Ground Support Recommendations

Newsletter
Australian Centre for Geomechanics | Volume No. 45 | December 2016
IN THIS VOLUME:
1
Ground support recommendations for

mining drives
12 Rock properties to predict rockburst

vulnerability in three dimensions
22 Corporate Affiliate news New Concept

Mining
Analysis of wedge stability using the Cell

Method
15 The assessment of seismic responses to

mining
23 ACG Board of Management
Spatial analysis of seismicity a case study
18 BASF seeks to evaluate polymer

performance in tailings treatments
10 Paste and thickened tailings operations and

research in China
24 ACG Event Schedule
Ground support recommendations

for mining drives
by Professor Yves Potvin, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Australia and
Professor John Hadjigeorgiou, University of Toronto, Canada
Eighth International Conference

on Deep and High Stress Mining
2830 March 2017
Perth | Western Australia
Deep and High Stress Mining 2017
will provide a forum for discussion
and sharing of the significant
geotechnical and logistical issues of
deep and high stress mining, as well
as best practice, new technologies
and innovation.
More than 70 papers are to be
presented!
Earlybird registration ends

17 February 2017
www.deepmining2017.com
Commencing in November 2013, the

Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG)
Ground Support System Optimisation
(GSSO) research project investigated:
explicit ground support numerical
modelling, the use of probabilistic
methods for ground support design, and
a benchmarking exercise to capture actual
ground support practices at mine sites.
This article reports on selected findings
from this benchmarking initiative, which
initially involved questionnaires, phone
interviews and mine site visits. Ultimately,
most of the information was derived from
a comprehensive review of Ground Control
Management Plans (GCMPs). Ninety-two
GCMPs from five countries were studied,
with the vast majority being from Australia
and Canada.
A popular design approach is the
analytical limit equilibrium method based
on the Rocscience software Unwedge,
which was mentioned in 56% of the GCMPs.
However, the most popular method used
in mines is the empirical graph originally
published by Grimstad and Barton (1993)

(Figure 1), which was cited in 75% of the
GCMPs as the main approach to justify
the selection of ground support systems
used at mine sites. It is believed that the
method's simplicity and ease of use and the
fact that it relies on rock mass classification
data, which is often the main type of data
available at the pre-feasibility and feasibility
stages, contribute to the popularity of this
method.
Consequently, in mining operations,
the ground support design process
generally involves a preliminary design
performed at the feasibility study stage
based on the GrimstadBarton graph.
The design is subsequently modified as
mine development commences, more
data becomes available and experience is
gained. These changes dictate modifications
to the preliminary design. This can be
qualified as an experience based approach
and the final design could be quite different
from original recommendations. Once
mining is underway it is common that
Australian Centre for Geomechanics | December
2013 Newsletter
Continued
page 2
UNDERGROUND
ground support evolves from two or three
ground support standard patterns during
feasibility, to 6 to 10 variations for specific
ground conditions and types of drives.
Notwithstanding its popularity,
the relevance of the GrimstadBarton
graph in mining applications deserves
further scrutiny. The predictive capability
and accuracy of any empirical method
is significantly more reliable when the
application is within the same environment
as the database used to develop the
method. In this case, the entire database
behind the GrimstadBarton graph contains
civil tunnelling cases. The limited relevance
of this graph to modern underground
mining becomes obvious when looking at
the ground support recommendations from
the method.
works well in compression, which occurs as

a result of the deformation of a full ring of
shotcrete applied to a circular opening.
The poor compatibility of ground
support recommendations with mining
practices is further evidenced by the fact
that mesh, which is the most widespread
surface support in mines, does not appear
in any of the support recommendations.
Furthermore, cast concrete lining
(category 9) is very rarely used in mines.
Potvin and Hadjigeorgiou (2015, 2016)
identified that the GrimstadBarton graph,
as employed by the majority of mining
practitioners, does not comply with the
requirements of the method. In particular,
the original stress reduction factor (SRF74)
(Barton et al. 1974), in the calculation of
the rock mass quality index Q, is used by
Reinforcement categories:
1.
Unsupported
2.
Spot bolting, sb
3.
Systematic bolting, B
4.
Systematic bolting (and unreinforced shotcrete,
4-10cm), B(+S)
5.
Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 5-9cm,
Sfr+B
6.
7.
8.
9.

Sfr+B
Sfr+B
Fibre reinforced shotcrete > 15cm, reinforced ribs
of shotcrete and bolting, Sfr, RRS+B
Cast concrete lining, CCA
Figure 1 Rock mass classification permanent support recommendation based on Q and

NMT. Note the extensive use of S(fr) as permanent support (after Grimstad and
Barton 1993)
The first two recommended support
categories, unsupported and spot bolting,
are ground support options no longer
available to operating mines, because
they are seen as unsafe practices. Mine
workers in Canada and Australia are not
to be exposed to unsupported ground.
Given the typical excavation shapes in
mines, which are square or with a slightly
arched roof, shotcrete is mostly solicited in
bending or tension and, in such conditions,
unreinforced shotcrete (recommendation
category 4) is not advisable. Plain shotcrete
most mining practitioners to determine

the value on the X axis of the graph
(Figure 1). This is despite the fact that SRF
was modified in 1993 (SRF93) specifically
to address the perceived limitations
of the original SRF74 in high stress
conditions that resulted in inadequate
ground support recommendations. The
significant modifications to the ratings
of SRF93 included a maximum value of
400 compared to 20 in SRF74. This has a
significant impact on the calculation of the
Q value for mining at depth.
Another source of confusion, identified

during the benchmarking study in the mining
application of the GrimstadBarton graph, is
the use of the Excavation Surface Ratio (ESR),
which acted as a de facto safety factor on
the support design. The method requires the
use of an ESR value of 1.6 to 2 for permanent
mine openings and 3 to 5 for temporary mine
openings. Given the same ground conditions,
this implies that a reduction in ground
support requirements (a lower safety factor) is
recommended for temporary mine openings.
This does not reflect modern mining
practices. Permanent mine openings will
often use ground support products that are
corrosion resistant compared to temporary
openings, but would generally not reduce
the safety factor as mine workers are exposed
for periods ranging from several months
to several years. This disconnect between
the method and the mining practices has
translated into noticeable confusion in the
selection of ESR values in the GCMPs.
Given the many deficiencies of the
current practices involving the use of the
GrimstadBarton graph for preliminary or
first pass ground support design in mining,
there is an obvious need to develop a
similar user-friendly method, based on rock
mass classification and mining case studies.
This information was available to the GSSO
researchers through the GCMPs collected
and was utilised to develop new ground
support guidelines for development mining
drives. A conscious decision was made to
continue using the Q system, Barton et al.
(1974), as a rock mass classification tool to
capture the rock mass structural regime.
At the feasibility stage , mine designers
need to provide a preliminary ground
support design as a starting point to
develop the mine and to enable cost
estimations and development mining
cycle times. The key design parameters to
be defined by ground support guidelines
include:
1. Bolting pattern, expressed in
terms of bolt density (bolt/m2)
2. Bolt length
3. Selection of surface support: mesh
or reinforced shotcrete
4. The thickness of reinforced
shotcrete if selected as surface
support
5. The coverage of the ground
support on the wall; down to the
floor, mid-drive or shoulder
It was established from the
comprehensive review of GCMPs that
the bolt length used for mining drives is
generally a function of regional practices
rather than ground conditions. The standard
Copyright 2016. Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of Western Australia (UWA). All rights reserved. No part of this newsletter may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form without the prior written
permission of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of Western Australia.
The information contained in this newsletter is for general educational and informative purposes only. Except to the extent required by law, UWA and the ACG make no representations or warranties express or implied as to the accuracy,
reliability or completeness of the information contained therein. To the extent permitted by law, UWA and the ACG exclude all liability for loss or damage of any kind at all (including indirect or consequential loss or damage) arising from
the information in this newsletter or use of such information. You acknowledge that the information provided in this newsletter is to assist you with undertaking your own enquiries and analyses and that you should seek independent
professional advice before acting in reliance on the information contained therein.
The views expressed in this newsletter are those of the authors and may not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
Australian Centre for Geomechanics | December 2016 Newsletter
UNDERGROUND
practice is to use 2.4 m long bolts in
Australia, whilst in Canada the length varies
from 1.8 to 2.4 m. Three metre long bolts
are also used to reinforce larger excavations
and specific ground conditions.
Further study of ground support
strategies for different ground conditions
established that, generally, as the rock mass
quality decreases:
The bolt density increases
The wall coverage increases and is
extended further down the wall
The selection of reinforced shotcrete
over mesh increases, as well as the
thickness of the shotcrete
When shotcrete is used, the bolt
density tends to be reduced by about
0.2 bolts/m2, as the bolting pattern is no
longer dictated by the size of the weldmesh sheet.
These trends were quantified based on
GCMPs and new empirical guidelines for
selecting ground support for mining drives
(Figure 2) that have recently been published
(Potvin and Hadjigeorgiou, 2016).
These guidelines are specific to 4-6 m
wide mining drives and are meant to be
used as a first pass preliminary design at
the feasibility study stage. The guidelines
do not provide indications of the specific
reinforcement products to use. It is realised
that different products have different

load bearing and displacement capacity.
However, rockbolts act primarily as a rock
reinforcement, preventing displacement
and keeping the rock mass tight and
confined. Following the principle that rock
reinforcement is designed to help the rock
mass to support itself, as promoted by
Hoek and Brown (1980), the vast majority of
rockbolts, independent of the product used,
are rarely loaded to full capacity.
The guidelines should provide a
conservative preliminary design as the
database is from proven successful ground
support standards documented in the
GCMPs. It also represents many kilometres
of drives from a large number of mainly
Australian and Canadian mines. It is
recognised that these guidelines are not
suitable for extreme ground conditions such
as squeezing or rockbursting prone areas.
For more detail on this work, the
readers are referred to Potvin and
Hadjigeorgiou (2015, 2016).
Glencore Mount Isa Mines, Independence

Group NL, Codelco Chile, MMG Limited,
Minerals Research Institute of Western
Australia, and the Australian Centre for
Geomechanics. Minor sponsors: Jennmar
Australia, Dywidag-Systems International
Pty Ltd, Fero Strata Australia, Golder
Associates Pty Ltd, Geobrugg Australia Pty
Ltd, and Atlas Copco Australia Pty Limited.
The sponsors not only offer significant
financial contributions, but also a large
pool of expertise that provides extremely
valuable input into the research projects
and development of the GSSO guide. The
project will culminate with the publication
of a new ground support design guide in
mid-2017.
For the latest project information, visit
http://gsso.com.au/
Article references are available at
http://acg.uwa.edu.au/newsletters-annualreports/
GSSO sponsors
This work was performed as part
of the ACGs Ground Support Systems
Optimisation project that is sponsored by
the following companies. Major sponsors:
Professor Yves Potvin

Australian Centre for Geomechanics,
Australia
Professor John Hadjigeorgiou

University of Toronto, Canada
Figure 2 Ground support guidelines for mine drives of 4 to 6 m span
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2325 August 2017 | ibis Hotel Perth | Perth, Western Australia
This basic course has been developed to cover both the
technical and practical aspects of ground support for open pit
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designed to assist mining personnel involved with the design and
implementation of mine ground support.
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events
Ground Support 2013

