PART TWO

RECRUITMENT AND PLACEMENT

C H A P T E R

Job
Analysis

F o u r

Lecture Outline
Strategic Overview
The Nature of Job Analysis
Uses of Job Analysis Information
Steps in Job Analysis
Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Information
The Interview
Questionnaires
Observation
Participant Diary
Quantitative Job Analysis Techniques
Using Multiple Sources of Information
Writing Job Descriptions
Job Identification
Job Summary
Relationships
Responsibilities and Duties
Standards of Performance and Working
Conditions
Using the Internet for Writing Job
Descriptions
Writing Job Specifications
Specifications for Trained Versus Untrained
Personnel
Job Specifications Based on Judgment
Job Specifications Based on Statistical
Analysis
Job Analysis in a Jobless World
From Specialized to Enlarged Jobs
Why Managers are De-jobbing Their
Companies
Competency-Based Job Analysis
BPs Matrices

In Brief: The uses of job analysis

information and the methods of
conducting a job analysis are discussed
in this chapter. The tasks of writing job
descriptions and job specifications are
also outlined. Strategies to make the
organization more responsive to
competition, including enlarging and dejobbing are discussed.
Interesting Issues: Technology and the
Internet can serve as a resource for
companies to streamline their job
analysis process. Some companies have
shifted to HR systems that do not use job
descriptions.
Competency-based
analysis can the support the flexibility
needed
by
high
performance
organizations.

ANNOTATED OUTLINE
I.

The Nature of Job Analysis

Job analysis The procedure for determining the duties and skill
requirements of a job and the kind of person who should be hired for
the job by collecting the following types of information: work activities;
human behaviors; machines, tools, equipment, and work aids;
performance standards; job context; and human requirements.
Job description A list of a jobs duties, responsibilities, reporting
relationships, working conditions, and supervisory responsibilities
one product of a job analysis.
Job specification A list of a jobs human requirements: the requisite
education, skills, personality, and so on another product of a job
analysis.
A. Uses of Job Analysis Information
1.

Recruitment and Selection Job descriptions and job specifications

are formed from the information gathered from a job analysis, which
help management decide what sort of people to recruit and hire.

2.

Compensation The estimated value and the appropriate

compensation for each job is determined from the information
gathered from a job analysis.

3.

Performance Appraisal Managers use job analysis to determine a

jobs specific activities and performance standards.

4.

Training Based on the job analysis, the job description should show
the jobs required activities and skills.

B. Steps in Job Analysis

1.

Decide how the information will be used because that will determine
what data will be collected and how it should be collected.

2.

Review relevant background information, such as organization charts,

process charts, and job descriptions.

3.

Select representative positions to analyze because there may be too

many similar jobs to analyze, and it may not be necessary to analyze
them all.

4.

Analyze the job by collecting data on job activities, required employee

behaviors, working conditions, and human traits and abilities needed
to perform the job.

5.

Verify the job analysis information with job incumbents and

supervisors to confirm that it is factually correct and complete.

6.

Develop a job description and job specification from the information.

II.

NOTES

Educational Materials to Use

Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Information

An HR specialist (an HR specialist, job analyst, or consultant), a worker, and
the workers supervisor usually work together in conducting the job analysis.
Job analysis data is usually collected from several employees from different
departments, using interviews and questionnaires. The data is then averaged,
taking into account the departmental context of the employees, to determine
how much time a typical employee spends on each of several specific tasks.
A. The Interview
The three types of interviews managers use to collect job analysis data
are: individual (to get the employees perspective on the jobs duties and
responsibilities, group (when large numbers of employees perform the
same job), and supervisor (to get his/her perspective on the jobs duties
and responsibilities).
1. The Pros & Cons of using an interview are that it is: simple, quick,
and more comprehensive because the interviewer can unearth
activities that may never appear in written form. The main problem is
distortion.
2. Typical questions What is the job being performed? In what
activities do you participate? What are the health and safety
conditions? Figure 4-4 gives an example of a job analysis
questionnaire.
3. Interview guidelines a) the job analyst and supervisor should identify
the workers who know the job best and would be objective; b)
establish a rapport with the interviewee; c) follow a structured guide or
checklist; d) ask worker to list duties in order of importance and
frequency of occurrence; and e) review and verify the data.
B. Questionnaires
Structured or unstructured questionnaires may be used to obtain job
analysis information (see Figure 4.4). Questionnaires can be a quick,
efficient way of gathering information from a large number of employees.
But, developing and testing a questionnaire can be expensive and time
consuming.
C. Observation
Direct observations are useful when jobs consist of mainly observable
physical activity as opposed to mental activity. Reactivity can be a
problem with direct observation, which is where the workers change what
they normally do because they are being watched. Managers often use
direct observation and interviewing together.

