ROBUST AND OPTIMAL

CONTROL

ROBUST AND OPTIMAL

CONTROL

KEMIN ZHOU
with
JOHN C. DOYLE and KEITH GLOVER

PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Clis, New Jersey 07632

TO OUR PARENTS

Contents
Preface

xiii

Notation and Symbols

xvi

List of Acronyms

xx

1 Introduction

1.1
1.2
1.3

Historical Perspective : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
How to Use This Book : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Highlights of The Book : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

2 Linear Algebra
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12

Linear Subspaces : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors : : : : : :
Matrix Inversion Formulas : : : : : : : :
Matrix Calculus : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Kronecker Product and Kronecker Sum :
Invariant Subspaces : : : : : : : : : : : :
Vector Norms and Matrix Norms : : : :
Singular Value Decomposition : : : : : :
Generalized Inverses : : : : : : : : : : :
Semidenite Matrices : : : : : : : : : : :
Matrix Dilation Problems* : : : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : :

3 Linear Dynamical Systems

3.1

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Descriptions of Linear Dynamical Systems : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

vii

1
4
6

17

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45

45

CONTENTS

viii
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12

Controllability and Observability : : : : : : : :

Kalman Canonical Decomposition : : : : : : : :
Pole Placement and Canonical Forms : : : : : :
Observers and Observer-Based Controllers : : :
Operations on Systems : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
State Space Realizations for Transfer Matrices :
Lyapunov Equations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Balanced Realizations : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Hidden Modes and Pole-Zero Cancelation : : :
Multivariable System Poles and Zeros : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

4 Performance Specications

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

Normed Spaces : : : : : : : : :
Hilbert Spaces : : : : : : : : : :
Hardy Spaces H2 and H1 : : :
Power and Spectral Signals : :
Induced System Gains : : : : :
Computing L2 and H2 Norms :
Computing L1 and H1 Norms
Notes and References : : : : : :

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5 Stability and Performance of Feedback Systems

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8

Feedback Structure : : : : : : : : :
Well-Posedness of Feedback Loop :
Internal Stability : : : : : : : : : :
Coprime Factorization over RH1 :
Feedback Properties : : : : : : : :
The Concept of Loop Shaping : : :
Weighted H2 and H1 Performance
Notes and References : : : : : : : :

6 Performance Limitations
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

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Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Integral Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Design Limitations and Sensitivity Bounds :
Bode's Gain and Phase Relation : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : :

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149
151
152

CONTENTS

ix

7 Model Reduction by Balanced Truncation

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Model Reduction by Balanced Truncation : : :

Frequency-Weighted Balanced Model Reduction
Relative and Multiplicative Model Reductions :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

8 Hankel Norm Approximation

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9

Hankel Operator : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
All-pass Dilations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Optimal Hankel Norm Approximation : : : :
L1 Bounds for Hankel Norm Approximation
Bounds for Balanced Truncation : : : : : : :
Toeplitz Operators : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Hankel and Toeplitz Operators on the Disk* :
Nehari's Theorem* : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

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9 Model Uncertainty and Robustness

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7

Model Uncertainty : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Small Gain Theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Stability under Stable Unstructured Uncertainties :
Unstructured Robust Performance : : : : : : : : :
Gain Margin and Phase Margin : : : : : : : : : : :
Deciency of Classical Control for MIMO Systems
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

10 Linear Fractional Transformation

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5

Linear Fractional Transformations :

Examples of LFTs : : : : : : : : :
Basic Principle : : : : : : : : : : :
Redheer Star-Products : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : :

11 Structured Singular Value

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5

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General Framework for System Robustness : :

Structured Singular Value : : : : : : : : : : :
Structured Robust Stability and Performance
Overview on  Synthesis : : : : : : : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

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153

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262
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287
290

CONTENTS

12 Parameterization of Stabilizing Controllers

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7

Existence of Stabilizing Controllers : : : : : : : : : :

Duality and Special Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers : : : :
Structure of Controller Parameterization : : : : : : :
Closed-Loop Transfer Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Youla Parameterization via Coprime Factorization* :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

13 Algebraic Riccati Equations

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9

All Solutions of A Riccati Equation : : : :

Stabilizing Solution and Riccati Operator
Extreme Solutions and Matrix Inequalities
Spectral Factorizations : : : : : : : : : : :
Positive Real Functions : : : : : : : : : : :
Inner Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Inner-Outer Factorizations : : : : : : : : :
Normalized Coprime Factorizations : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : :

14 H2 Optimal Control
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11

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Introduction to Regulator Problem : : : : : : : : :

Standard LQR Problem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Extended LQR Problem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Guaranteed Stability Margins of LQR : : : : : : :
Standard H2 Problem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Optimal Controlled System : : : : : : : : : : : : :
H2 Control with Direct Disturbance Feedforward*
Special Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Separation Theory : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Stability Margins of H2 Controllers : : : : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

15 Linear Quadratic Optimization

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6

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Hankel Operators : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Toeplitz Operators : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Mixed Hankel-Toeplitz Operators : : : : : : : : : : : :
Mixed Hankel-Toeplitz Operators: The General Case*
Linear Quadratic Max-Min Problem : : : : : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

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CONTENTS

16 H1 Control: Simple Case

16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16.10
16.11
16.12

Problem Formulation : : : : : : : :
Output Feedback H1 Control : : :
Motivation for Special Problems : :
Full Information Control : : : : : :
Full Control : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Disturbance Feedforward : : : : :
Output Estimation : : : : : : : : :
Separation Theory : : : : : : : : :
Optimality and Limiting Behavior
Controller Interpretations : : : : :
An Optimal Controller : : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : :

xi

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17 H1 Control: General Case

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9
17.10

General H1 Solutions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Loop Shifting : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Relaxing Assumptions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
H2 and H1 Integral Control : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
H1 Filtering : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Youla Parameterization Approach* : : : : : : : : : :
Connections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
State Feedback and Dierential Game : : : : : : : :
Parameterization of State Feedback H1 Controllers :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

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18 H1 Loop Shaping
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4

Robust Stabilization of Coprime Factors : : : : : : : :

Loop Shaping Using Normalized Coprime Stabilization
Theoretical Justication for H1 Loop Shaping : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

19 Controller Order Reduction

19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5

Controller Reduction with Stability Criteria : :

H1 Controller Reductions : : : : : : : : : : : :
Frequency-Weighted L1 Norm Approximations
An Example : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

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405
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406
412
416
423
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425
426
431
436
438
439

441
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445
449
450
454
456
460
462
465
468

469
469
478
481
487

489
490
497
504
509
513

CONTENTS

xii

20 Structure Fixed Controllers

515

21 Discrete Time Control

527

20.1
20.2
20.3

21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
21.7
21.8

Lagrange Multiplier Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 515

Fixed Order Controllers : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 520
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 525
Discrete Lyapunov Equations : : : : : :
Discrete Riccati Equations : : : : : : : :
Bounded Real Functions : : : : : : : : :
Matrix Factorizations : : : : : : : : : : :
Discrete Time H2 Control : : : : : : : :
Discrete Balanced Model Reduction : : :
Model Reduction Using Coprime Factors
Notes and References : : : : : : : : : : :

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527
528
537
542
548
553
558
561

Bibliography

563

Index

581

Preface
This book is inspired by the recent development in the robust and H1 control theory,
particularly the state-space H1 control theory developed in the paper by Doyle, Glover,
Khargonekar, and Francis [1989] (known as DGKF paper). We give a fairly comprehensive and step-by-step treatment of the state-space H1 control theory in the style
of DGKF. We also treat the robust control problems with unstructured and structured
uncertainties. The linear fractional transformation (LFT) and the structured singular
value (known as ) are introduced as the unied tools for robust stability and performance analysis and synthesis. Chapter 1 contains a more detailed chapter-by-chapter
review of the topics and results presented in this book.
We would like to thank Professor Bruce A. Francis at University of Toronto for his
helpful comments and suggestions on early versions of the manuscript. As a matter
of fact, this manuscript was inspired by his lectures given at Caltech in 1987 and his
masterpiece { A Course in H1 Control Theory. We are grateful to Professor Andre Tits
at University of Maryland who has made numerous helpful comments and suggestions
that have greatly improved the quality of the manuscript. Professor Jakob Stoustrup,
Professor Hans Henrik Niemann, and their students at The Technical University of
Denmark have read various versions of this manuscript and have made many helpful
comments and suggestions. We are grateful to their help. Special thanks go to Professor
Andrew Packard at University of California-Berkeley for his help during the preparation
of the early versions of this manuscript. We are also grateful to Professor Jie Chen at
University of California-Riverside for providing material used in Chapter 6. We would
also like to thank Professor Kang-Zhi Liu at Chiba University (Japan) and Professor
Tongwen Chen at University of Calgary for their valuable comments and suggestions.
In addition, we would like to thank G. Balas, C. Beck, D. S. Bernstein, G. Gu, W.
Lu, J. Morris, M. Newlin, L. Qiu, H. P. Rotstein and many other people for their
comments and suggestions. The rst author is especially grateful to Professor Pramod
P. Khargonekar at The University of Michigan for introducing him to robust and H1
control and to Professor Tryphon Georgiou at University of Minnesota for encouraging
him to complete this work.
Kemin Zhou
xiii

xiv

PREFACE
John C. Doyle
Keith Glover

xv

NOTATION AND SYMBOLS

xvi

Notation and Symbols

R
C
F
R+
C ; and C ;
C + and C +
C 0 , jR
D
D
@D

eld of real numbers

eld of complex numbers
eld, either R or C
nonnegative real numbers
open and closed left-half plane
open and closed right-half plane
imaginary axis
unit disk
closed unit disk
unit circle

2

[
\

belong to
subset
union
intersection

2
3
~

end of proof
end of example
end of remark

:=

'
/



dened as
asymptotically greater than
asymptotically less than
much greater than
much less than


jj

Re ()

complex conjugate of  2 C
absolute value of  2 C
real part of  2 C

(t)
ij
1+(t)

unit impulse
Kronecker delta function, ii = 1 and ij = 0 if i 6= j
unit step function

NOTATION AND SYMBOLS

xvii

n  n identity matrix
a matrix with aij as its i-th row and j -th column element
diag(a1 ; : : : ; an ) an n  n diagonal matrix with ai as its i-th diagonal element
AT
transpose
A
adjoint operator of A or complex conjugate transpose of A
A;1
inverse of A
A+
pseudo inverse of A
A;
shorthand for (A;1 )
det(A)
determinant of A
Trace(A)
trace of A
(A)
eigenvalue of A
(A)
spectral radius of A
(A)
the set of spectrum of A
 (A)
largest singular value of A
 (A)
smallest singular value of A
i (A)
i-th singular value of A
(A)
condition number of A
kAk
spectral norm of A: kAk =  (A)
Im(A), R(A)
image (or range) space of A
Ker(A), N(A)
kernel (or null) space of A
X; (A)
stable invariant subspace of A
X+ (A)
antistable invariant subspace of A
In
[aij ]

Ric(H )
gf


\
h; i
x?y
D?
S?

L2 (;1; 1)
L2 [0; 1)
L2 (;1; 0]
L2+
L2;
l2+
l2;

L2 (j R)
L2 (@ D )
H2 (j R)

the stabilizing solution of an ARE

convolution of g and f
Kronecker product
direct sum or Kronecker sum
angle
inner product
orthogonal, hx; yi = 0


orthogonal
complement
of D, i.e., D D?


or DD is unitary
?
orthogonal complement of subspace S , e.g., H2?
time domain Lebesgue space
subspace of L2 (;1; 1)
subspace of L2 (;1; 1)
shorthand for L2 [0; 1)
shorthand for L2 (;1; 0]
shorthand for l2 [0; 1)
shorthand for l2 (;1; 0)
square integrable functions on C 0 including at 1
square integrable functions on @ D
subspace of L2 (j R) with analytic extension to the rhp

NOTATION AND SYMBOLS

xviii

H2 (@ D )
H2? (j R)
H2? (@ D )
L 1 ( j R)
L1 (@ D )
H1 (j R)
H1 (@ D )
H1; (j R)
H1; (@ D )

subspace of L2 (@ D ) with analytic extension to the inside of @ D

subspace of L2 (j R) with analytic extension to the lhp
subspace of L2 (@ D ) with analytic extension to the outside of @ D
functions bounded on Re(s) = 0 including at 1
functions bounded on @ D
the set of L1 (j R) functions analytic in Re(s) > 0
the set of L1 (@ D ) functions analytic in jz j < 1
the set of L1 (j R) functions analytic in Re(s) < 0
the set of L1 (@ D ) functions analytic in jz j > 1

prex B or B closed unit ball, e.g. BH1 and B

prex Bo
open unit ball
prex R
real rational, e.g., RH1 and RH2 , etc
R[s]

Rp (s)

polynomial ring
rational proper transfer matrices

G (s)
 (z )
G

A B
C D

shorthand for GT (;s) (continuous time)

shorthand for GT (z ;1 ) (discrete time)
shorthand for state space realization C (sI ; A);1 B + D
or C (zI ; A);1 B + D

F` (M; Q)
Fu (M; Q)
S (M; N )

lower LFT
upper LFT
star product

xix

LIST OF ACRONYMS

xx

List of Acronyms
ARE
BR
CIF
DF
FC
FDLTI
FI
HF
i
lcf
LF
LFT
lhp or LHP
LQG
LQR
LTI
LTR
MIMO
nlcf
NP
nrcf
NS
OE
OF
OI
rcf
rhp or RHP
RP
RS
SF
SISO
SSV
SVD

algebraic Riccati equation

bounded real
complementary inner factor
disturbance feedforward
full control
nite dimensional linear time invariant
full information
high frequency
if and only if
left coprime factorization
low frequency
linear fractional transformation
left-half plane Re(s) < 0
linear quadratic Gaussian
linear quadratic regulator
linear time invariant
loop transfer recovery
multi-input multi-output
normalized left coprime factorization
nominal performance
normalized right coprime factorization
nominal stability
output estimation
output feedback
output injection
right coprime factorization
right-half plane Re(s) > 0
robust performance
robust stability
state feedback
single-input single-output
structured singular value ()
singular value decomposition

Introduction
1.1 Historical Perspective
This book gives a comprehensive treatment of optimal H2 and H1 control theory and
an introduction to the more general subject of robust control. Since the central subject
of this book is state-space H1 optimal control, in contrast to the approach adopted
in the famous book by Francis [1987]: A Course in H1 Control Theory, it may be
helpful to provide some historical perspective of the state-space H1 control theory to
be presented in this book. This section is not intended as a review of the literature
in H1 theory or robust control, but rather only an attempt to outline some of the
work that most closely touches on our approach to state-space H1 . Hopefully our lack
of written historical material will be somewhat made up for by the pictorial history of
control shown in Figure 1.1. Here we see how the practical but classical methods yielded
to the more sophisticated modern theory. Robust control sought to blend the best of
both worlds. The strange creature that resulted is the main topic of this book.
The H1 optimal control theory was originally formulated by Zames [1981] in an
input-output setting. Most solution techniques available at that time involved analytic
functions (Nevanlinna-Pick interpolation) or operator-theoretic methods [Sarason, 1967;
Adamjan et al., 1978; Ball and Helton, 1983]. Indeed, H1 theory seemed to many to
signal the beginning of the end for the state-space methods which had dominated control
for the previous 20 years. Unfortunately, the standard frequency-domain approaches to
H1 started running into signicant obstacles in dealing with multi-input multi-output
(MIMO) systems, both mathematically and computationally, much as the H2 (or LQG)
theory of the 1950's had.
1

INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1: A picture history of control

Not surprisingly, the rst solution to a general rational MIMO H1 optimal control
problem, presented in Doyle [1984], relied heavily on state-space methods, although
more as a computational tool than in any essential way. The steps in this solution were as
follows: parameterize all internally-stabilizing controllers via [Youla et al., 1976]; obtain
realizations of the closed-loop transfer matrix; convert the resulting model-matching
problem into the equivalent 2  2-block general distance or best approximation problem
involving mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operators; reduce to the Nehari problem (Hankel only);
solve the Nehari problem by the procedure of Glover [1984]. Both [Francis, 1987] and
[Francis and Doyle, 1987] give expositions of this approach, which will be referred to as
the \1984" approach.
In a mathematical sense, the 1984 procedure \solved" the general rational H1 optimal control problem and much of the subsequent work in H1 control theory focused
on the 2  2-block problems, either in the model-matching or general distance forms.
Unfortunately, the associated complexity of computation was substantial, involving several Riccati equations of increasing dimension, and formulae for the resulting controllers
tended to be very complicated and have high state dimension. Encouragement came

1.1. Historical Perspective

from Limebeer and Hung [1987] and Limebeer and Halikias [1988] who showed, for
problems transformable to 2  1-block problems, that a subsequent minimal realization
of the controller has state dimension no greater than that of the generalized plant G.
This suggested the likely existence of similarly low dimension optimal controllers in the
general 2  2 case.
Additional progress on the 2  2-block problems came from Ball and Cohen [1987],
who gave a state-space solution involving 3 Riccati equations. Jonckheere and Juang
[1987] showed a connection between the 2  1-block problem and previous work by
Jonckheere and Silverman [1978] on linear-quadratic control. Foias and Tannenbaum
[1988] developed an interesting class of operators called skew Toeplitz to study the
2  2-block problem. Other approaches have been derived by Hung [1989] using an
interpolation theory approach, Kwakernaak [1986] using a polynomial approach, and
Kimura [1988] using a method based on conjugation.
The simple state space H1 controller formulae to be presented in this book were rst
derived in Glover and Doyle [1988] with the 1984 approach, but using a new 2  2-block
solution, together with a cumbersome back substitution. The very simplicity of the new
formulae and their similarity with the H2 ones suggested a more direct approach.
Independent encouragement for a simpler approach to the H1 problem came from
papers by Petersen [1987], Khargonekar, Petersen, and Zhou [1990], Zhou and Khargonekar [1988], and Khargonekar, Petersen, and Rotea [1988]. They showed that for
the state-feedback H1 problem one can choose a constant gain as a (sub)optimal controller. In addition, a formula for the state-feedback gain matrix was given in terms
of an algebraic Riccati equation. Also, these papers established connections between
H1 -optimal control, quadratic stabilization, and linear-quadratic dierential games.
The landmark breakthrough came in the DGKF paper (Doyle, Glover, Khargonekar,
and Francis [1989]). In addition to providing controller formulae that are simple and
expressed in terms of plant data as in Glover and Doyle [1988], the methods in that
paper are a fundamental departure from the 1984 approach. In particular, the Youla
parameterization and the resulting 2  2-block model-matching problem of the 1984
solution are avoided entirely; replaced by a more purely state-space approach involving
observer-based compensators, a pair of 2  1 block problems, and a separation argument.
The operator theory still plays a central role (as does Redheer's work [Redheer, 1960]
on linear fractional transformations), but its use is more straightforward. The key
to this was a return to simple and familiar state-space tools, in the style of Willems
[1971], such as completing the square, and the connection between frequency domain
inequalities (e.g kGk1 < 1), Riccati equations, and spectral factorizations. This book
in some sense can be regarded as an expansion of the DGKF paper.
The state-space theory of H1 can be carried much further, by generalizing timeinvariant to time-varying, innite horizon to nite horizon, and nite dimensional to
innite dimensional. A ourish of activity has begun on these problems since the publication of the DGKF paper and numerous results have been published in the literature,
not surprising, many results in DGKF paper generalize mutatis mutandis, to these cases,
which are beyond the scope of this book.

INTRODUCTION

1.2 How to Use This Book

This book is intended to be used either as a graduate textbook or as a reference for
control engineers. With the second objective in mind, we have tried to balance the
broadness and the depth of the material covered in the book. In particular, some
chapters have been written suciently self-contained so that one may jump to those
special topics without going through all the preceding chapters, for example, Chapter
13 on algebraic Riccati equations. Some other topics may only require some basic linear
system theory, for instance, many readers may nd that it is not dicult to go directly
to Chapters 9  11. In some cases, we have tried to collect some most frequently used
formulas and results in one place for the convenience of reference although they may not
have any direct connection with the main results presented in the book. For example,
readers may nd that those matrix formulas collected in Chapter 2 on linear algebra
convenient in their research. On the other hand, if the book is used as a textbook, it
may be advisable to skip those topics like Chapter 2 on the regular lectures and leave
them for students to read. It is obvious that only some selected topics in this book can
be covered in an one or two semester course. The specic choice of the topics depends
on the time allotted for the course and the preference of the instructor. The diagram
in Figure 1.2 shows roughly the relations among the chapters and should give the users
some idea for the selection of the topics. For example, the diagram shows that the only
prerequisite for Chapters 7 and 8 is Section 3.9 of Chapter 3 and, therefore, these two
chapters alone may be used as a short course on model reductions. Similarly, one only
needs the knowledge of Sections 13.2 and 13.6 of Chapter 13 to understand Chapter 14.
Hence one may only cover those related sections of Chapter 13 if time is the factor. The
book is separated roughly into the following subgroups:
 Basic Linear System Theory: Chapters 2  3.
 Stability and Performance: Chapters 4  6.
 Model Reduction: Chapters 7  8.
 Robustness: Chapters 9  11.
 H2 and H1 Control: Chapters 12  19.
 Lagrange Method: Chapter 20.
 Discrete Time Systems: Chapter 21.
In view of the above classication, one possible choice for an one-semester course
on robust control would cover Chapters 4  5; 9  11 or 4  11 and an one-semester
advanced course on H2 and H1 control would cover (parts of) Chapters 12  19.
Another possible choice for an one-semester course on H1 control may include Chapter
4, parts of Chapter 5 (5:1  5:3; 5:5; 5:7), Chapter 10, Chapter 12 (except Section 12.6),
parts of Chapter 13 (13:2; 13:4; 13:6), Chapter 15 and Chapter 16. Although Chapters
7  8 are very much independent of other topics and can, in principle, be studied at any







 


























 

1.2. How to Use This Book

3:9

11



A
U
A

10

12

13

@
@
R
@
15 

16

@
I
@
@

17

;
?;
;

19

14

13:2
13:6

13:4

18

20

21

Figure 1.2: Relations among the chapters

INTRODUCTION

stage with the background of Section 3.9, they may serve as an introduction to sources
of model uncertainties and hence to robustness problems.
Robust Control
4
5
6*
7*
8*
9
10
11

H1 Control

Advanced

Model & Controller

Reductions
4
12
3.9
5.15.3,5.5,5.7 13.2,13.4,13.6
7
10
14
8
12
15
5.4,5.7
13.2,13.4,13.6
16
10.1
15
17*
16.1,16.2
16
18*
17.1
19*
19

H1 Control

Table 1.1: Possible choices for an one-semester course (* chapters may be omitted)
Table 1.1 lists several possible choices of topics for an one-semester course. A course
on model and controller reductions may only include the concept of H1 control and
the H1 controller formulas with the detailed proofs omitted as suggested in the above
table.

1.3 Highlights of The Book

The key results in each chapter are highlighted below. Note that some of the statements in this section are not precise, they are true under certain assumptions that are
not explicitly stated. Readers should consult the corresponding chapters for the exact
statements and conditions.
Chapter 2 reviews some basic linear algebra facts and treats a special class of matrix
dilation problems. In particular, we show


X B

min
X C A

= max

C A

B
A

 

and characterize all optimal (suboptimal) X .

Chapter 3 reviews some system theoretical concepts: controllability, observability,
stabilizability, detectability, pole placement, observer theory, system poles and zeros,
and state space realizations. Particularly, the balanced state space realizations are
studied in some detail. We show that
for agiven stable transfer function G(s) there

B such that the controllability Gramian P
A
is a state space realization G(s) = C D
and the observability Gramian Q dened below are equal and diagonal: P = Q =  =
diag(1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n ) where
AP + PA + BB  = 0

1.3. Highlights of The Book

A Q + QA + C  C = 0:
Chapter 4 denes several norms for signals and introduces the H2 spaces and the H1
spaces. The input/output gains of a stable linear system under various input signals
are characterized. We show that H2 and H1 norms come out naturally as measures of
the worst possible performance for many classes of input signals. For example, let


G(s) = CA B0 2 RH1 ; g(t) = CeAt B

kg  uk

n
X

kg(t)k dt  2 i . Some state

Then kGk1 = sup kuk 2 and 1  kGk1 
0
2
i=1
space methods of computing real rational H2 and H1 transfer matrix norms are also
presented:
kGk22 = trace(B  QB ) = trace(CPC  )
and
kGk1 = maxf : H has an eigenvalue on the imaginary axisg
where

 = 2 
A
BB
H = ;C  C ;A :
Chapter 5 introduces the feedback structure and discusses its stability and performance properties.

w1

e1

+6

P
K^

++ w2
e2 ?
e

We show that the above closed-loop system is internally stable if and only if




I ;K^ ;1 = I + K^ (I ; P K^ );1 P K^ (I ; P K^ );1 2 RH1 :
;P I
(I ; P K^ );1 P
(I ; P K^ );1
Alternative characterizations of internal stability using coprime factorizations are also
presented.
Chapter 6 introduces some multivariable versions of the Bode's sensitivity integral
relations and Poisson integral formula. The sensitivity integral relations are used to
study the design limitations imposed by bandwidth constraint and the open-loop unstable poles, while the Poisson integral formula is used to study the design constraints

INTRODUCTION

imposed by the non-minimum phase zeros. For example, let S (s) be a sensitivity function, and let pi be the right half plane poles of the open-loop system and i be the
corresponding pole directions. Then we show that
1

ln (S (j!))d! = max

(Repi )i i + H1 ; H1  0:

This equality shows that the design limitations in multivariable systems are dependent
on the directionality properties of the sensitivity function as well as those of the poles
(and zeros), in addition to the dependence upon pole (and zero) locations which is
known in single-input single-output systems.
Chapter 7 considers the problem of reducing the order of a linear multivariable
dynamical system using the balanced truncation method. Suppose
2

A11 A12
A21 A22
C1 C2

G(s) = 4

B1
B2
D

2 RH1

is a balanced realization with controllability and observability Gramians P = Q =  =

diag(1 ; 2 )
1 = diag(1 Is1 ; 2 Is2 ; : : : ; r Isr )
2 = diag(r+1 Isr+1 ; r+2 Isr+2 ; : : : ; N IsN ):


Then the truncated system Gr (s) = AC11 BD1 is stable and satises an additive
1
error bound:
N
X
kG(s) ; Gr (s)k1  2
i :
i=r+1

On the other hand, if G;1 2 RH1 , and P and Q satisfy

PA + AP + BB  = 0
Q(A ; BD;1 C ) + (A ; BD;1 C ) Q + C  (D;1 ) D;1 C = 0
such that P = Q = diag(1 ; 2 ) with G partitioned compatibly as before, then


Gr (s) = AC11 BD1

1

is stable and minimum phase, and satises respectively the following relative and multiplicative error bounds:

G;1 (G ; Gr )

G;1 (G ; Gr )

1

1

N
Y

1 + 2i (

i=r+1
N 
Y
i=r+1

1 + 2i (

1 +  2 + i )

1 + 2 + i )
i

;1

; 1:

1.3. Highlights of The Book

Chapter 8 deals with the optimal Hankel norm approximation and its applications
in L1 norm model reduction. We show that for a given G(s) of McMillan degree n
there is a G^ (s) of McMillan degree r < n such that

G(s) ; G^ (s) H = inf G(s) ; G^ (s) H = r+1 :

Moreover, there is a constant matrix D0 such that

N
X

G(s) ; G^ (s) ; D0 1 

i=r+1

i :

The well-known Nehari's theorem is also shown:

inf kG ; Qk1 = kGkH = 1 :

Q2RH;1

Chapter 9 derives robust stability tests for systems under various modeling assumptions through the use of a small gain theorem. In particular, we show that an uncertain
system described below with an unstructured uncertainty
2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1 is
robustly stable if and only if the transfer function from w to z has H1 norm no greater
than 1.

nominal system

Chapter 10 introduces the linear fractional transformation (LFT). We show that

many control problems can be formulated and treated in the LFT framework. In particular, we show that every analysis problem can be put in an LFT form with some
structured
(s) and some interconnection matrix M (s) and every synthesis problem
can be put in an LFT form with a generalized plant G(s) and a controller K (s) to be
designed.

-

z



z
w

-K



w
u

INTRODUCTION

10

Chapter 11 considers robust stability and performance for systems with multiple
sources of uncertainties. We show that an uncertain system is robustly stable for all

i 2 RH1 with k
i k1 < 1 if and only if the structured singular value () of the
corresponding interconnection model is no greater than 1.
1

nominal system

Chapter 12 characterizes all controllers that stabilize a given dynamical system G(s)
using the state space approach. The construction of the controller parameterization is
done via separation theory and a sequence of special problems, which are so-called full
information (FI) problems, disturbance feedforward (DF) problems, full control (FC)
problems and output estimation (OE). The relations among these special problems are
established.
FI

dual

equivalent

FC

6
equivalent

DF

dual

OE

For a given generalized plant

2

A B1 B2
11 (s) G12 (s) = 4 C D
G(s) = G
1
11 D12
G21 (s) G22 (s)
C2 D21 D22


3
5

we show that all stabilizing controllers can be parameterized as the transfer matrix from
y to u below where F and L are such that A + LC2 and A + B2 F are stable.

1.3. Highlights of The Book

11

z
y

? ?
;



C2 

D22 
R

-A

 
66
c

B2 


6
c

-F

- ;L
u1

y1

Chapter 13 studies the Algebraic Riccati Equation and the related problems: the
properties of its solutions, the methods to obtain the solutions, and some applications.
In particular, we study in detail the so-called stabilizing solution and its applications in
matrix factorizations. A solution to the following ARE

A X + XA + XRX + Q = 0
is said to be a stabilizing solution if A + RX is stable. Now let


H := ;AQ ;RA
and let X; (H ) be the stable H invariant subspace and


X
1
X; (H ) = Im X2
where X1 ; X2 2 C nn . If X1 is nonsingular, then X := X2 X1;1 is uniquely determined
by H , denoted by X = Ric(H ).
A key result of this chapter is the relationship between the spectral factorization of a
transfer function and the solution of a corresponding ARE. Suppose (A; B ) is stabilizable
and suppose either A has no eigenvalues on j!-axis or P is sign denite (i.e., P  0 or
P  0) and (P; A) has no unobservable modes on the j!-axis. Dene


(s) = B  (;sI ; A );1 I

P S
S R



(sI ; A);1 B :
I

INTRODUCTION

12
Then

(j!) > 0 for all 0  !  1

() 9 a stabilizing solution X to
(A ; BR;1 S  ) X + X (A ; BR;1 S  ) ; XBR;1B  X + P ; SR;1S  = 0

() the Hamiltonian matrix



;1 S 
;BR;1B 
H = ;A(P;;BR
;
1

SR S ) ;(A ; BR;1 S  )

has no j!-axis eigenvalues.

Similarly,

() 9 a solution X to

(j!)  0 for all 0  !  1

(A ; BR;1 S  ) X + X (A ; BR;1 S  ) ; XBR;1B  X + P ; SR;1S  = 0

such that (A ; BR;1 S  ; BR;1 B  X )  C ; .
Furthermore, there exists a M 2 Rp such that
 = M RM:
with

M = ;AF BI ; F = ;R;1(S  + B  X ):

Chapter 14 treats the optimal control of linear time-invariant systems with quadratic
performance criteria, i.e., LQR and H2 problems. We consider a dynamical system
described by an LFT with
3

A B1 B2
G(s) = 4 C1 0 D12 5 :
C2 D21 0

z
y

w


1.3. Highlights of The Book

Dene

13

H2 := ;CA C ;0A ; ;CB2D

1 1
1 12


 C1 B2
D12





D21 B1 C2
J2 := ;BA B  ;0A ; ;BC2D
1 1
1 21
X2 := Ric(H2)  0; Y2 := Ric(J2 )  0
 C1 ); L2 := ;(Y2 C  + B1 D ):
F2 := ;(B2 X2 + D12
2
21
Then the H2 optimal controller, i.e. the controller that minimizes kTzw k2 , is given by


Kopt (s) := A + B2 FF2 + L2C2 ;0L2 :

2

Chapter 15 solves a max-min problem, i.e., a full information (or state feedback)

H1 control problem, which is the key to the H1 theory considered in the next chapter.
Consider a dynamical system

x_ = Ax + B1 w + B2 u 
 C1 D12  =  0 I  :
z = C1 x + D12 u; D12
Then we show that sup umin
kz k2 < if and only if H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 =
w2BL2+ 2L2+
Ric(H1 )  0 where


;2


H1 := ;CA C B1 B;1A; B2 B2
1 1

Furthermore, u = F1 x with F1 := ;B2 X1 is an optimal control.