Seventh International Symposium
on Ground Support in Mining and
Underground Construction Proceedings
available for purchase at the ACG online
shop.
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/shop
OPEN PIT
Analysis of wedge stability using the Cell Method

by William Gibson, SRK Consulting Argentina, Argentina
The stability of multiple wedges

in open pit benches or underground
excavations can be analysed using a novel
method based on a discretisation of the
rock mass with cells that are connected to
form wedges. The advantage of this method
is that it is possible to work with complex
geometries and a Discrete Fracture Network
(DFN) in a straightforward manner, without
the need for meshing and there is no
limitation on the shapes of wedges.
The method is utilised in the Frac_Rock
software and involves the use of a regular
cell mesh whereby each cell is connected
to its neighbour so as to form a large
block. The cells inside excavations or
above topography are deleted in order to
generate the geometry to be analysed. A
DFN is added, which modifies the contacts,
thus changing their orientation, elastic
properties and strength parameters. Each
contact modified by a fracture in the DFN
has an assigned MohrCoulomb strength
envelope. In future development, a
BartonBandis strength envelope (Barton,
2013) will be included as an alternative.
SRK has incorporated these ideas into
the Frac_Rock program, which has recently
been released internally as a beta version
for testing and validation.
Figure 1 Cell Method formulation

illustrates a case of two wedges with
an overlap. Note that even though the
representation of the wedges is with step
boundaries (Figure 2, left), the actual
mathematical model is a plane following
the joint orientations that create the wedge
(Figure 2, right).
contacts. The equations of equilibrium are

solved in an iterative fashion to take into
consideration the non-linear behaviour
of joints. They can behave elastically, be
open, or reach peak strength during the
calculation. Figure 3 shows the calculation
sequence.
Formulation
Block generation
Meshing can be a time-consuming and
costly exercise, especially when software
programs cannot mesh complex models
and a large amount of time is spent fixing
the geometry in order to obtain a mesh for
the analysis.
The formulation used by Frac_Rock
does not require meshing; it is based on
a regular 3D grid connecting nodes with
rigid contacts. Joints (fractures) can be
added to the model, either as individual
features or as a generated DFN using
the standard information available for
joint sets (i.e. spacing, persistence, joint
dimension, dip and dip direction).
The rigid contacts are modified when
a joint intersects them; the orientation
and the strength parameters for the new
contacts are based on the orientation and
properties of the joint. The contacts possess
MohrCoulomb strength criteria based on
friction and cohesion properties attributed
to the joints. Figure 1 illustrates the concept
for the 2D case.
The joints cutting the rigid contacts
automatically generate the blocks (wedges)
in the model. Two blocks do not share
a rigid contact but are surrounded by
contacts modified by joints. This process
of block generation is simple. Figure 2
Figure 2 Isometric view of wedge contacts
Contact forces and joint strength

For each contact, an area equal to the
projection of the grid face onto the joint is
assigned; this area is used to calculate the
contact stresses and adjust the stiffness of
the contact such that at equal deformation,
the stress is the same.
The joint strength is defined by
MohrCoulomb, including tension cut, and
the strength is characterised by friction
and cohesion. Later improvements will
include a non-linear envelope (Barton,
2013).
Equilibrium calculation
The interaction between blocks is
through contacts: the forces acting on
each block are both gravity and forces
from other blocks transmitted through the
Figure 3 Calculation sequence
OPEN PIT
Table 1
Comparison Factor of Safety calculated for various software programs
Verification
FoS Frac_Rock for different cell size a (m) (*)
Wedges in open slopes

For verification purposes, several
wedges of different shapes in a slope
(Figure 4) were analysed with Frac_Rock
and the alternative software programs,
Swedge (Rocscience, 2013) and MWedge
(Gibson, 2016). The properties for all joints
are friction 30 and cohesion 10 kPa. In
Frac_Rock, a different grid size was used:
the 0.25-0.75 m range.
Wedge
Joints
Volume
(m3)
FoS MWedge
SWedge (*)
a = 0.25
a = 0.50
a = 0.75
1-4
615
1.084 (0.789)
0.967 (0.791)
0.976 (0.791)
0.955 (0.791)
1-3
300
2.640 (1.940)
1.822 (1.049)
1.881(1.072)
1.646 (1.025)
1-2
708
0.895 (0.640)
0.885 (0.615)
0.873 (0.615)
0.873 (0.615)
1-5
1032
0.548 (0.404)
0.545 (0.416)
0.545 (0.404)
0.545 (0.416)
(*) values in brackets are FoS for cohesion = 0.
Figure 4 Isometric view of wedges in a slope

The comparison shows the results are
not very sensitive to grid size.
The results are shown in Table 1. There
is a good correlation between the Factors
of Safety (FoS) for each wedge failure
calculated using the Limit Equilibrium
Methods (LEMs) (SWedge and MWedge),
and Frac_Rock. The exception is wedge 3,
which may be due to the assumption for
LEM of constant stresses on the joints. The
analysis carried out in Frac_Rock indicates
this is not true for wedge stability analysis
(Figure 5).
Figure 5 Isometric view of normal stress calculated for wedge using Frac_Rock
Wedges in tunnels
A similar comparison with
Frac_Rock was completed for underground
excavations using the program Unwedge
(Rocscience, 2014). Figure 6 shows the
model used for the comparison and Table 2
shows the agreement in FoS calculation
between the two programs.
Applications
Frac_Rock was applied to analyse

the stability of wedges in a portal and the
effect of cable bolts on the wall stability.
Figure 7 shows the geometry of the portal.
The analysis was carried out for alternative
cases, with and without cable bolts. This
example is used to demonstrate another
capability of the Frac_Rock method
of assessing material movement. The
program calculates the resting position of
the material from unstable blocks/wedges.
It does not calculate the dynamics of
the falling rock, but instead assumes the
material will flow from its original position
to a resting place. Swelling is taken into
account during the calculation.
The results can be compared in
Figure 8, where the unstable blocks are
Figure 6 Unwedge and Frac_Rock models

Table 2
Comparison Factor of Safety calculation for each program

Unwedge
Frac_Rock
Wedge
Weight
(kN)
FoS Fric = 30
coh = 0
FoS Fric = 30
coh = 12 kPa
Weight
(kN)
FoS Fric = 30
coh = 0
FoS Fric = 30
coh = 12 kPa
206
Stable
Stable
210
Stable
Stable
214
1.008
1.911
216
1.014
1.857
136
0.333
1.131
137
0.334
1.049
37
0.000
0.000
32
0.006
0.006
Figure 7 Isometric view of portal and cable bolt locations
OPEN PIT
shown in red and the stable blocks in
green. The final location of the material
from unstable blocks is shown in yellow.
For the case without cable bolts, the failed
material blocks the portal completely.
Figure 9 shows another example of
benches in a pit, with stable wedges shown
in green and material from failed wedges
shown in orange.
Conclusion
The Cell Method presented provides

a more efficient alternative for stability
analysis of wedges. The method used in
Frac_Rock software currently allows the
inclusion of cable support in the analyses
and assesses material movement, with
other kinds of support to be added in
the future. The results of wedge failure
analysis produced by Frac_Rock compare
favourably with alternative well-known
methods and programs.
Future developments for Frac_Rock
will enable the inclusion of alternative
means of ground support, pore water
pressure in joints, alternative joint shear
strength models, and in situ stresses in the
analyses.
No cable. Wedge in red = unstable, green = stable
No cable. Final location unstable material
Cables. Wedge in red = unstable, green = stable
Cables. Final location unstable material
Figure 8 Isometric views showing results from stability calculations of a portal with and
without cable bolt support
Acknowledgement
The author thanks SRK Consulting

(Australasia) Pty Ltd for sponsoring the
development of the Cell Method.
William Gibson
SRK Consulting Argentina, Argentina
Figure 9 Isometric view of a pit slope, showing stable wedges (green) and the final location
for material from failed wedges (orange)
ACG Instrumentation and

Slope Monitoring Seminar
2-3 May 2017 | Novotel Perth Langley Hotel, Western Australia
The ACG is proud to host a two-day seminar that is targetted

to supporting the continued development and application of
advanced monitoring systems to all types of mine sites and their
waste landforms.
For more information, please visit acg.uwa.edu.au/events
Down to Earth
Training DVD
Unearthing Black Gold

Training DVD
To purchase these and other training DVDs, please visit

OPEN PIT
First Asia Pacific Slope Stability in Mining 2016

Conference report
Maximising value through geomechanics
The Australian Centre for

Geomechanics was delighted to host
almost 150 delegates, speakers, sponsors
and exhibitors at the First Asia Pacific Slope
Stability in Mining Conference, held at the
Sofitel Brisbane Central, 6-8 September
2016.
Pty Ltd, Geofabrics Maccaferri, Huesker

Asia Pacific Pte Ltd, itmsoil Australia
and Worldsensing, MetaSensing BV and
Geosystems Australia, Softrock Solutions
Pty Ltd, Soldata, TRE ALTAMIRA, as well
as our special sponsors Infra Tech Pty Ltd
who supplied the pens and Pells Sullivan
The conference provided a forum

for best practice and state-of-the-art
technologies that are targetted to the
unique challenges and environs of the Asia
Pacific region, with respect to pit slope
investigations, design, implementation and
performance monitoring.
The conference featured 55 quality
presentations on a variety of topics. The
three-day technical programme consisted
of sessions covering monitoring slopes
and rockfalls, modelling and analysis,
practical analysis, design considerations,
risk management, slope performance,
geotechnical data considerations and
design, data and visualisation technologies,
and new methods for analysis and control.
The ACG was proud to have IDS
Australasia Pty Ltd as the principal sponsor
of the conference. Thanks go to IDS for their
fantastic support, as well as our exhibitors:
3D Laser Mapping Ltd, 3v Geomatics Inc.,
ADAM Technology, Geobrugg Australia
Meynink (PSM) who sponsored a University

of Queensland student to attend the
conference and conference dinner. The
support of all of our sponsors and exhibitors
is greatly appreciated.
Chaired by the ACGs Professor Phil
Dight, the conference featured an opening
address by Mark Adams of KAAMA
Consulting. The first keynote speaker of
the conference was Adjunct Professor
Tim Sullivan of PSM and the University of
New South Wales who spoke on Design,
performance and monitoring strategies
for success followed by Professor Andy
Fourie, The University of Western Australia,
whose presentation focussed on Relying on
suction to maintain slope stability.
Day twos keynote speakers were Julian
Venter from AngloGold Ashanti presenting
on Designing with risk and Dr Jeff Price,
SRK Consulting with his presentation
Implications of groundwater behaviour on
the geomechanics of rock slope stability.
The third and final day of the

conference brought with it Mark Eggers,
PSM, and his presentation Engineering
geological modelling for pit slope design
in the porphyry copper-gold deposits of
Southeast Asia. The final keynote address
was given by Dr Cameron McKenzie from
Blastechnology who spoke on Blasting near
open pit walls.
Prior to the conference, over
35 delegates attended the Instrumentation
and Slope Monitoring Workshop, facilitated
by Professor Phil Dight. This workshop
featured numerous presentations from
a wide range of local and international
experts.
The Management of Moving and
Unstable Slopes Workshop followed the
conference with almost 35 attendees. This
workshop was facilitated by Mark Fowler
from PSM.
Both workshops allowed for indepth
questions and discussions on the respective
targetted topics around slope monitoring
and management.
The conference proceedings include
55 technical peer-reviewed papers
representing 19 countries. These papers
address a wide spectrum of topics in
relation to slope stability in open pit mining.
An important subject in terms of optimising
both safety and return on investment.
The hardbound conference proceedings