D. Participant Diary
The employees record every activity they engage in, in a diary along with
the amount of time to perform each activity to produce a complete picture
of the job. Employees may try to exaggerate some activities and
underplay others.

III.

NOTES

Educational Materials to Use

Writing Job Descriptions

Figure 4-5 presents a sample form of job description.
A. Job Identification contains the job title, status, date, and possible space
to indicate who approved the description, the location of the job, the
immediate supervisors title, salary and/or pay scale.
B.

Job Summary should describe the general nature of the job, and
includes only its major functions or activities.

C.

Relationships occasionally a relationships statement is included. It

shows the jobholders relationships with others inside and outside the
organization.

D. Responsibilities and Duties Itemize the jobs duties and responsibilities

and describe it in a few sentences.
E. Authority of job holder
F. Standards of Performance and Working Conditions states the standards
the employee is expected to achieve under each of the job descriptions
main duties and responsibilities.
G. Working Conditions
H. Job specifications

IV.

NOTES

Educational Materials to Use

Writing Job Specifications

A. Specifications for Trained Versus Untrained Personnel
Writing job specifications for trained employees is relatively
straightforward because they are likely to focus on traits like length of
previous service, quality of relevant training, and previous job
performance. Writing job specifications for untrained employees is more
complex because they are more likely to specify qualities such as physical
traits, personality, interests, or sensory skills that imply some potential for
performing or being trained to perform on the job.

B. Job Specifications Based on Judgment

1.

Job specifications may come from educated guesses or judgments

from supervisors or HR managers.

C. Job Specifications Based on Statistical Analysis

V.

1.

Basing job specifications on statistical analysis is more defensible, but

a more difficult approach than the judgmental approach.

2.

The aim of the statistical approach is to determine statistically the

relationship between 1) some predictor or human trait such as height,
intelligence, or finger dexterity, and 2) some indicator or criterion of
job effectiveness.

3.

The five steps in statistical analysis are: a) analyze the job and decide
how to measure job performance; b) select personal traits like finger
dexterity that you believe should predict successful performance; c)
test candidates for these traits; d) measure these candidates
subsequent job performance; and e) statistically analyze the
relationship between the human trait and job performance.

NOTES

Educational Materials to Use

Job Analysis in a "Jobless" World

A. From Specialized to Enlarged Jobs
1.

A job as we know it today is largely an outgrowth of the industrial

revolutions emphasis on efficiency.

2.

Job enlargement involves assigning workers additional same-level

activities, thus increasing the number of activities they perform.

3.

Job rotation is systematically moving workers from one job to another.

4.

Job enrichment involves redesigning jobs in a way that increases the

opportunities for the worker to experience feelings of responsibility,
achievement, growth, and recognition.

B.

Why Managers are De-jobbing Their Companies De-jobbing refers to

broadening the responsibilities of the companys jobs, and encouraging
employees not to limit themselves to whats on their job descriptions.
1.

Flatter organizations with three or four levels of management are

becoming more prevalent than the traditional pyramid-shaped
organizations with seven or more layers of management.

2.

Work teams, where tasks are organized around teams and processes
rather than around specialized functions, are being used increasingly
more by managers.

3.

The boundary-less organizations are characterized by widespread

use of teams and similar structural mechanisms to reduce and make

more permeable the boundaries that typically separate departments

and hierarchical levels.
4.

Reengineering refers to fundamentally rethinking and radically

redesigning business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in
performance measures.

