechanisms of energy transport
a. radiation: Frad (most important)
b. convection: Fconv (important especially in cool stars)
c. heat production: e.g. in the transition between solar
cromosphere and corona
d. radial flow of matter: corona and stellar wind
e. sound waves: cromosphere and corona
We will be mostly concerned with the first 2
mechanisms: F(r)=Frad(r) + Fconv(r). In the outer
layers, we always have Frad >> Fconv
3

The specific intensity

Measures of energy flow: Specific Intensity and Flux
The amount of energy dE transported through a surface area dA is proportional to
dt (length of time), d (frequency width), d (solid angle) and the projected unit
surface area cos dA.
The proportionality factor is the specific Intensity I(cos)

dE = I (cos ) cos dA d d dt
([I ]: erg cm2 sr1 Hz1 s1 )

I =

c
I
2

(from I d = I d and = c/)

Intensity depends on location in
space, direction and frequency

Invariance of the specific intensity

The area element dA emits radiation towards dA. In the absence of any matter
between emitter and receiver (no absorption and emission on the light paths
between the surface elements) the amount of energy emitted and received through
each surface elements is:

dE = I (cos ) cos dA d d dt
dE0 = I0 (cos 0 ) cos 0 dA0 d 0 d dt

Invariance of the specific intensity

energy is conserved:

dE = dE0

and

d =

projected area
distance2

d 0 =
and

dE = I (cos ) cos dA d d dt
dE0 = I0 (cos 0 ) cos 0 dA0 d 0 d dt

I = I0

dA0 cos 0
r2

dA cos
r2

Specific intensity is constant

along rays - as long as there
is no absorption and emission
of matter between emitter and
receiver

In TE: I = B
6

Spherical coordinate system and solid angle d

solid angle : d =

dA
r2

4r 2
Total solid angle = 2 = 4
r
dA = (r d)(r sin d)
d = sin d d

define = cos
d = sin d
d = sin d d = d d

Radiative flux
How much energy flows through surface element dA?
dE ~ I cos d
integrate over the whole solid angle (4):

F =

4
astrophysical flux

I (cos ) cos d =

I (cos ) cos sin dd

F is the monochromatic radiative flux.

The factor in the definition is historical.
F can also be interpreted as the net rate of energy flow through a surface element.
8

Radiative flux
The monochromatic radiative flux at frequency gives the net rate of energy
flow through a surface element.
dE ~ I cos d integrate over the whole solid angle (4):

F =
astrophysical flux

I (cos ) cos d =

I (cos ) cos sin dd

We distinguish between the outward direction (0 < < /2)

and the inward direction (/2 < so that the net flux is

F = F+ F =
/2

I (cos ) cos sin dd +

I (cos ) cos sin dd

/2

Note: for /2 < cos < 0 second term negative !!

Total radiative flux

Integral over frequencies

F d = Frad

Frad is the total radiative flux.

It is the total net amount of energy going through the
surface element per unit time and unit surface.

10

Stellar luminosity
At the outer boundary of atmosphere (r = Ro) there is no incident radiation
Integral interval over reduces from [0,] to [0,/2].

F (Ro ) =

F+ (Ro )

2
0

/2

I (cos ) cos sin dd

0

This is the monochromatic energy that each surface element of the star
radiates in all directions
If we multiply by the total stellar surface 4R02
monochromatic stellar luminosity at frequency
and integrating over
total stellar luminosity

4Ro2

4Ro2 F (Ro ) = L

F+ (Ro )d = L (Luminosity)
11

Observed flux
What radiative flux is measured by an observer at distance d?
integrate specific intensity I towards observer over all surface elements
note that only half sphere contributes
Z
Z
E =

dE = t

1/2 sphere

I (cos ) cos dA

1/2 sphere

in spherical symmetry: dA = Ro2 sin d d

E =

t Ro2

/2

I (cos ) cos sin d d

F+
because of spherical symmetry the integral of intensity towards
the observer over the stellar surface is proportional to F+, the
flux emitted into all directions by one surface element !!

12

Observed flux
Solid angle of telescope at distance d:
= A/d2
+
E = t Ro2 F+ (Ro )

flux received = flux emitted x (R/r)2

Fobs

radiative energy
Ro2
=
= 2 F+ (Ro )
area frequency time
d

unlike I, F decreases with

increasing distance

This, and not I, is the quantity generally measured for stars.