include a colour figure CD, and are available
for purchase at acg.uwa.edu.au/shop
UNDERGROUND
Spatial analysis of seismicity a case study

by Ruth Stephenson, AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
Over the last 15 years there have been

significant advances in microseismic data
processing and interpretation through the
increased functionality of tools such as
Vantage, and post-processing tools such
mXrap. Unfortunately, the reality at many
mines is that due to under-resourcing,
detailed post-processing and interpretation
is often not done. This article presents a
case history which highlights how improved
management of mine seismicity can be
achieved through the simple spatial analysis
of seismic data.
Spatial (and temporal) analysis of
microseismicity can be a useful method of
analysis to locate large-scale structures that
could slip and cause damaging events, if a
good dataset is available. Microseismicity
can concentrate around pre-existing
structures, including those that might
appear well-healed in the drill core or
underground exposures.
One of the key areas of interest is how
closely the seismicity is associated with
blasting, both in space and time. Ideally,

all the damaging seismic events would
be closely associated with blasting, both
spatially and temporally. This makes it
easier to manage because personnel can
be excluded from the perceived elevated
risk areas and periods. Where the events
are more widely distributed, relative
to the active mining areas, and/or they
occur outside a practical exclusion period
(e.g. more than 24 or 48 hrs), the reliability
of the various controls diminishes, and the
costs and impact on safety and production
may become untenable.
In order to conduct a meaningful
spatial analysis, the following information is
required:
An accurate date and time history of
stope and development firing and
backfilling that can be related to 3D
mining shapes
A 3D model of the known large-scale
structures and geological contacts
A seismic database, cleaned of
Figure 1 An example of spatial seismic analysis
spurious data, particularly blasts, and

large events that locate well outside
the system sensor array
The case study presented is from
a mine with a well-maintained seismic
system, and a well-designed array that
allows for good location accuracy. A seismic
spatial analysis using the seismic data is
presented using a standard 3D mining
software package. A set of 3D files was
constructed from mining as-built and stope
cavity monitoring system (CMS) surveys
on a quarter by quarter basis, and then
monthly for the last year analysed. At this
mine, the levels of seismicity had increased
significantly during that last year and so the
analysis was conducted in more detail for
that period.
The seismic database information
was split into time periods, imported
into the software and compared with
the 3D as-built mining shapes for the
corresponding periods. The results viewed
on screen are the seismicity that relates
UNDERGROUND
to those areas mined during that period,
and areas previously mined, which could
be important, particularly if they were not
backfilled.
At the case study mine, the spatial
analysis identified a concentration of
seismicity which was found to coincide with
an ultramafic geological contact, which was
little known at the time. This concentration
of seismicity included approximately half
of the largest events in the database. The
other half of these events occurred in the
hangingwall and are probably related to
relaxation of the hangingwall after stoping.
The hangingwall of the mine consists
of a very strong and good quality basalt,
intersected by a thin meta-sedimentary
unit approximately 2 m thick. The ore zone
is contained within a large regional shear
zone, a mafic schist which is highly foliated
but very strong. An ultramafic unit lies
at the footwall contact of the shear zone.
The mine infrastructure was placed in the
hangingwall instead of the footwall because
the rock mass conditions were known to
be better in the hangingwall. As such, the
importance of understanding the causes
of seismicity and damage are paramount
to reducing the related hazards in the
hangingwall development.
Figure 1 presents an example of the
spatial seismic analysis. The figure shows a
cross-section, long-section and plan view
for each time period. Three time steps
are shown: the second step relates to
the mining sequence three months after
the first, and the third step relates to the
mining sequence eight months after the
second. The selected time steps presented
the clearest indication of the relationship
between seismicity, structure and stoping.
Each view reveals different information of
the relationship between seismicity, stoping
and large-scale structures.
The cross-sections in Figure 1 show that
large events are occurring approximately

70 m into the footwall of the stopes. The
analysis prompted an investigation into
the footwall geology which was previously
poorly understood. An extensive talcchlorite ultramafic unit was identified
and modelled. The recorded seismicity is
interpreted to be a result of shearing at the
contact of this unit.
From the figure, it is also evident that
seismicity is not clustered near the metasedimentary unit within the hangingwall.
However, this structure is important
because development is more damaged
proximal to the structure, despite levels
of seismicity similar to the surrounding
rock mass. The damage was observed as
undercutting of the unsupported lower
walls, cracking of fibrecrete and shearing
of bolts. It was observed that the rock mass
in this area is strongly sheared and can be
more blocky or fractured in character than
in other areas, making it inherently weaker
and more prone to stress damage, but
without significant seismic response. The
ground support was upgraded in the areas
surrounding this structure from a relatively
stiff system comprising fibrecrete and fullyencapsulated solid bar bolts, to a system
with greater dynamic capability and yield
capacity. The new support included mesh
over the fibrecrete and dynamic bolts.
The long-section and plan views in
Figure 1 indicate that the majority of the
intense clusters of seismicity are associated
with active stopes. There are, however,
clusters of activity present after the stopes
are backfilled. This is particularly apparent
in time (step three) and less easy to explain.
Further investigation into mining rates
and sequence revealed that the mine had
reached a point at which careful attention
to mining rate and sequence was required
to limit seismicity and associated damage.
Smaller clusters can also be observed
associated with stopes that have not been

backfilled which are further away from
active stoping.
A relatively simple spatial analysis
of mine seismicity can provide improved
understanding of the controls on mine
seismicity, the sources of potential
large damaging events, and highlight
opportunities to reduce seismic hazard
through improved ground support in
targetted areas and mining sequencing.
Specifically, at the case study mine the
analysis provided the following insights:
An ultramafic unit exists in the
footwall which is shearing and causing
large seismic events
Seismicity is not necessarily closely
associated with the hangingwall metasedimentary unit, despite higher levels
of damage observed surrounding the
unit
Careful mine sequencing and
scheduling have become key to
limiting deformation and rehabilitation
Stopes should only be left open
(unfilled) in areas that will no longer be
accessed, and where there is no long
term infrastructure
Ruth Stephenson
AMC Consultants Pty Ltd, Australia
ACG mXrap software advancing mine safety by

delivering research outcomes as useful software
Since 1999 the ACG has researched and
pursued the mitigation of economic and
safety risks associated with seismic activity
in hard rock mines. mXrap formed an
important part of the ACGs Mine Seismicity
and Rockburst Risk Management Project as
a technology transfer tool.
Since 2015, ongoing mXrap software
development and maintenance is under the
auspice of the mXrap Consortium; separate
to mine seismicity research. The Consortium
currently comprises more than 20 mining
houses that receive benefits from the

different apps developed in mXrap.
mXrap is a geotechnical data analysis
and monitoring platform which provides
generic tools which can be used by
engineers to script specific task-focussed
apps that can be shared between different
users. Several standard apps have been
developed over the years for the analysis
and management of mining-induced
seismicity. The mining-induced seismicity
suit includes, amongst others:
General analysis tools with powerful

range temporal, property and spatial
filters
Seismic hazard assessment
Grid-based evaluation of seismic
source parameters
Data quality analysis tools
Other apps are being developed to
translate the ACG and other institutional
research outcomes into useable software.
More at http://mxrap.com/
The mXrap Consortium is a proud Student Registration

Sponsor of the Eighth International Conference on
Deep and High Stress Mining
PASTE
Paste and thickened tailings operations and research in

China
by Professor Aixiang WuUniversity of Science and Technology Beijing, China
Background
From prehistoric times to the present,
mining has played an important part in
human existence. The history of mining
parallels the history of civilisation. Many
cultural eras were identified by minerals,
such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age and
Iron Age. Mineral resources are essential for
human development and civilisation.
World mineral consumption has
increased sharply in modern times. China
has developed one of the worlds largest
mining and minerals industries that
underpins the continual development of
bulk commodities, aerospace infrastructure,
military supplies, building materials, and
transportation infrastructure. There are
171 varieties of mineral resources in China,
and its proven reserves of mineral resources
constitute 12% of the global reserves. China
is one of the largest global producers and
consumers of mineral resources.
With rapid economic development in
the past 30 years, numerous non-ferrous
metal mines have been intensively
exploited throughout China. Mining
activities bring about substantial solid
wastes and severe surface or groundwater
pollution. Mining alone has left behind
about 1,500,000 ha of waste land in China;
increasing at a rate of 46,700 ha per year.
Environmental disasters caused by heavy
metal pollution have been aggravating. Far
worse, tailings dam failure, underground
voids collapse and land subsidence occur
occasionally, directly causing injury or
death. On 8 September 2008, a tailings dam
located in Shanxi Province collapsed and
277 people were killed.
During the early stages of the
industrialisation in China, one of the major
concerns was to utilise natural resources to
support economic development. Presently,
public perception of mine pollution and
disaster has driven the industry to search for
green mining technology that can prevent
or minimise the effect of mining activities.
Chinas central government recently
enforced several regulations, pushing hard
on the practice of mine backfill. The State
Administration of Work Safety has specified
that the cut-and-fill method shall be the
preferred method for newly built mines. The
Ministry of Finance declared a 50% resource
tax exemption for mining companies using
mine backfill technology.
Evolution of cemented paste

backfill in China
Traditionally, hydraulic fill with diluted
slurry and high density hydraulic fill has
10
been widely used in China. Due to high

water content, diluted hydraulic fill has
to deal with cement loss, low backfill
strength, underground pollution, and the
high costs for water and mud pumping in
the dewatering process. Meanwhile, the
thickening of tailings for surface disposal
and underground backfill has been
extensively practiced in the mining industry
worldwide, outside China, because it could
prevent or minimise environmental and
safety impacts.
China started to carry out research
and application of paste backfill in the
1980s. A number of research institutes,
manufacturers, and universities have
been devoted to research, equipment
development and system design of paste
technology. Paste technology could well
expect a tremendous market amongst
Chinas 153,000 mines. The first paste
backfill system in China was built in 1996
at the Jinchuan Nickel Mine (JNM), and
cement is fed directly to an above-ground

mixer to produce paste. Finally, gravity
flow is adopted to deliver the paste.
Such simplification significantly reduces
operational difficulties in the paste filling
process. The solid concentration of paste at
HLZM is 78-80%; the filling capacity is up to
1,264 m3 per day. The filled paste shortens
the time required for stope alternation,
improves the stress state of surrounding
rocks, and enhances the underground
working environment.
With increasing mining depth,
problems such as broken surrounding
rock, crustal stress increases, and high
water content occur at higher frequency.
All these problems are experienced at
JTCM, where the current mining method
is shrinkage stoping. The surrounding rock
at this mine site is highly water sensitive,
and five subsidence areas have already
appeared on surface. Fortunately, cemented
paste backfill was adopted and built at
Figure 1 The paste backfill station at Jiashi Tonghui Copper Mine