Chapter 16 considers a simplied H1 control problem with the generalized plant

G(s) as given in Chapter 14. We show that there exists an admissible controller such
that kTzw k1 < i the following three conditions hold:
(i) H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 := Ric(H1 )  0;
(ii) J1 2 dom(Ric) and Y1 := Ric(J1 )  0 where



;2 

J1 := ;BA B  C1 C;1A; C2 C2 :
1 1

(iii) (X1 Y1 ) < 2 .

INTRODUCTION

14

Moreover, the set of all admissible controllers such that kTzw k1 < equals the set of
all transfer matrices from y to u in

u

y
M1 

A^1 ;Z1 L1 Z1 B2
4
M1 (s) = F1
0
I
I
0
;C2

3
5

where Q 2 RH1 , kQk1 < and

A^1 := A + ;2B1 B1 X1 + B2 F1 + Z1 L1 C2

F1 := ;B2 X1 ;

L1 := ;Y1 C2 ;

Z1 := (I ; ;2Y1 X1 );1 :

Chapter 17 considers again the standard H1 control problem but with some assumptions in the last chapter relaxed. We indicate how the assumptions can be relaxed
to accommodate other more complicated problems such as singular control problems.
We also consider the integral control in the H2 and H1 theory and show how the
general H1 solution can be used to solve the H1 ltering problem. The conventional
Youla parameterization approach to the H2 and H1 problems is also outlined. Finally,
the general state feedback H1 control problem and its relations with full information
control and dierential game problems are discussed.
Chapter 18 rst solves a gap metric minimization problem. Let P = M~ ;1 N~ be a
normalized left coprime factorization. Then we show that
K



stabilizing

= K inf




stabilizing

inf

K (I + PK );1  I P
I

K (I + PK );1M~
I

;1

q

1;

N~ M~

 2

;1

This implies that there is a robustly stabilizing controller for

P
= (M~ +
~ M );1 (N~ +
~ N )
with
if and only if

~ N
~ M

1<


  1 ; N~ M~

 2

H:

Using this stabilization result, a loop shaping design technique is proposed. The proposed technique uses only the basic concept of loop shaping methods and then a robust

1.3. Highlights of The Book

15

stabilization controller for the normalized coprime factor perturbed system is used to
construct the nal controller.
Chapter 19 considers the design of reduced order controllers by means of controller
reduction. Special attention is paid to the controller reduction methods that preserve the
closed-loop stability and performance. In particular, two H1 performance preserving
reduction methods are proposed:
^
a) Let K0 be a stabilizing controller
such that
kF` (G; K0 )k1 < . Then K is also a


stabilizing controller such that F`(G; K^ ) < if
1

W2;1 (K^ ; K0)W1;1 1 < 1

where W1 and W2 are some stable, minimum phase and invertible transfer matrices.
b) Let K0 = 12 ;221 be a central H1 controller such that kF`(G; K0 )k1 < and
^ V^ 2 RH1 be such that
let U;



 
p
^ 
;1 I 0

U
12
;
1

2:

;
<
1
=

0 I
22
V^ 1
Then K^ = U^ V^ ;1 is also a stabilizing controller such that kF`(G; K^ )k1 < .
Thus the controller reduction problem is converted to weighted model reduction problems for which some numerical methods are suggested.
Chapter 20 brie y introduces the Lagrange multiplier method for the design of xed
order controllers.
Chapter 21 discusses discrete time Riccati equations and some of their applications in
discrete time control. Finally, the discrete time balanced model reduction is considered.

16

INTRODUCTION

Linear Algebra
Some basic linear algebra facts will be reviewed in this chapter. The detailed treatment
of this topic can be found in the references listed at the end of the chapter. Hence we shall
omit most proofs and provide proofs only for those results that either cannot be easily
found in the standard linear algebra textbooks or are insightful to the understanding of
some related problems. We then treat a special class of matrix dilation problems which
will be used in Chapters 8 and 17; however, most of the results presented in this book
can be understood without the knowledge of the matrix dilation theory.

2.1 Linear Subspaces

Let R denote the real scalar eld and C the complex scalar eld. For the interest of this
chapter, let F be either R or C and let Fn be the vector space over F, i.e., Fn is either Rn
or C n . Now let x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk 2 Fn . Then an element of the form 1 x1 + : : : + k xk with
i 2 F is a linear combination over F of x1 ; : : : ; xk . The set of all linear combinations
of x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk 2 Fn is a subspace called the span of x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk , denoted by
spanfx1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk g := fx = 1 x1 + : : : + k xk : i 2 Fg:
A set of vectors x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk 2 Fn are said to be linearly dependent over F if there
exists 1 ; : : : ; k 2 F not all zero such that 1 x2 + : : : + k xk = 0; otherwise they are
said to be linearly independent.
Let S be a subspace of Fn , then a set of vectors fx1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk g 2 S is called a basis
for S if x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk are linearly independent and S = spanfx1; x2 ; : : : ; xk g. However,
17

LINEAR ALGEBRA

18

such a basis for a subspace S is not unique but all bases for S have the same number
of elements. This number is called the dimension of S , denoted by dim(S ).
A set of vectors fx1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk g in Fn are mutually orthogonal if xi xj = 0 for all
i 6= j and orthonormal if xi xj = ij , where the superscript  denotes complex conjugate
transpose and ij is the Kronecker delta function with ij = 1 for i = j and ij = 0
for i 6= j . More generally, a collection of subspaces S1 ; S2 ; : : : ; Sk of Fn are mutually
orthogonal if x y = 0 whenever x 2 Si and y 2 Sj for i 6= j .
The orthogonal complement of a subspace S  Fn is dened by

S ? := fy 2 Fn : y x = 0 for all x 2 S g:
We call a set of vectors fu1; u2 ; : : : ; uk g an orthonormal basis for a subspace S 2 Fn if
they form a basis of S and are orthonormal. It is always possible to extend such a basis
to a full orthonormal basis fu1 ; u2; : : : ; un g for Fn . Note that in this case
S ? = spanfuk+1 ; : : : ; un g;
and fuk+1 ; : : : ; un g is called an orthonormal completion of fu1; u2; : : : ; uk g.
Let A 2 Fmn be a linear transformation from Fn to Fm , i.e.,
A : Fn 7;! Fm :
(Note that a vector x 2 Fm can also be viewed as a linear transformation from F to Fm ,
hence anything said for the general matrix case is also true for the vector case.) Then
the kernel or null space of the linear transformation A is dened by
KerA = N (A) := fx 2 Fn : Ax = 0g;
and the image or range of A is
ImA = R(A) := fy 2 Fm : y = Ax; x 2 Fn g:
It is clear that KerA is a subspace of Fn and ImA is a subspace of Fm . Moreover, it can
be easily seen that dim(KerA) + dim(ImA) = n and dim(ImA) = dim(KerA)? . Note
that (KerA)? is a subspace of Fn .
Let ai ; i = 1; 2; : : :; n denote the columns of a matrix A 2 Fmn , then
ImA = spanfa1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an g:
The rank of a matrix A is dened by
rank(A) = dim(ImA):
It is a fact that rank(A) = rank(A ), and thus the rank of a matrix equals the maximal
number of independent rows or columns. A matrix A 2 Fmn is said to have full row
rank if m  n and rank(A) = m. Dually, it is said to have full column rank if n  m
and rank(A) = n. A full rank square matrix is called a nonsingular matrix. It is easy

2.1. Linear Subspaces

19

to see that rank(A) = rank(AT ) = rank(PA) if T and P are nonsingular matrices with
appropriate dimensions.
A square matrix U 2 F nn whose columns form an orthonormal basis for Fn is called
an unitary matrix (or orthogonal matrix if F = R), and it satises U U = I = UU  .
The following lemma is useful.


Lemma 2.1 Let D = d1 : : : dk 2 Fnk (n > k) be such that DD = I , so
d i ; i = 1; 2; : : : ; k are orthonormal. Then there exists a matrix D? 2 Fn(n;k) such that
D D? is a unitary matrix. Furthermore, the columns of D?, di ; i = k + 1; : : : ; n,
form an orthonormal completion of fd1 ; d2 ; : : : ; dk g.
The following results are standard:
Lemma 2.2 Consider the linear equation
where A 2 Fnl and

AX = B

2 Fnm are given matrices. Then the following statements are

equivalent:
(i) there exists a solution X 2 Flm .
(ii) the columns of B 2 ImA.


(iii) rank A B =rank(A).
(iv) Ker(A ) Ker(B  ).
Furthermore, the solution, if it exists, is unique if and only if A has full column rank.
The following lemma concerns the rank of the product of two matrices.
Lemma 2.3 (Sylvester's inequality) Let A 2 Fmn and B 2 Fnk . Then
rank (A) + rank(B ) ; n  rank(AB )  minfrank (A); rank(B )g:
For simplicity, a matrix M with mij as its i-th row and j -th column's element will
sometimes be denoted as M = [mij ] in this book. We will mostly use I as above to
denote an identity matrix with compatible dimensions, but from time to time, we will
use In to emphasis that it is an n  n identity matrix.
Now let A = [aij ] 2 C nn , then the trace of A is dened as

Trace(A) :=

n
X
i=1

aii :

Trace has the following properties:

Trace(A) =  Trace(A); 8 2 C ; A 2 C nn
Trace(A + B ) = Trace(A) + Trace(B ); 8A; B 2 C nn
Trace(AB ) = Trace(BA); 8A 2 C nm ; B 2 C mn :

LINEAR ALGEBRA

20

2.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Let A 2 C nn ; then the eigenvalues of A are the n roots of its characteristic polynomial
p() = det(I ; A). This set of roots is called the spectrum of A and is denoted by (A)
(not to be confused with singular values dened later). That is, (A) := f1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n g
if i is a root of p(). The maximal modulus of the eigenvalues is called the spectral
radius, denoted by
(A) := 1max
j j
in i
where, as usual, j
j denotes the magnitude.
If  2 (A) then any nonzero vector x 2 C n that satises

Ax = x
is referred to as a right eigenvector of A. Dually, a nonzero vector y is called a left
eigenvector of A if
y A = y :
It is a well known (but nontrivial) fact in linear algebra that any complex matrix admits
a Jordan Canonical representation:

Theorem 2.4 For any square complex matrix A 2 C nn , there exists a nonsingular
matrix T such that
where

A = TJT ;1
J = diagfJ1 ; J2 ; : : : ; Jl g
Ji = diagfJi1 ; Ji2 ; : : : ; Jimi g
2
3
i 1
6
7
i 1
6
7

Jij = 666

... ...

7
7
7
5

2 C nij nij

i 1
i
Pl Pmi
with i=1 j=1 nij = n, and with fi : i = 1; : : : ; lg as the distinct eigenvalues of A.
The transformation T has the following form:


T = T1 T2 : : : Tl


Ti = Ti1 Ti2 : : : Timi


Tij = tij1 tij2 : : : tijnij
where tij1 are the eigenvectors of A,
Atij1 = i tij1 ;
4

2.2. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

21

and tijk 6= 0 dened by the following linear equations for k  2

(A ; i I )tijk = tij(k;1)
are called the generalized eigenvectors of A. For a given integer q  nij , the generalized
eigenvectors tijl ; 8l < q, are called the lower rank generalized eigenvectors of tijq .
Denition 2.1 A square matrix A 2 Rnn is called cyclic if the Jordan canonical form
of A has one and only one Jordan block associated with each distinct eigenvalue.
More specically, a matrix A is cyclic if its Jordan form has mi = 1; i = 1; : : : ; l. Clearly,
a square matrix A with all distinct eigenvalues is cyclic and can be diagonalized:
2

A x1 x2


xn = x1 x2


xn

6
6
6
4

1

2

...

n

7
7
7
5

In this case, A has the following spectral decomposition:

A=
where yi 2 C n is given by

2
6
6
6
4

y1
y2
..
.

yn

n
X
i=1

i xi yi

3
7
7
7
5



= x1 x2


xn ;1 :

In general, eigenvalues need not be real, and neither do their corresponding eigenvectors. However, if A is real and  is a real eigenvalue of A, then there is a real eigenvector
corresponding to . In the case that all eigenvalues of a matrix A are real1 , we will
denote max (A) for the largest eigenvalue of A and min (A) for the smallest eigenvalue.
In particular, if A is a Hermitian matrix, then there exist a unitary matrix U and a
real diagonal matrix  such that A = U U , where the diagonal elements of  are the
eigenvalues of A and the columns of U are the eigenvectors of A.
The following theorem is useful in linear system theory.
Theorem 2.5 (Cayley-Hamilton) Let A 2 C nn and denote
det(I ; A) = n + a1 n;1 +


+ an :
Then
An + a1 An;1 +


+ an I = 0:
1

For example, this is the case if A is Hermitian, i.e., A = A .

LINEAR ALGEBRA

22
This is obvious if A has distinct eigenvalues. Since

An + a1 An;1 +


+ an I = T ;1 diag f: : : ; ni + a1 in;1 +


+ an ; : : :g T = 0;

and i is an eigenvalue of A. The proof for the general case follows from the following
lemma.

Lemma 2.6 Let A 2 C nn . Then

(I ; A);1 = det(I1 ; A) (R1 n;1 + R2 n;2 +


+ Rn )
and

det(I ; A) = n + a1 n;1 +


+ an
where ai and Ri can be computed from the following recursive formulas:

a1
a2

=
=
..
.
=
=

; Trace A
; 21 Trace(R2 A)

R1 = I
R2 = R1 A + a1 I

..
.
an;1
; n;1 1 Trace(Rn;1 A)
Rn = Rn;1 A + an;1 I
0 = Rn A + an I:
an
; n1 Trace(Rn A)
The proof is left to the reader as an exercise. Note that the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
follows from the fact that

0 = Rn A + an I = An + a1 An;1 +


+ an I:

2.3 Matrix Inversion Formulas

Let A be a square matrix partitioned as follows


11 A12
A := A
A21 A22

where A11 and A22 are also square matrices. Now suppose A11 is nonsingular, then A
has the following decomposition:


I
0
A11 A12 =
A21 A22
A21 A;111 I



A11 0
0



I A;111 A12
0
I

with
:= A22 ; A21 A;111 A12 , and A is nonsingular i
is nonsingular.

Dually, if A22 is nonsingular, then


A11 A12 = I A12 A;221

A21 A22
0
I



0
0 A22



I
0
A;221 A21 I

2.3. Matrix Inversion Formulas

23

with
:= A11 ; A12 A;221 A21 , and A is nonsingular i
is nonsingular. The matrix

(
) is called the Schur complement of A11 (A22 ) in A.
Moreover, if A is nonsingular, then


and



A11 A12 ;1 = A;111 + A;111 A12
;1 A21 A;111 ;A;111 A12
;1
A21 A22
;
;1 A21 A;111

;1

#
"


;1
;
;1 A12 A;221
A11 A12 ;1 =
:
A21 A22
;A;221 A21
;1 A;221 + A;221 A21
;1 A12 A;221

The above matrix inversion formulas are particularly simple if A is block triangular:




A11 0 ;1 =
A;111
0
;
1
;
1
A21 A22
;A22 A21 A11 A;221




A11 A12 ;1 = A;111 ;A;111 A12 A;221 :
0 A22
0
A;221

The following identity is also very useful. Suppose A11 and A22 are both nonsingular
matrices, then
(A11 ; A12 A;221 A21 );1 = A;111 + A;111 A12 (A22 ; A21 A;111 A12 );1 A21 A;111 :
As a consequence of the matrix decomposition formulas mentioned above, we can
calculate the determinant of a matrix by using its sub-matrices. Suppose A11 is nonsingular, then
det A = det A11 det(A22 ; A21 A;111 A12 ):
On the other hand, if A22 is nonsingular, then
det A = det A22 det(A11 ; A12 A;221 A21 ):
In particular, for any B 2 C mn and C 2 C nm , we have


det ;ImC IB = det(In + CB ) = det(Im + BC )

n
and for x; y 2 C n

det(In + xy ) = 1 + y x:

LINEAR ALGEBRA

24

2.4 Matrix Calculus

Let X = [xij ] 2 C mn be a real or complex matrix and F (X ) 2 C be a scalar real or

complex function of X ; then the derivative of F (X ) with respect to X is dened as


@
@
@X F (X ) := @xij F (X ) :
Let A and B be constant complex matrices with compatible dimensions. Then the
following is a list of formulas for the derivatives2:
@
@X TracefAXB g
@
T
@X TracefAX B g
@
@X TracefAXBX g
@
T
@X TracefAXBX g
@
k
@X TracefX g

= AT B T

@
k
@X TracefAX g

@
;1
@X TracefAX B g
@
@X log det X
@
T
@X det X
@
k
@X detfX g

= ;(X ;1 BAX ;1)T

= BA
= AT X T B T + B T X T AT
= AT XB T + AXB
= k(X k;1 )T

k;1 X i AX k;i;1 T
i=0

P

= (X T );1
@ det X = (detX )(X T );1
= @X

= k(detX k )(X T );1 :

And nally, the derivative of a matrix A() 2 C mn with respect to a scalar  2 C is

dened as


dA := daij
d
d

so that all the rules applicable to a scalar function also apply here. In particular, we
have
d(AB ) = dA B + A dB

d
d
d
dA;1 = ;A;1 dA A;1 :
d
d

2 Note that transpose rather than complex conjugate transpose should be used in the list even if the
involved matrices are complex matrices.

2.5. Kronecker Product and Kronecker Sum

25

2.5 Kronecker Product and Kronecker Sum

Let A 2 C mn and B 2 C pq , then the Kronecker product of A and B is dened as
2
6

A
B := 664

a11 B a12 B


a1n B

a21 B a22 B


a2n B
..
.

..
.

..
.

am1 B am2 B


amn B

3
7
7
7
5

2 C mpnq :

Furthermore, if the matrices A and B are square and A 2 C nn and B 2 C mm then
the Kronecker sum of A and B is dened as

A  B := (A
Im ) + (In
B ) 2 C nmnm :
Let X 2 C mn and let vec(X ) denote the vector formed by stacking the columns of X
into one long vector:
2
3

vec(X ) :=

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

x11
x21
..
.

7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

xm1
x12
x22 :
.
..

x1n
x2n
..
.

xmn
Then for any matrices A 2 C km , B 2 C nl , and X 2 C mn , we have
vec(AXB ) = (B T
A)vec(X ):
Consequently, if k = m and l = n, then
vec(AX + XB ) = (B T  A)vec(X ):
Let A 2 C nn and B 2 C mm , and let fi ; i = 1; : : : ; ng be the eigenvalues of A
and fj ; j = 1; : : : ; mg be the eigenvalues of B . Then we have the following properties:

 The eigenvalues of A
B are the mn numbers i j , i = 1; 2; : : :; n, j = 1; 2; : : :; m.
 The eigenvalues of A  B = (A
Im ) + (In
B ) are the mn numbers i + j ,
i = 1; 2; : : :; n, j = 1; 2; : : : ; m.

LINEAR ALGEBRA

26

 Let fxi ; i = 1; : : : ; ng be the eigenvectors of A and let fyj ; j = 1; : : : ; mg be the

eigenvectors of B . Then the eigenvectors of A
B and A  B correspond to the
eigenvalues i j and i + j are xi
yj .
Using these properties, we can show the following Lemma.

Lemma 2.7 Consider the Sylvester equation

AX + XB = C

(2:1)

where A 2 Fnn , B 2 Fmm , and C 2 Fnm are given matrices. There exists a unique
solution X 2 Fnm if and only if i (A)+j (B ) 6= 0; 8i = 1; 2; : : : ; n and j = 1; 2; : : : ; m.
In particular, if B = A , (2.1) is called the \Lyapunov Equation"; and the necessary
and sucient condition for the existence of a unique solution is that i (A) + j (A) 6=
0; 8i; j = 1; 2; : : : ; n

Proof. Equation (2.1) can be written as a linear matrix equation by using the Kronecker product:

(B T  A)vec(X ) = vec(C ):

Now this equation has a unique solution i B T  A is nonsingular. Since the eigenvalues
of B T  A have the form of i (A) + j (B T ) = i (A) + j (B ), the conclusion follows. 2
The properties of the Lyapunov equations will be studied in more detail in the next
chapter.

2.6 Invariant Subspaces

Let A : C n 7;! C n be a linear transformation,  be an eigenvalue of A, and x be a
corresponding eigenvector, respectively. Then Ax = x and A(x) = (x) for any
 2 C . Clearly, the eigenvector x denes an one-dimensional subspace that is invariant
with respect to pre-multiplication by A since Ak x = k x; 8k. In general, a subspace
S  C n is called invariant for the transformation A, or A-invariant, if Ax 2 S for every
x 2 S . In other words, that S is invariant for A means that the image of S under A
is contained in S : AS  S . For example, f0g, C n , KerA, and ImA are all A-invariant
subspaces.
As a generalization of the one dimensional invariant subspace induced by an eigenvector, let 1 ; : : : ; k be eigenvalues of A (not necessarily distinct), and let xi be the corresponding eigenvectors and the generalized eigenvectors. Then S = spanfx1 ; : : : ; xk g
is an A-invariant subspace provided that all the lower rank generalized eigenvectors
are included. More specically, let 1 = 2 =


= l be eigenvalues of A, and

2.6. Invariant Subspaces

27

let x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xl be the corresponding eigenvector and the generalized eigenvectors obtained through the following equations:
(A ; 1 I )x1 = 0
(A ; 1 I )x2 = x1
..
.
(A ; 1 I )xl = xl;1 :
Then a subspace S with xt 2 S for some t  l is an A-invariant subspace only if all lower
rank eigenvectors and generalized eigenvectors of xt are in S , i.e., xi 2 S; 81  i  t.
This will be further illustrated in Example 2.1.
On the other hand, if S is a nontrivial subspace3 and is A-invariant, then there is
x 2 S and  such that Ax = x.
An A-invariant subspace S  C n is called a stable invariant subspace if all the
eigenvalues of A constrained to S have negative real parts. Stable invariant subspaces
will play an important role in computing the stabilizing solutions to the algebraic Riccati
equations in Chapter 13.

Example 2.1 Suppose a matrix A has the following Jordan canonical form
2


A x1 x2 x3 x4 = x1 x2 x3 x4

6
6
4

1 1
1

3

4

7
7
5

with Re1 < 0, 3 < 0, and 4 > 0. Then it is easy to verify that

S1 = spanfx1 g
S3 = spanfx3 g
S4 = spanfx4 g

S12 = spanfx1 ; x2 g
S13 = spanfx1 ; x3 g
S14 = spanfx1 ; x4 g

S123 = spanfx1 ; x2 ; x3 g
S124 = spanfx1 ; x2 ; x4 g
S34 = spanfx3 ; x4 g

are all A-invariant subspaces. Moreover, S1 ; S3 ; S12 ; S13 , and S123 are stable A-invariant
subspaces. However, the subspaces S2 = spanfx2 g, S23 = spanfx2 ; x3 g, S24 = spanfx2 ; x4 g,
and S234 = spanfx2 ; x3 ; x4 g are not A-invariant subspaces since the lower rank generalized eigenvector x1 of x2 is not in these subspaces. To illustrate, consider the subspace
S23 . Then by denition, Ax2 2 S23 if it is an A-invariant subspace. Since

Ax2 = x2 + x1 ;
Ax2 2 S23 would require that x1 be a linear combination of x2 and x3 , but this is
impossible since x1 is independent of x2 and x3 .
3
3

We will say subspace S is trivial if S = f0g.

LINEAR ALGEBRA

28

2.7 Vector Norms and Matrix Norms

In this section, we will dene vector and matrix norms. Let X be a vector space, a realvalued function k
k dened on X is said to be a norm on X if it satises the following
properties:
(i) kxk  0 (positivity);
(ii) kxk = 0 if and only if x = 0 (positive deniteness);
(iii) kxk = jj kxk, for any scalar  (homogeneity);
(iv) kx + yk  kxk + kyk (triangle inequality)
for any x 2 X and y 2 X . A function is said to be a semi-norm if it satises (i), (iii),
and (iv) but not necessarily (ii).
Let x 2 C n . Then we dene the vector p-norm of x as

kxkp :=

n
X
i=1

jxi jp

!1=p

; for 1  p  1:

In particular, when p = 1; 2; 1 we have

kxk1 :=
kxk2 :=

n
X
i=1

jxi j;

v
u n
uX
t

i=1

jxi j2 ;

kxk1 := 1max
jx j:
in i

Clearly, norm is an abstraction and extension of our usual concept of length in 3dimensional Euclidean space. So a norm of a vector is a measure of the vector \length",
for example kxk2 is the Euclidean distance of the vector x from the origin. Similarly,
we can introduce some kind of measure for a matrix.
Let A = [aij ] 2 C mn , then the matrix norm induced by a vector p-norm is dened
as
kAxk
kAkp := sup kxk p :
x6=0

In particular, for p = 1; 2; 1, the corresponding induced matrix norm can be computed

as
m
X
kAk1 = 1max
jaij j (column sum) ;
jn
i=1

2.7. Vector Norms and Matrix Norms

29

kAk2 = max (A A) ;

kAk1 = 1max
im

n
X
j =1

jaij j (row sum) :

The matrix norms induced by vector p-norms are sometimes called induced p-norms.
This is because kAkp is dened by or induced from a vector p-norm. In fact, A can
be viewed as a mapping from a vector space C n equipped with a vector norm k
kp to
another vector space C m equipped with a vector norm k
kp . So from a system theoretical
point of view, the induced norms have the interpretation of input/output amplication
gains.
We shall adopt the following convention throughout the book for the vector and matrix
norms unless specied otherwise: let x 2 C n and A 2 C mn , then we shall denote the
Euclidean 2-norm of x simply by
kxk := kxk2
and the induced 2-norm of A by

kAk := kAk2 :
The Euclidean 2-norm has some very nice properties:

Lemma 2.8 Let x 2 Fn and y 2 Fm .

1. Suppose n  m. Then kxk = kyk i there is a matrix U 2 Fnm such that x = Uy
and U  U = I .
2. Suppose n = m. Then jx yj  kxk kyk. Moreover, the equality holds i x = y
for some  2 F or y = 0.

3. kxk  kyk i there is a matrix
2 Fnm with k
k  1 such that x =
y.
Furthermore, kxk < kyk i k
k < 1.
4. kUxk = kxk for any appropriately dimensioned unitary matrices U .

Another often used matrix norm is the so called Frobenius norm. It is dened as
p

kAkF := Trace(A A) =

v
u m n
uX X
t

i=1 j =1

jaij j2 :

However, the Frobenius norm is not an induced norm.

The following properties of matrix norms are easy to show:
Lemma 2.9 Let A and B be any matrices with appropriate dimensions. Then

LINEAR ALGEBRA

30

1. (A)  kAk (This is also true for F norm and any induced matrix norm).

2. kAB k  kAk kB k. In particular, this gives A;1  kAk;1 if A is invertible.

(This is also true for any induced matrix norm.)
3. kUAV k = kAk, and kUAV kF = kAkF , for any appropriately dimensioned unitary
matrices U and V .
4. kAB kF  kAk kB kF and kAB kF  kB k kAkF .

Note that although pre-multiplication or post-multiplication of a unitary matrix on

a matrix does not change its induced 2-norm and F -norm, it does change its eigenvalues.
For example, let
1 0
A= 1 0 :
Then 1 (A) = 1; 2 (A) = 0. Now let

U=

"

p12
; p12

then U is a unitary matrix and

UA =

 p2
0

p12
p12

0
0

with 1 (UA) = 2, 2 (UA) = 0. This property is useful in some matrix perturbation

problems, particularly, in the computation of bounds for structured singular values
which will be studied in Chapter 10.

Lemma 2.10 Let A be a block partitioned matrix with

2 A A


A 3
66 A1121 A1222


A12qq 77
A = 64 ..
..
..
.
.
.
Am1 Am2


Amq

75 =: [Aij ];

and let each Aij be an appropriately dimensioned matrix. Then for any induced matrix
p-norm
2
3

kA11 kp kA12 kp


kA1q kp

6 kA21 k kA22 kp


kA2q kp 77
kAkp  664 .. p
..
.. 75 :
.
.
.


kAm1 kp kAm2 kp


kAmq kp p

Further, the inequality becomes an equality if the F -norm is used.

(2:2)

2.7. Vector Norms and Matrix Norms

31

Proof. It is obvious that if the F -norm is used, then the right hand side of inequality (2.2) equals the left hand side. Hence only the induced p-norm cases, 1  p  1,
will be shown. Let a vector x be partitioned consistently with A as

2x
66 x12
x = 64 ..
.
xq

and note that

3
77
75 ;

2 kx1k
6 kx kp
2
kxkp = 664 .. p
.
kxq kp

3
77
75 :

p

Then

2 Pq A1j xj 3
6 Pjq=1 A x 7
2j j 7
k[Aij ]kp := sup k[Aij ] xkp = sup 664 j=1..
75
kxkp =1
kxkp=1 P .
qj=1 Amj xj p
3
2 Pq
6 j=1 A1j xj p 7
2 Pq kA1j k kxj k
P
66 q A2j xj 77
6 Pjq=1 kA kp kx kp
j
=1
 sup 66 j=1 2.j p j p
p 7
= sup 666
7
.
..
77 kxkp=1 4 P
kxkp =1 6
..


q
4 Pq
j=1 kAmj kp kxj kp
5
j=1 Amj xj p p
2 kA11 k kA12k


kA1q k 3 2 kx1k 3
6 kA kp kA kp


kA kp 7 6 kx kp 7
21 p
22 p
2q p 7 6 2 p 7
= sup 664 ..
..
.. 75 64 .. 75
kxkp =1
.
.
.
kAm1 kp kAm2kp


kA1.q kp kxq kp p
h
i
 sup kAij kp p kxkp
kxkp =1
h
i
= kAij k :

3
77
75

p

p p

LINEAR ALGEBRA

32

2.8 Singular Value Decomposition

A very useful tool in matrix analysis is Singular Value Decomposition (SVD). It will be
seen that singular values of a matrix are good measures of the \size" of the matrix and
that the corresponding singular vectors are good indications of strong/weak input or
output directions.
Theorem 2.11 Let A 2 Fmn . There exist unitary matrices
U = [u1 ; u2; : : : ; um] 2 Fmm
V = [v1 ; v2 ; : : : ; vn ] 2 Fnn
such that
 0

A = U V ;  = 01 0
where

and

2  0



66 01 2



1 = 64 .. .. . .
.
. .
0

0
0
..
.

0


p

3
77
75

1  2 


 p  0; p = minfm; ng:

Proof. Let  = kAk and without loss of generality assume m  n. Then from the
denition of kAk, there exists a z 2 Fn such that
kAz k =  kz k :
By Lemma 2.8, there is a matrix U~ 2 F mn such that U~ U~ = I and
~
Az = Uz:

Now let
We have Ax = y. Let
and

~
x = kzz k 2 Fn ; y = Uz 2 Fm :
~
Uz

V = x V1 2 Fnn

U = y U1 2 Fmm
be unitary.4 Consequently, U  AV has the following structure:
  w 

A1 := U AV = 0 B
4 Recall that it is always possible to extend an orthonormal set of vectors to an orthonormal basis
for the whole space.

2.8. Singular Value Decomposition

33

where w 2 Fn;1 and B 2 F(m;1)(n;1) .

Since
2 1 3 2
6 0 7
A1 66 . 77 = (2 + w w);
4 .. 5
0 2
it follows that kA1 k2  2 + w w. But since  = kAk = kA1 k, we must have w = 0.
An obvious induction argument gives

U  AV = :

This completes the proof.