For the Sun, whose disk is resolved, we can also measure I
(the variation of I over the solar disk is called the limb
darkening)

R
0

obs
F ,
d = 1.36 K W/m 2

13

Mean intensity, energy density & radiation pressure

Integrating over the solid angle and dividing by 4:
1
J =
4

mean intensity

I d

radiation energy
1
u =
=
volume
c

I d =

4
J
c

energy density

1
p =
c

I cos2 d

pressure =

radiation pressure
(important in hot stars)

force
d momentum(= E/c) 1
=
area
dt
area
14

Moments of the specific intensity

1
J =
4

1
I d =
4

2
0

1
d
I d =
2
1

for azimuthal symmetry

1
H =
4

1
I cos d =
2

1
K =
4

1
I cos2 d =
2

I d =
1

1
1

I d
1

F
4

I 2 d =

0th moment

c
p
4

1st moment
(Eddington flux)
2nd moment

15

Interactions between photons and matter

absorption of radiation

ds
dI = I ds
: absorption coecient

[ ] = cm1
microscopical view: n

loss of intensity in the beam (true absorption/scattering)

Over a distance s:
s
o

I(s)

Convention: = 0 at the outer edge

of the atmosphere, increasing
inwards

I (s) =

Io

:=

Zs
0

Rs

ds

optical depth
ds
or:

(dimensionless)
d = ds

16

optical depth
I (s) =

Io

The optical thickness of a layer

determines the fraction of the
intensity passing through the layer

Io
' 0.37 Io
if = 1 I =
e

We can see through

atmosphere until ~ 1

optically thick (thin) medium: > (<) 1

The quantity has a geometrical interpretation in terms of mean

free path of photons s:

= 1 =

Zs

ds

photons travel on average

s
for a length
before absorption

17

photon mean free path

What is the average distance over which photons travel?

expectation value

< >=

p( ) d

probability of absorption in interval [+d]

= probability of non-absorption between 0 and and absorption in d

- probability that photon is absorbed: p(0, ) =

I( )
Io I( )
I( )
=
= 1
Io
Io
Io

- probability that photon is not absorbed: 1 p(0, ) =

I( )
= e
Io

- probability that photon is absorbed in [ , + d ] : p( , + d ) =

total probability: e d

dI
I( )

= d
18

photon mean free path

< >=

p( ) d =

d = 1

xex dx = (1 + x) ex

mean free path corresponds to <>=1

if (s) = const :
(homogeneous
material)

= s s = s =

19

Principle of line formation

observer sees through the
atmospheric layers up to 1
In the continuum is smaller
than in the line see deeper
into the atmosphere

T(cont) > T(line)

20

radiative acceleration
In the absorption process photons release
momentum E/c to the atoms, and the
corresponding force is:
force =dfphot =

momentum(=E/c)
dt

The infinitesimal energy absorbed is:

dEabs = dI cos dA d dt d = I cos dA d dt d ds

The total energy absorbed is (assuming that does not depend on ):

E abs =

Z
0

I cos d d dA dt ds =

F d dA dt ds

21

radiative acceleration

dfphot

=
c

F d

dt

dA dt ds = grad dm

grad =

(dm = dA ds)

F d

22

emission of radiation
ds
d

dA

dV=dA ds
energy added by emission processes within dV

dEem = dV d d dt
: emission coecient
[ ] = erg cm3 sr1 Hz1 s1
23

The equation of radiative tranfer

If we combine absorption and emission together:

dEabs = dIabs dA cos d d dt = I dA cos d dt d ds
dEem = dIem dA cos d d dt = dA cos d d dt ds

dEabs +dEem = (dIabs +dIem ) dA cos d d dt = ( I + ) dA cos d d dt ds

dI = dIabs + dIem = ( I + ) ds
dI
ds

= I +

differential equation
describing the flow of
radiation through
matter
24

The equation of radiative tranfer

Plane-parallel symmetry

dx = cos ds = ds
d
d
=
ds
dx

(,x)
dIdx
= I (, x) +

25

The equation of radiative tranfer

Spherical symmetry
d
dr
d
=
+
ds
ds r
ds
dr = ds cos

dr
= cos
ds

r d = sin ds (d < 0)

(as in planeparallel)

d
sin
=
ds
r

=
= sin

sin2

1 2
=
=
+
=
+
ds
r
r
r
r

angle between ray and radial direction

is not constant

r I (, r)