the first paste backfill system based on
deep cone thickening technology in China
was built in 2006 at the Huize Lead-Zinc
Mine (HLZM), which is the deepest mine
(1,562 m) in China. Later, at Jiashi Tonghui
Copper Mine (JTCM), the first cemented
paste backfill system using pumping agents
in China was designed and established.
HLZM, Yunnan, owned by Yunnan
Chihong Co., China, is one of the largest
poly-metallic mines in the world. Its
success in paste filling application is owed
to the greatly simplified process. Deep
cone thickener is employed for one-stage
thickening and dewatering, and dry
JTCM in 2014. The cemented paste backfill,

providing higher filling strength, less water
bleeding, and lower cost, effectively solves
many problems at JTCM.
The ultra-fine unclassified tailings of
high viscosity in JTCM also brought about
the challenge to improve paste strength
and transportability. Coarse aggregate and
pumping agents are added to produce
more versatile paste that addresses this
challenge. The transport capacity in JTCM
is 70-90 m3/h. The solid concentration
is increased to 75-81%, thus the water
bleeding into the voids is substantially
decreased and argillisation is effectively
PASTE
avoided. The fill strength reached 2-5 MPa
after 28 days, which is sufficient to ensure
the stability of the underground voids.
The cemented paste backfill system
design at JTCM provides significant
guidance for other mines facing similar
situations and also promotes the
application of cemented paste backfill
technology in China.
Although the cemented paste
backfilling technology has been used in
China, it is still in the initial stage, and
many key problems need to be explored.
It is crucial for cemented paste backfilling
technology to improve fundamental
theories, actively promote the application
of new materials and new technology, and
accelerate the development of equipment
with independent intellectual property
rights.
Application of paste disposal

technology in China
Figure 2 Paste flow in the Wushan Copper Mine tailings pond
Technical experiments of dry-stacking

were firstly conducted in gold mines. As an
adaptation of dry-stacking, paste disposal
technology is being rapidly developed.
It is considered an energy-saving tailings
management method among mining
enterprises. Compared with the cemented
paste backfill technology, paste disposal
is relatively new in China. Wushan Copper
Mine (WCM) was the first to employ the
paste disposal technology to manage its
ultra-fine unclassified tailings in China; it
was commissioned in 2007.
WCM, owned by Gold Group
Corporation, China, is the fourth largest
poly-metal deposit in China, promising a
total metal reserve of 2.67 million t. The
ore-processing capacity is 30,000 t per day,
and the tailings is discharged at highconcentration. A set of two 40 m deep cone
paste thickeners are used to thicken the
tailings, whose underflow contains 70-72%
solid by weight.
The paste is of good mobility and flows
by gravity in the open channel between the
discharge point and the tailings fan, after
which the paste is able to spread smoothly
into a delta-type flow profile to the border,
increasing the exposed area, promoting
water evaporation and accelerating the
consolidation process. The paste disposal
technology enables WCM to reduce water
consumption notably and increases the
solid handling capacity of its tailings dam.
This successful practice at WCM proves
that paste disposal is especially feasible in
alpine regions, and serves as an important
reference for similar mines.
Aside from WCM, more and more mines
in China are implementing paste disposal
technology to manage tailings. However,
many problems still exist when dealing with
ultra-fine unclassified tailings. There is still a
long way to go to solve these problems and
it requires a breakthrough of basic theories
Paste seminars in China
and specific equipment development.

In order to provide a platform for
the exchange and cooperation among
research institutes, mining companies and
equipment providers, Professor Aixiang
Wu, vice president of the University of
Science and Technology Beijing, initiated
the International Seminar on Paste Backfill
in China. This seminar commenced in 2013
and is held every two years.
In November 2013, 300 delegates from
five countries attended the first seminar
in Beijing and shared the achievements
and improvements of paste technology
in China and other countries. A total of
20 speeches were made covering six
themes: paste backfill, chemical material,
equipment, thickening, pumping, and
case studies. The second seminar took
place during 6-9 November 2015, and
attracted more than 400 attendees. A
total of 33 presentations focussed on five
themes: mechanical properties, preparation,
transportation, design and optimisation of
paste backfill systems, paste backfill in coal
and metal mining.
As the capital of China, Beijing hosts

a large number of mining company
headquarters, consulting companies and
colleges. The mining professionals in
China will show our enthusiasm towards
international delegates worldwide. Paste
2017 will consist of three sections: seminar,
exhibition and technical visit. The Beijing
Conference Center is the seminar venue and
technical visit is to the WCM.
We look forward to welcoming you to
Beijing in June 2017!
Professor Aixiang Wu
University of Science and Technology Beijing,
China
Paste 2017
In 1999, the Australian Centre for
Geomechanics initiated the series of
international seminars on paste and
thickened tailings. The objective of the
seminar series is to disseminate the latest
advancements in the field of paste and
thickened tailings technology. Each year
a paste seminar takes place worldwide;
past countries include: Australia, Canada,
South Africa, South America and Ireland.
For the first time, a seminar will be held
in China. Paste 2017 will be hosted and
organised by the University of Science and
Technology Beijing which is renowned for
its research and education on metal mining
engineering, ranking third in Chinese
universities.
20th International
Seminar on Paste and
Thickened Tailings
15-18 June 2017
Beijing Conference Center,
China
www.paste2017.com
11
ACG RESEARCH
Rock properties to predict rockburst vulnerability in

three dimensions
This new ACG research project aims to equip the mining industry with support systems knowledge to mitigate strainburst/rockburst risk
As mines continue to be mined deeper

and open pits expand, strainbursts and
rockbursts are increasing the cost of mining
safely, i.e. ground support requirements,
microseismic monitoring, restrictions
to production and sequencing, as well
as delays in re-entry, sometimes lead to
the premature closure of a mine. These
problems are a major threat to the future
exploitation of deep mining resources.
Several strainburst/rockburst risk
management approaches are available and
are currently used by many mines. However,
once the mining method and sequence
are determined, the hazard state is more
or less locked in, leaving implementation
of dynamically resistant support as one of
the only short-term controls of excavation
damage potential. Consequently, the
selection of an appropriate dynamic
support system is of paramount importance
in managing burst risks in mines.
To aid industry to design more
appropriate support systems to mitigate
the potential problem in July 2016, the
ACG commenced an industry and Minerals
Research Institute of Western Australia
(MRIWA) funded research project into Rock
properties to predict rockburst vulnerability
in three dimensions (MRIWA Project M464).
Project objectives
This new ACG research project will
examine the properties of rocks in 3D
covering the prepeak and postpeak
behaviour in order to identify where
rockburst could occur. Pre-peak behaviour
is dominated by rock brittleness and
fracture generation. Post-peak behaviour
is likely to be dominated by rocks which
release energy following failure (called

Type 2 or self-sustaining behaviour). The
aim is to identify early indicators of fracture
toughness and Type 2 behaviour and to
examine whether this is directional or not.
Once the rockburst potential nature can
be identified, Dight et al. (2013) has shown
that the energy from the selfsustaining
behaviour can be related to the ejection
velocity, which means that the demand on
and parameters for ground support may be
determined for dynamic situations.
The ultimate benefit of the project to
the mining industry will lead to fewer mines
closing due to rockburst and help identify
approaches for reducing the consequences
of rockbursts, in particular, by designing
more appropriate support systems. This will
contribute to making deep mines safer and
more sustainable in the future.
The problem
Ortlepp and Stacey (1994) defined
rockburst as damages that occurred in a
tunnel as the result of a seismic event, or
which is directly associated with a seismic
event.
The implications of rockbursts from a
mining operational perspective can vary
depending on the circumstances. The
consequences could range from being
minor (no immediate action required),
some rehabilitation of the support system,
or limited production delay, up to as
severe as damage to equipment and mine
infrastructure, injuries to personnel, write
off of reserve, permanent mine closure and
even fatalities.
The pervasiveness of the rockburst
issue in many mining operations
This research project will examine the properties of rocks in 3D covering the pre-peak and
post-peak behaviour in order to identify where rockburst could occur
12
suggests that it is still one of the major

ground control issues waiting to be resolved
and one which could affect all operations.
Despite decades of research, factors
affecting the occurrence of rockburst
damage are still not yet well understood
(Heal, 2010). Hence, there is a demand for
an alternative approach to understanding
their occurrence and how to better manage
the risks associated with this problem.
A more recent classification for
rockbursts has been proposed by Hudyma
(2008), based on the Es/Ep energy ratio and
the event magnitude. Notwithstanding
these (or other) rockburst classifications.
A review of seismic monitoring in
Australian mines (Heal, 2010) and Canadian
mines (Hadjigeorgiou, 2014, pers. comm.)
shows that about 80% of all measured burst
damage occurs within the source radius
this is commonly termed strainburst.
Hence, 20% of damage can be attributed
to seismic events remote to the opening
(rockburst).
Kaiser and Cai (2013) concur with the
assertion that most rockbursts are in fact
a form of strainburst, and suggest that
even when a large seismic event occurs
far away from the damage location, the
damage is often controlled by the local
rock properties/stress conditions (and
geometry).
This has profound implications for the
way industry designs its ground support
systems.
Implications for open pits

Until recently strainburst was
considered a phenomenon solely in the
underground space, however, anecdotal
evidence suggests a recent fatality in an
open pit mine could be attributed to a
strainburst in a mine less than 200 m deep
(Costa, pers. comm., 2015). Indeed there
is ample evidence of spalling following
blasting in both open pit and underground
mines which can be attributed to
strainburst behaviour.
Stress measurement is not a standard
procedure in open pit mine evaluation
and is largely ignored (Read and Stacey,
2010), but if stress concentration at the toe
of a slope, blasting problems at the toe of
a slope and development of extensional
cracking (Stacey 1981; Dight, 2006; Dight
et al., 2009) behind the face are known
unknowns, then the mechanisms need to
be understood and taken into account as
part of the hazard management.
ACG RESEARCH
Potential industry benefits
Other project deliverables may be
derived from a new way of looking at rock
properties, i.e. anisotropy, brittleness and
superbrittleness, etc. These include:
Are rock properties directional or
omnidirectional? Is preconditioning
or destress blasting appropriate and
in which location are they effective,
based on the stress field?
The proposed testing may revolutionise
the way in which numerical modelling
is undertaken for mining because
the results of the testing may provide
threedimensional rock properties
versus the commonly assumed
isotropic properties, potentially leading
to a sounder engineering approach to
design
The research work may have important
implications in better understanding
some stress related open pit slope
failures
The project may also aid a better
understanding of the link between
blast damage and selfsustaining brittle
behaviour evidenced both in open pit
and underground mining. This could
provide an observational approach to
understanding where the rock may be
more susceptible to strainburst and
guide engineering solutions to reduce
risk
Finally, since stress measurement from
core based on the concept of stress
memory will be an integral part of the
project research work, the potential,
the reliability and the limitations of
this technique is expected to be more
advanced
The research project team will explore:
In situ stress recovery
Prepeak intact properties
Postpeak properties (energy demand
from Type 2 behaviour)
Demand for the design of dynamic
support
Introducing the research

project team
The project team is led by the ACGs
Professor Phil Dight and comprises the
following researchers:
Professor Arcady Dyskin, chair,
Computational Mechanics Discipline
Group, The University of Western
Australia
Dr Ariel Hsieh, research associate in
mining, ACG, The University of Western
Australia
Adjunct research associate Max Lee,
geotechnical specialist, Monash
University
Associate Professor Bre-Anne
Sainsbury, director, Resources
Engineering, Monash University
Research project team
Professor Phil Dight
Professor Arcady Dyskin
Adjunct Research
Associate Max Lee
Dr Ariel Hsieh
Associate Professor
Bre-Anne Sainsbury
This team is supported by the following