The i is the i-th singular value of A, and the vectors ui and vj are, respectively,
the i-th left singular vector and the j -th right singular vector. It is easy to verify that

Avi = i ui
A ui = i vi :
The above equations can also be written as

A Avi = i2 vi
AA ui = i2 ui :
Hence i2 is an eigenvalue of AA or A A, ui is an eigenvector of AA , and vi is an
eigenvector of A A.
The following notations for singular values are often adopted:

(A) = max (A) = 1 = the largest singular value of A;

and

 (A) = min (A) = p = the smallest singular value of A :

Geometrically, the singular values of a matrix A are precisely the lengths of the semiaxes of the hyperellipsoid E dened by
E = fy : y = Ax; x 2 C n ; kxk = 1g:
Thus v1 is the direction in which kyk is largest for all kxk = 1; while vn is the direction
in which kyk is smallest for all kxk = 1. From the input/output point of view, v1 (vn )
is the highest (lowest) gain input direction, while u1 (um ) is the highest (lowest) gain
observing direction. This can be illustrated by the following 2  2 matrix:
 cos  ; sin   
 cos  ; sin  
1
1
1
2
2
A = sin  cos 
2
sin 2 cos 2 :
1
1

LINEAR ALGEBRA

34

It is easy to see that A maps a unit disk to an ellipsoid with semi-axes of 1 and 2 .
Hence it is often convenient to introduce the following alternative denitions for the
largest singular value :
 (A) := kmax
kAxk
xk=1
and for the smallest singular value  of a tall matrix:

(A) := kmin
kAxk :
xk=1

Lemma 2.12 Suppose A and
are square matrices. Then

(i) j(A +
) ; (A)j  (
);
(ii) (A
)  (A) (
);
(iii) (A;1 ) = 1 if A is invertible.
(A)

Proof.
(i) By denition

(A +
) := kmin
k(A +
)xk
xk=1
 kmin
fkAxk ; k
xkg
xk=1
 kmin
kAxk ; kmax
k
xk
xk=1
xk=1
=  (A) ; (
):
Hence ;(
)  (A +
) ;  (A). The other inequality (A +
) ; (A)  (
)
follows by replacing A by A +
and
by ;
in the above proof.
(ii) This follows by noting that

 (A
) := kmin
kA
xk
rxk=1   
min x
A A
x
=
kxk=1

  (A) kmin
k
xk
xk=1

=  (A) (
):

(iii) Let the singular value decomposition of A be A = U V  , then A;1 = V ;1 U  .

Hence  (A;1 ) =  (;1 ) = 1=() = 1=(A).

2.8. Singular Value Decomposition

35

2
Some useful properties of SVD are collected in the following lemma.
Lemma 2.13 Let A 2 Fmn and
1  2 


 r > r+1 =


= 0; r  minfm; ng:
Then
1. rank(A) = r;
2. KerA = spanfvr+1; : : : ; vn g and (KerA)? = spanfv1 ; : : : ; vr g;
3. ImA = spanfu1; : : : ; ur g and (ImA)? = spanfur+1; : : : ; um g;
4. A 2 Fmn has a dyadic expansion:

A=
5.
6.
7.
8.

r
X
i=1

i ui vi = Ur r Vr

where Ur = [u1 ; : : : ; ur ], Vr = [v1 ; : : : ; vr ], and r = diag (1 ; : : : ; r );

kAk2F = 12 + 22 +


+ r2 ;
kAk = 1 ;
i (U0 AV0 ) = i (A); i = 1; : : : ; p for any appropriately dimensioned unitary matrices U0 and V0 ;
P
Let k < r = rank(A) and Ak := ki=1 i ui vi , then
min kA ; B k = kA ; Ak k = k+1 :
rank(B)k

Proof. We shall only give a proof for part 8. It is easy to see that rank(Ak )  k and
kA ; Ak k = k+1 . Hence, we only need to show that min kA ; B k  k+1 . Let
rank(B)k
B be any matrix such that rank(B )  k. Then
kA ; B k = k U V  ; B k = k ; U  BV k 




 Ik+1 0 ( ; U  BV ) Ik0+1 = k+1 ; B^



where B^ = Ik+1 0 U BV Ik0+1 2 F(k+1)(k+1) and rank(B^ )  k. Let x 2 Fk+1
^ = 0 and kxk = 1. Then
be such that Bx



kA ; B k  k+1 ; B^  (k+1 ; B^ )x = kk+1 xk  k+1 :
Since B is arbitrary, the conclusion follows.

LINEAR ALGEBRA

36

2.9 Generalized Inverses

Let A 2 C mn . A matrix X 2 C nm is said to be a right inverse of A if AX = I .

Obviously, A has a right inverse i A has full row rank, and, in that case, one of the right
inverses is given by X = A (AA );1 . Similarly, if Y A = I then Y is called a left inverse
of A. By duality, A has a left inverse i A has full column rank, and, furthermore, one of
the left inverses is Y = (A A);1 A . Note thatright (or left) inverses are not necessarily


unique. For example, any matrix in the form I? is a right inverse of I 0 .
More generally, if a matrix A has neither full row rank nor full column rank, then all
the ordinary matrix inverses do not exist; however, the so called pseudo-inverse, known
also as the Moore-Penrose inverse, is useful. This pseudo-inverse is denoted by A+ ,
which satises the following conditions:
(i) AA+ A = A;
(ii) A+ AA+ = A+ ;
(iii) (AA+ ) = AA+ ;
(iv) (A+ A) = A+ A.
It can be shown that pseudo-inverse is unique. One way of computing A+ is by writing
A = BC
so that B has full column rank and C has full row rank. Then
A+ = C  (CC  );1 (B  B );1 B  :
Another way to compute A+ is by using SVD. Suppose A has a singular value decomposition
A = U V 
with
 0
 = 0r 0 ; r > 0:
Then A+ = V + U  with

;1
+ = 0r 00 :

2.10 Semidenite Matrices

A square hermitian matrix A = A is said to be positive denite (semi-denite) , denoted

by A > 0 ( 0), if x Ax > 0 ( 0) for all x 6= 0. Suppose A 2 Fnn and A = A  0,
then there exists a B 2 Fnr with r  rank(A) such that A = BB  .
Lemma 2.14 Let B 2 Fmn and C 2 Fkn . Suppose m  k and BB = C C . Then
there exists a matrix U 2 Fmk such that U  U = I and B = UC .

2.10. Semidenite Matrices

37

Proof. Let V1 and V2 be unitary matrices such that

B1 = V1

B 

C 

0 ; C1 = V2 0
where B1 and C1 are full row rank. Then B1 and C1 have the same number of rows
and V3 := B1 C1 (C1 C1 );1 satises V3 V3 = I since B  B = C  C . Hence V3 is a unitary
matrix and V3 B1 = C1 . Finally let


U = V1 V03 V0 V2
4

for any suitably dimensioned V4 such that V4 V4 = I .
2
by

We can dene square root for a positive semi-denite matrix A, A1=2 = (A1=2 )  0,

A = A1=2 A1=2 :

Clearly, A1=2 can be computed by using spectral decomposition or SVD: let A = U U ,

then
A1=2 = U 1=2 U 
where
p
p
 = diagf1 ; : : : ; n g; 1=2 = diagf 1 ; : : : ; n g:
Lemma 2.15 Suppose A = A > 0 and B = B  0. Then A > B i (BA;1 ) < 1.

Proof. Since A > 0, we have A > B i

0 < I ; A;1=2 BA;1=2 = I ; A;1=2 (BA;1 )A1=2 :

However, A;1=2 BA;1=2 and BA;1 are similar, and hence i (BA;1 ) = i (A;1=2 BA;1=2 ).
Therefore, the conclusion follows by the fact that
0 < I ; A;1=2 BA;1=2
i (A;1=2 BA;1=2 ) < 1 i (BA;1 ) < 1.
2

Lemma 2.16 Let X = X   0 be partitioned as

X=

X

11
X12

X12 :
X22

+ is the pseudo-inverse of X , then Y =

Then KerX22  KerX12 . Consequently, if X22
22
+
X12 X22 solves
Y X22 = X12
and
 X X   I X X +  X ; X X + X  0  I 0 
11
12
12 22
11
12 22 12
X12 X22 = 0
I
0
X22
X22+ X12 I :

LINEAR ALGEBRA

38

Proof. Without loss of generality, assume

X22 = U1 U2

  1

0
0 0

 U  
1

U2

with 1 = 1 > 0 and U = U1 U2 unitary. Then

Ker X22 = spanfcolumns of U2 g
and

  ;1  U1  :
X22+ = U1 U2 01 00
U
Moreover

I

 X

 I
X12

0
0
11
0 U
X12 X22
0 U 0
gives X12 U2 = 0. Hence, Ker X22  Ker X12 and now
X12 X22+ X22 = X12 U1 U1 = X12 U1 U1 + X12 U2 U2 = X12 :
The factorization follows easily.

2.11 Matrix Dilation Problems*

In this section, we consider the following induced 2-norm optimization problem:

 X B 


min
X C A

(2:3)

where X , B , C , and A are constant matrices of compatible dimensions.

X B
The matrix
is a dilation of its sub-matrices as indicated in the following

diagram:

C A

X B  d
C A

C A

d
c

B
A

A

2.11. Matrix Dilation Problems*

39

In this diagram, \c" stands for the operation of compression and \d" stands for dilation.
Compression is always norm non-increasing and dilation is always norm non-decreasing.
Sometimes dilation can be made to be norm preserving. Norm preserving dilations are
the focus of this section.
The simplest matrix dilation problem occurs when solving

 X

min
X A


:

(2:4)

Although (2.4) is a much simplied version of (2.3), we will see that it contains all the
essential features of the general problem. Letting 0 denote the minimum norm in (2.4),
it is immediate that
0 = kAk :
The following theorem characterizes all solutions to (2.4).

Theorem 2.17 8  0,

 X
A

i there is a Y with kY k  1 such that




X = Y ( 2 I ; A A)1=2 :

Proof.
i
i

 X
A




X  X + A A  2 I

X  X  ( 2 I ; A A):
Now suppose X  X  ( 2 I ; A A) and let

Y := X ( 2 I ; A A)1=2

i+

then X = Y ( 2 I ; A A)1=2 and Y  Y  I . Similarly if X = Y ( 2 I ; A A)1=2 and

Y  Y  I then X X  ( 2 I ; A A):
2
This theorem implies that, in general, (2.4) has more than one solution, which is
in contrast to the minimization in the Frobenius norm in which X = 0 is the unique
solution. The solution X = 0 is the central solution but others are possible unless
A A = 02 I .

LINEAR ALGEBRA

40

Remark 2.1 The theorem still holds if ( 2I ; A A)1=2 is replaced by any matrix R
such that 2 I ; A A = R R.
~
A more restricted version of the above theorem is shown in the following corollary.

Corollary 2.18 8 > 0 ,

i

 X
A


 (< )

2  ;1=2
X ( I ; A A)  1(< 1):

The corresponding dual results are

Theorem 2.19 8  0

 X A  

i there is a Y , kY k  1, such that

X = ( 2 I ; AA )1=2 Y:

Corollary 2.20 8 > 0

i

 X A   (< )
2

( I ; AA );1=2X  1 (< 1):

Now, returning to the problem in (2.3), let

X B
0 := min
X C A


:

(2:5)

The following so called Parrott's theorem will play an important role in many control
related optimization problems. The proof is the straightforward application of Theorem 2.17 and its dual, Theorem 2.19.

Theorem 2.21 (Parrott's Theorem) The minimum in (2.5) is given by

 

0 = max C A ;

 B
A

 
:

(2:6)

2.11. Matrix Dilation Problems*

41

Proof. Denote by ^ the right hand side of the equation (2.6). Clearly, 0  ^ since
compressions are norm non-increasing, and that 0  ^ will be shown by using Theorem 2.17 and Theorem 2.19.
Suppose A 2 C nm and n  m (the case for m > n can be shown in the same
fashion). Then A has the following singular value decomposition:

m

A=U 0
V  ; U 2 C nn ; V 2 C mm :
n;m;m
Hence

^2 I ; A A = V (^ 2 I ; 2m )V 

and

^2 I ; AA

Now let

=U

 ^2I ; 2
0


^2 In;m U :

(^ 2 I ; A A)1=2 := V (^ 2 I ; 2m )1=2 V 

and

2
2 1=2
0

(^ 2 I ; AA )1=2 := U (^ I ;0m )
^In;m U :
Then it is easy to verify that

(^ 2 I ; A A)1=2 A = A (^ 2 I ; AA )1=2 :

Using this equality, we can show that

;A
(^ 2 I ; A A)1=2
2

1
=
2
(^ I ; AA )
A
=



 ^2I
0

;A
(^ 2 I ; A A)1=2
2

1
=
2
(^ I ; AA )
A



0
^2 I :

Now we are ready to show that 0  ^.

From Theorem 2.17 we have that B = Y (^ 2 I ; A A)1=2 for some Y such that
kY k  1. Similarly, Theorem 2.19 yields C = (^ 2 I ; AA )1=2 Z for some Z with
kZ k  1. Now let X^ = ;Y A Z . Then
 ^ 


X B = 2 ;Y AZ1=2 Y (^ 2I ; AA)1=2
C A
I ; AA ) Z
A
 (^



2 I ; A A)1=2  Z
Y
;
A
(^



=
I
I
(^ 2 I ; AA )1=2
A


2 I ; A A)1=2 

;
A
(^


 (^ 2 I ; AA )1=2

A
= ^:

LINEAR ALGEBRA

42
Thus ^  0 , so ^ = 0 .

This theorem gives one solution to (2.3) and an expression for 0 . As in (2.4), there
may be more than one solution to (2.3), although the proof of theorem 2.21 exhibits
only one. Theorem 2.22 considers the problem of parameterizing all solutions. The
solution X^ = ;Y A Z is the \central" solution analogous to X = 0 in (2.4).
Theorem 2.22 Suppose  0. The solutions X such that

 X B 
C A 

(2:7)

are exactly those of the form

X = ;Y A Z + (I ; Y Y  )1=2 W (I ; Z  Z )1=2
(2:8)
where W is an arbitrary contraction (kW k  1), and Y with kY k  1 and Z with
kZ k  1 solve the linear equations
B = Y ( 2 I ; A A)1=2 ;
(2.9)
2

1
=
2
C = ( I ; AA ) Z:
(2.10)

Proof. Since  0, again from Theorem 2.19 there exists a Z with kZ k  1 such
that
C = ( 2 I ; AA )1=2 Z:
Note that using the above expression for C we have




2I ; C A  C A

  (I ; Z Z )1=2

Z  Z )1=2
0
0
= (I ;
;A Z
( 2 I ; A A)1=2
;A Z
( 2 I ; A A)1=2 :

Now apply
 2.17 (Remark 2.1) to inequality (2.7) with respect to the partitioned
 XTheorem
B
matrix C A to get


 X B  = W^  (I ; Z Z )1=2
0
;A Z
( 2 I ; A A)1=2



for some contraction W^ , W^  1. Partition W^ as W^ = W1 Y to obtain the
expression for X and B :

X = ;Y A Z + W1 (I ; Z  Z )1=2 ;
B = Y ( 2 I ; A A)1=2 :

Then kY k  1 and the theorem follows by noting that W1 Y
W , kW k  1, such that W1 = (I ; Y Y  )1=2 W .

  1 i there is a

The following corollary gives an alternative version of Theorem 2.22 when > 0 .

2.11. Matrix Dilation Problems*

Corollary 2.23 For > 0.
i

43

 X B 
C A  (< )

(2:11)

(I ; Y Y );1=2 (X + Y A Z )(I ; Z Z );1=2  (< )

(2:12)

where

Y = B ( 2 I ; A A);1=2 ;
(2.13)
2

;
1
=
2
Z = ( I ; AA ) C:
(2.14)
Note that in the case of > 0 , I ; Y Y  and I ; Z  Z are invertible since Corollary 2.18 and 2.20 clearly show that kY k < 1 and kZ k < 1. There are many alternative
characterizations of solutions to (2.11), although the formulas given above seem to be
the simplest.
As a straightforward application of the dilation results obtained above, consider the
following matrix approximation problem:

0 = min
kR + UQV k
Q

(2:15)

where R, U , and V are constant matrices such that U  U = I and V V  = I .

Corollary 2.24 The minimum achievable norm is given by

0 = max fkU? Rk ; kRV? kg ;
and the parameterization for all optimal solutions Q can be obtained from Theorem 2.22
with X = Q + U  RV  , A = U? RV? , B = U  RV? , and C = U? RV  .

 V 


Proof. Let U? and V? be such that U U? and V? are unitary matrices.
Then

0 = min
kR + UQV k
Q


 
U U?  (R + UQV ) VV
= min
Q
 U RV  + Q U RV   ?
? :
= min
Q

U? RV 

U? RV?

The result follows after applying Theorem 2.21 and 2.22.

A similar problem arises in H1 control theory.

44

LINEAR ALGEBRA

2.12 Notes and References

A very extensive treatment of most topics in this chapter can be found in Brogan
[1991], Horn and Johnson [1990,1991] and Lancaster and Tismenetsky [1985]. Golub
and Van Loan's book [1983] contains many numerical algorithms for solving most of the
problems in this chapter. The matrix dilation theory can be found in Davis, Kahan,
and Weinberger [1982].

Linear Dynamical Systems

This chapter reviews some basic system theoretical concepts. The notions of controllability, observability, stabilizability, and detectability are dened and various algebraic
and geometric characterizations of these notions are summarized. Kalman canonical decomposition, pole placement, and observer theory are then introduced. The solutions of
Lyapunov equations and their connections with system stability, controllability, and so
on, are discussed. System interconnections and realizations, in particular the balanced
realization, are studied in some detail. Finally, the concepts of system poles and zeros
are introduced.

3.1 Descriptions of Linear Dynamical Systems

Let a nite dimensional linear time invariant (FDLTI) dynamical system be described
by the following linear constant coecient dierential equations:

x_ = Ax + Bu; x(t0 ) = x0
y = Cx + Du

(3.1)
(3.2)

where x(t) 2 Rn is called the system state, x(t0 ) is called the initial condition of the
system, u(t) 2 Rm is called the system input, and y(t) 2 Rp is the system output.
The A; B; C; and D are appropriately dimensioned real constant matrices. A dynamical
system with single input (m = 1) and single output (p = 1) is called a SISO (single input
and single output) system, otherwise it is called MIMO (multiple input and multiple
45

46

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

output) system. The corresponding transfer matrix from u to y is dened as

Y (s) = G(s)U (s)
where U (s) and Y (s) are the Laplace transform of u(t) and y(t) with zero initial condition (x(0) = 0). Hence, we have
G(s) = C (sI ; A);1 B + D:
Note that the system equations (3.1) and (3.2) can be written in a more compact matrix
form:
 x_   A B  x 
y = C D
u :
To expedite calculations involving transfer matrices, the notation

A B
;1
C D := C (sI ; A) B + D

will be used. Other reasons for using this notation will be discussed in Chapter 10.
Note that



A B
C D

is a real block matrix, not a transfer function.

Now given the initial condition x(t0 ) and the input u(t), the dynamical system
response x(t) and y(t) for t  t0 can be determined from the following formulas:

Zt

x(t) = eA(t;t0 ) x(t0 ) + eA(t; )Bu( )d

(3.3)
t0
y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t):
(3.4)
In the case of u(t) = 0; 8t  t0 , it is easy to see from the solution that for any t1  t0
and t  t0 , we have
x(t) = eA(t;t1 ) x(t1 ):
Therefore, the matrix function (t; t1 ) = eA(t;t1 ) acts as a transformation from one
state to another, and thus (t; t1 ) is usually called the state transition matrix. Since

the state of a linear system at one time can be obtained from the state at another
through the transition matrix, we can assume without loss of generality that t0 = 0.
This will be assumed in the sequel.
The impulse matrix of the dynamical system is dened as
g(t) = L;1 fG(s)g = CeAt B 1+ (t) + D(t)
where (t) is the unit impulse and 1+ (t) is the unit step dened as
 1; t  0;
1+ (t) := 0; t < 0:

3.2. Controllability and Observability

47

The input/output relationship (i.e., with zero initial state: x0 = 0) can be described by
the convolution equation

y(t) = (g  u)(t) :=

Z1

;1

g(t ;  )u( )d =

Zt

;1

g(t ;  )u( )d:

3.2 Controllability and Observability

We now turn to some very important concepts in linear system theory.

Denition 3.1 The dynamical system described by the equation (3.1) or the pair
(A; B ) is said to be controllable if, for any initial state x(0) = x0 , t1 > 0 and nal
state x1 , there exists a (piecewise continuous) input u(
) such that the solution of (3.1)
satises x(t1 ) = x1 . Otherwise, the system or the pair (A; B ) is said to be uncontrollable.

The controllability (or observability introduced next) of a system can be veried through
some algebraic or geometric criteria.

Theorem 3.1 The following are equivalent:

(i) (A; B ) is controllable.
(ii) The matrix

Wc (t) :=

Zt
0

eA BB  eA d

is positive denite for any t > 0.

(iii) The controllability matrix

C = B AB A2 B : : : An;1 B

P
has full row rank or, in other words, hA jImB i := ni=1 Im(Ai;1 B ) = Rn .
(iv) The matrix [A ; I; B ] has full row rank for all  in C .
(v) Let  and x be any eigenvalue and any corresponding left eigenvector of A, i.e.,
x A = x , then x B 6= 0.
(vi) The eigenvalues of A + BF can be freely assigned (with the restriction that complex
eigenvalues are in conjugate pairs) by a suitable choice of F .

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

48

Proof.
(i) , (ii): Suppose Wc (t1 ) > 0 for some t1 > 0, and let the input be dened as
u( ) = ;B  eA(t1 ; )Wc (t1 );1 (eAt1 x0 ; x1 ):

Then it is easy to verify using the formula in (3.3) that x(t1 ) = x1 . Since x1 is
arbitrary, the pair (A; B ) is controllable.
To show that the controllability of (A; B ) implies that Wc (t) > 0 for any t > 0,
assume that
(A; B ) is controllable but Wc (t1 ) is singular for some t1 > 0. Since
eAtBB  eAt  0 for all t, there exists a real vector 0 6= v 2 Rn such that
v eAtB = 0; t 2 [0; t1 ]:
Now let x(t1 ) = x1 = 0, and then from the solution (3.3), we have
0 = eAt1 x(0) +

Zt

eA(t1 ; )Bu( )d:

Pre-multiply the above equation by v to get

0 = v eAt1 x(0):
If we chose the initial state x(0) = e;At1 v, then v = 0, and this is a contradiction.
Hence, Wc (t) can not be singular for any t > 0.
(ii) , (iii): Suppose Wc (t) > 0 for all t > 0 (in fact, it can be shown that Wc (t) > 0
for all t > 0 i, for some t1 , Wc (t1 ) > 0) but the controllability matrix C does not
have full row rank. Then there exists a v 2 Rn such that
v Ai B = 0
for all 0  i  n ; 1. In fact, this equality holds for all i  0 by the CayleyHamilton Theorem. Hence,
v eAt B = 0
for all t or, equivalently, v Wc (t) = 0 for all t; this is a contradiction, and hence,
the controllability matrix C must be full row rank. Conversely, suppose C has full
row rank but Wc (t) is singular for some t1 . Then there exists a 0 6= v 2 Rn such
that v eAt B = 0 for all t 2 [0; t1 ]. Therefore, set t = 0, and we have
v B = 0:
Next, evaluate the i-th derivative of v eAt B = 0 at t = 0 to get
v Ai B = 0; i > 0:
Hence, we have


v B AB A2 B : : : An;1 B = 0
or, in other words, the controllability matrix C does not have full row rank. This
is again a contradiction.

3.2. Controllability and Observability

49

(iii) ) (iv): Suppose, on the contrary, that the matrix

 A ; I B 

does not have full row rank for some  2 C . Then there exists a vector x 2 C n
such that


x A ; I B = 0
i.e., x A = x and x B = 0. However, this will result in

 

x B AB : : : An;1 B = x B x B : : : n;1 x B = 0

i.e., the controllability matrix C does not have full row rank, and this is a contradiction.
(iv) ) (v): This is obvious from the proof of (iii) ) (iv).
(v) ) (iii): We will again prove this by contradiction. Assume that (v) holds but
rank C = k < n. Then in section 3.3, we will show that there is a transformation
T such that
 A A 
 B 
c
12
;
1
TAT = 0 Ac
TB = 0c
with Ac 2 R(n;k)(n;k) . Let 1 and xc be any eigenvalue and any corresponding
left eigenvector of Ac, i.e., xcAc = 1 xc. Then x (TB ) = 0 and

x = x0
c

is an eigenvector of TAT ;1 corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 , which implies

that (TAT ;1; TB ) is not controllable. This is a contradiction since similarity
transformation does not change controllability. Hence, the proof is completed.
(vi) ) (i): This follows the same arguments as in the proof of (v) ) (iii): assume
that (vi) holds but (A; B ) is uncontrollable. Then, there is a decomposition so
that some subsystems are not aected by the control, but this contradicts the
condition (vi).
(i) ) (vi): This will be clear in section 3.4. In that section, we will explicitly construct
a matrix F so that the eigenvalues of A + BF are in the desired locations.

Denition 3.2 An unforced dynamical system x_ = Ax is said to be stable if all the

eigenvalues of A are in the open left half plane, i.e., Re(A) < 0. A matrix A with such
a property is said to be stable or Hurwitz.

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

50

Denition 3.3 The dynamical system (3.1), or the pair (A; B), is said to be stabilizable

if there exists a state feedback u = Fx such that the system is stable, i.e., A + BF is
stable.
Therefore, it is more appropriate to call this stabilizability the state feedback stabilizability to dierentiate it from the output feedback stabilizability dened later.
The following theorem is a consequence of Theorem 3.1.

Theorem 3.2 The following are equivalent:

(i) (A; B ) is stabilizable.
(ii) The matrix [A ; I; B ] has full row rank for all Re  0.

(iii) For all  and x such that x A = x  and Re  0, x B 6= 0.

(iv) There exists a matrix F such that A + BF is Hurwitz.

We now consider the dual notions of observability and detectability of the system
described by equations (3.1) and (3.2).

Denition 3.4 The dynamical system described by the equations (3.1) and (3.2) or
by the pair (C; A) is said to be observable if, for any t1 > 0, the initial state x(0) = x0
can be determined from the time history of the input u(t) and the output y(t) in the
interval of [0; t1]. Otherwise, the system, or (C; A), is said to be unobservable.

Theorem 3.3 The following are equivalent:

(i) (C; A) is observable.
(ii) The matrix

Wo (t) :=
is positive denite for any t > 0.
(iii) The observability matrix

Zt
0

eA  C  CeA d

2 C 3
66 CA 77
O = 666 CA. 2 777
4 .. 5
CAn;1

T
has full column rank or ni=1 Ker(CAi;1 ) = 0.
(iv) The matrix

 A ; I 
C

has full column rank for all  in C .

3.2. Controllability and Observability

51

(v) Let  and y be any eigenvalue and any corresponding right eigenvector of A, i.e.,
Ay = y, then Cy 6= 0.
(vi) The eigenvalues of A + LC can be freely assigned (with the restriction that complex
eigenvalues are in conjugate pairs) by a suitable choice of L.
(vii) (A ; C  ) is controllable.

Proof. First, we will show the equivalence between conditions (i) and (iii). Once this
is done, the rest will follow by the duality or condition (vii).

(i) ( (iii): Note that given the input u(t) and the initial condition x0 , the output in
the time interval [0; t1] is given by

y(t) = CeAt x(0) +

Zt
0

CeA(t; ) Bu( )d + Du(t):

Since y(t) and u(t) are known, there is no loss of generality in assuming u(t) =
0; 8t. Hence,
y(t) = CeAt x(0); t 2 [0; t1 ]:
From this equation, we have

3 2 C 3
CA 77
77 666 CA
75 = 66 . 2 777 x(0)
4 .. 5
y(n;1) (0)

2 y(0)
66 y_ (0)
64 ...

CAn;1

where y(i) stands for the i-th derivative of y. Since the observability matrix O
has full column rank, there is a unique solution x(0) in the above equation. This
completes the proof.
(i) ) (iii): This will be proven by contradiction. Assume that (C; A) is observable but
that the observability matrix does not have full column rank, i.e., there is a vector
x0 such that Ox0 = 0 or equivalently CAi x0 = 0; 8i  0 by the Cayley-Hamilton
Theorem. Now suppose the initial state x(0) = x0 , then y(t) = CeAt x(0) = 0.
This implies that the system is not observable since x(0) cannot be determined
from y(t)  0.

Denition 3.5 The system, or the pair (C; A), is detectable if A + LC is stable for
some L.

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

52

Theorem 3.4 The following are equivalent:

(i) (C; A) is detectable.
(ii) The matrix

 A ; I 
C

has full column rank for all Re  0.

(iii) For all  and x such that Ax = x and Re  0, Cx 6= 0.

(iv) There exists a matrix L such that A + LC is Hurwitz.
(v) (A ; C  ) is stabilizable.

The conditions (iv) and (v) of Theorem 3.1 and Theorem 3.3 and the conditions
(ii) and (iii) of Theorem 3.2 and Theorem 3.4 are often called Popov-Belevitch-Hautus
(PBH) tests. In particular, the following denitions of modal controllability and observability are often useful.
Denition 3.6 Let  be an eigenvalue of A or, equivalently, a mode of the system.
Then the mode  is said to be controllable (observable) if x B 6= 0 (Cx 6= 0) for all left
(right) eigenvectors of A associated with , i.e., x A = x (Ax = x) and 0 6= x 2 C n .
Otherwise, the mode is said to be uncontrollable (unobservable).
It follows that a system is controllable (observable) if and only if every mode is controllable (observable). Similarly, a system is stabilizable (detectable) if and only if every
unstable mode is controllable (observable).
For example, consider the following 4th order system:

2 1 0 0 03
 A B  66 01 1 1 0 1 77
6
7
C D = 64 00 00 01 02 1 75

 0
with 1 6= 2 . Then, the mode 1 is not controllable if  = 0, and 2 is not observable
if  = 0. Note that if 1 = 2 , the system is uncontrollable and unobservable for any 
and  since in that case, both
1

203
6 7
x1 = 64 01 75
0

and

203
6 7
x2 = 64 00 75
1

are the left eigenvectors of A corresponding to 1 . Hence any linear combination of x1

and x2 is still an eigenvector of A corresponding to 1 . In particular, let x = x1 ; x2 ,
then x B = 0, and as a result, the system is not controllable. Similar arguments can be
applied to check observability. However, if the B matrix is changed into a 4  2 matrix

3.3. Kalman Canonical Decomposition

53

with the last two rows independent of each other, then the system is controllable even
if 1 = 2 . For example, the reader may easily verify that the system with
20 03
6
7
B = 64 1 01 75
1 0
is controllable for any .
In general, for a system given in the Jordan canonical form, the controllability and
observability can be concluded by inspection. The interested reader may easily derive some explicit conditions for the controllability and observability by using Jordan
canonical form and the tests (iv) and (v) of Theorem 3.1 and Theorem 3.3.