12
r I (, r)

= I (, r) +
26

The equation of radiative tranfer

Optical depth and source function
In plane-parallel symmetry:

dI (,x)
dx

= (x) I (, x) + (x)

optical depth increasing

towards interior:

dx = d
Zx
= dx
Ro

dI (, )
d

S =

= I (, ) S ( )

source function
dim [S] = [I]

=
S =

1
ds s s

= 1 corresponds to free mean path of

photons
source function S corresponds to intensity
emitted over the free mean path of photons

Observed emerging intensity I(cos ,= 0)

depends on = cos , (Ri) and S
The physics of S is crucial for radiative transfer
27

The equation of radiative tranfer

Source function: simple cases

a. LTE (thermal absorption/emission)

S =

= B (T )

independent of radiation field

Kirchhoffs law
photons are absorbed and
re-emitted at the local
temperature T

Knowledge of T stratification T=T(x) or T()

solution of transfer equation I(,)

28

The equation of radiative tranfer

Source function: simple cases

b. coherent isotropic scattering (e.g. Thomson scattering)

the absorption process is characterized by the
scattering coefficient , analogous to
dEem

sc
d

dEabs =

I d

dI = I ds

=
incident = scattered

and at each frequency dEem = dEabs

Z

sc

sc
d =
Z

I d

d =

I d

sc
1

I d

completely dependent on radiation field

S = J

not dependent on temperature T

29

The equation of radiative tranfer

Source function: simple cases

c. mixed case

+ sc

sc

S =
=
+
+
+
+
+ sc

S =
=
B +
J
+
+
+

30

Formal solution of the equation of radiative tranfer

linear 1st order differential equation

we want to solve the equation of RT

with a known source function and in
plane-parallel geometry

dI
= I S
d

multiply by e- and integrate between 1 (outside)

and 2 (> 1, inside)
S e /
d
/
(I e
)=
d

I e

i 2
1

Z2

S e

check, whether this really yields transfer

equation above

dt

31

I e

i 2
1

Z2

S e

dt

Formal solution of the equation of radiative tranfer

integral form of equation
of radiation transfer

I (1 , ) = I (2 , ) e

2 1

Z2

S (t) e

t1

dt

intensity originating at 2 decreased

by exponential factor to 1

contribution to the intensity by

emission along the path from 2 to 1
(at each point decreased by the
exponential factor)

Formal solution! actual solution

can be complex, since S can
depend on I

32

I (1 , ) = I (2 , ) e

2 1

Z2

S (t) e

t1

dt

Boundary conditions
solution of RT equation requires
boundary conditions, which are
different for incoming and outgoing
radiation
a. incoming radiation: < 0 at 0
usually we can neglect irradiation from outside: I( 0, < 0) = 0

Iin ( , )

Z0

S (t) e

dt

33

I (1 , ) = I (2 , ) e

2 1

Z2

S (t) e

t1

dt

Boundary conditions
b. outgoing radiation: > 0 at = max
We have either

I (max , ) = I+ ()

or

lim I (, ) e / = 0

finite slab or
shell
semi-infinite
case (planar
or spherical)

I increases less rapidly than the exponential

Iout ( , ) =

S (t) e

dt

and at a given position in

the atmosphere:

I ( ) = Iout ( ) + Iin ( )
34

Emergent intensity
from the latter emergent intensity
= 0, > 0

I (0, ) =

S (t) e

dt

intensity observed is a weighted average of the source function

along the line of sight. The contribution to the emerging intensity
comes mostly from each depths with < 1.

35

Emergent intensity
suppose that S is linear in (Taylor expansion around = 0):

S ( ) = S0 + S1

emergent intensity

Z
t dt
= S0 + S1
I (0, ) = (S0 + S1 t)e

xex dx = (1 + x) ex

I (0, ) = S ( = )

we see the source function

at location

Eddington-Barbier relation

the emergent intensity corresponds to

the source function at = 1 along the
line of sight

36

Emergent intensity
= 1 (normal direction):

I (0, 1) = S ( = 1)
= 0.5 (slanted direction):

I (0, 0.5) = S ( = 0.5)

in both cases: 1

spectral lines: compared to

continuum = 1 is reached at
higher layer in the atmosphere
Sline < Scont
a dip is created in the spectrum

37

Line formation
simplify: = 1, 1=0 (emergent intensity), 2 =
S independent of location

I (0) = I ( ) e + S

et dt = I ( ) e + S (1 e )

38

Line formation
Optically thick object:

Optically thin object:

I (0) = I ( ) e + S (1 e ) = S

I (0) = I ( ) + [S I ( )]

exp(-) 1 -

39

I = S = ds S
e.g. HII region, solar corona
enhanced
independent of , no line
(e.g. black body B)

I (0) = I ( ) + [S I ( )]

e.g. stellar absorption spectrum

(temperature decreasing outwards)

e.g. stellar spectrum with temperature increasing outwards (e.g.