PhD candidates:
Mark Burdett, Monash University
Broadus Jeffcoat-Sacco, ACG, The
University of Western Australia
Ali Keneti, Monash University
Dale Luke, ACG, The University of
Western Australia
Hongyu Wang, ACG, The University of
Western Australia
Collaborating universities
The majority of the research work will
be conducted at The University of Western
Australia. Research undertaken by Monash
University includes the consideration of
pre-peak and dynamic studies through the
application of geological investigations and
numerical modelling in three dimensions.
Project sponsors
Minerals Research Institute of Western
Australia
Aeris Resources, Tritton Resources
Limited
Agnico Eagle Mines Limited, LaRonde

Mine
AngloGold Ashanti Australia, Sunrise
Dam Gold Mine
Ernest Henry Mining Pty Ltd (a
Glencore Company)
Gold Fields Australia Pty Ltd, Granny
Smith Mine
Gold Fields Australia Pty Ltd, Agnew
and St Ives Gold Mines
Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara AB, Kiruna
and Malmberget Mines
Newcrest Mining Limited, Cadia Valley
Operations
Northern Star Resources Limited,
Kalgoorlie Operations
Sudbury Integrated Nickel Operations
(a Glencore Company), Nickel Rim
South Mine
For more information or for project
sponsor opportunities, please contact the
ACG. Article references are available on
request. www.acg.uwa.edu.au/newslettersannual-reports/
ACG Strainburst in Mining Seminar How to

Mitigate the Consequences
Tuesday 10 October 2017 | Radisson Hotel Sudbury | Sudbury, Canada
This ACG seminar seeks to explore the latest technologies and methodologies used
at mining operations to mitigate and manage strainburst risk. It is hoped that by
learning more about these phenomena, successful methodologies to reduce the
likelihood and consequences of strainbursting can be idientified and shared. This
will contribute to making deep mines safer and more sustainable in the future.
More at www.umt2017.com
13
MINE CLOSURE
11th International Conference on Mine Closure report

The ACG mine closure conferences
are held throughout the world and are
readily recognised as the premier events
on the calendars of mining professionals
working in the field of mine closure. A key
feature of this conference series is the
diversity of disciplines and expertise that
come together to focus on the pressing
issues facing the mine closure community
internationally.
Much has changed since inception
of the conference series in Perth in 2006,
with transformations to the financial
climate, regulatory controls, technological
instruments and, most notably, the
appreciation of community engagement.
The range of topics presented at the
ACGs 11th International Mine Closure
Conference, held in Perth in March 2016,
was once again very wide. MC 2016
provided a forum for more than 250 mine
closure professionals to expand their
current thinking, challenge existing
doctrine and explore new paradigms in all
aspects of mine closure.
The peer-reviewed conference
proceedings include 52 papers that
challenge miners to think of post-mining
futures and that (at last) acknowledge
(typically) unreported failures; often the
greatest lessons on the path to success.
Given the current downturn in the
global resource sector, mine closure is a fact
of life and this conference series continues
to be highly relevant and pertinent.
Prior to the conference, the ACG
hosted a number of workshops. Mine
Closure 2016 Conference co-chairs,
Professors Andy Fourie and Mark Tibbett
presented a Geotechnical Systems that
Evolve with Ecological Processes Course.
This course explored the importance of
geotechnical systems, such as landfills,
mine tailings storage facilities (TSFs), slopes
and levees, which are required to perform
safely throughout their service life, which
can span from decades for levees to in
perpetuity for TSFs.
Mine Earth Pty Ltds Shannon
Mackenzie facilitated a new Mine Closure
Implementation Workshop that was
attended by more than 30 delegates. This
practical workshop addressed what was

needed to implement an effective mine
closure project and included a site visit to
Alcoa of Australias Huntly Mine. The ACG
and workshop attendees are grateful to the
Huntly team for generously providing their
time and resources for this site visit.
Attendees thoroughly enjoyed the
Seeking Shared Value through Stakeholder
Engagement and Partnerships for Mine
Closure Workshop, facilitated by Sonia
Finucane, Bioscope Environmental
Consulting Pty Ltd. This one day
workshop recognised that building better
relationships with stakeholders not only
assists the development and operation of
mining projects, it facilitates mine closure
and custodial transfer.
Mr Doug Warden, chief financial officer,
Iluka Resources, opened the Mine Closure
2016 Conference with a unique message
for the attendees that highlighted the
importance of mine closure to the global
mining sector, your work is not in any
way separate or supplementary to the
resources industry; it is a vital part of the
resources industry, as indispensable as that
of our colleagues working in operations,
engineering, finance and elsewhere.
Warden stated that quality
rehabilitation and closure is an expectation
in industry, and is of considerable
significance to Iluka Resources.
Ilukas rehabilitation budget for 2016
is A$54 million; and the companys total
rehabilitation spend over the past five years
is A$204 million. To put that into context, in
the same five-year period Iluka spent A$130
million on exploration activities so, at a
time when the company is actively looking
to invest counter-cyclically, it has outlaid
almost double the amount on rehabilitation
as it has on one of its key internal growth
options.
The achievement of quality, value-formoney rehabilitation is important to Iluka
Resources. It enables this mineral sands
company to create and deliver value to its
shareholders. Warden described how Iluka
has grounded its rehabilitation practices
in the concept of proactivity meaning
the relentless pursuit of internally-set
standards that extend beyond compliance

with environmental regulation. He reported
that Iluka had completed 2,592 ha of
rehabilitation since 2011; exceeding new
land disturbance; and reducing the total
area opened by the company by 339 ha.
Doug Warden, Chief Financial

Officer and Head of Strategy
and Planning, Iluka Resources,
Australia
The opening address set the scene

for an interactive and thought-provoking
conference. Six keynote addresses followed,
including: Ecological research needed to
manage risk and meet rising standards in
mining rehabilitation, presented by Dr Ben
Miller, Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority,
Kings Park; and The eye of the beholder
utility and beauty in mine closure,
presented by Adjunct Professor Bruce
Harvey, The University of Queensland.
A big thank you to those that attended
and supported the MC 2016 Conference.
A special thanks for our

sponsors
During the three day event, delegates
had the opportunity to forge new
friendships and catch up with peers and
friends alike. Attendees were also able
to keep up with the latest products and
services by visiting the trade exhibition
booths. The ACG was proud to have
the support and encouragement of
the Conference Principal Sponsor, Iluka
Resources.
The Proceedings
of the 11th International
Conference on Mine
Closure are available at
acg.uwa.edu.au/shop
The achievement of quality, value-for-money rehabilitation is important to Iluka

Resources. Photographs courtesy of Iluka Resources
14
The 12th International

Conference on Mine
Closure will be held
in Leipzig, Germany in
September 2018.
UNDERGROUND
The assessment of seismic responses to mining

by Dr Kyle Woodward, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Australia
Introduction
The phenomenon of seismicity is
observed in many hard rock underground
mines around the world. The potential for
seismic events to damage underground
excavations can create a significant
hazard to mining personnel, equipment
and infrastructure. The management of
seismic hazard is an essential component
in minimising the political, social and
economic risks associated with mining. The
effective management of seismic hazard is
underpinned by a sufficient understanding
of the magnitude, spatial and temporal
characteristics of seismicity. These
characteristics of seismicity are controlled
by causative seismic source mechanisms
within a mine and are related to stress
conditions, rock mass strength, excavations,
geology and geological features.
This article focusses on the assessment
of seismic responses which are spatially
clustered events generated by time
dependent rock mass failure processes,
e.g. following blasting or large seismic
events. The study of seismic response
characteristics has significant implications
for mining operations where seismicity is
a source of hazard for the workforce and
infrastructure. The potential for seismic risk
to adversely affect mining operations and
the requirement for the mining industry
to continually improve the management
of seismic hazard is illustrated by the 2006
Anzac Day event at Beaconsfield Gold
Mine, Tasmania. In addition to significant
economic loss, this event resulted in the
loss of one life and a 14 day operation to
rescue two trapped miners. The extensive
review following this tragedy highlighted
the importance of improving methods of
managing seismic response hazard (Melick,
2007).
There are numerous interrelated

factors that can influence the characteristics
of seismic responses and this makes it
difficult to establish meaningful correlations
with causative processes. Furthermore,
the management of seismic response
hazard has the tendency to rely on the site
specific experience which has inherent
limitations. These challenges can be
partly addressed by the quantification of
seismic responses, which allows for the
development of an objective understanding
of seismic responses. This article presents
a brief outline of a recently published
methodology for the assessment of seismic
responses. While this article provides a
limited overview of the implemented
methodology, further details can be found
in Woodward (2015). Two case studies
illustrate the typical implementation,
results and benefits of quantifying seismic
responses. Firstly, a case study of individual
seismic responses and, secondly, results
from the assessment of seismic data for an
entire mining environment.
Delineation of seismic
responses in space and time
The process for delineating seismic
responses is an iterative process with three
distinct steps:
1. Identification
2. Spatial delineation
3. Temporal delineation
An example of the methods practical
application is provided in Figure 1.
Firstly, a seismic response is identified
in space and time by increased event
occurrence (grey sphere in the 1st frame).
Secondly, the information provided by
response identification is used to spatially
delineate events associated with the
response using density based clustering
Figure 1 Application of the method to identify and delineate a seismic response
techniques (grey cross in the 1st frame).