3.3 Kalman Canonical Decomposition

There are usually many dierent coordinate systems to describe a dynamical system.
For example, consider a simple pendulum, the motion of the pendulum can be uniquely
determined either in terms of the angle of the string attached to the pendulum or in
terms of the vertical displacement of the pendulum. However, in most cases, the angular
displacement is a more natural description than the vertical displacement in spite of the
fact that they both describe the same dynamical system. This is true for most physical
dynamical systems. On the other hand, although some coordinates may not be natural
descriptions of a physical dynamical system, they may make the system analysis and
synthesis much easier.
In general, let T 2 Rnn be a nonsingular matrix and dene
x = Tx:
Then the original dynamical system equations (3.1) and (3.2) become
x_ = TAT ;1x + TBu
y = CT ;1 x + Du:
These equations represent the same dynamical system for any nonsingular matrix T ,
and hence, we can regard these representations as equivalent. It is easy to see that the
input/output transfer matrix is not changed under the coordinate transformation, i.e.,
G(s) = C (sI ; A);1 B + D = CT ;1 (sI ; TAT ;1);1 TB + D:
In this section, we will consider the system structure decomposition using coordinate
transformation if the system is not completely controllable and/or is not completely
observable. To begin with, let us consider further the dynamical systems related by a
similarity transformation:
 A B  " A B #  TAT ;1 TB 
C D 7;! C D = CT ;1 D :

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

54

The controllability and observability matrices are related by

C = T C O = OT ;1:
Moreover, the following theorem follows easily from the PBH tests or from the above
relations.
Theorem 3.5 The controllability (or stabilizability) and observability (or detectability)
are invariant under similarity transformations.
Using this fact, we can now show the following theorem.
Theorem 3.6 If the controllability matrix C has rank k1 < n, then there exists a similarity transformation
 
x = xxc = Tx
such that

c

 x_ 
c
x_ c

y =

 A A  x   B 
c
12
c
c
0 Ac
xc + 0 u
 C C   xc  + Du
c

c

xc

with Ac 2 C k1 k1 and (Ac ; Bc) controllable. Moreover,

G(s) = C (sI ; A);1 B + D = Cc (sI ; Ac );1 Bc + D:

Proof. Since rank C = k1 < n, the pair (A; B) is not controllable. Now let q1; q2; : : : ; qk1
be any linearly independent columns of C . Let qi ; i = k1 +1; : : : ; n be any n ; k1 linearly
independent vectors such that the matrix

Q := q1


qk1 qk1 +1


qn
is nonsingular. Dene

T := Q;1 :

Then the transformation x = Tx will give the desired decomposition. To see that,
note that for each i = 1; 2; : : : ; k1 , Aqi can be written as a linear combination of qi ; i =
1; 2; : : : ; k1 since Aqi is a linear combination of the columns of C by the Cayley-Hamilton
Theorem. Therefore, we have

AT ;1 =
=

 Aq


Aq Aq

1
k
k +1


Aqn
 A A 
 q


q q

c
12
1
k
k +1


qn
0 Ac
 A A 

= T ;1

12

Ac

3.3. Kalman Canonical Decomposition

55

for some k1  k1 matrix Ac . Similarly, each column of the matrix B is a linear combination of qi ; i = 1; 2; : : :; k1 , hence
  
  
B = Q B0c = T ;1 B0c
for some Bc 2 C k1 m .
To show that (Ac ; Bc) is controllable, note that rank C = k1 and
 B A B


Ak1 ;1 B


An;1 B 
c
c c
c
c :
;
1
c
c
C=T
0
0



0




0
Since, for each j  k1 , Ajc is a linear combination of Aic ; i = 0; 1; : : : ; (k1 ; 1) by CayleyHamilton theorem, we have


rank Bc Ac Bc


Akc 1 ;1 Bc = k1 ;
i.e., (Ac ; Bc ) is controllable.
2
A numerically reliable way to nd a such transformation T is to use QR factorization.
For example, if the controllability matrix C has the QR factorization QR = C , then
T = Q;1 .
Corollary 3.7 If the system is stabilizable and the controllability matrix C has rank
k1 < n, then there exists a similarity transformation T such that
3
2
 TAT ;1 TB  6 Ac A12 Bc 7
0 A 0 5
CT ;1 D = 4  c
Cc Cc D

with Ac 2 C k1 k1 , (Ac ; Bc ) controllable and with Ac stable.
Hence, the state space x is partitioned into two orthogonal subspaces
 x 
 0 
c
and
0
xc
with the rst subspace controllable from the input and second completely uncontrollable
from the input (i.e., the state xc are not aected by the control u). Write these subspaces
in terms of the original coordinates x, we have
 x 


;
1
x = T x = q1


qk1 qk1 +1


qn xc :
c
So the controllable subspace is the span of qi ; i = 1; : : : ; k1 or, equivalently, Im C . On the
other hand, the uncontrollable subspace is given by the complement of the controllable
subspace.
By duality, we have the following decomposition if the system is not completely
observable.

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

56

Theorem 3.8 If the observability matrix O has rank k2 < n, then there exists a similarity transformation T such that

3
2
 TAT ;1 TB  6 Ao 0 Bo 7
A A B
CT ;1 D = 4 21 o o 5
Co

with Ao 2 C k2 k2 and (Co ; Ao ) observable.

Corollary 3.9 If the system is detectable and the observability matrix C has rank k2 <
n, then there exists a similarity transformation T such that

2
3
 TAT ;1 TB  6 Ao 0 Bo 7
A A B
CT ;1 D = 4 21 o o 5
Co

with Ao 2 C k2 k2 , (Co ; Ao ) observable and with Ao stable.

Similarly, we have

G(s) = C (sI ; A);1 B + D = Co (sI ; Ao );1 Bo + D:

Carefully combining the above two theorems, we get the following Kalman Canonical
Decomposition. The proof is left to the reader as an exercise.

Theorem 3.10 Let an LTI dynamical system be described by the equations (3.1) and (3.2).
Then there exists a nonsingular coordinate transformation x = Tx such that
2 x_ 3
2 A 0 A 0 3 2 x 3 2 B 3
co
66 x_ co 77 = 66 A21co Aco A1323 A24 77 66 xcoco 77 + 66 Bcoco 77 u
4 x_ co 5
4 0 0 Aco 0 5 4 xco 5 4 0 5
_xco
0 0 A43 Aco
0
2 x 3 xco
co
6
7


x



6
y = Cco 0 Cco 0 4 xco 75 + Du
co
xco
or equivalently

 TAT ;1
CT ;1

2 Aco 0
 6 A A
TB = 66 021 0co
64 0 0
D
Cco

A13 0 Bco
A23 A24 Bco
Aco 0 0
A43 Aco 0
Cco 0 D

3
77
77
5

3.3. Kalman Canonical Decomposition

57

where the vector xco is controllable and observable, xco is controllable but unobservable, xco is observable but uncontrollable, and xco is uncontrollable and unobservable.
Moreover, the transfer matrix from u to y is given by
G(s) = Cco (sI ; Aco );1 Bco + D:

One important issue is that although the transfer matrix of a dynamical system

A B
C D

is equal to its controllable and observable part

"  
Aco Bco
Cco D

their internal behaviors are very dierent. In other words, while their input/output
behaviors are the same, their state space response with nonzero initial conditions are
very dierent. This can be illustrated by the state space response for the simple system
2 x_ 3
2 A 0 0 0 3 2 x 3 2 B 3
co
66 x_ co 77 = 66 0co Aco 0 0 77 66 xcoco 77 + 66 Bcoco 77 u
4 x_ co 5
4 0 0 Aco 0 5 4 xco 5 4 0 5
_xco
0 0 0 Aco
0
2 x 3 xco
co
6
7


x



6
y = Cco 0 Cco 0 4 xco 75
co
xco
with xco controllable and observable, xco controllable but unobservable, xco observable
but uncontrollable, and xco uncontrollable and unobservable.
The solution to this system is given by

2 x (t) 3
66 xcoco(t) 77
4 x (t) 5
co

2 Acot
R
e xco (0) + R0t eAco (t; )Bco u( )d
66 eAcotxco(0) + t eAco(t; )Bcou( )d
0
64
eAco t xco (0)



xco(t)
eAcot xco(0)
y(t) = Cco xco (t) + Cco xco ;

3
77
75

note that xco (t) and xco(t) are not aected by the input u, while xco(t) and xco(t) do
not show up in the output y. Moreover, if the initial condition is zero, i.e., x(0) = 0,
then the output
Zt 
y(t) = Cco eAco(t; ) Bcou( )d:
0

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

58

However, if the initial state is not zero, then the response xco (t) will show up in the
output. In particular, if Aco is not stable, then the output y(t) will grow without bound.
The problems with uncontrollable and/or unobservable unstable modes are even more
profound than what we have mentioned. Since the states are the internal signals of the
dynamical system, any unbounded internal signal will eventually destroy the system.
On the other hand, since it is impossible to make the initial states exactly zero, any
uncontrollable and/or unobservable unstable mode will result in unacceptable system
behavior. This issue will be exploited further in section 3.7. In the next section, we will
consider how to place the system poles to achieve desired closed-loop behavior if the
system is controllable.

3.4 Pole Placement and Canonical Forms

Consider a MIMO dynamical system described by
x_ = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du;
and let u be a state feedback control law given by
u = Fx + v:
This closed-loop system is as shown in Figure 3.1, and the closed-loop system equations
are given by
x_ = (A + BF )x + Bv
y = (C + DF )x + Dv:

y ?e

R 


6
e

u e v

Figure 3.1: State Feedback

Then we have the following lemma in which the proof is simple and is left as an
exercise to the reader.

3.4. Pole Placement and Canonical Forms

59

Lemma 3.11 Let F be a constant matrix with appropriate dimension; then (A; B) is

controllable (stabilizable) if and only if (A + BF; B ) is controllable (stabilizable).

However, the observability of the system may change under state feedback. For
example, the following system
A B 21 1 13
4
5
C D = 11 00 00
is controllable and observable. But with the state feedback

u = Fx = ;1 ;1 x;
the system becomes

 A + BF B  2 0
4
C + DF D = 1

0 1
0 0
1 0 0

3
5

and is not completely observable.

The dual operation of the dynamical system by

x_ = Ax + Bu 7;! x_ = Ax + Bu + Ly
is called output injection which can be written as
 A B   A + LC B + LD 
:
C D 7;!
C
D
By duality, the output injection does not change the system observability (detectability)
but may change the system controllability (stabilizability).

Remark 3.1 We would like to call attention to the diagram and the signals ow con-

vention used in this book. It may not be conventional to let signals ow from the right
to the left, however, the reader will nd that this representation is much more visually
appealing than the traditional representation, and is consistent with the matrix manipulations. For example, the following diagram represents the multiplication of three
matrices and will be very helpful in dealing with complicated systems:

z = M1 M2 M3 w:

z

M1

M2

M3

w

The conventional signal block diagrams, i.e., signals owing from left to right, will also
be used in this book.
~

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

60

We now consider some special state space representations of the dynamical system
described by equations (3.1) and (3.2). First, we will consider the systems with single
inputs.
Assume that a single input and multiple output dynamical system is given by

A b
G(s) = C d ; b 2 Rn ; C 2 Rpn ; d 2 Rp

and assume that (A; b) is controllable. Let

det(I ; A) = n + a1 n;1 +


+ an ;
and dene

2 ;a ;a


;a ;a 3
213
1
2
n;1
n
66 1 0


0
66 0 77
0 77
6
7
1



0
0 7 b1 := 66 0 77
A1 := 66 0.
64 ... 75
.
.
.. 75
..
4 .. ..
.
0

and

C = b Ab


An;1 b


C1 = b1 A1 b1


An1 ;1 b1 :
Then it is easy to verify that both C and C1 are nonsingular. Moreover, the transformation

Tc = C1 C ;1

will give the equivalent system representation

 T AT ;1 T b   A b 
1
c c
c =
1
;1
;1
CTc

where

CTc

CTc;1 = 1 2


n;1 n

for some i 2 Rp . This state space representation is usually called controllable canonical
form or controller canonical form. It is also easy to show that the transfer matrix is
given by
n;1 2 sn;2 +


+ n;1 s + n
G(s) = C (sI ; A);1 b + d = 1 ssn + +
a1 sn;1 +


+ an;1 s + an + d;
which also shows that, given a column vector of transfer matrix G(s), a state space representation of the transfer matrix can be obtained as above. The quadruple (A; b; C; d)
is called a state space realization of the transfer matrix G(s).

3.4. Pole Placement and Canonical Forms

61

Now consider a dynamical system equation given by

x_ = A1 x + b1 u
and a state feedback control law

u = Fx = f1 f2 : : : fn;1 fn x:
Then the closed-loop system is given by

x_ = (A1 + b1 F )x
and det(I ; (A1 + b1 F )) = n +(a1 ; f1)n;1 +


+(an ; fn ). It is clear that the zeros
of det(I ; (A1 + b1 F ) can be made arbitrary for an appropriate choice of F provided
that the complex zeros appear in conjugate pairs, thus showing that the eigenvalues of
A + bF can be freely assigned if (A; b) is controllable.
Dually, consider a multiple input and single output system

G(s) = Ac Bd ; B 2 Rnm ; c 2 Rn ; d 2 Rm ;
and assume that (c; A) is observable; then there is a transformation To such that

 T AT ;1
o

cTo;1

2 ;a1
66 ;a2

ToB = 666 ...
d
66 ;an;1
4 ;an
1

and

1
0
..
.
0
0
0

0
1
..
.
0
0
0

n;1

0 1 3



0 2 77
. . 7

.. ..



1 n;1



0 n



0 d

77 ; i 2 Rm
77
5

n;2

n
G(s) = c(sI ; A);1 B + d = 1 ssn + a+ sn2;s 1 +
+


+

a+ n;s 1+s +
a + d:
1

n;1

This representation is called observable canonical form or observer canonical form.

Similarly, we can show that the eigenvalues of A + Lc can be freely assigned if (c; A)
is observable.
The pole placement problem for a multiple input system (A; B ) can be converted
into a simple single input pole placement problem. To describe the procedure, we need
some preliminary results.

Lemma 3.12 If an m input system pair (A; B) is controllable and if A is cyclic, then
for almost all v 2 Rm , the single input pair (A; Bv) is controllable.

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

62

Proof. Without loss of generality, assume that A is in the Jordan canonical form and
that the matrix B is partitioned accordingly:

2J
66 1 J2
A = 64

where Ji is in the form of

...

2 i 1
66 
i
6
Ji = 66
64

Jk

3
2B
77
66 B12
75 B = 64 ...
Bk

...
... ...

i 1
i

3
77
75

3
77
77
77
5

and i 6= j if i 6= j . By PBH test, the pair (A; B ) is controllable if and only if, for each
i = 1; : : : ; k, the last row of Bi is not zero. Let bi 2 Rm be the last row of Bi , and then
we only need to show that, for almost all v 2 Rm , bi v 6= 0 for each i = 1; : : : ; k which is
clear since for each i, the set v 2 Rm such that bi v = 0 has measure zero in Rm since
bi 6= 0.
2
The cyclicity assumption in this theorem is essential. Without this assumption, the
theorem does not hold. For example, the pair
1 0
1 0
A= 0 1 ; B= 0 1
is controllable but there is no v 2 R2 such that (A; Bv) is controllable since A is not
cyclic.
Since a matrix A with distinct eigenvalues is cyclic, by denition we have the following lemma.
Lemma 3.13 If (A; B) is controllable, then for almost any K 2 Rmn , all the eigenvalues of A + BK are distinct and, consequently, A + BK is cyclic.
A proof can be found in Brasch and Pearson [1970], Davison [1968], and Heymann
[1968].
Now it is evident that given a multiple input controllable pair (A; B ), there is a
matrix K 2 Rmn and a vector v 2 Rm such that A + BK is cyclic and (A + BK; Bv)
is controllable. Moreover, from the pole placement results for the single input system,
there is a matrix f  2 Rn so that the eigenvalues of (A + BK )+(Bv)f can be arbitrarily
assigned. Hence, the eigenvalues of A + BF can be arbitrarily assigned by choosing a
state feedback in the form of
u = Fx = (K + vf )x:

3.5. Observers and Observer-Based Controllers

63

A dual procedure can be applied for the output injection A + LC .

The canonical form for single input or single output system can also be generalized to
multiple input and multiple output systems at the expense of notation. The interested
reader may consult Kailath [1980] or Chen [1984].
If a system is not completely controllable, then the Kalman controllable decomposition can be applied rst and the above procedure can be used to assign the system
poles corresponding to the controllable subspace.

3.5 Observers and Observer-Based Controllers

We have shown in the last section that if a system is controllable and, furthermore, if
the system states are available for feedback, then the system closed loop poles can be
assigned arbitrarily through a constant feedback. However, in most practical applications, the system states are not completely accessible and all the designer knows are the
output y and input u. Hence, the estimation of the system states from the given output
information y and input u is often necessary to realize some specic design objectives.
In this section, we consider such an estimation problem and the application of this state
estimation in feedback control.
Consider a plant modeled by equations (3.1) and (3.2). An observer is a dynamical
system with input of (u; y) and output of, say x^, which asymptotically estimates the
state x. More precisely, a (linear) observer is a system such as

q_ = Mq + Nu + Hy
x^ = Qq + Ru + Sy
so that x^(t) ; x(t) ! 0 as t ! 1 for all initial states x(0), q(0) and for every input u(
).
Theorem 3.14 An observer exists i (C; A) is detectable. Further, if (C; A) is detectable, then a full order Luenberger observer is given by

q_ = Aq + Bu + L(Cq + Du ; y)
x^ = q
where L is any matrix such that A + LC is stable.

(3.5)
(3.6)

Proof. We rst show that the detectability of (C; A) is sucient for the existence

of an observer. To that end, we only need to show that the so-called Luenberger
observer dened in the theorem is indeed an observer. Note that equation (3.5) for q
is a simulation of the equation for x, with an additional forcing term L(Cq + Du ; y),
which is a gain times the output error. Equivalent equations are

q_ = (A + LC )q + Bu + LDu ; Ly
x^ = q:

64

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

These equations have the form allowed in the denition of an observer. Dene the error,
e := x^ ; x, and then simple algebra gives

e_ = (A + LC )e;
therefore e(t) ! 0 as t ! 1 for every x(0), q(0), and u(:).
To show the converse, assume that (C; A) is not detectable. Take the initial state
x(0) in the undetectable subspace and consider a candidate observer:

q_ = Mq + Nu + Hy
x^ = Qq + Ru + Sy:
Take q(0) = 0 and u(t)  0. Then the equations for x and the candidate observer are

x_ = Ax
q_ = Mq + HCx
x^ = Qq + SCx:
Since an unobservable subspace is an A-invariant subspace containing x(0), it follows
that x(t) is in the unobservable subspace for all t  0. Hence, Cx(t) = 0 for all t  0,
and, consequently, q(t)  0 and x^(t)  0. However, for some x(0) in the undetectable
subspace, x(t) does not converge to zero. Thus the candidate observer does not have
the required property, and therefore, no observer exists.
2
The above Luenberger observer has dimension n, which is the dimension of the state
x. It's possible to get an observer of lower dimension. The idea is this: since we can
measure y ; Du = Cx, we already know x modulo Ker C , so we only need to generate
the part of x in Ker C . If C has full row rank and p := dim y, then the dimension of
Ker C equals n ; p, so we might suspect that we can get an observer of order n ; p.

This is true. Such an observer is called a \minimal order observer". We will not pursue
this issue further here. The interested reader may consult Chen [1984].
Recall that, for a dynamical system described by the equations (3.1) and (3.2), if
(A; B ) is controllable and state x is available for feedback, then there is a state feedback
u = Fx such that the closed-loop poles of the system can be arbitrarily assigned.
Similarly, if (C; A) is observable, then the system observer poles can be arbitrarily
placed so that the state estimator x^ can be made to approach x arbitrarily fast. Now
let us consider what will happen if the system states are not available for feedback
so that the estimated state has to be used. Hence, the controller has the following
dynamics:
x^_ = (A + LC )^x + Bu + LDu ; Ly
u = F x^:

3.6. Operations on Systems

65

Then the total system state equations are given by

 x_   A
=

BF
;LC A + BF + LC

x^_

Let e := x ; x^, then the system equation becomes

 e_   A + LC
=
x^_

0
A + BF

;LC

 x 

x^ :

 e 

x^ ;

and the closed-loop poles consist of two parts: the poles resulting from state feedback
(A + BF ) and the poles resulting from the state estimation (A + LC ). Now if (A; B ) is
controllable and (C; A) is observable, then there exist F and L such that the eigenvalues
of A + BF and A + LC can be arbitrarily assigned. In particular, they can be made to
be stable. Note that a slightly weaker result can also result even if (A; B ) and (C; A)
are only stabilizable and detectable.
The controller given above is called an observer-based controller and is denoted as

u = K (s)y
and

 A + BF + LC + LDF ;L 
K (s) =
:
F

Now denote the open loop plant by

A B
;
G=
C D

then the closed-loop feedback system is as shown below:

y

u

In general, if a system is stabilizable through feeding back the output y, then it is

said to be output feedback stabilizable. It is clear from the above construction that a
system is output feedback stabilizable if (A; B ) is stabilizable and (C; A) is detectable.
The converse is also true and will be shown in Chapter 12.

3.6 Operations on Systems

In this section, we present some facts about system interconnection. Since these proofs
are straightforward, we will leave the details to the reader.

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

66

Suppose that G1 and G2 are two subsystems with state space representations:

B1
G1 = AC1 D
1
1

B2 :
G2 = AC2 D
2
2

Then the series or cascade connection of these two subsystems is a system with the
output of the second subsystem as the input of the rst subsystem as shown in the
following diagram:

G1

G2

This operation in terms of the transfer matrices of the two subsystems is essentially the
product of two transfer matrices. Hence, a representation for the cascaded system can
be obtained as

G1 G2 =
=

 A B  A B 
2
1
2
1
C1 D1
C2 D2
2 A BC BD 3 2 A 0
1
1 2
2
1 2
4 0 A2
B2 5 = 4 B1 C2 A1
C1 D1 C2

B2
B1 D2
D1 D2

3
5:

D1 C2 C1
Similarly, the parallel connection or the addition of G1 and G2 can be obtained as
3
 A B   A B  2 A1 0
B1
B2 5 :
G1 + G2 = C1 D1 + C2 D2 = 4 0 A2
1
1
2
2
C1 C2 D1 + D2
Next we consider a feedback connection of G1 and G2 as shown below:
y
r

f
G1 
D1 D2

6;

- G2
Then the closed-loop transfer matrix from r to y is given by

2 A ; B D R;1C
;1 3
;B1 R21;1 C2
B1 R21
1
1 2 12 1
;1 C1
;1 C2 B2 D1 R;1 5
B2 R12
A2 ; B2 D1 R21
T =4
;1
;1
;21
1

R12 C1
;R12 D1 C2
D1 R21
where R12 = I + D1 D2 and R21 = I + D2 D1 . Note that these state space representations
may not be necessarily controllable and/or observable even if the original subsystems
G1 and G2 are.
For future reference, we shall also introduce the following denitions.

3.6. Operations on Systems

67

Denition 3.7 The transpose of a transfer matrix G(s) or the dual system is dened
as
G 7;! GT (s) = B  (sI ; A );1 C  + D

 A B   A C  
7 ! B  D :
C D ;

or equivalently

Denition 3.8 The conjugate system of G(s) is dened as

G 7;! G (s) := GT (;s) = B  (;sI ; A );1 C  + D

 A B   ;A ;C  
7 ! B  D :
C D ;

or equivalently

In particular, we have G (j!) := [G(j!)] = G (j!).

Denition 3.9 A real rational matrix G^(s) is called a right (left) inverse of a transfer
matrix G(s) if G(s)G^ (s) = I ( G^ (s)G(s) = I ). Moreover, if G^ (s) is both a right inverse
and a left inverse of G(s), then it is simply called the inverse of G(s).
Lemma 3.15 Let Dy denote a right (left) inverse of D if D has full row (column) rank.
Then

y C ;BDy 
Gy = A ;DBD
yC
Dy

is a right (left) inverse of G.

Proof. The right inverse case will be proven and the left inverse case follows by duality.
Suppose DDy = I . Then

GGy =
=

2 A BDy C
4 0 A ; BDy C
yC
2 CA DD
BDy C
4 0 A ; BDy C
C
C
I I

BDy
;BDy 5
DDy
3
BDy
;BDy 5 :
I

Performing similarity transformation T = 0 I on the above system yields

3
2A
0
0
GGy = 4 0 A ; BDy C ;BDy 5
C
0
I
= I:

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

68

3.7 State Space Realizations for Transfer Matrices

In some cases, the natural or convenient description for a dynamical system is in terms
of transfer matrices. This occurs, for example, in some highly complex systems for
which the analytic dierential equations are too hard or too complex to write down.
Hence, certain engineering approximation or identication has to be carried out; for
example, input and output frequency responses are obtained from experiments so that
some transfer matrix approximating the system dynamics is available. Since the state
space computation is most convenient to implement on the computer, some appropriate
state space representation for the resulting transfer matrix is necessary.
In general, assume that G(s) is a real-rational transfer matrix which is proper. Then
we call a state-space model (A; B; C; D) such that

B ;
G(s) = CA D
a realization of G(s).
We note that if the transfer matrix is either single input or single output, then the
formulas in Section 3.4 can be used to obtain a controllable or observable realization.
The realization for a general MIMO transfer matrix is more complicated and is the focus
of this section.

Denition 3.10 A state space realization (A; B; C; D) of G(s) is said to be a minimal

realization of G(s) if A has the smallest possible dimension.

Theorem 3.16 A state space realization (A; B; C; D) of G(s) is minimal if and only if
(A; B ) is controllable and (C; A) is observable.

Proof. We shall rst show that if (A; B; C; D) is a minimal realization of G(s), then

(A; B ) must be controllable and (C; A) must be observable. Suppose, on the contrary,
that (A; B ) is not controllable and/or (C; A) is not observable. Then from Kalman
decomposition, there is a smaller dimensioned controllable and observable state space
realization that has the same transfer matrix; this contradicts the minimality assumption. Hence (A; B ) must be controllable and (C; A) must be observable.
Next we show that if an n-th order realization (A; B; C; D) is controllable and observable, then it is minimal. But supposing it is not minimal, let (Am ; Bm ; Cm ; D) be
a minimal realization of G(s) with order k < n. Since

G(s) = C (sI ; A);1 B + D = Cm (sI ; Am );1 Bm + D;

we have
This implies that

CAi B = Cm Aim Bm ; 8i  0:

OC = Om Cm

(3:7)

3.7. State Space Realizations for Transfer Matrices

69

where C and O are the controllability and observability matrices of (A; B ) and (C; A),
respectively, and

Cm :=
Om :=

 B A B


An;1B 
m m
2 mC m 3m
66 CmmAm 77
64 ... 75 :
Cm Anm;1

By Sylvester's inequality,
rank C + rank O ; n  rank (OC )  minfrank C ; rank Og;
and, therefore, we have rank (OC ) = n since rank C = rank O = n by the controllability
and observability assumptions. Similarly, since (Am ; Bm ; Cm ; D) is minimal, (Am ; Bm )
is controllable and (Cm ; Am ) is observable. Moreover,
rank Om Cm = k < n;
which is a contradiction since rank OC = rank Om Cm by equality (3.7).

The following property of minimal realizations can also be veried, and this is left
to the reader.
Theorem 3.17 Let (A1; B1; C1 ; D) and (A2 ; B2; C2 ; D) be two minimal realizations of
a real rational transfer matrix G(s), and let C1 , C2 , O1 , and O2 be the corresponding controllability and observability matrices, respectively. Then there exists a unique
nonsingular T such that

A2 = TA1T ;1 ; B2 = TB1; C2 = C1 T ;1:

Furthermore, T can be specied as T = (O2 O2 );1 O2 O1 or T ;1 = C1 C2 (C2 C2 );1 .
We now describe several ways to obtain a state space realization for a given multiple
input and multiple output transfer matrix G(s). The simplest and most straightforward
way to obtain a realization is by realizing each element of the matrix G(s) and then
combining all these individual realizations to form a realization for G(s). To illustrate,
let us consider a 2  2 (block) transfer matrix such as

 G (s) G (s) 
2
G(s) = 1
G3 (s) G4 (s)

and assume that Gi (s) has a state space realization of

A B 
Gi (s) = Ci Di ; i = 1; : : : ; 4:
i
i

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

70

Note that Gi (s) may itself be a multiple input and multiple output transfer matrix. In
particular, if Gi (s) is a column or row vector of transfer functions, then the formulas
in Section 3.4 can be used to obtain a controllable or observable realization for Gi (s).
Then a realization for G(s) can be given by

2A 0 0 0 B 0 3
66 01 A2 0 0 01 B2 77
6
7
G(s) = 66 00 00 A03 A04 B03 B04 77 :
64 C C 0 0 D D 75
1
2
1
2
0

0 C3 C4 D3 D4

Alternatively, if the transfer matrix G(s) can be factored into the product and/or
the sum of several simply realized transfer matrices, then a realization for G can be
obtained by using the cascade or addition formulas in the last section.
A problem inherited with these kinds of realization procedures is that a realization
thus obtained will generally not be minimal. To obtain a minimal realization, a Kalman
controllability and observability decomposition has to be performed to eliminate the
uncontrollable and/or unobservable states. (An alternative numerically reliable method
to eliminate uncontrollable and/or unobservable states is the balanced realization method
which will be discussed later.)
We will now describe one factorization procedure that does result in a minimal
realization by using partial fractional expansion (The resulting realization is sometimes
called Gilbert's realization due to Gilbert).
Let G(s) be a p  m transfer matrix and write it in the following form:
G(s) = Nd((ss))
with d(s) a scalar polynomial. For simplicity, we shall assume that d(s) has only real
and distinct roots i 6= j if i 6= j and

d(s) = (s ; 1 )(s ; 2 )


(s ; r ):
Then G(s) has the following partial fractional expansion:

G(s) = D +

r W
X
i
s ; i :
i=1

Suppose

rank Wi = ki
and let Bi 2 Rki m and Ci 2 Rpki be two constant matrices such that

Wi = Ci Bi :

3.8. Lyapunov Equations

71

Then a realization for G(s) is given by

2I
66 1 k
G(s) = 64

C1

...

3
.. 77
. 7:
Br 5

B1
r Ikr
Cr D

It follows immediately from PBH tests that this realization is controllable and observable. Hence, it is minimal.
An immediate consequence of this minimal realization is that a transfer matrix with
an r-th order polynomial denominator does not necessarily have an r-th order state
space realization unless Wi for each i is a rank one matrix.
This approach can, in fact, be generalized to more complicated cases where d(s) may
have complex and/or repeated roots. Readers may convince themselves by trying some
simple examples.

3.8 Lyapunov Equations

Testing stability, controllability, and observability of a system is very important in linear
system analysis and synthesis. However, these tests often have to be done indirectly. In
that respect, the Lyapunov theory is sometimes useful. Consider the following Lyapunov
equation
A X + XA + Q = 0
(3:8)
with given real matrices A and Q. It has been shown in Chapter 2 that this equation
has a unique solution i i (A) + j (A) 6= 0; 8i; j . In this section, we will study the
relationships between the stability of A and the solution of X . The following results are
standard.
Lemma 3.18 Assume that A is stable, then the following statements hold:
R
(i) X = 01 eAt QeAtdt.
(ii) X > 0 if Q > 0 and X  0 if Q  0.
(iii) if Q  0, then (Q; A) is observable i X > 0.
An immediate consequence of part (iii) is that, given a stable matrix A, a pair (C; A)
is observable if and only if the solution to the following Lyapunov equation is positive
denite:
A Lo + Lo A + C  C = 0:
The solution Lo is called the observability Gramian. Similarly, a pair (A; B ) is controllable if and only if the solution to
ALc + LcA + BB  = 0

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

72

is positive denite and Lc is called the controllability Gramian.

In many applications, we are given the solution of the Lyapunov equation and need
to conclude the stability of the matrix A.
Lemma 3.19 Suppose X is the solution of the Lyapunov equation (3.8), then
(i) Rei (A)  0 if X > 0 and Q  0.
(ii) A is stable if X > 0 and Q > 0.
(iii) A is stable if X  0, Q  0 and (Q; A) is detectable.

Proof. Let  be an eigenvalue of A and v 6= 0 be a corresponding eigenvector, then

Av = v. Pre-multiply equation (3.8) by v and postmultiply (3.8) by v to get
2Re (v Xv) + v Qv = 0:
Now if X > 0 then v Xv > 0, and it is clear that Re  0 if Q  0 and Re < 0 if
Q > 0. Hence (i) and (ii) hold. To see (iii), we assume Re  0. Then we must have
v Qv = 0, i.e., Qv = 0. This implies that  is an unstable and unobservable mode,
which contradicts the assumption that (Q; A) is detectable.
2

3.9 Balanced Realizations

Although there are innitely many dierent state space realizations for a given transfer
matrix, some particular realizations have proven to be very useful in control engineering
and signal processing. Here we will only introduce one class of realizations for stable
transfer matrices that are most useful in control applications. To motivate the class of
realizations, we rst consider some simple facts.