C. Competency-Based Job Analysis

Employers are shifting towards newer approaches for describing
jobs, such as competency-based analysis to support the flexibility
needed in high performance work environments where employers
need workers to seamlessly move from job to job and exercise selfcontrol,
1. What are Competencies Competencies are defined as
demonstrable characteristics of the person that enable performance.
They are observable and measurable.
2. Three reasons to Use Competency Analysis? First, traditional job
descriptions may actually backfire if a high performance work system
is the goal. Second, describing the job in terms of skills, knowledge
and competencies needed is more strategic. Finally, measurable
skills, knowledge, and competencies are the heart of any companys
performance management system.
3. Examples of competencies These can include general
competencies (such as reading, writing, and mathematical reasoning),
leadership competencies (leadership, strategic thinking, teaching
others) and technical competencies (specific technical competencies
required for specific types of jobs).
4. Comparing traditional versus competency-based job analysis
competency based analysis is more measurable, where some of the
jobs essential duties and responsibilities are expressed as
competencies.
5. How to write job competencies the process is similar in most
respects to traditional job analysis, interviewing incumbents and their
supervisors, identifying job responsibilities and activities.
D. BPs Matrices
There are a growing number of firms that are shifting to HR systems that
dont use job descriptions. So what replaces them? This discussion
examines what British Petroleums Exploration Division has done. They
use a matrix of skills and skill levels. The major purpose was to shift
employees from thinking in terms of its not my job to thinking about what
new skills they needed to accomplish their goals. This interesting shift
should be one that could generate discussion in the class. Ask class
members questions such as:
So how do you know if you are doing your job?
How would performance appraisals be done?
How do you ensure fairness between employees?
How do you keep your employee doing what he or she should?
The HR Scorecard: Strategy and Results. A description of the
Hotel Internationals job analysis and job descriptions provides

insight into how these can help an organization achieve the

results that their strategic goals target.

NOTES

Educational Materials to Use

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What items are typically included in the job description? What items are not shown? A
job description is a written statement of what the jobholder actually does, how he or she does
it, and under what conditions the job is performed. There is no standard format for writing job
descriptions, but most descriptions include sections on:

job identification
job summary
relationships, responsibilities, and duties
authority of incumbent
standards of performance
working conditions
job specifications

2. What is job analysis? How can you make use of the information it provides? Job
analysis is the procedure through which you determine the duties and nature of the jobs and
the kinds of people who should be hired for them. You can utilize the information it provides to
write job descriptions and job specifications, which are utilized in recruitment and selection,
compensation, performance appraisal, and training.
3. We discussed several methods for collecting job analysis dataquestionnaires, the
position analysis questionnaire, and so on. Compare and contrast these methods,
explaining what each is useful for and listing the pros and cons of each. Interviews are
probably the most widely used method of collecting information for job analysis. The interview
allows the incumbent to report activities that might not otherwise come to light (mental
activities and activities that occur only occasionally). Observation is useful for jobs that consist
mainly of physical activity that is clearly observable. Questionnaires are a quick and efficient
way of obtaining information from a large number of employees; however, development cost
can be high. Participant diary logs can provide a comprehensive picture of a job, especially
when supplemented with interviews, however, many employees do not respond well to the
request to record all their daily activities. Quantitative job analysis techniques, such as PAQ
and Functional Job Analysis are more appropriate when the aim is to assign a quantitative
value to each job so that jobs can be compared for pay purposes.
4. Describe the types of information typically found in a job specification. It should include
a list of the human traits and experience needed to perform the job. These might include
education, skills, behaviors, personality traits, work experience, sensory skills, etc.
5. Explain how you would conduct a job analysis. There are six major steps in a wellconducted job analysis: a) Determine how the job analysis information will be used and how
to collect the necessary information; b) Collect background information such as organization
charts, process charts, and job descriptions; c) Select representative positions to be analyzed;
d) Collect job analysis information; e) Review the information with the participants; f) Develop
job descriptions and job specifications.

6. Do you think companies can really do without detailed job descriptions? Why or why
not? Either side is an acceptable position to take. The key to grading this answer is the
quality of the why or why not explanations. Look for students to clearly explain their position
in terms of the effects of the lack of job descriptions on the performance, motivation, and
capabilities of the people doing the job.
7. In a company with only 25 employees, is there less need for job descriptions? Why or
why not? It is clearly more difficult to write job descriptions for positions that may have broad
responsibilities because of the organizations size. This does not, however, mean that it is less
important. Look for sound arguments and reasoning.

INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP ACTIVITIES

1. Working individually or in groups, obtain copies of job descriptions for clerical
positions at the college or university where you study, or the firm where you work.
What types of information do they contain? Do they give you enough information to
explain what the job involves and how to do it? How would you improve on the
descriptions? Based on our experience, it is very likely that at least some of the job
descriptions will not contain all the information that is supposed to be there. Use this as an
opportunity to discuss the problems that may be created by the missing information.
2. Working individually or in groups, develop a job description for your professor in this
class. Based on that, use your judgement to develop a job specification. Compare your
conclusions with those of other students or groups. Were there any significant
differences? What do you think accounted for the differences? The students should find
sample job descriptions in order to create job description for you. Once they create a job
description for you, they should develop a job specification.
3. The following are some examples of possible multiple choice questions:
1. The procedure through which you determine the duties of positions and the characteristics
of the people to hire for them is called:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Competency based analysis

Job specifications
Job analysis
Job descriptions
Answer: c

2. Quantitative Job Analysis Techniques include the following:

a.
b.
c.
d.

Interviews
Questionnaires
Observation
Functional job analysis
Answer: d

3. Essential Job Functions are:

a. Part of a job description
b. The reason the position exists
c. The job duties that employees must be able to perform, with or without reasonable
accommodation
d. All of the above
Answer: d

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES & CASES

4. Competency Based Job Analysis :
a. Is better than traditional job analysis
b. Focuses more on how the worker meets the jobs objectives or actually
accomplishes the work
c. is more tactical than strategic
d. breeds a thats not my job attitude
Answer: b

Experiential Exercise: The Instructors Job Description

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is for you to develop a job description by developing one
for your instructor.
Required Understanding: Students should understand the mechanics of job analysis and be
thoroughly familiar with the job analysis questionnaires (see Figure 4-4) and the job description
questionnaire (see Figure 4-6).
How to Set Up the Exercise: Set up groups of four to six students for this exercise. As in all
exercises in this book, the groups should be separated and should not converse with each other.
Half the groups in the class will develop the job description using the job analysis questionnaire
(4.4), and the other half of the groups will develop it using the job description questionnaire (4.6).
Each student should review his or her questionnaire (as appropriate) before joining his or her
group.
1. Set up an even number of groups, preferably with each group consisting of 4 to 6
students. The groups should be separated and should not converse with each other.
Half the groups will develop a job description for the instructors position using the job
analysis questionnaire (4.4), and the other half of the groups will develop it using the
job description questionnaire (4.6). Each student should first review the appropriate
questionnaire.
2. Each group will develop its own job description and job specification for the instructor.
3. Each group should choose a partner group, one that developed the job description
and job specification using the alternate method. (a group that used the job analysis
questionnaire should be paired with a group that used the job description
questionnaire)
4. Within each of these new combined groups, compare and critique each of the two sets
of job descriptions and job specifications. Did each job analysis method provide
different types of information? Which seems superior? Does one seem more
advantageous for some types of jobs than others?
Application Case: Typhoon Alice
1. Should Phil Mun and May Lin ignore the old-timers' protests and write up the job
descriptions as they see fit? Why? How would you go about resolving the differences?
In all likelihood, the old-timers are accurate in their descriptions. There are several of them,
and it appears that all of their descriptions agree. Also, since they were the ones actually doing
the work, it is likely that they were the only ones who knew what was actually being done. One
way to resolve the differences would be to examine the specific items that Phil and May Lin
feel the old-timers are padding their jobs with. Ask for evidence from the old-timers that they
did these functions, and ask for evidence from Phil and May Lin that someone else carried out
those tasks.