Thirdly, temporal modelling using
the Modified Omori Law (MOL) delineates
a period of consistent time dependent
behaviour for the spatially delineated
events (grey cross in the 2nd frame).
Note that the modelling period (and
response events) has been refined due to
inconsistencies late in the response. The
delineated response is removed from the
dataset (orange spheres in the 3rd frame).
The procedure is iteratively re-applied to
the remaining events and an additional
response is identified, delineated and
removed (purple spheres in the 4th frame).
Case study 1: assessment of an

individual seismic response
The following case example presents
analysis results from the delineation of
an individual seismic response within an
open stope mine over a short time period.
This seismic response of 192 events was
well-modelled by the MOL (AD = 0.55),
with a nominal decay rate (p = 1.04),
productivity (K = 22.24), and a small time
offset (c = 0.008). Figure 2 shows a summary
of modelling results (top), time series
of cumulative occurrence of all events,
modelled events (green) and events not
modelled (red) (left). Additionally, this figure
provides a sectional view of modelled
events (green) with respect to stopes (right).
Note that the algorithm did not include
seismic response event portions as they are
not spatially clustered and are outside the
sectional view.
The modelling results only consider
a dataset of 30 hrs after this response,
although this seismic response continues
well beyond this formative period. In this
somewhat exceptional case, due to the time
between subsequent blasting, this response
can be modelled for an additional 31 days
with only minor changes to temporal
modelling results and a slight degradation
to suitability of fit (p = 1.00, K = 23.8,
c = 0.006, and AD = 1.12). These parameters
are remarkably close to the decay rate and
productivity found by modelling of the
30 hr dataset.
The quantification of this response,
in terms of the consistency of spatial and
temporal occurrence, provides an anecdotal
basis for considering these events to be part
of a consistent and continuous rock mass
failure process. Furthermore, these results
imply consistent seismic responses without
the influence of additional stress changes
(e.g. blasting or large events), and that
modelling of an early period may provide a
forecast of future seismic activity rates. The
ability to forecast seismic activity rates
15
UNDERGROUND
Figure 2 Top: A summary of modelling results. Left: Time series of cumulative occurrence of all
events, modelled events (green) and events not modelled (red). Right: a sectional
view of modelled events (green) with respect to stope surveys
is beneficial when attempting to
assess at what time in the future re-entry
restrictions could expect to be lifted. A
consistent approach to quantification allows
for a history of seismic responses that build
confidence in nominal parameters, given
similar mining conditions, and ultimately
allows for the transparent formulation of
protocols with respect to reliability and
operational considerations.
Case study 2: retrospective

mine wide response
assessment
This retrospective response assessment
aims to establish characteristic parameters
for different conditions within a sublevel
caving mine. This assessment evaluates the
components that represent a measure of
seismic hazard, specifically K parameters,
p parameters, c parameter, b values and
modelling intervals. The identification
and delineation of seismic responses
was applied to a dataset containing
360,000 events. The assessment identified
and delineated 1,559 responses containing
96,000 events ( 25% of all events). Only
responses with reasonable parameters
were considered in subsequent analysis by
removing responses that were unsuitably
modelled by the MOL, unreasonably short,
exhibited high uncertainty in parameters,
or required a high c parameter. This filtering
removed 8,500 events associated with
190 responses from further consideration.
Seismic responses are spatially
allocated to unique geotechnical
domains, primarily with respect to the
nature of mining (e.g. direction of mining,
and development versus established
16
production). These domains also represent

different geological and geotechnical
considerations which account for the nature
of mining. Each domain is described with
respect to qualitative mining characteristics
and given an arbitrary ID in Table 1 that
corresponds to the associated figures.
This table provides quantification of mean
parameters from temporal modelling. Each
spatial geotechnical domain has distinctly
coloured markers in Figure 3 and is
annotated by the corresponding numerical
ID (left: plan view, right: Y section). Each
sphere in this figure represents a single
seismic response. The same marker colours
correspond to the cumulative density
functions of K parameters (left) and
p parameters (right) for each geotechnical
domain (Figure 4).
Considering the distribution of
response quantification with respect to
Table 1
specific geotechnical domains allows

the following qualitative observations.
Geotechnical domains that only contain
development blasting result in higher p
parameters and lower K parameters (light
blue, blue and dark blue). Geotechnical
domains with high stress conditions,
i.e. deeper in the mine (light blue), or
cross-cutting principal stress directions
(green), have relatively higher b values.
Domains with lower b values are likely
influenced by geological features (Legge
and Spottiswoode, 1987), and also
have lower p parameters and higher
K parameters (dark blue versus light blue).
Domains that likely contain a mixture of
influences (stress concentration, geology,
production and development blasting)
have lower p parameters and higher
K parameters (green, yellow and orange).
Quantifying seismic responses through
the mining environment is essential to
optimising the management of seismic
response hazard. The identification and
delineation of seismic responses provides
historical characterisations of geotechnical
domains and provides guidance for future
responses in these regions. Retrospective
quantification also provides a reference
to assess when seismic responses are
uncharacteristic of a geotechnical domain.
For example, when geology begins to
influence seismic responses to deeper
development (and production), it can be
expected that the productivity of responses
will increase, the temporal decay of event
occurrence will decrease, and there will be
more large events relative to small events.
Concluding remarks
The identification and delineation of
seismic responses allows the consistent
quantification of spatially clustered, time
dependent seismicity which contributes
to improved management of seismic
hazard. The ability to statistically assess if
an individual seismic response is consistent
in space and time provides a basis for
assessing if events are due to a continuous
rock mass failure process and may prove
The geotechnical domain, number of responses in each domain (count),

characteristics, and relevant mean parameters for temporal and magnitude
quantification
UNDERGROUND
valuable when attributing seismicity to
seismic source mechanisms. Assessment
of historical seismic responses builds
confidence in nominal parameters for
various geotechnical domains and provides
guidance for future responses in regions
experiencing similar mining conditions.
The quantification of nominal response
parameters is an important aspect for the
objective formulation of re-entry protocols
and assessing when re-entry protocols
are not applicable to uncharacteristic
responses.
Figure 3 Spatial locations of geotechnical domains are shown on a plan view (left) and Y
section (right). Each sphere is an individual seismic response
Dr Kyle Woodward
Australian Centre for Geomechanics,
Australia
Figure 4 Cumulative density functions per geotechnical domain for the K parameter (left)
and p parameter (right). Markers are coloured corresponding to the spatial plot
ACG Ensuring High Quality Seismic Data for

the Mining Industry Workshop
27 March 2017 | Novotel Perth Langley Hotel | Western Australia
ACG Rockburst Unleashing Earth's

Energy Training DVD
Unleashing Earth's Energy:
A geotechnical hazard awareness
training DVD for underground
metalliferous mine workers.
Available for purchase at
Hardrock mines in deep and high

stress environments often require
the use of seismic systems to enable
operators to manage seismic risk
posed to the workforce, the mining
investment and environment. Seismic
data is also used in assessing the rock
mass response to mining activities
where source parameters are used
in the interpretation of rock mass
failure mechanisms, the calibration
of numerical modelling, and the
interpretation of failure mechanics of
the rock mass.
High quality seismic databases are
of the utmost importance. In rock
engineering the transfer of empirical
knowledge from one site to another,
or between different time periods
at the same site, is crucial for good
decision-making in complex situations.

The complexities involved in the design,
installation and maintenance of seismic
systems and the challenges imposed on
processing the data can result in noise
and poor quality data contaminating
the databases; adversely impacting on
decision-making.
This workshop will provide a forum
to discuss the different aspects that
impact on data quality with the aim to
provide mine site rock engineers and
seismologists with practical knowledge
to ensure the highest quality data
for the site and to identify problems
impacting on the industry which need
to be addressed with focussed R&D.
To view the workshop programme,
please visit www.deepmining2017.com/
associated-events
17
PASTE
BASF seeks to evaluate polymer performance in tailings

treatments
by Lewis Utting, BASF Mining Solutions, Australia
Traditional management of tailings

involves disposal of plant-generated slurry
to surface tailings dams. Tailings dams can
have a large environmental footprint, often
retaining substantial volumes of water that
ideally could be recycled.
The most troublesome tailings often
have a low particle specific gravity and a
high gravimetric water content, especially if
this is combined with a bimodal distribution
of particle size. If enough suitable real
estate is available then air drying can be
incorporated into the design. Although the
water may not be returned to the plant,
the water content of the tailings is reduced
to a level closer to or even past the plastic
limit. Another solution, although CAPEX
intensive, is the mechanical dewatering of
tailings which is growing in popularity. It
is possible to achieve a low water content
while also allowing for significant amounts
of water to be recovered for reuse. In
recent times, the use of polymers has also
grown in popularity and has shown to be
another viable method for dealing with
this challenge by significantly increasing
initial dewatering while, in some cases, also
achieving a higher final density.
The mining industrys most common
exposure to the use of polymers in tailings
treatment is either for sedimentation in a
thickener or tailings filtration, as is common
in the coal industry. Thickener laboratory
testing by thickener vendors relies primarily
on dynamic testing, where a sample is fed
into a column with a certain loading (flux,
t/m2/unit time) and an offtake exists on
the bottom of the column to pump the
underflow. As the vessel is filled, a number
of predetermined mud bed heights are

used to find the permeability limit of the
tailings through the rise rate of the bed.
Given the significant number of thickeners
that exist in the field and the relative
ease by which empirical field data can be
gathered, these assessments can be defined
as being fit for purpose.
A common approach in evaluating
polymers for use in tailings treatment
post thickener is to use empirical data
from field observations or conduct pilot
scale trials, which can be expensive and
time consuming. Developing a dynamic
laboratory evaluation program, as robust
as is used in thickener evaluations, would
be ideal and in the case of polymers being
used, is a technology gap that BASF and its
partners have been addressing.
One barrier to establishing good
engineering metrics, for use in tailings dam
design, is the ability to conduct meaningful
laboratory based studies. Capturing the
changes in fabric and permeability that
occur when a polymer is added to tailings
is challenging, as these initial changes
typically take place at moisture contents
well before the liquid limit of the tailings
is reached. This part of the dewatering
process typically takes place before selfweight consolidation occurs, something
not typically captured in traditional
geotechnical testing.
Review of existing laboratory

methods
Empirical field data exists to illustrate
the benefit of polymer addition, along with
varying laboratory techniques ranging
from static sedimentation to more dynamic

consolidation testing. However, many of
the techniques used for this purpose do not
always provide for data that best represents
the dynamic processes that tailings
undergo in the field.
Traditional static settling test

Typically this method relies on a slurry
being placed into a settling column of
varying height to diameter ratios, with the
tailings slurry allowed to settle over time.
Once settling has ceased and there is no
further movement of the mud line, the
final density is recorded. Where polymer
is concerned, this method illustrates that,
given an infinite amount of time, the settled
dry density achieved by untreated tailings
surpasses that of polymer-treated tailings,
with the exception of highly dispersed
mineral suspensions. This method relies
on a single upwards drainage path with
a single fill of the column and a portion
of the material at the base of the column
undergoing some self-weight consolidation.
The addition of stress on the material, as
well as the ability to measure pore pressure
inside the column, is not possible.
Conventional oedometer test

Testing usually commences at
densities much higher than those
typically encountered from the thickener
as stipulated in most testing standards.
The test itself involves applying constant
loads to a soil sample and measuring
the resulting settlement with time. This
allows for the compressibility or void ratio
versus effective stress to be determined.
The permeability or void ratio versus
hydraulic conductivity is then calculated
using the small strain consolidation
theory from rate of consolidation. Tailings
slurries at low densities undergo large
strains, consolidating significantly due to
self-weight, and have highly non-linear
permeability and compressibility relations.
This makes the standard oedometer not
applicable for such materials. More suitable
test devices have been proposed, including
the Rowe Cell and Slurry Consolidometer,
which better accommodate the large
strains, self-weight effects, and nonlinear compressibility and permeability
relationships of a material commencing
testing as a slurry.
Hydraulic load cells (Rowe