A B
be a state space realization of a (not necessarily stable)
Lemma 3.20 Let
C D

transfer matrix G(s). Suppose that there exists a symmetric matrix

P = P =
with P1 nonsingular such that

P

0
0 0
1

AP + PA + BB  = 0:
Now partition the realization (A; B; C; D) compatibly with P as
2A A B 3
4 A1121 A2212 B12 5 :
C1 C2 D

3.9. Balanced Realizations

73

A

Then

11
C1

B1
D

is also a realization of G. Moreover, (A11 ; B1 ) is controllable if A11 is stable.

Proof. Use the partitioned P and (A; B; C ) to get


1 B1 P1 A21 + B1 B2 ;
0 = AP + PA + BB  = A11 PA1 +PP1+A11B +BB

B2 B2
21 1
2 1
which gives B2 = 0 and A21 = 0 since P1 is nonsingular. Hence, part of the realization
is not controllable:

2A A B 3 2A A B 3 

4 A2111 A2212 B12 5 = 4 011 A1222 01 5 = AC11 BD1 :
1
C1

C2 D

C1

C2 D
Finally, it follows from Lemma 3.18 that (A11 ; B1 ) is controllable if A11 is stable.

We also have



Lemma 3.21 Let CA DB be a state space realization of a (not necessarily stable)
transfer matrix G(s). Suppose that there exists a symmetric matrix


Q = Q = Q01 00
with Q1 nonsingular such that
QA + A Q + C  C = 0:
Now partition the realization (A; B; C; D) compatibly with Q as

2A A B 3
4 A1121 A2212 B12 5 :
C1

Then

A

C2 D

11
C1

B1
D

is also a realization of G. Moreover, (C1 ; A11 ) is observable if A11 is stable.

The above two lemmas suggest that to obtain a minimal realization from a stable
non-minimal realization, one only needs to eliminate all states corresponding to the zero
block diagonal term of the controllability Gramian P and the observability Gramian Q.
In the case where P is not block diagonal, the following procedure can be used to
eliminate non-controllable subsystems:

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

74

B be a stable realization.
1. Let G(s) = CA D
2. Compute the controllability Gramian P  0 from
AP + PA + BB  = 0:




1
3. Diagonalize P to get P = U1 U2
0
 U U  unitary.
1
2
 U AU U B 

4. Then G(s) =

CU1

0
0




U1 U2  with 1 > 0 and

is a controllable realization.

A dual procedure can also be applied to eliminate non-observable subsystems.

Now assume that 1 > 0 is diagonal and 1 = diag(11 ; 12 ) such that max (12 ) 
min (11 ), then it is tempting to conclude that one can also discard those states corresponding to 12 without causing much error. However, this is not necessarily true as
shown in the following example. Consider a stable transfer function
G(s) = s2 3+s 3+s 18
+ 18 :
Then G(s) has a state space realization given by

2 ;1 ;4= 1 3
G(s) = 4 4 ;2 2 5
;1 2=

where  is any nonzero number. It is easy to check that the controllability Gramian of
the realization is given by
 0:5 
P=
2 :

Since the last diagonal term of P can be made arbitrarily small by making  small,
the controllability of the corresponding state can be made arbitrarily weak. If the state
corresponding to the last diagonal term of P is removed, we get a transfer function

;1 1 = ;1
G^ = ;
1 0
s+1
which is not close to the original transfer function in any sense. The problem may be
easily detected if one checks the observability Gramian Q, which is

Q=

 0:5

1=2 :

3.9. Balanced Realizations

75

Since 1=2 is very large if  is small, this shows that the state corresponding to the
last diagonal term is strongly observable. This example shows that controllability (or
observability) Gramian alone can not give an accurate indication of the dominance of
the system states in the input/output behavior.
This motivates the introduction of a balanced realization which gives balanced
Gramians for controllability
 A B  and observability.
Suppose G = C D is stable, i.e., A is stable. Let P and Q denote the controllability Gramian and observability Gramian, respectively. Then by Lemma 3.18, P and
Q satisfy the following Lyapunov equations
AP + PA + BB  = 0
(3:9)
A Q + QA + C  C = 0;
(3:10)
and P  0, Q  0. Furthermore, the pair (A; B ) is controllable i P > 0, and (C; A) is
observable i Q > 0.
Suppose the state is transformed by a nonsingular T to x^ = Tx to yield the realization
" ^ ^# 
;1 TB 
A B
TAT
G = ^ ^ = CT ;1 D :
C D
Then the Gramians are transformed to P^ = TPT  and Q^ = (T ;1 ) QT ;1. Note that
P^ Q^ = TPQT ;1, and therefore the eigenvalues of the product of the Gramians are
invariant under state transformation.
Consider the similarity transformation T which gives the eigenvector decomposition
PQ = T ;1 T;  = diag(1 ; : : : ; n ):
Then the columns of T ;1 are eigenvectors of PQ corresponding to the eigenvalues fi g.
Later, it will be shown that PQ has a real diagonal Jordan form and that   0, which
are consequences of P  0 and Q  0.
Although the eigenvectors are not unique, in the case of a minimal realization they
can always be chosen such that
P^ = TPT  = ;
Q^ = (T ;1) QT ;1 = ;
where  = diag(1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n ) and 2 = . This new realization with controllability
and observability Gramians P^ = Q^ =  will be referred to as a balanced realization
(also called internally balanced realization). The decreasingly order numbers, 1 
2  : : :  n  0, are called the Hankel singular values of the system.
More generally, if a realization of a stable system is not minimal, then there is a transformation such that the controllability and observability Gramians for the transformed
realization are diagonal and the controllable and observable subsystem is balanced. This
is a consequence of the following matrix fact.

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

76

Theorem 3.22 Let P and Q be two positive semidenite matrices. Then there exists
a nonsingular matrix T such that
2
1
6
2
TPT  = 64
0

3
2
77 ; (T ;1) QT ;1 = 66 1
5
4

0
respectively, with 1 ; 2 ; 3 diagonal and positive denite.

3

3
77 ;
5

Proof. Since P is a positive semidenite matrix, there exists a transformation T1 such

that

Now let

T1PT1 = I0 00 :
(T  );1 QT ;1 =
1

Q

11
Q12

Q12 ;
Q22

and there exists a unitary matrix U1 such that

 2 
U1 Q11 U1 = 01 00 ; 1 > 0:
Let
U 0

;
1
(T2 ) = 01 I ;
and then

2
(T2);1 (T1);1 QT1;1(T2 );1 = 4

But Q  0 implies Q^ 122 = 0. So now let

2
(T3);1 = 4

21
0
0
0
Q^ 121 Q^ 122

Q^ 121
Q^ 122 5 :
Q22

0

^
;Q121 ;1 2

0 0
I 0 5;
0 I

giving

2 2
1
(T3);1 (T2);1 (T1);1 QT1;1(T2 );1 (T3 );1 = 4 0

0
0
0
0
0 0 Q22 ; Q^ 121 ;1 2 Q^ 121

Next nd a unitary matrix U2 such that

U2 (Q22 ; Q^ 121 ;1 2 Q^ 121 )U2 = 03 00 ; 3 > 0:

3
5:

3.9. Balanced Realizations

77

2 ;1=2
1
0
(T4 );1 = 4 0 I

Dene

Then

0 U2

and let

0
0

3
5

T = T4 T3 T2 T1:

2
1
6

TPT = 64

2

3
2
77 ; (T );1QT ;1 = 66 1
5
4

3

3
77
5
2

with 2 = I .

Corollary 3.23 The product of two positive semi-denite matrices is similar to a positive semi-denite matrix.

Proof. Let P and Q be any positive semi-denite matrices. Then it is easy to see that
with the transformation given above

TPQT ;1 =

 2

0
0 0 :
1

A B
,

Corollary 3.24 For any stable system G = C D




T such that G =
Gramian Q given by

TAT ;1 TB
CT ;1 D

2
1
6
P = 64

2

there exists a nonsingular

has controllability Gramian P and observability

3
2
77 ; Q = 66 1
5
4

respectively, with 1 ; 2 ; 3 diagonal and positive denite.

3

3
77 ;
5

A B
is a minimal realization, a balanced realization
In the special case where
C D

can be obtained through the following simplied procedure:

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

78

1. Compute the controllability and observability Gramians P > 0; Q > 0.

2. Find a matrix R such that P = R R.
3. Diagonalize RQR to get RQR = U 2 U  .

;1

TB
4. Let T ;1 = RU ;1=2 . Then TPT  = (T  );1 QT ;1 =  and TAT
CT ;1 D
is balanced.
Assume that the Hankel singular values of the system is decreasingly ordered so that
 = diag(1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n ) and 1  2  : : :  n and suppose r  r+1 for some r then
the balanced realization implies that those states corresponding to the singular values
of r+1 ; : : : ; n are less controllable and observable than those states corresponding to
1 ; : : : ; r . Therefore, truncating those less controllable and observable states will not
lose much information about the system. These statements will be made more concrete
in Chapter 7 where error bounds will be derived for the truncation error.
Two other closely related realizations are called input normal realization with P = I
and Q = 2 , and output normal realization with P = 2 and Q = I . Both realizations
can be obtained easily from the balanced realization by a suitable scaling on the states.

3.10 Hidden Modes and Pole-Zero Cancelation

Another important issue associated with the realization theory is the problem of uncontrollable and/or unobservable unstable modes in the dynamical system. This problem
is illustrated in the following example: Consider a series connection of two subsystems
as shown in the following diagram

y


s;1
1

s;1  u
s+1

The transfer function for this system,

1
1 1
g(s) = ss ;
+ 1 s ; 1 = s + 1;

is stable and has a rst order minimal realization. On the other hand, let
x1 = y
x2 = u ; :
Then a state space description for this dynamical system is given by
 x_ 
 1 ;1  x   1 
1
1
x_ 2 = 0 ;1
x2 + 2 u

y =

1

x 

1
0
x2

3.10. Hidden Modes and Pole-Zero Cancelation

79

and is a second order system. Moreover, it is easy to show that the unstable mode 1 is
uncontrollable but observable. Hence, the output can be unbounded if the initial state
x1 (0) is not zero. We should also note that the above problem does not go away by
changing the interconnection order:

y

s;1  
s+1


s;1
1

In the later case, the unstable mode 1 becomes controllable but unobservable. The
unstable mode can still result in the internal signal  unbounded if the initial state
(0) is not zero. Of course, there are fundamental dierences between these two types
of interconnections as far as control design is concerned. For instance, if the state is
available for feedback control, then the latter interconnection can be stabilized while
the former cannot be.
This example shows that we must be very careful in canceling unstable modes in
the procedure of forming a transfer function in control designs; otherwise the results
obtained may be misleading and those unstable modes become hidden modes waiting
to blow. One observation from this example is that the problem is really caused by the
unstable zero of the subsystem ss;+11 . Although the zeros of an SISO transfer function
are easy to see, it is not quite so for an MIMO transfer matrix. In fact, the notion of
\system zero" cannot be generalized naturally from the scalar transfer function zeros.
For example, consider the following transfer matrix
2 1
1 3
6 s + 1 s + 2 77
G(s) = 64
1 5
2
s+2 s+1
which is stable and each element of G(s) has no nite zeros. Let
2 s+2
s +p1 3
p
;
K =4 s; 2 s; 2 5
0
1
which is unstable. However,
3
2
p
s
+
2
6 ; (s + 1)(s + 2) 0 77
KG = 664
7
2
1 5
s+2
s+1
p
is stable. This implies that G(s) must have an unstable zero at 2 that cancels the
unstable pole of K . This leads us to the next topic: multivariable system poles and
zeros.

80

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

3.11 Multivariable System Poles and Zeros

Let R[s] denote the polynomial ring with real coecients. A matrix is called a polynomial matrix if every element of the matrix is in R[s]. A square polynomial matrix is
called a unimodular matrix if its determinant is a nonzero constant (not a polynomial
of s). It is a fact that a square polynomial matrix is unimodular if and only if it is
invertible in R[s], i.e., its inverse is also a polynomial matrix.
Denition 3.11 Let Q(s) 2 R[s] be a (p  m) polynomial matrix. Then the normal
rank of Q(s), denoted normalrank (Q(s)), is the rank in R[s] or, equivalently, is the
maximum dimension of a square submatrix of Q(s) with nonzero determinant in R[s].
In short, sometimes we say that a polynomial matrix Q(s) has rank(Q(s)) in R[s] when
we refer to the normal rank of Q(s).
To show the dierence between the normal rank of a polynomial matrix and the
rank of the polynomial matrix evaluated at certain point, consider


Q(s) = ss2 11 :
Then Q(s) has normal rank 2 since det Q(s) = s ; s2 6 0. However, Q(0) has rank 1.
It is a fact in linear algebra that any polynomial matrix can be reduced to a socalled Smith form through some pre- and post- unimodular operations. [cf. Kailath,
1984, pp.391].
Lemma 3.25 (Smith form) Let P (s) 2 R[s] be any polynomial matrix, then there
exist unimodular matrices U (s); V (s) 2 R[s] such that
2 (s) 0


0 0 3
66 10 2 (s)


0 0 77
.. . .
.
.. 77
U (s)P (s)V (s) = S (s) := 666 ...
. ..
.
. 7
4 0
0


r (s) 0 5
0
0


0 0
and i (s) divides i+1 (s).
S (s) is called the Smith form of P (s). It is also clear that r is the normal rank of P (s).
We shall illustrate the procedure of obtaining a Smith form by an example. Let
2 s + 1 (s + 1)(2s + 1) s(s + 1) 3
P (s) = 4 s + 2 (s + 2)(s2 + 5s + 3) s(s + 2) 5 :
1
2s + 1
s
The polynomial matrix P (s) has normal rank 2 since
 s + 1 (s + 1)(2s + 1) 
det(P (s))  0; det s + 2 (s + 2)(s2 + 5s + 3) = (s + 1)2 (s + 2)2 6 0:

3.11. Multivariable System Poles and Zeros

81

First interchange the rst row and the third row and use row elementary operation to
zero out the s+1 and s+2 elements of P (s). This process can be done by pre-multiplying
a unimodular matrix U to P (s):
20 0 1 3
U = 4 0 1 ;(s + 2) 5 :
1 0 ;(s + 1)
Then
21
3
2s + 1
s
P1 (s) := U (s)P (s) = 4 0 (s + 1)(s + 2)2 0 5 :
0
0
0
Next use column operation to zero out the 2s + 1 and s terms in P1 . This process can
be done by post-multiplying a unimodular matrix V to P1 (s):
2 1 ;(2s + 1) ;s 3
1
0 5
V (s) = 4 0
0
0
1
and
21
3
0
0
P1 (s)V (s) = 4 0 (s + 1)(s + 2)2 0 5 :
0
0
0
Then we have
21
3
0
0
S (s) = U (s)P (s)V (s) = 4 0 (s + 1)(s + 2)2 0 5 :
0
0
0
Similarly, let Rp (s) denote the set of rational proper transfer matrices.1 Then any
real rational transfer matrix can be reduced to a so-called McMillan form through some
pre- and post- unimodular operations.
Lemma 3.26 (McMillan form) Let G(s) 2 Rp(s) be any proper real rational transfer
matrix, then there exist unimodular matrices U (s); V (s) 2 R[s] such that
2 1 (s) 0


0 0 3
66 10(s) 2((ss))


0 0 77
2
6
.. . .
.. .. 777
U (s)G(s)V (s) = M (s) := 66 ...
.
.
. . 7
64

r
0
0


r ((ss)) 0 5
0
0


0 0
and i (s) divides i+1 (s) and i+1 (s) divides i (s).
1 It is obvious that a similar notion of normal rank can be extended to a matrix in R ( ). In
particular, let ( ) 2 R ( ) be a rational matrix and write ( ) = ( ) ( ) such that ( ) is a
p s

G s

p s

G s

N s =d s

d s

polynomial and ( ) is a polynomial matrix, then ( ) is said to have normal rank if ( ) has
normal rank .
N s

G s

N s

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

82

Proof. If we write the transfer matrix G(s) as G(s) = N (s)=d(s) such that d(s) is a
scalar polynomial and N (s) is a p  m polynomial matrix and if let the Smith form of
N (s) be S (s) = U (s)N (s)V (s), the conclusion follows by letting M (s) = S (s)=d(s). 2

Denition 3.12 The number Pi deg(i (s)) is called the McMillan degree of G(s)

where deg(i (s)) denotes the degree of the polynomial i (s), i.e., the highest power
of s in i (s).
The McMillan degree of a transfer matrix is closely related to the dimension of a
minimal realization of G(s). In fact, it can be shown that the dimension of a minimal
realization of G(s) is exactly the McMillan degree of G(s).

Denition 3.13 The roots of all the polynomials i(s) in the McMillan form for G(s)
are called the poles of G.

Let (A; B; C; D) be a minimal realization of G(s). Then it is fairly easy to show that
a complex number is a pole of G(s) if and only if it is an eigenvalue of A.

Denition 3.14 The roots of all the polynomials i(s) in the McMillan form for G(s)
are called the transmission zeros of G(s). A complex number z0 2 C is called a blocking
zero of G(s) if G(z0 ) = 0.

It is clear that a blocking zero is a transmission zero. Moreover, for a scalar transfer
function, the blocking zeros and the transmission zeros are the same.
We now illustrate the above concepts through an example. Consider a 3  3 transfer
matrix:
3
2
2s + 1
s
1
66 (s + 1)(s + 2) (s + 1)(s + 2) (s + 1)(s + 2) 77
77
66
1
s2 + 5s + 3
s
77 :
6
G(s) = 6 (s + 1)2
(s + 1)2
(s + 1)2
77
66
5
4
1
2s + 1
s
(s + 1)2 (s + 2) (s + 1)2 (s + 2) (s + 1)2 (s + 2)
Then G(s) can be written as

s + 1 (s + 1)(2s + 1) s(s + 1)
G(s) = (s + 1)12 (s + 2) 4 s + 2 (s + 2)(s2 + 5s + 3) s(s + 2)
1
2s + 1
s

3
5 := N (s) :
d(s)

3.11. Multivariable System Poles and Zeros

83

Since N (s) is exactly the same as the P (s) in the previous example, it is clear that the
G(s) has the McMillan form
3
2
1
0
0
77
66 (s + 1)2(s + 2)
7
66
s + 2 0 77
M (s) = U (s)G(s)V (s) = 66
0
s + 1 77
6

and G(s) has McMillan degree of 4. The poles of the transfer matrix are f;1; ;1; ;1; ;2g
and the transmission zero is f;2g. Note that the transfer matrix has pole and zero at
the same location f;2g; this is the unique feature of multivariable systems.
To get a minimal state space realization for G(s), note that G(s) has the following
partial fractional expansion:
213
203
20 0 03




1
1
G(s) = 4 0 1 0 5 + s + 1 4 0 5 1 ;1 ;1 + s + 1 4 1 5 0 3 1
0
0
0 0 0

2 3
203


1
5 ;1 3 2 +
4 5  1 ;1 ;1 
(s + 1)2 11
2 ;1 3


1
+ s + 2 4 0 5 1 ;3 ;2
0
+ s +1 1 4 0
1

1
Since there are repeated poles at ;1, the Gilbert's realization procedure described in the
last section cannot be used directly. Nevertheless, a careful inspection of the fractional
expansion results in a 4-th order minimal state space realization:
2 ;1 0 1 0 0 3 1 3
66 0 ;1 1 0 ;1 3 2 77
66 0 0 ;1 0 1 ;1 ;1 77
G(s) = 66 0 0 0 ;2 1 ;3 ;2 77 :
66 0 0 1 ;1 0 0 0 77
4 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 5
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
We remind readers that there are many dierent denitions of system zeros. The
denitions introduced here are the most common ones and are useful in this book.

Lemma 3.27 Let G(s) be a p  m proper transfer matrix with full column normal rank.
Then z0 2 C is a transmission zero of G(s) if and only if there exists a 0 =
6 u0 2 C m
such that G(z0 )u0 = 0.

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

84

Proof. We shall outline a proof of this lemma. We shall rst show that there is a
vector u0 2 C m such that G(z0 )u0 = 0 if z0 2 C is a transmission zero. Without loss of
generality, assume

2
66
6
G(s) = U1 (s) 66
64

1 (s)
1 (s)

0
..
.
0
0

2 (s)
2 (s)

..
.
0
0

...

0
0
..
.

m (s)
m (s)

3
77
77 V (s)
77 1
5

for some unimodular matrices U1 (s) and V1 (s) and suppose z0 is a zero of 1 (s), i.e.,

1 (z0 ) = 0. Let

u0 = V1;1 (z0 )e1 6= 0

where e1 = [1; 0; 0; : : :] 2 Rm . Then it is easy to verify that G(z0 )u0 = 0. On the other
hand, suppose there is a u0 2 C m such that G(z0 )u0 = 0. Then

2
66
6
U1 (z0 ) 66
64

Dene

Then

1 (z0 )
1 (z0 )

0
..
.
0
0

2 (z0 )
2 (z0 )

..
.
0
0

0
0
..
.

...

m (z0 )
m (z0 )

3
77
77 V (z )u = 0:
77 1 0 0
5

2u 3
66 u12 77
64 ... 75 = V1 (z0)u0 6= 0:
um

2  (z )u
66 12(z00)u12
64 ...

m (z0 )um

3
77
75 = 0:

This implies that z0 must be a root of one of polynomials i (s); i = 1; : : : ; m.

Note that the lemma may not be true if G(s) does not have full column normal rank.
This can be seen from the following example. Consider

G(s) = s +1 1 11 11 ; u0 = ;11 :

3.11. Multivariable System Poles and Zeros

85

It is easy to see that G has no transmission zero but G(s)u0 = 0 for all s. It should
also be noted that the above lemma applies even if z0 is a pole of G(s) although G(z0 )
is not dened. The reason is that G(z0 )u0 may be well dened. For example,

 

s;1 0
1
G(s) = s+1
0 ss;+21 ; u0 = 0 :

Then G(1)u0 = 0. Therefore, 1 is a transmission zero.

Similarly we have the following lemma:
Lemma 3.28 Let G(s) be a p  m proper transfer matrix with full row normal rank.
Then z0 2 C is a transmission zero of G(s) if and only if there exists a 0 6= 0 2 C p
such that 0 G(z0 ) = 0.
In the case where the transmission zero is not a pole of G(s), we can give a useful
alternative characterization of the transfer matrix transmission zeros. Furthermore,
G(s) is not required to be full column (or row) rank in this case.
The following lemma is easy to show from the denition of zeros.

Lemma 3.29 Suppose z0 2 C is not a pole of G(s). Then z0 is a transmission zero if

and only if rank(G(z0 )) < normalrank(G(s)).

Corollary 3.30 Let G(s) be a square m  m proper transfer matrix and det G(s) 6 0.
Suppose zo 2 C is not a pole of G(s). Then z0 2 C is a transmission zero of G(s) if
and only if det G(z0 ) = 0.

Using thepabove corollary, we can conrm that the example in the last section does have
a zero at 2 since
2 1
1 3
6 s + 1 s + 2 77 = 2 ; s2 :
det 64
2
1 5 (s + 1)2 (s + 2)2
s+2 s+1
Note that the above corollary may not be true if z0 is a pole of G. For example,

s;1

0
G(s) = s+1
s
+2
0 s;1

has a zero at 1 which is not a zero of det G(s).

The poles and zeros of a transfer matrix can also be characterized in terms of its
state space realizations. Let


be a state space realization of G(s).

A B
C D

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

86

Denition 3.15 The eigenvalues of A are called the poles of the realization of G(s).
To dene zeros, let us consider the following system matrix

B :
Q(s) = A ;C sI D
Denition 3.16 A complex number z0 2 C is called an invariant zero of the system

realization if it satises

 A;z I B 
 A ; sI B 
0
rank
C
D < normalrank
C D :

The invariant zeros are not changed by constant state feedback since
 A + BF ; z I B 
 A ; z I B  I 0 
 A;z I B 
0
0
0
rank
C + DF
D = rank
C
D
F I = rank
C
D :
It is also clear that invariant zeros are not changed under similarity transformation.
The following lemma is obvious.

 A ; sI B 
Lemma 3.31 Suppose
has full column normal rank.

Then z0 2 C is
D
an invariant zero of a realization (A; B; C; D) if and only if there exist 0 6= x 2 C n and
u 2 C m such that
 A ; z I B  x 
0
C
D
u = 0:
Moreover, if u = 0, then z0 is also a non-observable mode.

x

Proof. By denition, z0 is an invariant zero if there is a vector u 6= 0 such that

 A ; z I B  x 
0
=0
C



since A ; sI B has full column normal rank.
C

x

On the other hand, suppose z0 is an invariant zero, then there is a vector u 6= 0

such that
 A ; z I B  x 
0
C
D
u = 0:
We claim that x 6= 0. Otherwise,

x

B

A ; sI B has full
D u = 0 or u = 0 since
C D

column normal rank, i.e., u = 0 which is a contradiction.

3.11. Multivariable System Poles and Zeros

87

Finally, note that if u = 0, then

 A;z I 
C

x=0

and z0 is a non-observable mode by PBH test.

 A ; sI B 
Lemma 3.32 Suppose
has full row normal rank.

Then z0 2 C is an
D
invariant zero of a realization (A; B; C; D) if and only if there exist 0 6= y 2 C n and
v 2 C p such that
 y v   A ; z0I B  = 0:
C
D
Moreover, if v = 0, then z0 is also a non-controllable mode.
 A ; sI B 
Lemma 3.33 G(s) has full column (row) normal rank if and only if
C D

has full column (row) normal rank.

Proof. This follows by noting that

 A ; sI B  
=
C

and

C (A ; sI );1 I

 A ; sI B 
0

G(s)

 A ; sI B 
normalrank
C D = n + normalrank(G(s)):

Theorem 3.34 Let G(s) be a real rational proper transfer matrix and let (A; B; C; D)

be a corresponding minimal realization. Then a complex number z0 is a transmission

zero of G(s) if and only if it is an invariant zero of the minimal realization.

Proof. We will give a proof only for the case that the transmission zero is not a pole
of G(s). Then, of course, z0 is not an eigenvalue of A since the realization is minimal.
Note that
 A ; sI B  
 A ; sI B 
I
0
C D = C (A ; sI );1 I
0
G(s) :
Since we have assumed that z0 is not a pole of G(s), we have

 A;z I B 
0
rank
C
D = n + rank G(z0 ):

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

88
Hence

 A;z I B 
 A ; sI B 
0
rank
C
D < normalrank
C D

if and only if rank G(z0 ) < normalrank G(s). Then the conclusion follows from
Lemma 3.29.
2
Note that the minimality assumption is essential for the converse statement. For
example,
 A 0 consider a transfer matrix G(s) = D (constant) and a realization of G(s) =
where A is any square matrix with any dimension and C is any matrix with

C D

compatible dimension. Then G(s) has no poles or zeros but every eigenvalue of A is an
A 0 .
invariant zero of the realization C
D

Nevertheless, we have the following corollary if a realization of the transfer matrix

is not minimal.
Corollary 3.35 Every transmission zero of a transfer matrix G(s) is an invariant zero
of all its realizations, and every pole of a transfer matrix G(s) is a pole of all its realizations.

Lemma 3.36 Let G(s) 2 Rp(s) be a p  m transfer matrix and let (A; B; C; D) be a
minimal realization. If the system input is of the form u(t) = u0 et , where  2 C is not
a pole of G(s) and u0 2 C m is an arbitrary constant vector, then the output due to the
input u(t) and the initial state x(0) = (I ; A);1 Bu0 is y(t) = G()u0 et ; 8t  0.
Proof. The system response with respect to the input u(t) = u0et and the initial
condition x(0) = (I ; A);1 Bu0 is (in terms of Laplace transform):
Y (s) = C (sI ; A);1 x(0) + C (sI ; A);1 BU (s) + DU (s)
= C (sI ; A);1 x(0) + C (sI ; A);1 Bu0 (s ; );1 + Du0 (s ; );1
= C (sI ; A);1 (x(0) ; (I ; A);1 Bu0 ) + G()u0 (s ; );1
= G()u0 (s ; );1 :
Hence y(t) = G()u0 et .

Combining the above two lemmas, we have the following results that give a dynamical
interpretation of a system's transmission zero.

Corollary 3.37 Let G(s) 2 Rp(s) be a p  m transfer matrix and let (A; B; C; D) be
a minimal realization. Suppose that z0 2 C is a transmission zero of G(s) and is not
a pole of G(s). Then for any nonzero vector u0 2 C m the output of the system due to
the initial state x(0) = (z0 I ; A);1 Bu0 and the input u = u0 ez0 t is identically zero:
y(t) = G(z0 )u0 ez0 t = 0.

3.12. Notes and References

89

The following lemma characterizes the relationship between zeros of a transfer function and poles of its inverse.



Lemma 3.38 Suppose that G = CA DB is a square transfer matrix with D nonsingular, and suppose z0 is not an eigenvalue of A (note that the realization is not
necessarily minimal). Then there exists x0 such that

(A ; BD;1 C )x0 = z0 x0 ; Cx0 6= 0

i there exists u0 6= 0 such that

G(z0 )u0 = 0:

Proof. (() G(z0)u0 = 0 implies that


;1
;1 
G;1 (s) = A ; BD C ;BD
D;1 C

D;1

has a pole at z0 which is observable. Then, by denition, there exists x0 such that
(A ; BD;1 C )x0 = z0 x0
and

Cx0 6= 0:

()) Set u0 = ;D;1 Cx0 6= 0. Then

(z0 I ; A)x0 = ;BD;1Cx0 = Bu0 :

Using this equality, one gets

G(z0 )u0 = C (z0 I ; A);1 Bu0 + Du0 = Cx0 ; Cx0 = 0:

2
The above lemma implies that z0 is a zero of an invertible G(s) if and only if it is a
pole of G;1 (s).

3.12 Notes and References

Readers are referred to Brogan [1991], Chen [1984], Kailath [1980], and Wonham [1985]
for the extensive treatment of the standard linear system theory. The balanced realization was rst introduced by Mullis and Roberts [1976] to study the roundo noise
in digital lters. Moore [1981] proposed the balanced truncation method for model
reduction which will be considered in Chapter 7.

90

LINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

Performance Specications

The most important objective of a control system is to achieve certain performance
specications in addition to providing the internal stability. One way to describe the
performance specications of a control system is in terms of the size of certain signals
of interest. For example, the performance of a tracking system could be measured
by the size of the tracking error signal. In this chapter, we look at several ways of
dening a signal's size, i.e., at several norms for signals. Of course, which norm is most
appropriate depends on the situation at hand. For that purpose, we shall rst introduce
some normed spaces and some basic notions of linear operator theory, in particular, the
Hardy spaces H2 and H1 are introduced. We then consider the performance of a system
under various input signals and derive the worst possible outputs with the class of input
signals under consideration. We show that H2 and H1 norms come out naturally as
measures of the worst possible performance for many classes of input signals. Some
state space methods of computing real rational H2 and H1 transfer matrix norms are
also presented.

4.1 Normed Spaces

Let V be a vector space over C (or R) and let k
k be a norm dened on V . Then V
is a normed space. For example, the vector space C n with any vector p-norm, k
kp ,
for 1  p  1, is a normed space. As another example, consider the linear vector
space C [a; b] of all bounded continuous functions on the real interval [a; b]. Then C [a; b]
91

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

92

becomes a normed space if a supremum norm is dened on the space:

kf k1 := sup jf (t)j:
t2[a;b]

A sequence fxn g in a normed space V is called a Cauchy sequence if kxn ; xm k ! 0

as n; m ! 1. A sequence fxn g is said to converge to x 2 V , written xn ! x, if
kxn ; xk ! 0. A normed space V is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence in V
converges in V . A complete normed space is called a Banach space. For example, Rn
and C n with the usual spatial p-norm, k
kp for 1  p  1, are Banach spaces. (One
should not be confused with the notation k
kp used here and the same notation used
below for function spaces because usually the context will make the meaning clear.)
The following are some more examples of Banach spaces:
lp [0; 1) spaces for 1  p < 1:
For each 1  p < 1, lp [0; 1) consists of all sequences x = (x0 ; x1 ; : : :) such that
1
X
jxi jp < 1. The associated norm is dened as
i=0

1
X

kxkp :=

i=0

jxi jp

!1=p

l1 [0; 1) space:
l1 [0; 1) consists of all bounded sequences x = (x0 ; x1 ; : : :), and the l1 norm is
dened as

kxk1 := sup jxi j:

i

Lp (I ) spaces for 1  p  1:
For each 1  p < 1, Lp (I ) consists of all Lebesgue measurable functions x(t)
dened on an interval I  R such that
kxkp :=
and

Z

1=p

jx(t)jp dt

< 1; for 1  p < 1

kx(t)k1 := ess sup jx(t)j:

t2I
Some of these spaces, for example, L2 (;1; 0], L2 [0; 1) and L2 (;1; 1), will be

discussed in more detail later on.