Sun in the UV)

40
From Ruttens web notes

Line formation example: solar corona

I = S

41

The diffusion approximation

At large optical depth in stellar atmosphere photons are local: S B
Expand S B as a power-series:

X
dn B
S (t) =
(t )n /n!
n
d
n=0

In the diffusion approximation ( >>1) we retain only

first order terms:

B (t) = B ( ) +

dB
(t )
d

Z
dB
dt
Iout ( , ) = [B ( ) +
(t )]e(t )/
d

42

Z
dB
dt
Iout ( , ) = [B ( ) +
(t )]e(t )/
d

The diffusion approximation

Substituting:

tu=

t
dt = du

uk eu du = k!

Iout ( , ) =

[B ( ) +

Iin ( , ) =

dB
dB
u]eu du = B ( ) +
d
d

Z /

[B ( ) +

dB
u]eu du
d

At = 0 we obtain the Eddington-Barbier relation for the observed emergent intensity.

It is given by the Planck-function and its gradient at = 0.
It depends linearly on = cos .
43

diffusion approximation:

Solar limb darkening

I (0,)
I (0,1)

B (0)+ dB
d

center-to-limb variation of
intensity

B (0)+ dB
d

from the intensity measurements

B, dB/d

B (t) = B (0) +

dB
d t

= a+bt =

2h 3
1
2
h/kT
(t) 1
c
e

T(t): empirical temperature stratification of solar

photosphere

44

Solar limb darkening

...and also giant planets

45

Solar limb darkening: temperature stratification

I (0, ) =

S (t) e

dt

exponential extinction varies as - /cos

From S = a + b

I (0, cos ) = a + b cos

I (0, ) = S ( = )

R. Rutten,
web notes

Unsoeld, 68

46

we want to obtain an approximation for the

radiation field both inward and outward
radiation - at large optical depth

Eddington approximation

stellar interior, inner boundary of

atmosphere

In the diffusion approximation we had:

dB
(t )
d

B (t) = B ( ) +

Iout ( , ) = B ( ) +

Iin ( , ) =

Z /

dB
d

[B ( ) +

>> 1

0<<1

dB
u]eu du
d

I ( , ) = B ( ) +

-1 < < 0

dB
d

47

With this approximation for I we can calculate

the angle averaged momenta of the intensity

Eddington approximation

1
J =
2

very important for analytical estimates

I d = B ( )
1

1
F
=
H =
4
2
1
K =
2

simple approximation for photon flux and a

relationship between mean intensity J and K

1 dB
I d =
3 d
1

1
I d = B ( )
3
1
2

K =

1
3

1 dB dT
1 1 dB
=
3 dx
3 dT dx
flux F ~ dT/dx
diffusion: flux ~ gradient (e.g.
heat conduction)

Eddington approximation
48

After the previous approximations, we now

want to calculate exact solutions for tha
radiative momenta J, H, K. Those are
important to calculate spectra and
atmospheric structure

Schwarzschild-Milne equations

Iout ( , ) =
J =

1
2

Z1

I d =

1
2

J =

Z1

Iout d +

1
2

substitute w =

J =

Iin d

Iin ( , ) =

S (t)e(t )/

dt
d

1
2

dw
w

= 1 d

Z Z
1

dt

S (t)e(t )w dt

Z0 Z

S (t)e(t )/

1 0

w = 1
dw
+
w

Z Z
1

Z0

S (t) e

dt

<0

>0

Z1 Z

S (t) e

1
2

Z0

dw
w

dt
d

= 1 d

S (t)e( t)w dt

dw
w

49

Schwarzschild-Milne equations

J =

1
2

S (t)

1
J =
2

e(t )w

dw
dt +
w

S (t)

Z
1

>0

Z
0

S (t)