Cell, Slurry Consolidometer)
Figure 1 Batch settling flux
18
Typical hydraulic load cells, such as

a Slurry Consolidometer or Rowe Cell are
PASTE
quite different to a standard oedometer.
One main difference is that hydraulic cells
have the ability to measure permeability
directly through the use of a constant
head test. In this test, a known pressure
head or gradient is applied to the slurry
sample and the flow rate across the sample
is measured. The effective stresses for the
Slurry Consolidometer range from 5 kPa
to above 400 kPa. The lower effective
stresses are limited by the accuracy
in measuring very small flow rates for
permeability measurements. In addition,
the higher effective stresses are limited
to the time required for consolidating the
low permeable tailings to those higher
stresses. In typical tailings applications
where polymer treatment may be
considered, densities are often low and
the initial increase in density, whereby
volumes decrease by one third to one half
of the original volume, occur at stresses
not captured by either piece of traditional
consolidation equipment.
determined by allowing a slurry column

to consolidate under its own weight. This
is the Self-Weight Consolidation Phase
(SWCP), the duration of which is terminated
at the discretion of the user when the
sample compaction rate plateaus. In the
second step, on completion of the SWCP,
the Seepage Induced Consolidation Phase
(SICP) commences, wherein seepage at
a constant flow rate is applied through
the soil by means of a flow pump and the
sample is allowed to consolidate completely
under the gradient, i.e. until the steady state
is reached. The steady state is determined
from the pressure difference across the
sample that is continuously monitored
during the test. At steady state, the pressure
difference and the final height of the
sample are recorded. It is recognised that
during this phase of the test, the void ratio
within the sample is non-uniform and this is
correctly accounted for in the test analysis.
In the third step, on completion of the SICP,
the Step-Load Consolidation Phase (SLCP)

commences wherein specific loads are
applied and maintained upon the sample
with sample differential pressure and
displacement continuing to be monitored.
This phase is generally conducted with
a sample seepage velocity in an order of
magnitude lower than for the SICP. This
is currently considered to be at the limit
of current technology and its application.
The termination point of the SLCP is again
at the discretion of the user but generally
conforms to the same criteria as the SICP.
The procedure is based on the inverse
solution approach and the theory used is
compatible with the finite strain non-linear
consolidation theory (no simplification
or restrictive assumptions are made
in the analysis). The output gives five
parameters; A, B, Z, C and D that define the
consolidation properties for the sample. The
compressibility and hydraulic conductivity
relations with the five parameters are
Collaborating to develop
robust testing methods with
specialised consolidation
equipment
Being able to predict field performance,
where chemistry is used to change the
engineering properties of tailings, has
many advantages but in order for these
to be realised, new testing methods are
needed. BASF have recognised the need
to support the mining industry in this field
and, in conjunction with global partners in
academia and engineering houses, have
taken practical steps toward improved
procedures through the construction
of specialised testing equipment, such
as the Seepage Induced Consolidation
Test (SICT). The SICT allows for the direct
measurement of compressibility and
permeability of low density slurries without
any of the limiting assumptions required
in conventional testing that rely on small
strain consolidation theory.
Figure 2 Permeability resolution comparison for each piece of equipment discussed
Seepage induced
consolidation test
This test is similar to the hydraulic cells
in that it employs a step loading scheme
procedure. However, there are some
differences which make this test more
suitable for soft soils, dense slurries and
potentially also for dredge spoil.
Compared with conventional
consolidation test methods, the SICT
can determine the permeability for high
void ratio tailings in a span of days. It also
allows for the accurate determination of
consolidation at the point at which effective
stresses are generated in the sample and
consolidation starts to occur.
The testing procedure consists of
three steps. In the first step, the void ratio
at the effective stress starting point is
Figure 3 Compressibility resolution comparison for each piece of equipment discussed
19
PASTE
defined as:
Compressibility e = A(^'+Z)^B
Hydraulic Conductivity K = Ce^d
Applying an Excel based tool, such as
Condes0 or a more involved pseudo 3D
consolidation modelling analysis, makes
it possible to apply important field inputs,
like dam rise rate, to the compressibility
and permeability relationships to predict
field performance. Where polymers are
concerned, the impact of polymer on
tailings density along with measuring
performance differences between polymer
types is also a useful tool to help cross the
laboratory to field gap.
This testing and subsequent
modelling is a very useful process to
make the connections between the
physical chemistry (nano- and microbehaviour), rheology (meso-behaviour), and
consolidation mechanics (macro-behaviour)
of tailings where polymers are concerned.
Being able to provide a more accurate

estimate on the chance of success where
polymers are considered for use, to decide if
further resources should be invested in field
scale evaluations, is another lever that can
be used when working through technology
option studies for challenging tailings.
Lewis Utting
BASF Mining Solutions, Australia
BASF are a Platinum Sponsor of

the third edition of the ACG "Paste and
Thickened Tailings A Guide".
ACG Tailings Management: Practical Considerations Seminar & Workshop

2628 April 2017 | Perth, Western Australia
This event will comprise a one-day hands-on static liquefaction
workshop, and a two-day seminar on the management,
operation and relinquishment of tailings storage facilities (TSF).
Professor Andy Fourie, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining

Engineering, The University of Western Australia (Days 2 and 3)
Static Liquefaction Workshop | 26 April 2017
David Reid, Senior Tailings Engineer, Golder Associates Pty Ltd

(Day 1)
CPT live demonstration and interpretation of results
Static liquefaction mechanism theory and case studies
Objectives:
Laboratory demonstration of static liquefaction with

explanation and context
Management, Operation and Relinquishment of

Tailings Storage Facilities | 27-28 April 2017
20
Facilitators:
TSF design issues
TSF construction control
Filtered tailings
Water management considerations
Tailings consolidation and slurry testing
Regulators expectations
Legal perspectives
Closure considerations decommissioning and

rehabilitation
Relinquishment of contaminated sites
Case studies
This ACG workshop and seminar will address the issues facing
site personnel involved in the day-to-day management of
tailings storage facilities and the obligation to comply with the
relevant operating standards and closure requirements.
The event aims to explore the innovative solutions utilised in
different mining operations and environments and will include
case studies, specialist presentations, hands-on practical and
discussion sessions.
Who should attend?

Mining and tailings consultants, operators of tailings storage
facilities, and regulators.
See www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events/ for more information.
Tailings - From Concept to Closure

Training DVD
A training DVD for owners and
operators of tailings storage facilities.
Available for purchase at
ACG ONSITE TRAINING
The ACGs onsite training courses seek to deliver the latest technologies and information to the mining workforce in
accordance with site specific requirements and applications. Our training and further education platform provides a
solid base for the transfer of technological developments and practices based on knowledge gathered from local and
international sources.
ACG Onsite Training for

Underground Mines
ACG Onsite Geotechnical

Training for Open Pit Mines
Management and Operation of

Tailings Storage Facilities
Several hundreds of jumbo operators,

front line supervisors, mining geotechnical
engineers and mine geologists have
already benefited from unique ACG
onsite training programmes. The training
content is generally customised to suit
local mining conditions and specific
ground control challenges.
The ACGs one to three day onsite

training courses are designed for practical
operational personnel, mine planners,
mining engineers, geologists and
anyone involved in day-to-day open cut
metalliferous and coal mining operations.
Many high-profile failures of tailings

storage facilities have occurred
internationally during the last decade.
Some have released large volumes
of tailings resulting in environmental
pollution, fatalities, huge clean-up costs
and financial loss. These can be very
damaging to the company concerned.
In some cases, these failures have been
attributable to lack of knowledge of the
mine tailings engineering characteristics
and the possible implications for the
design and operation of disposal facilities.
Ground Awareness Training for

Jumbo Operators and Front Line
Supervisors
This training is often delivered at a mine
site for groups between 10 and 20
operators, over a six to eight hour training
session. Recognised geomechanics
techniques to assess ground conditions
are explained in simple language that is
familiar to mine operators.
Since 1999, over 700 mining personnel
attended this onsite training course.
Rock Engineering Training

Rock engineering onsite training is
designed to upgrade the practical skills
of geotechnical and mining engineers, as
well as geologists involved in geotechnical
work.
Ground Support in Open Pit

Mining
This training course examines ground
support and its application in open
pit mines from design through to
implementation and monitoring/
reconciliation.
While to a large extent favourable

conditions have protected Australia from
such a large failure to date, this could
change and have a severe impact on the
industry, and it must be avoided.
Geotechnical Engineering for

Open Pit Mines
This training course discusses
geotechnical management plans and
risk analysis; structural geology and
geotechnical implications; pit slope
stability; and managing ground water.
Case studies feature slope monitoring
and instrumentation techniques.
This onsite training course provides

training in the management and operation
of tailings and mine waste disposal
facilities.
Introduction to Geomechanics of
Open Pits
The training modules can be adapted to site
requirements by adding or subtracting topics.
The course seeks to improve the

standard of mine waste management in
order to improve the safety and reduce
the environmental and other liabilities
associated with these facilities.
For more information or to request a quote, please email info-acg@uwa.edu.au or

visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/onsite-training/
Upcoming non-ACG events

12th International Symposium on Mining with
Backfill
1922 February 2017 | Colorado Convention Center | Denver, Colorado, USA

1618 June 2017 | Beijing Conference Center | Beijing, China
Paste 2017
AFRIROCK 2017
Slope Stability 2018 Symposium
12th International Conference on Mine Closure
27 October 2017 | Cape Town Convention Center | Cape Town, South Africa
913 April 2018 | Seville, Spain
September 2018 | Leipzig, Germany
For more information, please visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/non-acg-events/

21
ACG CORPORATE
Welcome onboard New Concept Mining

The ACG is delighted to introduce its newest Corporate Affiliate Member New Concept Mining
Founded in 1986, New Concept Mining

is an international group of companies
that focusses on the design, manufacture
and supply of underground roof support
products to meet the most challenging
mine support requirements. New Concept
Mining has an intensive research and
development programme which is closely
aligned with the ACGs mission to add value
to and create a safer environment within
the Australian and international mining
industry and, as such, is proud to be the
newest ACG Corporate Affiliate Member.
With a proud history of supplying
roof support to the worlds deepest mines,
New Concept Mining has extended its
international footprint to now include
operating subsidiaries in South Africa,
Canada, Peru, Chile, Zambia and India.
With extensive inhouse rock engineering,
mining and engineering experience,
New Concept Mining has the technical
competency to deliver onsite expertise to
its customers. By partnering with customers
to develop solutions and services to unique
mine support challenges, New Concept
Mining has been successful in assisting
customers with improving safety, reducing
mining cycle times and increasing overall

productivity.
With an existing product portfolio
that includes dynamic and static roof
bolting systems, aerial coverage and roof
monitoring systems, current research
projects are focussed on mechanised
support systems for dynamic and static
conditions with a dual emphasis on
increasing safety underground and

efficiency of the mining cycle.
New Concept Mining is confident that
its affiliation with the ACG will further the
companys mission to continuously develop
improved roof support products for the
global mining industry in increasingly
difficult mining conditions.
ACG Corporate Affiliate Memberships

ACG Corporate Affiliate Memberships allow your company to gain exposure to industry leaders while also providing savings on our
well-known and respected further education and training platform. Email josephine.ruddle@uwa.edu.au for details.
2016 Corporate Affiliates
22
ACG UPDATE
Introducing our new ACG Board of Management members