C [a; b] space:
C [a; b] consists of all continuous functions on the real interval [a; b] with the norm
dened as
kxk1 := sup jx(t)j:
t2[a;b]

4.2. Hilbert Spaces

93

Note that if each component or function is itself a vector or matrix, then the corresponding Banach space can also be formed by replacing the absolute value j
j of each
component or function with its spatially normed component or function. For example,
consider a vector space with all sequences in the form of

x = (x0 ; x1 ; : : :)
where each component xi is a k  m matrix and each element of xi is bounded. Then
xi is bounded in any matrix norm, and the vector space becomes a Banach space if the
following norm is dened
kxk1 := sup i (xi )
i

where i (xi ) := kxi k is any matrix norm. This space will also be denoted by l1 .
Let V1 and V2 be two vector spaces and let T be an operator from S  V1 into
V2 . An operator T is said to be linear if for any x1 ; x2 2 S and scalars ;  2 C , the
following holds:
T (x1 + x2 ) = (Tx1 ) +  (Tx2 ):
Moreover, let V0 be a linear subspace in V1 . Then the operator T0 : V0 7;! V2 dened by
T0 x = Tx for every x 2 V0 is called the restriction of T to V0 and is denoted as T jV0 = T0 .
On the other hand, a linear operator T : V1 7;! V
2 coinciding
 with T0 on V0  V1 is
x
1
n
n+m ,
called an extension of T0. For example, let V0 :=
0 : x1 2 C  V1 = C
and let




2 2 C (n+m)(n+m) ; T = A1 0 2 C (n+m)(n+m) :
T = A01 A
0
A3
0 0
Then T jV0 = T0 .

Denition 4.1 Two normed spaces V1 and V2 are said to be linearly isometric, denoted
by V1 
= V2 , if there exists a linear operator T of V1 onto V2 such that
kTxk = kxk
for all x in V1 . In this case, the mapping T is said to be an isometric isomorphism.

4.2 Hilbert Spaces

Recall the inner product of vectors dened on a Euclidean space C n :

hx; yi := x y =

n
X
i=1

2x 3
2y 3
1
1
xi yi 8x = 64 ... 75 ; y = 64 ... 75 2 C n :
xn

yn

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

94

Note that many important metric notions and geometrical properties such as length,
distance, angle, and the energy of physical systems can be deduced from this inner
product. For instance, the length of a vector x 2 C n is dened as

kxk := hx; xi;

and the angle between two vectors x; y 2 C n can be computed from
cos \(x; y) = khxx;k kyyik ; \(x; y) 2 [0; ]:
The two vectors are said to be orthogonal if \(x; y) = 2 .
We now consider a natural generalization of the inner product on C n to more general
(possibly innite dimensional) vector spaces.
Denition 4.2 Let V be a vector space over C . An inner product on V is a complex
valued function,
h
;
i : V  V 7;! C
such that for any x; y; z 2 V and ;  2 C
(i) 1 hx; y + z i = hx; yi +  hx; z i
(ii) hx; yi = hy; xi
(iii) hx; xi > 0 if x 6= 0.
A vector space V with an inner product is called an inner product space.
p
It is clear that the inner product dened above induces a norm kxk := hx; xi, so
that the norm conditions in Chapter 2 are satised. In particular, the distance between
vectors x and y is d(x; y) = kx ; yk.
Two vectors x and y in an inner product space V are said to be orthogonal if
hx; yi = 0, denoted x ? y. More generally, a vector x is said to be orthogonal to a set
S  V , denoted by x ? S , if x ? y for all y 2 S .
The inner product and the inner-product induced norm have the following familiar
properties.
Theorem 4.1 Let V be an inner product space and let x; y 2 V . Then
(i) jhx; yij  kxk kyk (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality). Moreover, the equality holds if
and only if x = y for some constant  or y = 0.
(ii) kx + yk2 + kx ; yk2 = 2 kxk2 + 2 kyk2 (Parallelogram law) .
(iii) kx + yk2 = kxk2 + kyk2 if x ? y.
1 This is the other way round to the usual mathematical convention since we want to have h
rather than  for
2 C n.
y x

x; y

x; y

i=

x y

4.2. Hilbert Spaces

95

A Hilbert space is a complete inner product space with the norm induced by its
inner product. Obviously, a Hilbert space is also a Banach space. For example, C n
with the usual inner product is a (nite dimensional) Hilbert space. More generally, it
is straightforward to verify that C nm with the inner product dened as

hA; B i := Trace A B =

n X
m
X
i=1 j =1

aij bij 8A; B 2 C nm

is also a (nite dimensional) Hilbert space.

Here are some examples of innite dimensional Hilbert spaces:
l2 (;1; 1):
l2 (;1; 1) consists of the set of all real or complex square summable sequences
x = (: : : ; x;2 ; x;1 ; x0 ; x1 ; x2 ; : : :)
i.e,
1
X

i=;1

jxi j2 < 1

with the inner product dened as

hx; yi :=

1
X
i=;1

xi yi

for x; y 2 l2 (;1; 1). The subspaces l2 (;1; 0) and l2 [0; 1) of l2 (;1; 1) are
dened similarly and consist of sequences of the form x = (: : : ; x;2 ; x;1 ) and
x = (x0 ; x1 ; x2 ; : : :), respectively.
Note that we can also dene a corresponding Hilbert space even if each component
xi is a vector or a matrix; in fact, the following inner product will suce:

hx; yi :=

1
X

i=;1

Trace(xi yi ):

L2 (I ) for I  R:
L2 (I ) consists of all square integrable and Lebesgue measurable functions dened
on an interval I  R with the inner product dened as

hf; gi := f (t) g(t)dt

I

for f; g 2 L2 (I ). Similarly, if the function is vector or matrix valued, the inner

product is dened correspondingly as

hf; gi := Trace [f (t) g(t)] dt:

I

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

96

Some very often used spaces in this book are L2 [0; 1); L2 (;1; 0]; L2 (;1; 1).
More precisely, they are dened as
L2 = L2 (;1; 1): Hilbert space of matrix-valued functions on R, with inner
product

hf; gi :=

Z1

;1

Trace [f (t) g(t)] dt:

L2+ = L2 [0; 1): subspace of L2 (;1; 1) with functions zero for t < 0.
L2; = L2 (;1; 0]: subspace of L2 (;1; 1) with functions zero for t > 0.
Let H be a Hilbert space and M  H a subset. Then the orthogonal complement of
M , denoted by H M or M ?, is dened as

M ? = fx : hx; yi = 0; 8y 2 M; x 2 Hg :
It can be shown that M ? is closed (hence M ? is also a Hilbert space). For example,
let M = L2+  L2 , then M ? = L2; is a Hilbert space.
Let M and N be subspaces of a vector space V . V is said to be the direct sum of
M and N , written V = M  N , if M \ N = f0g, and every element v 2 V can be
expressed as v = x + y with x 2 M and y 2 N . If V is an inner product space and
M and N are orthogonal, then V is said to be the orthogonal direct sum of M and N .
As an example, it is easy to see that L2 is the orthogonal direct sum of L2; and L2+ .
Similarly, l2 (;1; 1) is the orthogonal direct sum of l2 (;1; 0) and l2 [0; 1).
The following is a version of the so-called orthogonal projection theorem:

Theorem 4.2 Let H be a Hilbert space, and let M be a closed subspace of H. Then for
each vector v 2 H, there exist unique vectors x 2 M and y 2 M ? such that v = x + y,
i.e., H = M  M ?. Moreover, x 2 M is the unique vector such that d(v; M ) = kv ; xk.
Let H1 and H2 be two Hilbert spaces, and let A be a bounded linear operator from
H1 into H2 . Then there exists a unique linear operator A : H2 7;! H1 such that for
all x 2 H1 and y 2 H2
hAx; yi = hx; A yi:
A is called the adjoint of A. Furthermore, A is called self-adjoint if A = A .
Let H be a Hilbert space and M  H be a closed subspace. A bounded operator P
mapping from H into itself is called the orthogonal projection onto M if
P (x + y) = x; 8 x 2 M and y 2 M ? :

4.3. Hardy Spaces H2 and H1

97

4.3 Hardy Spaces H2 and H1

Let S  C be an open set, and let f (s) be a complex valued function dened on S :

f (s) : S 7;! C :
Then f (s) is said to be analytic at a point z0 in S if it is dierentiable at z0 and also
at each point in some neighborhood of z0 . It is a fact that if f (s) is analytic at z0 then
f has continuous derivatives of all orders at z0 . Hence, a function analytic at z0 has
a power series representation at z0 . The converse is also true, i.e., if a function has a
power series at z0 , then it is analytic at z0 . A function f (s) is said to be analytic in S if
it has a derivative or is analytic at each point of S . A matrix valued function is analytic
in S if every element of the matrix is analytic in S . For example, all real rational stable
transfer matrices are analytic in the right-half plane and e;s is analytic everywhere.

A well known property of the analytic functions is the so-called Maximum Modulus
Theorem.
Theorem 4.3 If f (s) is dened and continuous on a closed-bounded set S and analytic
on the interior of S , then the maximum of jf (s)j on S is attained on the boundary of
S , i.e.,
max
jf (s)j = smax
jf (s)j
s2S
2@S
where @S denotes the boundary of S .
Next we consider some frequently used complex (matrix) function spaces.

L2 (j R) Space
L2 (j R) or simply L2 is a Hilbert space of matrix-valued (or scalar-valued) func-

tions on j R and consists of all complex matrix functions F such that the integral
below is bounded, i.e.,

Z1

;1

Trace [F  (j!)F (j!)] d! < 1:

The inner product for this Hilbert space is dened as

Z1
1
Trace [F  (j!)G(j!)] d!
hF; Gi := 2
;1
for F; G 2 L2 , and the inner product induced norm is given by

kF k2 := hF; F i:
For example, all real rational strictly proper transfer matrices with no poles on the
imaginary axis form a subspace (not closed) of L2 (j R) which is denoted by RL2 (j R) or
simply RL2 .

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

98

H2 Space2
H2 is a (closed) subspace of L2 (j R) with matrix functions F (s) analytic in Re(s) >
0 (open right-half plane). The corresponding norm is dened as

 Z1

kF k22 := sup 21
Trace [F  ( + j!)F ( + j!)] d! :
>0

;1

It can be shown3 that

kF k22 = 21

Z1
;1

Trace [F  (j!)F (j!)] d!:

Hence, we can compute the norm for H2 just as we do for L2 . The real rational
subspace of H2 , which consists of all strictly proper and real rational stable transfer
matrices, is denoted by RH2 .

H2? Space
H2? is the orthogonal complement of H2 in L2 , i.e., the (closed) subspace of functions in L2 that are analytic in the open left-half plane. The real rational subspace
of H2? , which consists of all strictly proper rational transfer matrices with all poles
in the open right half plane, will be denoted by RH?2 . It is easy to see that if G
is a strictly proper, stable, and real rational transfer matrix, then G 2 H2 and
G 2 H2? . Most of our study in this book will be focused on the real rational
case.

The L2 spaces dened above in the frequency domain can be related to the L2 spaces
dened in the time domain. Recall the fact that a function in L2 space in the time
domain admits a bilateral Laplace (or Fourier) transform. In fact, it can be shown that
this bilateral Laplace (or Fourier) transform yields an isometric isomorphism between
the L2 spaces in the time domain and the L2 spaces in the frequency domain (this is
what is called Parseval's relations or Plancherel Theorem in complex analysis):

L2 (;1; 1) 
= L2 (j R)
 H2
L2 [0; 1) =
L2 (;1; 0] 
= H2? :
As a result, if g(t) 2 L2 (;1; 1) and if its Fourier (or bilateral Laplace) transform is
G(j!) 2 L2 (j R), then
kGk2 = kgk2 :
2 The H space and H space dened below together with the H spaces,  1, which will not be
1
p
2
introduced in this book, are usually called Hardy spaces named after the mathematician G. H. Hardy
(hence the notation of H).
3 See Francis [1987].
p

4.3. Hardy Spaces H2 and H1

99

Hence, whenever there is no confusion, the notation of functions in the time domain
and in the frequency domain will be used interchangeably.
Dene an orthogonal projection
P+ : L2 (;1; 1) 7;! L2 [0; 1)
such that, for any function f (t) 2 L2 (;1; 1), we have g(t) = P+ f (t) with

t  0;
g(t) := f (0t;); for
for t < 0:
In this book, P+ will also be used to denote the projection from L2 (j R) onto H2 .
Similarly, dene P; as another orthogonal projection from L2 (;1; 1) onto L2 (;1; 0]
(or L2 (j R) onto H2? ). Then the relationships between L2 spaces and H2 spaces can be
shown as in Figure 4.1.
Laplace Transform L2 [0; 1) 
H2
Inverse Transform

P+

L2 (;1; 1)
P;

L2 (;1; 0]

P+

 Laplace Transform Inverse Transform

L2 (j R)
P;

Laplace Transform
Inverse Transform

?
H2?

Figure 4.1: Relationships among function spaces

Other classes of important complex matrix functions used in this book are those
bounded on the imaginary axis.
L1 (j R) Space
L1 (j R) or simply L1 is a Banach space of matrix-valued (or scalar-valued) functions that are (essentially) bounded on j R, with norm
kF k1 := ess sup  [F (j!)] :
! 2R

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

100

The rational subspace of L1 , denoted by RL1 (j R) or simply RL1 , consists of

all rational proper transfer matrices with no poles on the imaginary axis.

H1 Space
H1 is a (closed) subspace in L1 with functions that are analytic in the open
right-half plane and bounded on the imaginary axis. The H1 norm is dened as
kF k1 := sup  [F (s)] = ess sup  [F (j!)] :
Re(s)>0

! 2R

The second equality can be regarded as a generalization of the maximum modulus

theorem for matrix functions. The real rational subspace of H1 is denoted by
RH1 which consists of all proper and real rational stable transfer matrices.

; Space
H1
H1; is a (closed) subspace in L1 with functions that are analytic in the open
; norm is dened as
left-half plane and bounded on the imaginary axis. The H1
kF k1 := sup  [F (s)] = ess sup  [F (j!)] :
Re(s)<0

! 2R

; is denoted by RH;
The real rational subspace of H1
1 which consists of all proper
rational transfer matrices with all poles in the open right half plane.

Denition 4.3 A transfer matrix G(s) 2 H1; is usually said to be antistable or anticausal.

Some facts about L1 and H1 functions are worth mentioning:

(i) if G(s) 2 L1 , then G(s)L2 := fG(s)f (s) : f (s) 2 L2 g  L2 .
(ii) if G(s) 2 H1 , then G(s)H2 := fG(s)f (s) : f (s) 2 H2 g  H2 .

; , then G(s)H2? := fG(s)f (s) : f (s) 2 H2? g  H2? .

(ii) if G(s) 2 H1

Remark 4.1 The notation for L1 is somewhat unfortunate; it should be clear to the
reader that the L1 space in the time domain and in the frequency domain denote
completely dierent spaces. The L1 space in the time domain is usually used to denote
signals, while the L1 space in the frequency domain is usually used to denote transfer
functions and operators.
~
Let G(s) 2 L1 be a p  q transfer matrix. Then a multiplication operator is dened
as

MG : L2 7;! L2
MG f := Gf:

4.3. Hardy Spaces H2 and H1

101

In writing the above mapping, we have assumed that f has a compatible dimension. A
more accurate description of the above operator should be
MG : Lq2 7;! Lp2
i.e., f is a q-dimensional vector function with each component in L2 . However, we shall
suppress all dimensions in this book and assume all objects have compatible dimensions.
It is easy to verify that the adjoint operator MG = MG .
A useful fact about the multiplication operator is that the norm of a matrix G in
L1 equals the norm of the corresponding multiplication operator.
Theorem 4.4 Let G 2 L1 be a p  q transfer matrix. Then kMGk = kGk1 .
Remark 4.2 It is also true that this operator norm equals the norm of the operator
restricted to H2 (or H2? ), i.e.,
kMGk = kMGjH2 k := sup fkGf k2 : f 2 H2 ; kf k2  1g :
This will be clear in the proof where an f 2 H2 is constructed.
~

Proof. By denition, we have

kMGk = sup fkGf k2 : f 2 L2 ; kf k2  1g :
First we see that kGk1 is an upper bound for the operator norm:
Z1
f (j!)G (j!)G(j!)f (j!) d!
kGf k22 = 21
;1

Z1

 kGk21 21
kf (j!)k2 d!
;1
= kGk21kf k22:

To show that kGk1 is the least upper bound, rst choose a frequency !o where  [G(j!)]
is maximum, i.e.,
 [G(j!0 )] = kGk1
and denote the singular value decomposition of G(j!0 ) by

G(j!0 ) = u1 (j!0 )v1 (j!0 ) +

r
X
i=2

i ui (j!0 )vi (j!0 )

where r is the rank of G(j!0 ) and ui ; vi have unit length.

If !0 < 1, write v1 (j!0 ) as

2  ej
66 12 ej
v1 (j!0 ) = 64 ..
.

1
2

q ejq

3
77
75

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

102

where i 2 R is such that i 2 [;; 0) and q is the column dimension of G. Now let
i  0 be such that
 i ; j!0 
i = \  + j! ;
and let f be given by

2   ;s
66 12  +;+sss
f (s) = 66 ..
4 . ;s
1
1
2
2

q qq +s

3
77
77 f^(s)
5

where a scalar function f^ is chosen so that

j! ; !o j <  or j! + !oj < 

jf^(j!)j = c0 ifotherwise
where
 is a small positive number and c is chosen so that f^ has unit 2-norm, i.e.,
p
c = =2. This in turn implies that f has unit 2-norm. Then

kGf k22  21  [G(;j!o )]2  +  [G(j!o )]2 

=  [G(j!o )]2 = kGk21 :

If !0 = 1, then G(j!0 ) is real and v1 is real. In this case, the conclusion follows by
letting f (s) = v1 f^(s).
2

4.4 Power and Spectral Signals

In this section, we introduce two additional classes of signals that have been widely used
in engineering. These classes of signals have some nice statistical and frequency domain
representations. Let u(t) be a function of time. Dene its autocorrelation matrix as
1
Ruu ( ) := Tlim
!1 2T

ZT

;T

u(t +  )u (t)dt;

if the limit exists and is nite for all  . It is easy to see from the denition that Ruu ( ) =
 (; ). Assume further that the Fourier transform of the signal's autocorrelation
Ruu
matrix function exists (and may contain impulses). This Fourier transform is called the
spectral density of u, denoted Suu (j!):

Suu (j!) :=

Z1

;1

Ruu ( )e;j! d:

4.4. Power and Spectral Signals

103

Thus Ruu ( ) can be obtained from Suu (j!) by performing an inverse Fourier transform:
Z1
Ruu ( ) := 21
Suu (j!)ej! d!:
;1
We will call signal u(t) a power signal if the autocorrelation matrix Ruu ( ) exists and
is nite for all  , and moreover, if the power spectral density function Suu (j!) exists
(note that Suu (j!) need not be bounded and may include impulses).
The power of the signal is dened as

ZT
p
1
kukP = Tlim
ku(t)k2 dt = Trace [Ruu (0)]
!1 2T ;T

where k
k is the usual Euclidean norm and the capital script P is used to dierentiate
this power semi-norm from the usual Lebesgue Lp norm. The set of all signals having
nite power will be denoted by P .
The power semi-norm of a signal can also be computed from its spectral density
function
Z1
1
2
Trace[Suu (j!)]d!:
kukP = 2
;1
This expression implies that, if u 2 P , Suu is strictly proper in the sense that Suu (1) =
0. We note that if u 2 P and ku(t)k1 := supt ku(t)k < 1, then kukP  kuk1.
However, not every signal having nite 1-norm is a power signal since the limit in the
denition may not exist. For example, let
 2k < t < 22k+1 ; for k = 0; 1; 2; : : :
u(t) = 10 2otherwise
:

Then limT !1 21T ;TT u2 dt does not exist. Note also that power signals are persistent
signals in time such as sines or cosines; clearly, a time-limited signal has zero power, as
does an L2 signal. Thus k
kP is only a semi-norm, not a norm.
Now let G be a linear system transfer matrix with convolution kernel g(t), input u(t), and output z (t). Then Rzz ( ) = g( )  Ruu ( )  g (; ) and Szz (j!) =
G(j!)Suu (j!)G (j!). These properties are useful in establishing some input and output relationships in the next section.
A signal u(t) is said to have bounded power spectral density if kSuu (j!)k1 < 1.
The set of signals having bounded spectral density is denoted as
S := fu(t) 2 Rm : kSuu (j!)k1 < 1g:
p
The quantity kuks := kSuu (j!)k is called the spectral density norm of u(t). The set
S can be used to model signals with xed spectral characteristics by passing white noise
signals through a weighting lter. Similarly, P could be used to model signals whose
spectrum is not known but which are nite in power.

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

104

4.5 Induced System Gains

Many control engineering problems involve keeping some system signals \small" under
various conditions, for example, under a set of possible disturbances and system parameter variations. In this section we are interested in answering the following question: if
we know how \big" the input (disturbance) is, how \big" is the output going to be for
a given stable dynamical system?
Consider a q-input and p-output linear nite dimensional system as shown in the
following diagram with input u, output z , and transfer matrix G 2 RH1 :

z

We will further assume that G(s) is strictly proper, i.e, G(1) = 0 although most of
the results derived here hold for the non-strictly proper case. In the time-domain an
input-output model for such a system has the form of a convolution equation,
z =gu
i.e.,
Zt
z (t) = g(t ;  )u( ) d
0

where the p  q real matrix g(t) is the convolution kernel. Let the convolution kernel
and the corresponding transfer matrix be partitioned as
2 g (t)


g (t) 3 2 g (t) 3
11
1q
1
6
7
6
.
.
. 7
.
.
g(t) = 4 .
. 5 = 4 .. 5 ;
gp1 (t)


gpq (t)
gp (t)

2 G (s)


G (s) 3 2 G (s) 3

11
1q
1
6
7
6
.
.
. 7
.
.
G(s) = 4 .
. 5 = 4 .. 5
Gp1 (s)


Gpq (s)

Gp (s)

where gi (t) is a q-dimensional row vector of the convolution kernel and Gi (s) is a row
vector of the transfer matrix. Now if G is considered as an operator from the input space
to the output space, then a norm is induced on G, which, loosely speaking, measures
the size of the output for a given input u. These norms can determine the achievable
performance of the system for dierent classes of input signals
The various input/output relationships, given dierent classes of input signals, are
summarized in two tables below. Table 4.1 summarizes the results for xed input signals.
Note that the (t) in this table denotes the unit impulse and u0 2 Rq is a constant vector
indicating the direction of the input signal.
We now prove Table 4.1.

4.5. Induced System Gains

105

Input u(t)

Output z (t)

kz k2 = kGu0 k2 = kgu0k2
u(t) = u0 (t); u0 2 Rq

kz k1 = kgu0k1
kz kP = 0
kz k2 = 1

u(t) = u0 sin !0 t; u0 2 Rq

lim sup max

jz (t)j = kG(j!0 )u0 k1 = max
jGi (j!0 )u0 j
i i
i
t!1

lim sup kz (t)k = kG(j!0 )u0 k

t!1

kz kP = p1 kG(j!0 )u0 k
2

Table 4.1: Output norms with xed inputs

Proof.
u = u0(t): If u(t) = u0(t), then z (t) = g(t)u0, so kz k2 = kgu0k2 and kz k1 =
kgu0k1 . But by Parseval's relation, kgu0k2 = kGu0k2 . On the other hand,

ZT
1
ug (t)g(t)u0 dt
P = Tlim
!1 2T ;T 0
Z1
1
Tracefg(t)g(t)g dt ku0 k2
 Tlim
!1 2T ;1
1 kGk2 ku k2 = 0:
= Tlim
2 0
!1 2T

kz k2

u = u0 sin !0 t: With the input u(t) = u0 sin(!0 t), the i-th output as t ! 1 is
zi (t) = jGi (j!0 )u0 j sin[!0 t + argfGi (j!0 )u0 g]:

(4:1)

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

106

The 2-norm of this signal is innite as long as Gi (j!0 )u0 6= 0, i.e., the system's
transfer function does not have a zero in every channel in the input direction at
the frequency of excitation.
The amplitude of the sinusoid (4.1) equals jGi (j!0 )u0 j. Hence
lim sup max
jz (t)j = max
jGi (j!0 )u0 j = kG(j!0 )u0 k1
i i
i
and

t!1

v
u
p
uX
lim sup kz (t)k = t jGi (j!0 )u0 j2 = kG(j!0 )u0 k :
t!1

i=1

Finally, let i := arg Gi (j!)u0 . Then

p
1 ZTX
kz k2P = Tlim
jG (j! )u j2 sin2 (!0 t + i ) dt
!1 2T ;T i=1 i 0 0
ZT
p
X
1
2
=
jGi (j!0 )u0 j Tlim
sin2 (!0 t + i ) dt
!1
2
T
;T
i=1
Z
p
X
1 T 1 ; cos 2(!0 t + i ) dt
=
jGi (j!0 )u0 j2 Tlim
!1 2T ;T
2
i=1
p
X
= 21 jGi (j!0 )u0 j2 = 12 kG(j!0 )u0 k2 :
i=1

It is interesting to see what this table signies from the control point of view. To
focus our discussion, let us assume that u(t) = u0 sin !0 t is a disturbance or a command
signal on a feedback system, and z (t) is the tracking error. Then we say that the system
has good tracking behavior if z (t) is small in some sense, for instance, lim supt!1 kz (t)k
is small. Note that
lim sup kz (t)k = kG(j!0 )u0 k
t!1
for any given !0 and u0 2 Rq . Now if we want to track signals from various channels,
that is if u0 can be chosen to be any direction, then we would require that  (G(j!0 ))
be small. Furthermore, if, in addition, we want to track signals of many dierent
frequencies, we then would require that  (G(j!0 )) be small at all those frequencies.
This interpretation enables us to consider the control system in the frequency domain
even though the specications are given in the time domain.
Table 4.2 lists the maximum possible system gains when the input signal u is not
required to be a xed signal; instead it can be any signal in a unit ball in some function
space.
Now we give a proof for Table 4.2. Note that the rst row (L2 7;! L2 ) has been
shown in Section 4.3.

4.5. Induced System Gains

Input u(t) Output z (t)

107
Signal Norms

kuk22 =

L2

L2

kuk2P = 21

kuk2P = 21

L1

Z1
0

Induced Norms

kuk2 dt

kGk1

kuk2S = kSuu k1

Z1
;1

Z1
;1

kGk1

TracefSuu (j!)gd!

kGk2

TracefSuu (j!)gd!

kGk1

kuk1 = sup max

jui (t)j
i

max
kgi k1
i

L1

kuk1 = sup ku(t)k

t

Z1

Table 4.2: Induced System Gains

Proof.
S 7;! S : If u 2 S , then

Szz (j!) = G(j!)Suu (j!)G (j!):

Now suppose

(j!0 )] = kGk1
and take a signal u such that Suu (j!0 ) = I . Then
kSzz (j!)k1 = kGk21 :

S 7;! P : By denition, we have

Z1
1

P = 2 ;1 TracefG(j!)Suu (j!)G (j!)g d!:

kz k2

kg(t)k dt

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

108

Now let u be white with unit spectral density, i.e., Suu = I . Then
Z1
1
2
kz kP = 2
TracefG(j!)G (j!)g d! = kGk22 :
;1

P 7;! P :

If u is a power signal, then

Z1
1
2
kz kP = 2
TracefG(j!)Suu (j!)G (j!)g d!;
;1
and immediately, we get that

kz kP  kGk1 kukP :
To achieve the equality, assume that !0 is such that

 [G(j!0 )] = kGk1
and denote the singular value decomposition of G(j!0 ) by

G(j!0 ) = u1 (j!0 )v1 (j!0 ) +

r
X
i=2

i ui (j!0 )vi (j!0 )

where r is the rank of G(j!0 ) and ui ; vi have unit length.

If !0 < 1, write v1 (j!0 ) as

2  ej
66 12ej
v1 (j!) = 64 ..
.

1
2

q ejq

3
77
75

where i 2 R is such that i 2 [;; 0) and q is the column dimension of G. Now

let i  0 be such that
 j!0 
i = \ i ;
+ j!
i

and let the input u be generated from passing u^ through a lter:

2   ;s
66 21  +;+sss
u(t) = 66 ..
4 . ;s
1
1
2
2

q qq +s

3
77
77 u^(t)
5

4.5. Induced System Gains

where

109

Then Ru^u^ ( ) = cos(!o  ), so

u^(t) = 2 sin(!o t):

ku^kP = Ru^u^ (0) = 1:

Also,
Then

Su^u^ (j!) =  [(! ; !o ) + (! + !o)] :

2   ;j!
66 21  +;+j!j!j!
Suu (j!) = 66
4 ... ;j!
1
1
2
2

and it is easy to show

q qq +j!

3
2   ;j!
77
66 12  +;+j!j!j!
77 Su^u^ (j!) 66 ..
5
4 . ;j!
1
1
2
2

q qq +j!

3
77
77
5

kukP = 1:

Finally,

kz k2P = 21  [G(j!o )]2 + 12  [G(;j!o )]2

=  [G(;j!o)]2
= kGk21 :
Similarly, if !0 = 1, then G(j!) is real. The conclusion follows by letting u =
v1 u^(t) and !o ! 1.
L1 7;! L1 :
1. First of all, maxi kgik1 is an upper bound on the 1-norm/1-norm system
gain:

jzi (t)j =

=

Z t
 Z
 gi( )u(t ;  ) d   t jgi( )u(t ;  )j d
0
Z 0t X
Z 1X
q
q
jgij ( )j d kuk1 

0 j =1
kgi k1 kuk1

0 j =1

and

kz k1 := max
sup jz (t)j
i t i
 max
kgi k1 kuk1 :
i

jgij ( )j d kuk1

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

110

That maxi kgi k1 is the least upper bound can be seen as follows: Assume
that the maximum maxi kgi k1 is achieved for i = 1. Let t0 be given and set

u(t0 ;  ) := sign(g1 ( )); 8:

Note that since g1( ) is a vector function, the sign function sign(g1 ( )) is a
component-wise operation. Then kuk1 = 1 and

Zt

z1 (t0 ) =

g1 ( )u(t0 ;  ) d

Zt X
q
0

0 j =1

= kg1 k1 ;

jg1j ( )j d

Z 1X
q
t0 j =1

jg1j ( )j d:

Hence, let t0 ! 1, and we have kz k1 = kg1 k1 .

2. If ku(t)k1 := supt ku(t)k, then

kz (t)k =



Z t

g( )u(t ;  )d
Z t0
Zt
0
0

kg( )k ku(t ;  )k d
kg( )k d kuk1 :

R
And, therefore, kz k1  01 kg( )k d kuk1 .

Next we shall derive some simple and useful bounds for the H1 norm and the L1
norm of a stable system. Suppose

G(s) = CA B0 2 RH1
is a balanced realization, i.e., there exists
 = diag(1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n )  0
with 1  2  : : :  n  0, such that

A + A + BB  = 0

Then we have the following theorem.