Z
1

e( t)w
>0

dw
1
dt =
ew|t|
w
2

dw
dt
w

S (t)E1 (|t |)dt

Schwarzschilds equation

50

Schwarzschild-Milne equations
where
E1 (t) =

Z
1

tx

dx
=
x

ex
dx
x

is the first exponential integral (singularity at t=0)

Exponential integrals
Z
En (t) = tn1 xn ex dx
t

En (0) = 1/(n 1), En (t ) = et /t 0

Z
dEn
= En1 , En (t) = En+1 (t)
dt

E1 (0) = E2 (0) = 1 E3 (0) = 1/2 En () = 0

Gray, 92

51

Schwarzschild-Milne equations

Introducing the operator:

[f (t)] =

1
2

Z
0

f (t)E1 (|t |) dt

J ( ) = [S (t)]
Similarly for the other 2 moments of Intensity:

Milnes equations

J, H and K are all depth-weighted means of S

52

Gray, 92

Schwarzschild-Milne equations
the 3 moments of Intensity:

J, H and K are all depth-weighted means of S

the strongest contribution comes from the depth, where
the argument of the exponential integrals is zero, i.e. t=
53

The temperature-optical depth relation

Radiative equilibrium

The condition of radiative equilibrium (expressing conservation of

energy) requires that the flux at any given depth remains constant:
F(r) = F =

ZZ

I cos d d =

0 4

4r2 F(r) = 4r2 4

In plane-parallel geometry r R = const

F d = 4

H d

H d = const = L

H d = const

and in analogy to the black body

radiation, from the Stefan-Boltzmann law
we define the effective temperature:

Z
0

4
H d = Te

54

The effective temperature

The effective temperature is defined by:
It characterizes the total radiative flux
transported through the atmosphere.

4
H d = Te

It can be regarded as an average of the

temperature over depth in the
atmosphere.
A blackbody radiating the same amount
of total energy would have a
temperature T = Teff.

55

Radiative equilibrium

Let us now combine the condition of radiative equilibrium with the

equation of radiative transfer in plane-parallel geometry:

1
2

Z1

dI
1

d =
dx
2

d 1
dx 2

Z1

Z1

dI
= ( + ) (I S )
dx

( + ) (I S ) d

I d = ( + ) (J S )

H
56

Radiative equilibrium

Integrate over frequency:

d
dx

Z
0

Z
H d = ( + ) (J S ) d
0

const
Z
( + ) (J S ) d = 0
0

at each depth:

[J B (T )] d = 0

in addition:

s u b s t it u t e S =

Z
0

4
H d = Te

B +

J d = absorbed energy

B d = emitted energy

T(x) or T()

57

Radiative equilibrium
Z

[J B (T )] d = 0

4
H d = Te

T(x) or T()

The temperature T(r) at every depth has to assume the value for which the left
integral over all frequencies becomes zero.
This determines the local temperature.

58

Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:

the major parameters are Teff and g
a. hydrostatic equilibrium
dP
dx

T(x), (x), B[T(x)],P(x), (x)

equation of
transfer

J(x), H(x)

b. equation of radiation
transfer

(J B ) d = 0 ?
R
4
?
4 0 H d = Te
0

= g(x)

dI
= ( + ) (I S )
dx

c. radiative equilibrium
Z

[J B (T )] d = 0

d. flux conservation
4

4
H d = Te

T(x), (x), B[T(x)], (x)

e. equation of state
P =

kT
mH

59

Grey atmosphere - an approximation for the

temperature structure
We derive a simple analytical approximation for the temperature structure.
We assume that we can approximate the radiative equilibrium integral by
using a frequency-averaged absorption coefficient, which we can put in
front of the integral.
Z

[J B (T )] d = 0

[J B (T )] d = 0

With: J =

Z
0

J d

H=

H d

K=

Z
0

K d

B=

T 4
B d =

J =B
4
4H = Te
60

Grey atmosphere
We then assume LTE: S = B.
From
1
J ( ) = [S (t)] =
2

S (t)E1 (|t |)dt

and a similar expression for frequency-integrated

quantities

J() = [S(t)],

d
= dx

and with the approximations S = B, B = J:

1
J ( ) = [J(t)] =
2

Z
0

Milnes equation

J (t)E 1(|t |) dt

!!! this is an integral

equation for J)
61

The exact solution of the Hopf integral equation

Milnes equation J() = [J(t)]

exact solution (see Mihalas, Stellar Atmospheres)