The ACG Board of Management meets
three times a year to present strategic
direction for the Centre, review and approve
activities and operations, and to provide
counsel.
During 2016, the Board was delighted
to welcome Michael Dunn and Nan Wang as
ACG Board members.
Michael Dunn
Group Manager Geotechnical,
Evolution Mining Ltd
Michael has 22 years of mining
geotechnical engineering experience in
operational, corporate and consulting
roles. He has experience in a variety
of underground mining methods and
open pits in South Africa, Australia,
New Zealand, Indonesia, Ghana and the
USA. He was the director geotechnical
engineering (Asia Pacific and Africa) for
Newmont Mining Corporation. In 2013,
he joined SRK Consulting in Perth as a
principal consultant. In 2015, he joined
Evolution Mining as the group manager
geotechnical. He is a fellow and chartered
professional of The AusIMM and has
published 26 technical papers.
Michael noted that, when I was invited
to join the ACG Board of Management, I
had no hesitation in accepting the role. Im
both happy and proud to be associated
with an organisation that, since the 1990s,
has provided focussed, practical and high

quality geomechanics research, as well
as invaluable training to geotechnical
engineers across the industry. Coming from
a background that is very much focussed
on mining operations and supporting those
operations, I realise how important the ACG
contribution has been towards improving
geotechnical engineering in the pursuit of
safe and economical mining.
management, highwall mining, equipment

selection; and has procurement experience
across a range of commodities including:
coal, copper, zinc, lead, and silver. Nan has
held various positions in major mining
companies prior to MMG, including:
Peabody Energy, Rio Tinto, Anglo Coal,
Downer EDI and BHP Billiton.
Nan is delighted to be part of the
ACG Board of Management, and says
that, the ACG has extensive industry and
academic geomechanics knowledge. The
Boards vision is well aligned with industry
requirements, in that it aims to provide the
principles and practices of geomechanics
solutions to aid safe and productive
operations within the resource industry.
Michael Dunn
Nan Wang
Group Mining Manager, MMG Limited
Nan has more than 17 years
management, technical and operational
experience in the mining industry. He has
a wide range of exposure to the following
areas: open pit, underground, drilling
and blasting, contract mining, contract
Nan Wang
ACG staff update

Welcome
Of her many achievements, most

notable were the production of the ACG
"Paste and Thickened Tailings A Guide
(Third Edition)", and the marked upgrade, in
terms of usabilty and professionalism, of our
various event websites.
The ACG welcomed a few new faces

to the team in 2016, and among them are
Jenny Collins and Candice McLennan.
Jenny Collins
Administrative Officer
Jenny commenced with the ACG
in January 2016. Her primary role
with the ACG is supporting both the
business and marketing managers with
the mXrap consortium and corporate
affiliate memberships, as well as the
financial administration of ACG events
including registrations, invoicing, general
administration and event communications.
Candice McLennan
Marketing Officer (Digital)
Candice began working with the
ACG in March of 2016. Her duties involve
the marketing of ACG conferences
and publications which include event
coordination, graphic design, copywriting,
website maintenance and social media
management. Her previous experience
includes roles in advertising, media, online
marketing, administration and events.
Lou Dowd
Jenny Collins
Candice McLennan
Farewell
With much regret, we farewelled two of
our professional staff this year. Both Maddie
Adams and Lou Dowd were highly valued
and much respected team members and
our warm wishes are extended to both in
their future endeavours.
Commencing in 2008, Lou provided

dedicated administrative support and
was the sponsorship coordinator of our
international mining events. Lous positive
energy and professionalism were not only
respected by the ACGers, but also by our
many event sponsors and exhibitors.
Maddie Adams
Maddie joined the ACG in 2012 as our
marketing and communications assistant
and was an invaluable coordinator of many
ACG training and further education events.
Maddie was also instrumental in creating
our promotional collateral and developing
and maintaining key relations with ACG
clientele.
Maddie Adams
Lou Dowd
23
ACG event schedule*
Australian Centre for Geomechanics | Volume No. 45 | December 2016
Ensuring High Quality Seismic Data for the Mining Industry Workshop
27 March 2017 | Perth, Australia
Eighth International Conference on Deep and High Stress Mining

www.deepmining2017.com
Developments in Rock Stress Measurements and Monitoring Seminar
Tailings Management: Practical Considerations Seminar and Static Liquefaction Workshop
2628 April 2017 | Perth, Australia
Instrumentation and Slope Monitoring Seminar
23 May 2017 | Perth, Australia
Management of Moving and Unstable Slopes Workshop
4 May 2017 | Perth, Australia
Blasting for Stable Slopes Short Course
68 June 2017 | Perth, Australia
Ground Support in Open Pit and Underground Mining Short Course
2325 August 2017 | Perth, Australia
Strainburst in Mining Seminar How to Mitigate the Consequences
10 October 2017 | Sudbury, Canada
First International Conference on Underground Mining Technology

www.utm2017.com
1113 October 2017 | Sudbury, Canada
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events
FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

UNDERGROUND MINING TECHNOLOGY
1113 October 2017 | Radisson Hotel Sudbury | Ontario, Canada
ABSTRACTS DUE 25 JANUARY 2017
Australian Centre for Geomechanics | 35 Stirling Hwy (M600) | Crawley, Western Australia | Australia 6009
Ph: +61 8 6488 3300 | info-acg@uwa.edu.au | www.acg.uwa.edu.au
*The ACG event schedule is subject to change.
2017
References
Ground support recommendations for mining drives
by Professor Yves Potvin, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, and Professor John Hadjigeorgiou, University of
Toronto, Canada
References from page 13, click here to return to article.
Hoek, E & Brown, ET 1980, Underground Excavations in Rock, Instn Min. Metall., London.
Grimstad, E & Barton, N 1993, Updating the Q-system for NMT, in C Kompen, SL Opsahl & SL Berg (eds), Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Sprayed Concrete, Norwegian Concrete Association, p. 21.
Barton, N, Lien, R & Lunde, J 1974, Engineering classification of rock masses for design of tunnel support, Rock Mechanics and Rock
Engineering, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 189-236.
Potvin, Y & Hadjigeorgiou, J 2015, Empirical ground support design of mine drives, in Y Potvin (ed), Proceedings of the International
Seminar on Design Methods in Underground Mining, Perth, Western Australia, 17-19 November 2015, pp. 419-430.
Potvin, Y & Hadjigeorgiou, J 2016, Selection of ground support for mining drives based on the Q-System, in E Nordlund, TH Jones and
A Eitzenberger (eds), Ground Support 2016, Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Ground Support in Mining and
Underground Construction, Lule, Sweden.
Unwedge 2016, Underground Wedge Stability Software, Rocscience Inc., Toronto, Canada, https://www.rocscience.com/rocscience/
products/unwedge
Analysis of wedge stability using the Cell Method

by William Gibson, SRK Consulting Argentina, Argentina
Rocscience 2013, Swedge Version 5.0, Rocscience Inc., Toronto, www.rocscience.com
Rocscience 2014, Unwedge Version 3.0, Rocscience Inc., Toronto, www.rocscience.com
Gibson, W and Paul, J 2016, Comparison of Methods for Estimating Volume of Failed Wedges, SRK Consulting, Argentina.
Rock properties to predict rockburst vulnerability in

three dimensions
by Dr Ariel Hsieh, Australian Centre for Geomechanics
Dight, PM 2006, Pit wall failures on unknown structures, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Stability of Rock Slopes in
Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering Situations, The SAIMM, 36 April 2006.
Dight, PM & Baczynski, NRP 2009, Rock bridges and their influence on slope stability, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Rock Slope Stability in Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering (Slope Stability 2009), Santiago, Chile.
Dight, PM, Tarasov, BG & OHare AW 2013, Determining the proneness of rock to strainburst, in Proceedings of the 8th International
Symposium on Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines, Russia.
Heal, D 2010, Observations and Analysis of Incidences of Rockburst Damages in Underground Mines, PhD thesis, The University of Western
Australia.
Hudyma, M 2008, Analysis and Interpretation of Clusters of Seismic Events in Mines, PhD thesis, The University of Western Australia.
Kaiser, P & M Cai 2013, Rockburst damage mechanisms and support design principles, in Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium
on Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines, Russia.
Ortlepp, WD & TR Stacey 1994, Rockburst Mechanisms in Tunnels and Shafts, Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 1994:9, pp.
59-64.
Read, JR & Stacey, PF (ed) 2010, Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design, CSIRO Publishing.
Stacey, TR 1981, A simple extension strain criterion for fracture of brittle rock, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 469-474.
Continued overleaf.
References
The assessment of seismic responses to mining
by Dr Kyle Woodward, Australian Centre for Geomechanics
Legge, NB & Spottiswoode, SM 1987, Fracturing and Microseismicity Ahead of a Deep Gold Mine Stope in the Pre-Remnant and Remnant
Stages of Mining, in Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Rock Mechanics, AA Balkema, Montreal, Canada, pp. 10711077.
Melick, AG 2007, Beaconsfield Investigation Report, http://www.magistratescourt.tas.gov.au/coronial/mellick_report Tasmanian
Government.
Woodward, K 2015, Identification and Delineation of Mining Induced Seismic Responses, PhD thesis, The University of Western Australia.
BASF seeks to evaluate polymer performance in

tailings treatments
by Lewis Utting, BASF Mining Solutions
Estepho, M 2014, Seepage Induced Consolidation Test, Characterization of Mature Fine Tailings, Masters thesis, Mining Engineering,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, January 2014.
Znidari, D, Abu-Hejleh, A, Fairbanks, T & Robertson, A 1992, Consolidation Characteristics Determination for Phosphatic Clays: Volume
1: Seepage Induced Consolidation Test Equipment Description and Users Manual, Bartow, Florida, Florida Institute of Phosphate
Research.

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Newsletter

Australian Centre for Geomechanics | Volume No. 45 | December 2016

Ground support recommendations for

12 Rock properties to predict rockburst

22 Corporate Affiliate news New Concept

Analysis of wedge stability using the Cell

15 The assessment of seismic responses to

23 ACG Board of Management

Spatial analysis of seismicity a case study

18 BASF seeks to evaluate polymer

10 Paste and thickened tailings operations and

24 ACG Event Schedule

Ground support recommendations

Eighth International Conference

Earlybird registration ends

Commencing in November 2013, the

published by Grimstad and Barton (1993)

works well in compression, which occurs as

Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 9-12cm,

Figure 1 Rock mass classification permanent support recommendation based on Q and

most mining practitioners to determine

Another source of confusion, identified

Australian Centre for Geomechanics | December 2016 Newsletter

that different products have different

Glencore Mount Isa Mines, Independence

Professor Yves Potvin

Professor John Hadjigeorgiou

Figure 2 Ground support guidelines for mine drives of 4 to 6 m span

ACG Ground Support in Open Pit

Ground Support 2013

Analysis of wedge stability using the Cell Method

The stability of multiple wedges

Figure 1 Cell Method formulation

contacts. The equations of equilibrium are

Figure 2 Isometric view of wedge contacts

Contact forces and joint strength

Australian Centre for Geomechanics | December 2016 Newsletter

Figure 3 Calculation sequence

Comparison Factor of Safety calculated for various software programs

FoS Frac_Rock for different cell size a (m) (*)

Wedges in open slopes

(*) values in brackets are FoS for cohesion = 0.

Figure 4 Isometric view of wedges in a slope

Frac_Rock was applied to analyse

Figure 6 Unwedge and Frac_Rock models

Comparison Factor of Safety calculation for each program

Figure 7 Isometric view of portal and cable bolt locations

Australian Centre for Geomechanics | December 2016 Newsletter

The Cell Method presented provides

No cable. Wedge in red = unstable, green = stable

No cable. Final location unstable material

Cables. Wedge in red = unstable, green = stable

Cables. Final location unstable material

The author thanks SRK Consulting

ACG Instrumentation and

The ACG is proud to host a two-day seminar that is targetted

Australian Centre for Geomechanics | December 2016 Newsletter

Unearthing Black Gold

To purchase these and other training DVDs, please visit

First Asia Pacific Slope Stability in Mining 2016