A  + A + C  C = 0:

4.5. Induced System Gains

111

Theorem 4.5
1  kGk1 

Z1
0

kg(t)k dt  2

where g(t) = CeAt B .

n
X
i=1

i

Remark 4.3 It should be clear that the inequalities stated in the theorem do not
depend on a particular state space realization of G(s). However, use of the balanced
realization does make the proof simple.
~
Proof. The inequality 1  kGk1 follows from the Nehari Theorem of Chapter 8.
We will now show the other inequalities. Since

G(s) :=

Z1
0

g(t)e;st dt; Re(s) > 0;

by the denition of H1 norm, we have

kGk1

Z 1

;
st

= sup g(t)e dt
Re(s)>0 0
Z 1
g(t)e;st dt
 sup
Re(s)>0 0
Z1


kg(t)k dt:

To prove the last inequality, let ui be the ith unit vector. Then

1

n
if i = j and X
ui ui = I:
0 if i =
6 j
i=1
Dene i (t) = ui eAt=2 B and i (t) = CeAt=2 ui . It is easy to verify that

ui uj = ij =

k i k22 =
k i k22 =

Z1
0

Z1
0

ui eAt=2 BB  eAt=2 ui dt = 2ui ui = 2i

ui eA t=2 C  CeAt=2 ui dt = 2ui ui = 2i :

Using these two equalities, we have

Z1
0

kg(t)k dt =


X
Z 1 X
n
n Z1

i i dt  0 k i ik dt
0 i=1
i=1
n
n
X
X
i=1

k i k2 k i k2  2

i=1

i :

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

112

2
It should be clear from the above two tables that many system performance criteria
can be stipulated as requiring a certain closed loop transfer matrix have small H2 norm
or H1 norm or L1 norm. Moreover, if L1 performance is satised, then the H1 norm
performance is also satised. We will be most interested in H2 and H1 performance in
this book.

4.6 Computing L2 and H2 Norms

Let G(s) 2 L2 and recall that the L2 norm of G is dened as

kGk2 :=

s Z1
1


2 ;1 TracefG (j!)G(j!)g d!

= kgk2
=

sZ 1
;1

Tracefg(t)g(t)g dt

where g(t) denotes the convolution kernel of G.

It is easy to see that the L2 norm dened above is nite i the transfer matrix G
is strictly proper, i.e., G(1) = 0. Hence, we will generally assume that the transfer
matrix is strictly proper whenever we refer to the L2 norm of G (of course, this also
applies to H2 functions). One straightforward way of computing the L2 norm is to use
contour integral. Suppose G is strictly proper, and then we have
Z1
TracefG (j!)G(j!)g d!
kGk22 = 21
I;1
1
= 2j TracefG (s)G(s)g ds:
The last integral is a contour integral along the imaginary axis, and around an innite
semi-circle in the left half-plane; the contribution to the integral from this semi-circle
equals zero because G is strictly proper. By the residue theorem, kGk22 equals the sum
of the residues of TracefG (s)G(s)g at its poles in the left half-plane.
Although kGk2 can, in principle, be computed from its denition or from the method
suggested above, it is useful in many applications to have alternative characterizations
and to take advantage of the state space representations of G. The computation of a
RH2 transfer matrix norm is particularly simple.

Lemma 4.6 Consider a transfer matrix

A B
G(s) =
C 0

4.6. Computing L2 and H2 Norms

113

with A stable. Then we have

kGk22 = trace(B  Lo B ) = trace(CLc C  )

(4:2)
where Lo and Lc are observability and controllability Gramians which can be obtained
from the following Lyapunov equations
ALc + LcA + BB  = 0 A Lo + LoA + C  C = 0:

Proof. Since G is stable, we have

 CeAtB; t  0
;
1
g(t) = L (G) = 0;
t<0
and

kGk22

=
=

Z1
Z0
0

Tracefg(t)g(t)g dt =

Z1
0

Tracefg(t)g(t) g dt


TracefB  eA t C  CeAt B g dt =

Z1
0

TracefCeAt BB  eA t C  g dt:

The lemma follows from the fact that the controllability Gramian of (A; B ) and the
observability Gramian of (C; A) can be represented as

Lo =

Z1
0

eAt C  CeAt dt; Lc =

which can also be obtained from

ALc + LcA + BB  = 0

Z1
0

eAt BB  eAt dt;

A Lo + LoA + C  C = 0:

To compute the L2 norm of a rational transfer function, G(s) 2 L2 , using state space
approach. Let G(s) = [G(s)]+ + [G(s)]; with G+ 2 RH2 and G; 2 RH?2 . Then
kGk22 = k[G(s)]+ k22 + k[G(s)]; k22
where k[G(s)]+ k2 and k[G(s)]; k2 = k[G(;s)]+ k2 can be computed using the above
lemma.
Still another useful characterization of the H2 norm of G is in terms of hypothetical
input-output experiments. Let ei denote the ith standard basis vector of Rm where m
is the input dimension of the system. Apply the impulsive input (t)ei ((t) is the unit
impulse) and denote the output by zi (t)(= g(t)ei ). Assume D = 0, and then zi 2 L2+
and
m
X
kGk22 = kzi k22 :
i=1

Note that this characterization of the H2 norm can be appropriately generalized for
nonlinear time varying systems, see Chen and Francis [1992] for an application of this
norm in sampled-data control.

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

114

4.7 Computing L1 and H1 Norms

We shall rst consider, as in the L2 case, how to compute the 1 norm of an L1 transfer
matrix. Let G(s) 2 L1 and recall that the L1 norm of a transfer function G is dened
as
kGk1 := ess sup fG(j!)g:
!

The computation of the L1 norm of G is complicated and requires a search. A control

engineering interpretation of the innity norm of a scalar transfer function G is the
distance in the complex plane from the origin to the farthest point on the Nyquist plot
of G, and it also appears as the peak value on the Bode magnitude plot of jG(j!)j.
Hence the 1 of a transfer function can in principle be obtained graphically.
To get an estimate, set up a ne grid of frequency points,

f!1;


; !N g:
Then an estimate for kGk1 is
max  fG(j!k )g:

1kN

This value is usually read directly from a Bode singular value plot. The L1 norm can
also be computed in state space if G is rational.

Lemma 4.7 Let > 0 and

B 2 RL :
G(s) = CA D
1

(4:3)

Then kGk1 < if and only if  (D) < and H has no eigenvalues on the imaginary
axis where
 A + BR;1DC

;1 B 
BR
H := ;C  (I + DR;1D )C ;(A + BR;1 D C )
(4.4)
and R = 2I ; D D.

Proof. Let (s) = 2I ; G(s)G(s). Then it is clear that kGk1 < if and only if
(j!) > 0 for all ! 2 R. Since (1) = R > 0 and since (j!) is a continuous function
of !, (j!) > 0 for all ! 2 R if and only if (j!) is nonsingular for all ! 2 R [ f1g,

i.e., (s) has no imaginary axis zero. Equivalently, ;1 (s) has no imaginary axis pole.
It is easy to compute by some simple algebra that

2
;1 (s) = 4 

 BR;1  3
H
;C  DR;1 5 :

;
1

;
1

R DC R B
R ;1

4.7. Computing L1 and H1 Norms

115

Thus the conclusion follows if the above realization has neither uncontrollable modes
nor unobservable modes on the imaginary axis. Assume that j!0 is an eigenvalue
of H but not a pole of ;1 (s). Then j!0 must be either anunobservable mode of
;1


( R;1 D C R;1 B  ; H ) or an uncontrollable mode of (H; ;CBR
 DR;1 ). Now


suppose j!
 x0 is an unobservable mode of ( R;1DC R;1B ; H ). Then there exists
an x0 = x1 6= 0 such that
2

Hx0 = j!0 x0 ; R;1 D C R;1 B  x0 = 0:

These equations can be simplied to
(j!0 I ; A)x1 = 0
(j!0 I + A )x2 = ;C  Cx1
D Cx1 + B  x2 = 0:
Since A has no imaginary axis eigenvalues, we have x1 = 0 and x2 = 0. This contradicts
our assumption, and hence the realization has no unobservable modes on the imaginary
axis.
Similarly, a contradiction
 BR;1 will also be arrived if j!0 is assumed to be an uncontrollable mode of (H; ;C  DR;1 ).
2

Bisection Algorithm

Lemma 4.7 suggests the following bisection algorithm to compute RL1 norm:
(a) select an upper bound u and a lower bound l such that l  kGk1  u ;
(b) if ( u ; l )= l specied level, stop; kGk  ( u + l )=2. Otherwise go to next
step;
(c) set = ( l + u )=2;
(d) test if kGk1 < by calculating the eigenvalues of H for the given ;
(e) if H has an eigenvalue on j R set l = ; otherwise set u = ; go back to step (b).
Of course, the above algorithm applies to H1 norm computation as well. Thus L1
norm computation requires a search, over either or !, in contrast to L2 (H2 ) norm
computation, which does not. A somewhat analogous situation occurs for constant
matrices with the norms kM k22 = trace(M  M ) and kM k1 =  [M ]. In principle, kM k22
can be computed exactly with a nite number of operations, as can the test for whether
(M ) < (e.g. 2 I ; M M > 0), but the value of  (M ) cannot. To compute  (M ),
we must use some type of iterative algorithm.

116

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

Remark 4.4 It is clear that kGk1 < i ;1G 1 < 1. Hence, there is no loss of

generality to assume = 1. This assumption will often be made in the remainder of

this book. It is also noted that there are other fast algorithms to carry out the above
norm computation; nevertheless, this bisection algorithm is the simplest.
~
The H1 norm of a stable transfer function can also be estimated experimentally
using the fact that the H1 norm of a stable transfer function is the maximum magnitude
of the steady-state response to all possible unit amplitude sinusoidal input signals.

4.8 Notes and References

The basic concept of function spaces presented in this chapter can be found in any
standard functional analysis textbook, for instance, Naylor and Sell [1982] and Gohberg
and Goldberg [1981]. The system theoretical interpretations of the norms and function
spaces can be found in Desoer and Vidyasagar [1975]. The bisection H1 norm computational algorithm is rst developed in Boyd, Balakrishnan, and Kabamba [1989]. A more
ecient L1 norm computational algorithm is presented in Bruinsma and Steinbuch
[1990].

Stability and Performance of

Feedback Systems
This chapter introduces the feedback structure and discusses its stability and performance properties. The arrangement of this chapter is as follows: Section 5.1 discusses
the necessity for introducing feedback structure and describes the general feedback conguration. In section 5.2, the well-posedness of the feedback loop is dened. Next, the
notion of internal stability is introduced and the relationship is established between the
state space characterization of internal stability and the transfer matrix characterization of internal stability in section 5.3. The stable coprime factorizations of rational
matrices are also introduced in section 5.4. Section 5.5 considers feedback properties
and discusses how to achieve desired performance using feedback control. These discussions lead to a loop shaping control design technique which is introduced in section 5.6.
Finally, we consider the mathematical formulations of optimal H2 and H1 control
problems in section 5.7.

5.1 Feedback Structure

In designing control systems, there are several fundamental issues that transcend the
boundaries of specic applications. Although they may dier for each application and
may have dierent levels of importance, these issues are generic in their relationship to
control design objectives and procedures. Central to these issues is the requirement to
provide satisfactory performance in the face of modeling errors, system variations, and
117

118

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

uncertainty. Indeed, this requirement was the original motivation for the development
of feedback systems. Feedback is only required when system performance cannot be
achieved because of uncertainty in system characteristics. The more detailed treatment
of model uncertainties and their representations will be discussed in Chapter 9.
For the moment, assuming we are given a model including a representation of uncertainty which we believe adequately captures the essential features of the plant, the
next step in the controller design process is to determine what structure is necessary
to achieve the desired performance. Preltering input signals (or open loop control)
can change the dynamic response of the model set but cannot reduce the eect of uncertainty. If the uncertainty is too great to achieve the desired accuracy of response,
then a feedback structure is required. The mere assumption of a feedback structure,
however, does not guarantee a reduction of uncertainty, and there are many obstacles
to achieving the uncertainty-reducing benets of feedback. In particular, since for any
reasonable model set representing a physical system uncertainty becomes large and the
phase is completely unknown at suciently high frequencies, the loop gain must be small
at those frequencies to avoid destabilizing the high frequency system dynamics. Even
worse is that the feedback system actually increases uncertainty and sensitivity in the
frequency ranges where uncertainty is signicantly large. In other words, because of the
type of sets required to reasonably model physical systems and because of the restriction
that our controllers be causal, we cannot use feedback (or any other control structure)
to cause our closed-loop model set to be a proper subset of the open-loop model set.
Often, what can be achieved with intelligent use of feedback is a signicant reduction
of uncertainty for certain signals of importance with a small increase spread over other
signals. Thus, the feedback design problem centers around the tradeo involved in reducing the overall impact of uncertainty. This tradeo also occurs, for example, when
using feedback to reduce command/disturbance error while minimizing response degradation due to measurement noise. To be of practical value, a design technique must
provide means for performing these tradeos. We will discuss these tradeos in more
detail later in section 5.5 and in Chapter 6.
To focus our discussion, we will consider the standard feedback conguration shown
in Figure 5.1. It consists of the interconnected plant P and controller K forced by

r-e

;6

di

- ?e up-

- ?e y?en

Figure 5.1: Standard Feedback Conguration

5.2. Well-Posedness of Feedback Loop

119

command r, sensor noise n, plant input disturbance di , and plant output disturbance
d. In general, all signals are assumed to be multivariable, and all transfer matrices are
assumed to have appropriate dimensions.

5.2 Well-Posedness of Feedback Loop

Assume that the plant P and the controller K in Figure 5.1 are xed real rational
proper transfer matrices. Then the rst question one would ask is whether the feedback
interconnection makes sense or is physically realizable. To be more specic, consider a
simple example where
; 1; K = 1
P = ; ss +
2

are both proper transfer functions. However,

u = (s +3 2) (r ; n ; d) ; s ;3 1 di
i.e., the transfer functions from the external signals r ; n ; d and di to u are not proper.
Hence, the feedback system is not physically realizable!
Denition 5.1 A feedback system is said to be well-posed if all closed-loop transfer
matrices are well-dened and proper.
Now suppose that all the external signals r; n; d, and di are specied and that the
closed-loop transfer matrices from them to u are respectively well-dened and proper.
Then, y and all other signals are also well-dened and the related transfer matrices are
proper. Furthermore, since the transfer matrices from d and n to u are the same and
dier from the transfer matrix from r to u by only a sign, the system is well-posed if
and only if the transfer matrix from ddi to u exists and is proper.

In order to be consistent with the notation used in the rest of the book, we shall
denote
K^ := ;K
and regroup the external input signals into the feedback loop as w1 and w2 and regroup
the input signals of the plant and the controller as e1 and e2 . Then the feedback loop
with the plant and the controller can be simply represented as inFigure 5.2 and the
1
system is well-posed if and only if the transfer matrix from w
w2 to e1 exists and is
proper.
Lemma 5.1 The feedback system in Figure 5.2 is well-posed if and only if
I ; K^ (1)P (1)
(5:1)
is invertible.

120

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

w1

- e e1
+6

P
K^

+ w
e2 ?
e+ 2

Figure 5.2: Internal Stability Analysis Diagram

Proof. The system in the above diagram can be represented in equation form as
^ 2
e1 = w1 + Ke
e2 = w2 + Pe1 :
Then an expression for e1 can be obtained as
^ )e1 = w1 + Kw
^ 2:
(I ; KP
^ );1 exists and is proper.
Thus well-posedness is equivalent to the condition that (I ; KP
But this is equivalent to the condition that the constant term of the transfer function
^ is invertible.
I ; KP
2
It is straightforward to show that (5.1) is equivalent to either one of the following
two conditions:
 I ;K^ (1) 
is invertible;
(5:2)
;P (1)
I

I ; P (1)K^ (1) is invertible:

The well-posedness condition is simple to state in terms of state-space realizations.

Introduce realizations of P and K^ :

A B
P=
"

C D

A^
K^ = ^
C

B^
:
D^

(5:3)
(5:4)

Then P (1) = D and K^ (1) = D^ . For example, well-posedness in (5.2) is equivalent to

the condition that
 I ;D^ 
is invertible:
(5:5)
;D I

Fortunately, in most practical cases we will have D = 0, and hence well-posedness for
most practical control systems is guaranteed.

5.3. Internal Stability

121

5.3 Internal Stability

Consider a system described by the standard block diagram in Figure 5.2 and assume
the system is well-posed. Furthermore, assume that the realizations for P (s) and K^ (s)
given in equations (5.3) and (5.4) are stabilizable and detectable.
Let x and x^ denote the state vectors for P and K^ , respectively, and write the state
equations in Figure 5.2 with w1 and w2 set to zero:

x_
e2
x^_
e1

=
=
=
=

Ax + Be1
Cx + De1
^2
A^x^ + Be
^ 2:
C^ x^ + De

(5.6)
(5.7)
(5.8)
(5.9)

Denition 5.2 The system of Figure 5.2 is said to be internally stable if the origin
(x; x^) = (0; 0) is asymptotically stable, i.e., the states (x; x^) go to zero from all initial
states when w1 = 0 and w2 = 0.

Note that internal stability is a state space notion. To get a concrete characterization
of internal stability, solve equations (5.7) and (5.9) for e1 and e2 :

 e   I ;D^ ;1 
1 =

 x 
0 C^
e2
x^ :
;D I
C 0
Note that the existence of the inverse is guaranteed by the well-posedness condition.
Now substitute this into (5.6) and (5.8) to get
 x_ 

 

~ x
x^_ = A x^

where

 


0 C^ :
;D I
C 0
Thus internal stability is equivalent to the condition that A~ has all its eigenvalues in
the open left-half plane. In fact, this can be taken as a denition of internal stability.
A~ = A0 A0^ + B0 B0^

 I ;D^ ;1 

Lemma 5.2 The system of Figure 5.2 with given stabilizable and detectable realizations
for P and K^ is internally stable if and only if A~ is a Hurwitz matrix.

It is routine to verify that the above denition of internal stability depends only on

P and K^ , not on specic realizations of them as long as the realizations of P and K^ are

both stabilizable and detectable, i.e., no extra unstable modes are introduced by the
realizations.
The above notion of internal stability is dened in terms of state-space realizations
of P and K^ . It is also important and useful to characterize internal stability from the

122

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

transfer matrix point of view. Note that the feedback system in Figure 5.2 is described,
in term of transfer matrices, by
 I ;K^  e   w 
1
1
(5:10)
e = w :
;P I
2

Now it is intuitively clear that if the system in Figure 5.2 is internally stable, then for all
bounded inputs (w1 ; w2 ), the outputs (e1 ; e2) are also bounded. The following lemma
shows that this idea leads to a transfer matrix characterization of internal stability.

Lemma 5.3 The system in Figure 5.2 is internally stable if and only if the transfer
matrix

 I ;K^ ;1  I + K^ (I ; P K^ );1P K^ (I ; P K^ );1 

=

(I ; P K^ );1 P
from (w1 ; w2 ) to (e1 ; e2 ) belongs to RH1 .

;P

(I ; P K^ );1

(5:11)

 A B  " A^ B^ #
Proof. As above let C D and ^ ^ be stabilizable and detectable realizaC D
tions of P and K^ , respectively. Let y1 denote the output of P and y2 the output of K^ .
Then the state-space equations for the system in Figure 5.2 are

 x_ 
_

 yx^ 


y2
e1
e2

=
=
=

A

 x   B 0  e 
1
x^ + 0 B^
e2

 x   D 0  e 
1
x^ + 0 D^
e2
 w   0 I  y 
1 +
1 :
0
0 A^
C 0
0 C^

w2

I 0

The last two equations can be rewritten as

 I ;D^  e   0 C^
1
e2 = C 0
;D I

y2

 x   w 
1
x^ + w2 :

Now suppose that this system is internally stable. Then the well-posedness condition
implies that (I ; DD^ ) = (I ; P K^ )(1) is invertible. Hence, (I ; P K^ ) is invertible.
Furthermore, since the eigenvalues of

 

A~ = A0 A0^ + B0 B0^

 I ;D^ ;1 
;D

0 C^
C 0

are in the open left-half plane, it follows that the transfer matrix from (w1 ; w2 ) to (e1 ; e2 )
given in (5.11) is in RH1 .

5.3. Internal Stability

123

Conversely, suppose that (I ; P K^ ) is invertible and the transfer matrix in (5.11) is

in RH1 . Then, in particular, (I ; P K^ );1 is proper which implies that (I ; P K^ )(1) =
(I ; DD^ ) is invertible. Therefore,
 I ;D^ 

;D

 

e1
1
is nonsingular. Now routine calculations give the transfer matrix from w
w2 to e2
in terms of the state space realizations:

 I ;D^ ;1  I ;D^  

+
;D

;D



0 C^ (sI ; A~);1 B 0
C 0
0 B^

 I ;D^ ;1

:
;D

Since the above transfer matrix belongs to RH1 , it follows that

 0 C^ 


~);1 B 0^
(
sI
;
A
C 0
0 B
^ B;
^ C^ ) are stabias a transfer matrix belongs to RH1 . Finally, since (A; B; C ) and (A;
lizable and detectable,
  B 0   0 C^ 
~
A;
0 B^ ; C 0
is stabilizable and detectable. It then follows that the eigenvalues of A~ are in the open
left-half plane.
2
Note that to check internal stability, it is necessary (and sucient) to test whether
each of the four transfer matrices in (5.11) is in RH1 . Stability cannot be concluded
even if three of the four transfer matrices in (5.11) are in RH1 . For example, let an
interconnected system transfer function be given by
1
K^ = ; s ;1 1 :
P = ss ;
+ 1;
Then it is easy to compute
3
2
 e  6 ss ++ 12 ; (s ;s1)(+s1+ 2) 7  w 
1
75 w1 ;
6
e2 = 4 s ; 1
2
s+1
s+2
s+2
which shows that the system is not internally stable although three of the four transfer
functions are stable. This can also be seen by calculating the closed-loop A-matrix with
any stabilizable and detectable realizations of P and K^ .

124

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Remark 5.1 It should be noted that internal stability is a basic requirement for a

practical feedback system. This is because all interconnected systems may be unavoidably subject to some nonzero initial conditions and some (possibly small) errors, and
it cannot be tolerated in practice that such errors at some locations will lead to unbounded signals at some other locations in the closed-loop system. Internal stability
guarantees that all signals in a system are bounded provided that the injected signals
(at any locations) are bounded.
~
However, there are some special cases under which determining system stability is
simple.

Corollary 5.4 Suppose K^ 2 RH1. Then the system in Figure 5.2 is internally stable
i (I ; P K^ );1 P 2 RH1 .
Proof. The necessity is obvious. To prove the suciency, it is sucient to show that
(I ; P K^ );1 2 RH1 . But this follows from
(I ; P K^ );1 = I + (I ; P K^ );1 P K^
and (I ; P K^ );1 P; K^ 2 RH1 .
2
This corollary is in fact the basis for the classical control theory where the stability
is checked only for one closed-loop transfer function with the implicit assumption that
the controller itself is stable. Also, we have

Corollary 5.5 Suppose P 2 RH1. Then the system in Figure 5.2 is internally stable
i K^ (I ; P K^ );1 2 RH1 .
Corollary 5.6 Suppose P 2 RH1 and K^ 2 RH1 . Then the system in Figure 5.2 is
internally stable i (I ; P K^ );1 2 RH1 .
To study the more general case, dene

nc := number of open rhp poles of K^ (s)

np := number of open rhp poles of P (s):

Theorem 5.7 The system is internally stable if and only if

(i) the number of open rhp poles of P (s)K^ (s) = nc + np ;
(ii) (s) := det(I ; P (s)K^ (s)) has all its zeros in the open left-half plane (i.e., (I ;
P (s)K^ (s));1 is stable).

5.3. Internal Stability

125

Proof. It is easy to show that P K^ and (I ; P K^ );1 have the following realizations:

3
2
A B C^ B D^
P K^ = 64 0 A^ B^ 75
C DC^ DD^
"  
A B
(I ; P K^ );1 =  
C D

where

A =
B =

 A BC^   BD^ 
^ );1  C DC^ 
+
(
I
;
D
D
^
^
0 A
B
 BD^ 
^ ;1

B^ (I ; DD)


C = (I ; DD^ );1 C DC^
D = (I ; DD^ );1 :
It is also easy to see that A = A~. Hence, the system is internally stable i A is stable.
Now suppose that the system is internally stable, then (I ; P K^ );1 2 RH1 . This
implies that all zeros of det(I ; P (s)K^ (s)) must be in the left-half plane. So we only

need to show that given condition (ii), condition (i) is necessary and sucient for the
 B ) is stabilizable i
internal stability. This follows by noting that (A;
 A BC^   BD^ 
; B^
(5:12)
0 A^
 A) is detectable i
is stabilizable; and (C;

 A BC^ 

^
;
(5:13)
C DC
0 A^
is detectable. But conditions (5.12) and (5.13) are equivalent to condition (i), i.e., P K^
has no unstable pole/zero cancelations.
2
With this observation, the MIMO version of the Nyquist stability theorem is obvious.
Theorem 5.8 (Nyquist Stability Theorem) The system is internally stable if and only
if condition (i) in Theorem 5.7 is satised and the Nyquist plot of (j!) for ;1  ! 
1 encircles the origin, (0; 0), nk + np times in the counter-clockwise direction.

Proof. Note that by SISO Nyquist stability theorem, (s) has all zeros in the open
left-half plane if and only if the Nyquist plot of (j!) for ;1  !  1 encircles the
origin, (0; 0), nk + np times in the counter-clockwise direction.

126

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

5.4 Coprime Factorization over RH1

Recall that two polynomials m(s) and n(s), with, for example, real coecients, are said
to be coprime if their greatest common divisor is 1 (equivalent, they have no common
zeros). It follows from Euclid's algorithm1 that two polynomials m and n are coprime
i there exist polynomials x(s) and y(s) such that xm + yn = 1; such an equation is
called a Bezout identity. Similarly, two transfer functions m(s) and n(s) in RH1 are
said to be coprime over RH1 if there exists x; y 2 RH1 such that
xm + yn = 1:
The more primitive, but equivalent, denition is that m and n are coprime if every
common divisor of m and n is invertible in RH1 , i.e.,
h; mh;1; nh;1 2 RH1 =) h;1 2 RH1 :
More generally, we have
Denition 5.3 Two matrices M and N in RH1 are right coprime over RH1 if they
have the same number of columns and if there exist matrices Xr and Yr in RH1 such
that
 X Y   M  = X M + Y N = I:
r r
r
r
N
Similarly, two matrices M~ and N~ in RH1 are left coprime over RH1 if they have the
same number of rows and if there exist matrices Xl and Yl in RH1 such that

 M~ N~   Xl  = MX
~ l + NY
~ l = I:
Yl

M

Note that these denitions are equivalent to saying that the matrix N is left

invertible in RH1 and the matrix M~ N~ is right-invertible in RH1 . These two
equations are often called Bezout identities.
Now let P be a proper real-rational matrix. A right-coprime factorization (rcf)
of P is a factorization P = NM ;1 where N and M are right-coprime over RH1 .
Similarly, a left-coprime factorization (lcf) has the form P = M~ ;1N~ where N~ and M~
are left-coprime over RH1 . A matrix P (s) 2 Rp (s) is said to have double coprime
factorization if there exist a right coprime factorization P = NM ;1 , a left coprime
factorization P = M~ ;1N~ , and Xr ; Yr ; Xl ; Yl 2 RH1 such that

 X Y   M ;Y 
r
r
l
N Xl = I:
;N~ M~

(5:14)

Of course implicit in these denitions is the requirement that both M and M~ be square
and nonsingular.
1

See, e.g., [Kailath, 1980, pp. 140-141].

5.4. Coprime Factorization over RH1

127

Theorem 5.9 Suppose P (s) is a proper real-rational matrix and

A B
P=

C D
is a stabilizable and detectable realization. Let F and L be such that A + BF and A + LC
are both stable, and dene

 M ;Y  2 A + BF B ;L 3
l
5
4
N Xl = C +FDF DI 0I
 X Y  2 A + LC ;(B + LD) L 3
r
r
4 F
I
0 5:
;N~ M~ =
;D

(5:15)
(5:16)

Then P = NM ;1 = M~ ;1N~ are rcf and lcf, respectively, and, furthermore, (5.14) is
satised.

Proof. The theorem follows by verifying the equation (5.14).

Remark 5.2 Note that if P is stable, then we can take Xr = Xl = I , Yr = Yl = 0,

N = N~ = P , M = M~ = I .
~
Remark 5.3 The coprime factorization of a transfer matrix can be given a feedback
control interpretation. For example, right coprime factorization comes out naturally
from changing the control variable by a state feedback. Consider the state space equations for a plant P :
x_ = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du:
Next, introduce a state feedback and change the variable
v := u ; Fx
where F is such that A + BF is stable. Then we get
x_ = (A + BF )x + Bv
u = Fx + v
y = (C + DF )x + Dv:
Evidently from these equations, the transfer matrix from v to u is
 A + BF B 
;
M (s) =

128

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

and that from v to y is

BF B
N (s) = CA +
+ DF D :

Therefore

u = Mv; y = Nv
so that y = NM ;1 u, i.e., P = NM ;1 .

We shall now see how coprime factorizations can be used to obtain alternative characterizations of internal stability conditions. Consider again the standard stability analysis
diagram in Figure 5.2. We begin with any rcf's and lcf's of P and K^ :
P = NM ;1 = M~ ;1 N~
(5:17)
~
K^ = UV ;1 = V~ ;1 U:

(5:18)

Lemma 5.10 Consider the system in Figure 5.2. The following conditions are equivalent:
1. The feedback system is internally stable.

M U
2. N V is invertible in RH1 .
 V~ ;U~ 

;N~ M~ is invertible in RH1 .

~ ; NU
~ is invertible in RH1 .
4. MV
~ is invertible in RH1 .
5. V~ M ; UN
3.

Proof. As we saw in Lemma 5.3, internal stability is equivalent to

 I ;K^ ;1
2 RH1
;P I
or, equivalently,
Now
so that

 I K^  
=
P I

 I K^ ;1
2 RH1 :
P I
 
 M ;1
I
UV ;1 = M U
;1

NM

N V

 I K^ ;1  M
=
P I

 M U ;1
:
V
N V
0

(5:19)
0

V ;1

5.4. Coprime Factorization over RH1

M

Since the matrices

129

 

0
M U
0 V ; N V
are right-coprime (this fact is left as an exercise for the reader), (5.19) holds i

 M U ;1
2 RH1 :
N V

This proves the equivalence of conditions 1 and 2. The equivalence of 1 and 3 is proved
similarly.
The conditions 4 and 5 are implied by 2 and 3 from the following equation:
 V~ ;U~  M U   V~ M ; UN

~
0
:
~ ; NU
~
N V =
;N~ M~
0
MV
Since the left hand side of the above equation is invertible in RH1 , so is the right hand
side. Hence, conditions 4 and 5 are satised. We only need to show that either condition
4 or condition 5 implies condition 1. Let us show condition 5 ! 1; this is obvious since
 I K^ ;1
 I V~ ;1U~ ;1
= NM ;1
I
P I
=

M

0 I

 V~ M U~ ;1  V~
N

 ~ ~ ;1
if VNM UI
2 RH1 or if condition 5 is satised.