J() = const. [ + q()],

with q monotonic

1
= 0.577 = q(0) q(
) q() = 0.710
3

Radiative equilibrium - grey approximation

J() = B() = T4() = const. [ + q()]
with boundary conditions
T4() = T4eff [ + q()]
62

A simple approximation for T

0th moment of equation of transfer (integrate both
sides in d from -1 to 1)
dI
=
(I B)

dx

dH
=J B =0
d

(J = B)

4
Te
H = const =
4

1st moment of equation of transfer (integrate both

sides in d from -1 to 1)
dI
=
(I B)

dx

4
dK
Te
=H =
d

K(
) = H + constant

From Eddingtons approximation at large depth: K = 1/3 J

63

Grey atmosphere temperature distribution

T 4 (
) =

3H
(
+ c)

T 4 (
) =

3 4
T (
+ c)
4 e

H=

4
T
4 e
T4 is linear in

Estimation of c

H (
= 0) =

1
3H
2

tE2 (t) dt + c

Z
0

1/3

E2 (t) dt
1/2

ts E n (t) d t =

s!
s + n

64

Grey atmosphere Hopf function

H(0) = H =

3
2
1
H(1 + c) c =
2
2
3

T 4 (
) =

3 4
2
Te (
+ )
4
3

Remember: More in general J is obtained from

T 4 (
) =

based on approximation K/J = 1/3

T = Teff at = 2/3, T(0) = 0.84 Teff

J() = [S(t)]

3 4
T [
+ q(
)]
4 e

q(
) : Hopf function

Once Hopf function is specified solution of the grey atmosphere

(temperature distribution)
1
= 0.577 = q(0) q(
) q() = 0.710
3

65


Selection of the appropriate
In the grey case we define a suitable mean opacity (absorption coefficient).

I =

I d

J =

non-grey

J d ...

grey

dI
dI
(I S)
Equation of transfer dx = (I S ) dx =

1st moment
2nd moment

dH = (J S ) dH

dx
dx

dK = H

dx

=
(J S)
dK =
H
dx
66


Selection of the appropriate
non-grey

grey

= (I S ) dI =
(I S)
dI

dx
dx
Equation of transfer

1st

moment

2nd moment

dH = (J S )dH

dx
dx

dK = H

dx

=
(J S)
dK =
H
dx

For each equation there is one opacity average that fits grey equations, however,
all averages are different. Which one to select?
For flux constant models with H() = const. 2nd moment equation is relevant

67

Mean opacities: flux-weighted

1st possibility:

Flux-weighted mean

H d

allows the preservation of the K-integral

(radiation pressure)
Problem: H not known a priory (requires
iteration of model atmospheres)
68

R 1 dK
R
dx d = H d
0
0

dK = H

dx

Mean opacities: Rosseland

2nd possibility: Rosseland mean
to obtain correct integrated energy flux and use local T
Z
0

1
=

R
0

1 dK
dx

1 dK
1 dK
d = H (grey)
= H
dx

dx
K

1
J , J B as
3

dK
1 dB
1 dB dT

=
dx
3 dx
3 dT dx

dK
dx

Ross

R
0

1 dB (T )

dT

R dB (T )
0

dT

large weight for low-opacity (more

transparent to radiation) regions
69

Mean opacities: Rosseland

at large the T structure is accurately given

by
3 4
T 4 = Te
[Ross + q(Ross )]
4

Rosseland opacities used

in stellar interiors

For stellar atmospheres Rosseland opacities allow us to obtain initial

approximate values for the Temperature stratification (used for further
iterations).

70

T4 vs.
non-grey
numerical

grey: q() = exact

grey: q= 2/3

71

T vs. log()

non-grey
numerical
grey: q() = exact
grey: q= 2/3

72

Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:

the major parameters are Teff and g
a. hydrostatic equilibrium
dP
dx

T(x), (x), B[T(x)],P(x), (x)

equation of
transfer

J(x), H(x)

b. equation of radiation
transfer

(J B ) d = 0 ?
R
4
?
4 0 H d = Te
0

= g(x)

dI
= ( + ) (I S )
dx

c. radiative equilibrium
Z

[J B (T )] d = 0

d. flux conservation
4

4
H d = Te

T(x), (x), B[T(x)], (x)

e. equation of state
P =

kT
mH

73