2. How would you have conducted the job analysis? What should Phil do now? Other
options may have been to conduct personal interviews instead of the questionnaires.
However, it is unlikely that the resulting disagreement would have been avoided by using
another method. The method they used was a good one. Phil has several courses of action
available to him. The best may be to allow the process to go on with the old-timers job
descriptions.
Continuing Case: Kwik and Kleen (KK) Laundry Company The Job Description
1. What should be the format and final form of the store managers job description? The
format noted in figure 4-6 could be a reasonable format to use. Students may recommend that
Jen should include a standards of performance section in the job description. This lists the
standards the employee is expected to achieve under each of the job descriptions main duties
and responsibilities, and would address the problem of employees not understanding company
policies, procedures, and expectations. In addition, students may recommend that Jennifer
instead take a competency-based approach which describes the job in terms of the
measurable, observable, behavioral competencies that an employee doing that job must
exhibit. Because competency analysis focuses more on how the worker meets the jobs
objectives or actually accomplishes the work, it is more worker focused.
2. Was it practical to specify standards and procedures in the body of the job description,
or should these be kept separately? They do not need to be kept separately, and in fact
both Jen and the employees would be better served by incorporating standards and
procedures into the body of the description. The exception to this would be if the standards
and procedures are so complex or involved that it becomes more pragmatic to maintain a
separate procedures manual.
3. How should Jen go about collecting the information required for the standards,
procedures, and job description? She should first go about conducting the job analysis,
collecting information about the work activities, human behaviors, machines, tools, equipment,
and work aids, performance standards, job context, and human requirements. The best
methods for collecting this information in this case are through interview, questionnaires,
observation, diaries/logs maintained by employees. In addition, she should ensure that she is
identifying the essential functions of the job, and that the descriptions comply with the law.
4. What, in your opinion, should the store managers job description look like and contain?

HOTEL INTERNATIONAL
In this example, students develop a job description for the front desk clerk position and identify
important employee behaviors for the hotel staff based on hotel strategy.
1. Based on the hotels strategy, list at least four important employee behaviors for the hotel staff
-

The ability to project a positive attitude and put the customers needs first, even if the
customer is curt.
Showing tact and discretion in responding to personal requests from a hotel guest.
Being award of the reactions of others and responding to those reactions in an appropriate
way
Being able to handle multiple priorities without getting flustered
Able to resolve billing issues with discretion and a positive attitude.

2. If times permits, spend some time before coming to class and observe the front desk clerk at a
local hotel. In any case develop a job description for a hotel clerk at Hotel International.

10

For more Instructors Resources,

visit the Dessler & Tan companion Web site for
Human Resource Management: An Asian Perspective (2nd edition) at
http://www.pearsoned-asia.com/desslertan/.

11

KEY TERMS
job analysis

The procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of

a job and the kind of person who should be hired for it.

job description

A list of a job's duties, responsibilities, reporting relationships,

working conditions, and supervisory responsibilities--one product
of a job analysis.

job specifications

A list of a job's "human requirements," that is, the requisite

education, skills, personality, and so on--another product of a job
analysis.

organization chart

A chart that shows the organization wide distribution of work, with

titles of each position and interconnecting lines that show who
reports to and communicates with whom.

process chart

A work flow chart that shows the flow of inputs to and outputs from
a particular job.

diary

Daily listings made by workers of every activity in which they

engage along with the time each activity takes.

position analysis
questionnaire (PAQ)

A questionnaire used to collect quantifiable data concerning the

duties and responsibilities of various jobs.

functional job analysis

A method for classifying jobs similar to the Department of Labor

job analysis but additionally taking into account the extent to
which instructions, reasoning, judgment, and verbal facility are
necessary for performing the job tasks.

job enlargement

Assigning workers additional same-level responsibilities, thus

increasing the number of activities they perform.

job rotation

Systematically moving workers from one job to another.

job enrichment

Redesigning jobs in a way that increases the opportunities for the

worker to experience feelings of responsibility, achievement,
growth, and recognition.

de-jobbing

Broadening the responsibilities of the companys jobs and

encouraging employees not to limit themselves to whats on their
job descriptions.

boundaryless organization

Organization marked by the widespread use of teams and similar

structures that reduce and make more permeable the boundaries
that typically separate departments.

reengineering

The fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business

processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical
contemporary measures of performance.

competencies

Demonstrable characteristics of the person that enable

performance, which are observable and measurable behaviors
comprising part of a job.

competency-based

Describing the job in terms of the measurable, observable,

12

job analysis

behavioral competencies (knowledge, skills, and/or behaviors)

that an employee doing that job must exhibit to do the job well.

performance management

Basing your employees training, appraisals, and rewards on

fostering and rewarding the skills and competencies he or she
needs to achieve his or her goals.

self-management team

These are small groups of workers who have been given the
authority to manage their own work

13