0
0 I 2 RH1

Combining Lemma 5.10 and Theorem 5.9, we have the following corollary.
Corollary 5.11 Let P be a proper real-rational matrix and P = NM ;1 = M~ ;1N~ be
corresponding rcf and lcf over RH1 . Then there exists a controller
K^ 0 = U0 V0;1 = V~0;1 U~0
with U0 ; V0 ; U~0 , and V~0 in RH1 such that
 V~ ;U~  M U   I 0 
0
0
0
(5:20)
N V0 = 0 I :
;N~ M~
Furthermore, let F and L be such that A + BF and A + LC are stable. Then a particular
set of state space realizations for these matrices can be given by
 M U  2 A + BF B ;L 3
0
5
4
(5:21)
N V0 = C +FDF DI I0
 V~ ;U~  2 A + LC ;(B + LD) L 3
0
0
4 F
(5:22)
I
0 5:
;N~ M~ =

;D

130

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Proof. The idea behind the choice of these matrices is as follows. Using the observer
theory, nd a controller K^ 0 achieving internal stability; for example


K^ 0 := A + BF +FLC + LDF ;0L :
(5:23)
Perform factorizations
K^ 0 = U0 V0;1 = V~0;1 U~0
which are analogous to the ones performed on P . Then Lemma 5.10 implies that each
of the two left-hand side block matrices of (5.20) must be invertible in RH1 . In fact,
(5.20) is satised by comparing it with the equation (5.14).
2

5.5 Feedback Properties

In this section, we discuss the properties of a feedback system. In particular, we consider
the benet of the feedback structure and the concept of design tradeos for con icting
objectives { namely, how to achieve the benets of feedback in the face of uncertainties.

r-e

;6

di
- ?e up-

- ?e y?en

Figure 5.3: Standard Feedback Conguration

Consider again the feedback system shown in Figure 5.1. For convenience, the system
diagram is shown again in Figure 5.3. For further discussion, it is convenient to dene
the input loop transfer matrix, Li , and output loop transfer matrix, Lo , as
Li = KP; Lo = PK;
respectively, where Li is obtained from breaking the loop at the input (u) of the plant
while Lo is obtained from breaking the loop at the output (y) of the plant. The input
sensitivity matrix is dened as the transfer matrix from di to up :
Si = (I + Li );1 ; up = Si di :
And the output sensitivity matrix is dened as the transfer matrix from d to y:
So = (I + Lo );1 ; y = So d:

5.5. Feedback Properties

131

The input and output complementary sensitivity matrices are dened as

Ti = I ; Si = Li (I + Li );1
To = I ; So = Lo(I + Lo);1 ;

respectively. (The word complementary is used to signify the fact that T is the complement of S , T = I ; S .) The matrix I + Li is called input return dierence matrix and
I + Lo is called output return dierence matrix.
It is easy to see that the closed-loop system, if it is internally stable, satises the
following equations:

y
r;y
u
up

=
=
=
=

To (r ; n) + So Pdi + So d
So (r ; d) + Ton ; So Pdi
KSo (r ; n) ; KSod ; Ti di
KSo (r ; n) ; KSod + Si di :

(5.24)
(5.25)
(5.26)
(5.27)

These four equations show the fundamental benets and design objectives inherent in
feedback loops. For example, equation (5.24) shows that the eects of disturbance d
on the plant output can be made \small" by making the output sensitivity function So
small. Similarly, equation (5.27) shows that the eects of disturbance di on the plant
input can be made small by making the input sensitivity function Si small. The notion
of smallness for a transfer matrix in a certain range of frequencies can be made explicit
using frequency dependent singular values, for example,  (So ) < 1 over a frequency
range would mean that the eects of disturbance d at the plant output are eectively
desensitized over that frequency range.
Hence, good disturbance rejection at the plant output (y) would require that
;


 (So ) =  (I + PK );1 = (I +1 PK ) ; (for disturbance at plant output, d)
;


 (So P ) =  (I + PK );1P = (PSi ); (for disturbance at plant input, di )
be made small and good disturbance rejection at the plant input (up ) would require
that
;


 (Si ) =  (I + KP );1 = (I +1 KP ) ; (for disturbance at plant input, di )
;


(Si K ) =  K (I + PK );1 =  (KSo); (for disturbance at plant output, d)
be made small, particularly in the low frequency range where d and di are usually
signicant.
Note that

(PK ) ; 1  (I + PK )  (PK ) + 1

(KP ) ; 1  (I + KP )  (KP ) + 1

132
then

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

1

1


(
S
)

o
(PK ) + 1
 (PK ) ; 1 ; if  (PK ) > 1

1
1
 (KP ) + 1   (Si )   (KP ) ; 1 ; if  (KP ) > 1:
These equations imply that

 (So )  1 () (PK )  1
 (Si )  1 () (KP )  1:
Now suppose P and K are invertible, then

(PK )  1 or (KP )  1 () (So P ) =  (I + PK );1 P  (K ;1 ) = (1K )

(PK )  1 or (KP )  1 () (KSo ) =  K (I + PK );1  (P ;1 ) = (1P ) :

Hence good performance at plant output (y) requires in general large output loop gain
(Lo ) = (PK )  1 in the frequency range where d is signicant for desensitizing d
and large enough controller gain (K )  1 in the frequency range where di is signicant
for desensitizing di . Similarly, good performance at plant input (up ) requires in general
large input loop gain (Li ) = (KP )  1 in the frequency range where di is signicant
for desensitizing di and large enough plant gain (P )  1 in the frequency range where
d is signicant, which can not changed by controller design, for desensitizing d. (It
should be noted that in general So 6= Si unless K and P are square and diagonal which
is true if P is a scalar system. Hence, small  (So ) does not necessarily imply small
(Si ); in other words, good disturbance rejection at the output does not necessarily
mean good disturbance rejection at the plant input.)
Hence, good multivariable feedback loop design boils down to achieving high loop (and
possibly controller) gains in the necessary frequency range.
Despite the simplicity of this statement, feedback design is by no means trivial.
This is true because loop gains cannot be made arbitrarily high over arbitrarily large
frequency ranges. Rather, they must satisfy certain performance tradeo and design
limitations. A major performance tradeo, for example, concerns commands and disturbance error reduction versus stability under the model uncertainty. Assume that the
plant model is perturbed to (I +
)P with
stable, and assume that the system is
nominally stable, i.e., the closed-loop system with
= 0 is stable. Now the perturbed
closed-loop system is stable if
det (I + (I +
)PK ) = det(I + PK ) det(I +
To)
has no right-half plane zero. This would in general amount to requiring that k
Tok be
small or that  (To ) be small at those frequencies where
is signicant, typically at

5.5. Feedback Properties

133

high frequency range, which in turn implies that the loop gain, (Lo ), should be small
at those frequencies.
Still another tradeo is with the sensor noise error reduction. The con ict between
the disturbance rejection and the sensor noise reduction is evident in equation (5.24).
Large  (Lo(j!)) values over a large frequency range make errors due to d small. However, they also make errors due to n large because this noise is \passed through" over
the same frequency range, i.e.,

y = To (r ; n) + So Pdi + So d  (r ; n):
Note that n is typically signicant in the high frequency range. Worst still, large loop
gains outside of the bandwidth of P , i.e., (Lo (j!))  1 or (Li (j!))  1 while
(P (j!))  1, can make the control activity (u) quite unacceptable, which may cause
the saturation of actuators. This follows from

u = KSo(r ; n ; d) ; Ti di = Si K (r ; n ; d) ; Ti di  P ;1 (r ; n ; d) ; di :
Here, we have assumed P to be square and invertible for convenience. The resulting
equation shows that disturbances and sensor noise are actually amplied at u whenever
the frequency range signicantly exceeds the bandwidth of P , since for ! such that
(P (j!))  1, we have
 ;1 (j!)] =  (1j!)]  1:

Similarly, the controller gain, (K ), should also be kept not too large in the frequency
range where the loop gain is small in order to not saturate the actuators. This is because
for small loop gain  (Lo (j!))  1 or (Li (j!))  1

u = KSo (r ; n ; d) ; Ti di  K (r ; n ; d):
Therefore, it is desirable to keep  (K ) not too large when the loop gain is small.
To summarize the above discussion, we note that good performance requires in some
frequency range, typically some low frequency range (0; !l ):

(PK )  1; (KP )  1;  (K )  1
and good robustness and good sensor noise rejection require in some frequency range,
typically some high frequency range (!h ; 1)

(PK )  1;  (KP )  1;  (K )  M
where M is not too large. These design requirements are shown graphically in Figure 5.4.
The specic frequencies !l and !h depend on the specic applications and the knowledge
one has on the disturbance characteristics, the modeling uncertainties, and the sensor
noise levels.

134

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

HHH
@ H6H
@ H
XXXX @@ @@@(L)
;;;;;;;ZZ @@ @
;;;;;;;;ZZ @ @
;;; ;;;;;Z S @
;; ;;;;; ; ZS @Z
;;;;; ;;; SH Z
!h
;;;; ;;;;;
Z
H
;; ;;; ; !l HHH ZZ ;;;;;;;; log !
;;;;; 
H;;;;;;;;;;
 (L)SS @@HH
;
SS @@HH;;H;;H;;
S
@@ H
S
Figure 5.4: Desired Loop Gain

5.6 The Concept of Loop Shaping

The analysis in the last section motivates a conceptually simple controller design technique: loop shaping. Loop shaping controller design involves essentially nding a controller K that shapes the loop transfer function L so that the loop gains,  (L) and  (L),
clear the boundaries specied by the performance requirements at low frequencies and
by the robustness requirements at high frequencies as shown in Figure 5.4.
In the SISO case, the loop shaping design technique is particularly eective and
simple since  (L) =  (L) = jLj. The design procedure can be completed in two steps:

SISO Loop Shaping

(1) Find a rational strictly proper transfer function L which contains all the right half
plane poles and zeros of P such that jLj clears the boundaries specied by the
performance requirements at low frequencies and by the robustness requirements
at high frequencies as shown in Figure 5.4.
L must also be chosen so that 1+ L has all zeros in the open left half plane, which
can usually be guaranteed by making L well-behaved in the crossover region, i.e.,
L should not be decreasing too fast in the frequency range of jL(j!)j  1.
(2) The controller is given by K = L=P .
The loop shaping for MIMO system can be done similarly if the singular values of
the loop transfer functions are used for the loop gains.

5.6. The Concept of Loop Shaping

135

MIMO Loop Shaping

(1) Find a rational strictly proper transfer function L which contains all the right
half plane poles and zeros of P so that the product of P and P ;1 L (or LP ;1 )
has no unstable poles and/or zeros cancelations, and (L) clears the boundary
specied by the performance requirements at low frequencies and (L) clears the
boundary specied by the robustness requirements at high frequencies as shown
in Figure 5.4.
L must also be chosen so that det(I + L) has all zeros in the open left half plane.
(This is not easy for MIMO systems.)
(2) The controller is given by K = P ;1 L if L is the output loop transfer function (or
K = LP ;1 if L is the input loop transfer function).
The loop shaping design technique can be quite useful especially for SISO control
system design. However, there are severe limitations when it is used for MIMO system
design.

Limitations of MIMO Loop Shaping

Although the above loop shaping design can be eective in some of applications, there
are severe intrinsic limitations. Some of these limitations are listed below:
 The loop shaping technique described above can only eectively deal with problems with uniformly specied performance and robustness specications. More
specically, the method can not eectively deal with problems with dierent specications in dierent channels and/or problems with dierent uncertainty characteristics in dierent channels without introducing signicant conservatism. To
illustrate this diculty, consider an uncertain dynamical system
P
= (I +
)P
where P is the nominal plant and
is the multiplicative modeling error. Assume
that
can be written in the following form
~ < 1:

=
~ Wt ; (
)
Then, for robust stability, we would require (
To ) =  (
~ Wt To) < 1 or (Wt To) 
1. If a uniform bound is required on the loop gain to apply the loop shaping technique, we would need to overbound (Wt To ):
(Wt To )  (Wt ) (To )  (Wt ) 1 ;(L(oL) ) ; if (Lo ) < 1
o
and the robust stability requirement is implied by
1 ; if (L ) < 1:
(Lo )  (W1) + 1   (W
o
t
t)

136

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Similarly, if the performance requirements, say output disturbance rejection, are
not uniformly specied in all channels but by a weighting matrix Ws such that
(Ws So )  1, then it is also necessary to overbound (Ws So ) in order to apply
the loop shaping techniques:
(Ws So )  (Ws )(So )   (L(W) s;) 1 ; if  (Lo) > 1
o
and the performance requirement is implied by
(Lo )  (Ws ) + 1   (Ws ); if  (Lo) > 1:
It is possible that the bounds for the loop shape may contradict each other at
some frequency range, as shown in the gure 5.5. However, this does not imply
that there is no controller that will satisfy both nominal performance and robust
stability except for SISO systems. This contradiction happens because the bounds

6
 (Ws )
;
;;;;;;;;;Z;ZZ


; ; ; ; ; ; ;Z
Z
;;;;;;;;;;; ;;; ZZ
;; ; ;;;;;;;;;;;Z
;;;;;; ; ;@ ;@ ;@ ;@;;@ @ @ @ @ ;;;;;;;;;P;;@P;P;@;;@ @ @ @ @ @@ log !
;; ; ; ; ; ; ;@PP@P@P@ @ @ @ @
P@P @@ @@ @
; ; ; ; ; ; ;;7
1

 (Wt )

Figure 5.5: Con ict Requirements

do not utilize the structure of weights, Ws and Wt ; and the bounds are only
sucient conditions for robust stability and nominal performance. This possibility
can be further illustrated by the following example: Assume that a two-input and
two-output system transfer matrix is given by
1 
1
P (s) = s + 1 0 1 ;
and suppose the weighting matrices are given by

2
Ws = 4

s+1

(s+1)(s+2)

s+1

3
2
5 ; Wt = 4

s+2
s+10

(s+1)
s+10
s+2
s+10

3
5:

5.7. Weighted H2 and H1 Performance

137

It is easy to show that for large , the weighting functions are as shown in Figure 5.5, and thus the above loop shaping technique cannot be applied. However,
it is also easy to show that the system with controller

K = I2
gives

0 ; W T = s+10 0
Ws S = s+2
t
1
1
0 s+2
0 s+10

and, therefore, the robust performance criterion is satised.

 Even if all of the above problems can be avoided, it may still be dicult to nd a
matrix function Lo so that K = P ;1 Lo is stabilizing. This becomes much harder
if P is non-minimum phase and/or unstable.
Hence some new methodologies have to be introduced to solve complicated problems.
The so-called LQG/LTR (Linear Quadratic Gaussian/Loop Transfer Recovery) procedure developed rst by Doyle and Stein [1981] and extended later by various authors
can solve some of the problems, but it is essentially limited to nominally minimum
phase and output multiplicative uncertain systems. For these reasons, it will not be
introduced here. This motivates us to consider the closed-loop performance directly in
terms of the closed-loop transfer functions instead of open loop transfer functions. The
following section considers some simple closed-loop performance problem formulations.

5.7 Weighted H2 and H1 Performance

In this section, we consider how to formulate some performance objectives into mathematically tractable problems. As shown in section 5.5, the performance objectives of
a feedback system can usually be specied in terms of requirements on the sensitivity
functions and/or complementary sensitivity functions or in terms of some other closedloop transfer functions. For instance, the performance criteria for a scalar system may
be specied as requiring
 js(j!)j   < 1 8!  ! ;
0
js(j!)j   > 1 8! > !0
where s(j!) = 1+p(j!1)k(j!) . However, it is much more convenient to re ect the system
performance objectives by choosing appropriate weighting functions. For example, the
above performance objective can be written as

jws (j!)s(j!)j  1; 8!
with

 ;1 8!  ! ;
0
jws (j!)j = ;1


8! > !0 :

138

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

6u~

d~i

Wu

- Wr

r-e

;6

d~

Wi
di

- ?e -

Wd
d

- ?e y- We ee?
n

Wn

 n~

Figure 5.6: Standard Feedback Conguration with Weights

In order to use ws in control design, a rational transfer function ws is usually used to
approximate the above frequency response.
The advantage of using weighted performance specications is obvious in multivariable system design. First of all, some components of a vector signal are usually more
important than others. Secondly, each component of the signal may not be measured in
the same metric; for example, some components of the output error signal may be measured in terms of length, and the others may be measured in terms of voltage. Therefore,
weighting functions are essential to make these components comparable. Also, we might
be primarily interested in rejecting errors in a certain frequency range (for example low
frequencies), hence some frequency dependent weights must be chosen.
In general, we shall modify the standard feedback diagram in Figure 5.3 into Figure 5.6. The weighting functions in Figure 5.6 are chosen to re ect the design objectives
and knowledge on the disturbances and sensor noise. For example, Wd and Wi may be
chosen to re ect the frequency contents of the disturbances d and di or they may be used
to model the disturbance power spectrum depending on the nature of signals involved
in the practical systems. The weighting matrix Wn is used to model the frequency
contents of the sensor noise while We may be used to re ect the requirements on the
shape of certain closed-loop transfer functions, for example, the shape of the output
sensitivity function. Similarly, Wu may be used to re ect some restrictions on the control or actuator signals, and the dashed precompensator Wr is an optional element used
to achieve deliberate command shaping or to represent a non-unity feedback system in
equivalent unity feedback form.
It is, in fact, essential that some appropriate weighting matrices be used in order to
utilize the optimal control theory discussed in this book, i.e., H2 and H1 theory. So
a very important step in controller design process is to choose the appropriate weights,
We ; Wd ; Wu , and possibly Wn ; Wi , and Wr . The appropriate choice of weights for a
particular practical problem is not trivial. In many occasions, as in the scalar case,
the weights are chosen purely as a design parameter without any physical bases, so

5.7. Weighted H2 and H1 Performance

139

these weights may be treated as tuning parameters which are chosen by the designer
to achieve the best compromise between the con icting objectives. The selection of the
weighting matrices should be guided by the expected system inputs and the relative
importance of the outputs.
Hence, control design may be regarded as a process of choosing a controller K such
that certain weighted signals are made small in some sense. There are many dierent
ways to dene the smallness of a signal or transfer matrix, as we have discussed in
the last chapter. Dierent denitions lead to dierent control synthesis methods, and
some are much harder than others. A control engineer should make a judgment of the
mathematical complexity versus engineering requirements.
Below, we introduce two classes of performance formulations: H2 and H1 criteria.
For the simplicity of presentation, we shall assume di = 0 and n = 0.

H2 Performance

Assume, for example, that the disturbance d~ can be approximately modeled as an

impulse with random input direction, i.e.,
d~(t) = (t)
and
E ( ) = I
where E denotes the expectation. We may choose to minimize the expected energy of
the error e due to the disturbance d~:

E kek22 = E

Z 1
0

kek2 dt = kWe So Wd k22 :

Alternatively, if we suppose that the disturbance d~ can be approximately modeled as

white noise with Sd~d~ = I , then
See = (We So Wd )Sd~d~(We So Wd ) ;
and we may chose to minimize the power of e:
Z1
kek2P = 21
Trace See (j!) d! = kWe So Wd k22 :
;1
In general, a controller minimizing only the above criterion can lead to a very large
control signal u that could cause saturation of the actuators as well as many other
undesirable problems. Hence, for a realistic controller design, it is necessary to include
the control signal u in the penalty function. Thus, our design criterion would usually
be something like this

kek22 + 2 ku~k22

o  We SoWd
= W KS W
u o d

 2

2

140

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

with some appropriate choice of weighting matrix Wu and scalar . The parameter 
clearly denes the tradeo we discussed earlier between good disturbance rejection at
the output and control eort (or disturbance and sensor noise rejection at the actuators).
Note that  can be set to  = 1 by an appropriate choice of Wu . This problem can
be viewed as minimizing the energy consumed by the system in order to reject the
disturbance d.
This type of problem was the dominant paradigm in the 1960's and 1970's and is
usually referred to as Linear Quadratic Gaussian Control or simply as LQG. (They
will also be referred to as H2 mixed sensitivity problems for the consistency with the
H1 problems discussed next.) The development of this paradigm stimulated extensive
research eorts and is responsible for important technological innovation, particularly
in the area of estimation. The theoretical contributions include a deeper understanding
of linear systems and improved computational methods for complex systems through
state-space techniques. The major limitation of this theory is the lack of formal treatment of uncertainty in the plant itself. By allowing only additive noise for uncertainty,
the stochastic theory ignored this important practical issue. Plant uncertainty is particularly critical in feedback systems.

H1 Performance

Although the H2 norm (or L2 norm) may be a meaningful performance measure and
although LQG theory can give ecient design compromises under certain disturbance
and plant assumptions, the H2 norm suers a major deciency. This deciency is due
to the fact that the tradeo between disturbance error reduction and sensor noise error
reduction is not the only constraint on feedback design. The problem is that these
performance tradeos are often overshadowed by a second limitation on high loop gains
{ namely, the requirement for tolerance to uncertainties. Though a controller may be
designed using FDLTI models, the design must be implemented and operated with a real
physical plant. The properties of physical systems, in particular the ways in which they
deviate from nite-dimensional linear models, put strict limitations on the frequency
range over which the loop gains may be large.
A solution to this problem would be to put explicit constraints on the loop gain in
the penalty function. For instance, one may chose to minimize
sup kek2 = kWe So Wd k1 ;

kd~k2 1

subject to some restrictions on the control energy or control bandwidth:

sup ku~k2 = kWu KSo Wd k1 :

kd~k2 1

Or more frequently, one may introduce a parameter  and a mixed criterion

sup

kd~k2 1

o 

 2

So Wd :
kek22 + 2 ku~k22 = WWueKS
o Wd 1

5.8. Notes and References

141

This problem can also be regarded as minimizing the maximum power of the error
subject to all bounded power disturbances: let

e

e^ := u~

 W S W   W S W 
Se^e^ = W eKSo Wd Sd~d~ W eKSo Wd
u o d
u o d

then
and

sup ke^k2P = sup

~
~

kdkP 1

kdkP 1

 

1 Z1

We SoWd
2 ;1 Trace Se~e~(j!) d! = Wu KSo Wd

 2
:
1

Alternatively, if the system robust stability margin is the major concern, the weighted
complementary sensitivity has to be limited. Thus the whole cost function may be

 W S W
We To Wd
1 o 2



1

where W1 and W2 are the frequency dependent uncertainty scaling matrices. These
design problems are usually called H1 mixed sensitivity problems. For a scalar system,
an H1 norm minimization problem can also be viewed as minimizing the maximum
magnitude of the system's steady-state response with respect to the worst case sinusoidal
inputs.

5.8 Notes and References

The presentation of this chapter is based primarily on Doyle [1984]. The discussion
of internal stability and coprime factorization can also be found in Francis [1987] and
Vidyasagar [1985]. The loop shaping design is well known for SISO systems in the
classical control theory. The idea was extended to MIMO systems by Doyle and Stein
[1981] using LQG design technique. The limitations of the loop shaping design are
discussed in detail in Stein and Doyle [1991]. Chapter 18 presents another loop shaping
method using H1 control theory which has the potential to overcome the limitations
of the LQG/LTR method.

142

STABILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Performance Limitations
This chapter introduces some multivariable versions of the Bode's sensitivity integral relations and Poisson integral formula. The sensitivity integral relations are used to study
the design limitations imposed by bandwidth constraints and the open-loop unstable
poles, while the Poisson integral formula is used to study the design constraints imposed
by the non-minimum phase zeros. These results display that the design limitations in
multivariable systems are dependent on the directionality properties of the sensitivity
function as well as those of the poles and zeros, in addition to the dependence upon pole
and zero locations which is known in single-input single-output systems. These integral
relations are also used to derive lower bounds on the singular values of the sensitivity
function which display the design tradeos.

6.1 Introduction
One important problem that arises frequently is concerned with the level of performance
that can be achieved in feedback design. It has been shown in the previous chapters that
the feedback design goals are inherently con icting, and a tradeo must be performed
among dierent design objectives. It is also known that the fundamental requirements
such as stability and robustness impose inherent limitations upon the feedback properties irrespective of design methods, and the design limitations become more severe in
the presence of right-half plane zeros and poles in the open-loop transfer function.
An important tool that can be used to quantify feedback design constraints is furnished by the Bode's sensitivity integral relation and the Poisson integral formula. These
integral formulae express design constraints directly in terms of the system's sensitivity
143

PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS

144

and complementary sensitivity functions. A well-known theorem due to Bode states

that for single-input single-output open-loop stable systems with more than one polezero excess, the integral of the logarithmic magnitude of the sensitivity function over
all frequencies must equal to zero. This integral relation therefore suggests that in the
presence of bandwidth constraints, the desirable property of sensitivity reduction in
one frequency range must be traded o against the undesirable property of sensitivity
increase at other frequencies. A result by Freudenberg and Looze [1985] further extends Bode's theorem to open-loop unstable systems, which shows that the presence
of open-loop unstable poles makes the sensitivity tradeo a more dicult task. In the
same reference, the limitations imposed by the open loop non-minimum phase zeros
upon the feedback properties were also quantied using the Poisson integral. The results presented here are some multivariable extensions of the above mentioned integral
relations.
We shall now consider a linear time-invariant feedback system with an n  n loop
transfer matrix L. Let S (s) and T (s) be the sensitivity function and the complementary
sensitivity function, respectively
S (s) = (I + L(s));1 ; T (s) = L(s)(I + L(s));1 :
(6:1)
Before presenting the multivariable integral relations, recall that a point z 2 C is a transmission zero of L(s), which has full normal rank and a minimal state space realization
(A; B; C; D), if there exist vectors  and  such that the relation

 A ; zI B   
=0
C

holds, where   = 1, and  is called the input zero direction associated with z . Analogously, a transmission zero z of L(s) satises the relation

 x w   A ; zI B  = 0;
C D

where x and w are some vectors with w satisfying the condition w w = 1. The vector
w is called the output zero direction associated with z . Note also that p 2 C is a pole of
L(s) if and only if it is a zero of L;1(s). By a slight abuse of terminology, we shall call
the input and output zero directions of L;1 (s) the input and output pole directions of
L(s), respectively.
In the sequel we shall preclude the possibility that z is both a zero and pole of L(s).
Then, by Lemma 3.27 and 3.28, z is a zero of L(s) if and only if L(z ) = 0 for some
vector ,   = 1, or w L(z ) = 0 for some vector w, w w = 1. Similarly, p is a pole of
L(s) if and only if L;1(p) = 0 for some vector ,   = 1, or w L;1(p) = 0 for some
vector w, w w = 1.
It is well-known that a non-minimum phase transfer function admits a factorization
that consists of a minimum phase part and an all-pass factor. Let zi 2 C + , i = 1;


; k,
be the non-minimum phase zeros of L(s) and let i ; i i = 1; be the input directions
generated from the following iterative procedure

6.2. Integral Relations

145

 Let (A; B; C; D) be a minimal realization of L(s) and B (0) := B ;

 Repeat for i = 1 to k
 A ; z I B(i;1)   
i =0
i
C

i

B (i) := B (i;1) ; 2(Rezi )i i :

Then, the input factorization of L(s) is given by
L(s) = Lm (s)Bk (s)


B1 (s)
where Lm (s) denotes the minimum phase factor of L(s), and Bi (s) corresponds to the
all-pass factor associated with zi :
zi 
(6:2)
Bi (s) = I ; s2Re
+ zi i i :
In fact, Lm(s) can be written as
 A B(k) 
Lm(s) := C D :
For example, suppose z 2 C is a zero of L(s). Then it is easy to verify using state space
calculation that L(s) can be factorized as
 A B ; 2(Rez)  2Rez 
L(s) = C
I ; s + z  :
D
Note that a non-minimum phase transfer function admits an output factorization
analogous to the input factorization, and the subsequent results can be applied to both
types of factorizations.

6.2 Integral Relations

In this section we provide extensions of the Bode's sensitivity integral relations and
Poisson integral relations to multivariable systems. Consider a unit feedback system
with a loop transfer function L. The following assumptions are needed:

Assumption 6.1 The closed-loop system is stable.

Assumption 6.2
lim

R!1

sup

s2C+
jsj  R

R  (L(s)) = 0

PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS

146

Each of these assumptions has important implications. Assumption 6.1 implies that
the sensitivity function S (s) is analytic in C + . Assumption 6.2 states that the open-loop
transfer function has a rollo rate of more than one pole-zero excess. Note that most
of practical systems require a rollo rate of more than one pole-zero excess in order to
maintain a sucient stability margin. One instance for this assumption to hold is that
each element of L has a rollo rate of more than one pole-zero excess.
Suppose that the open-loop transfer function L(s) has poles pi in the open right-half
plane with input pole directions i , i = 1;


; k, which are obtained through a similar
iterative procedure as in the last section.

Lemma 6.1 Let L(s) and S (s) be dened by (6.1). Then p 2 C is a zero of S (s) with
zero direction  if and only if it is a pole of L(s) with pole direction .

Proof. Let p be a pole of L(s). Then there exists ;a vector 
such

that   = 1
;1

and L;1(p) = 0. However, S (s) = (I + L(s));1 = I + L;1 (s) L;1 (s). Hence,
S (p) = 0. This establishes the suciency part. The proof for necessity follows by
reversing the above procedure.
2
Then the sensitivity function S (s) can be factorized as

S (s) = Sm (s)B1 (s)B2 (s)


Bk (s)

(6:3)
where Sm (s) has no zeros in C + , and Bi (s) is given by
pi 
Bi (s) = I ; 2Re
s + pi i i :
Theorem 6.2 Let S (s) be factorized in (6.3) and suppose that Assumptions 6.1-6.2
hold. Then

Z1
0

0k
1
X
ln (S (j!))d!  max @ (Repj )j j A :
j =1

(6:4)

It is also instructive to examine the following two extreme cases.

(i) If i j = 0 for all i; j = 1;


; k, i 6= j , then

Z1
0

ln (S (j!))d!   max Repi :

(6:5)

(ii) If i =  for all i = 1;


; k, then

Z1
0

ln (S (j!))d!  

k
X
i=1

Repi :

(6:6)

6.2. Integral Relations

147

Note also that the following equality holds

Z1
0

ln jS (j!)jd! = 

k
X
i=1

Repi

if S (s) is a scalar function.

Theorem 6.2 has an important implication toward the limitations imposed by the
open-loop unstable poles on sensitivity properties. It shows that there will exist a
frequency range over which the largest singular value of the sensitivity function exceeds
one if it is to be kept below one at other frequencies. In the presence of bandwidth
constraint, this imposes a sensitivity tradeo in dierent frequency ranges. Furthermore,
this result suggests that unlike in single-input single-output systems, the limitations
imposed by open-loop unstable poles in multivariable systems are related not only to
the locations, but also to the directions of poles and their relative interaction. The case
(i) of this result corresponds to the situation where the pole directions are mutually
orthogonal, for which the integral corresponding to each singular value is related solely
to one unstable pole with a corresponding distance to the imaginary axis, as if each
channel of the system is decoupled from the others in eects of sensitivity properties.
The case (ii) corresponds to the situation where all the pole directions are parallel, for
which the unstable poles aect only the integral corresponding to the largest singular
value, as if the channel corresponding to the largest singular value contains all unstable
poles. Clearly, these phenomena are unique to multivariable systems. The following
result further strengthens these observations and shows that the interaction between
open-loop unstable poles plays an important role toward sensitivity properties.
Corollary 6.3 Let k = 2 and let the Assumptions 6.1-6.2 hold. Then

Z1
0

ln  (S (j!))d!  2 Re(p1 + p2 ) + (Re(p1 ; p2 ))2 + 4Rep1 Rep2 cos2 \(1 ; 2 ) :

(6:7)

Proof. Note that


 Rep 0   

1
1
1 2
0 Rep2
2
 Rep 0    


1
1
1 2
max

 Re0p Re0p2  21   

max ((Rep1 )1 1 + (Rep2 )2 2 ) = max

=

= amx
= max



1 2

2 1 1

Rep1
(Rep1 )1 2 :
(Rep2 )2 1
Rep2
0

A straightforward calculation then gives

max ((Rep1 )1 1 + (Rep2 )2 2 ) = 21 Re(p1 + p2 )

Rep2

PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS

148

+ 12 (Re(p1 ; p2 ))2 + 4Rep1 Rep2 cos2 \(1 ; 2 ):

The proof is now completed.

The utility of this corollary is clear. This result fully characterizes the limitation
imposed by a pair of open-loop unstable poles on the sensitivity reduction properties.
This limitation depends not only on the relative distances of the poles to the imaginary
axis, but also on the principal angle between the two pole directions.
Next, we investigate the design constraints imposed by open-loop non-minimum
phase zeros upon sensitivity properties. The results below may be considered to be a
matrix extension of the Poisson integral relation.

Theorem 6.4 Let S (s) 2 H1 be factorized as in (6.3) and assume that

lim

max

R!1 2[;=2;=2]

ln (S (Rej ))
R

= 0:

(6:8)

Then, for any non-minimum phase zero z = x0 + jy0 2 C + of L(s) with output direction
w, w w = 1,

Z1

Z1

ln  (S (j!)) x2 + (!x0; y )2 d!   ln (Sm (z ))   ln  (S (z )):

0
;1
0

ln (S (j!)) x2 + (!x0; y )2 d!   ln w Bk;1 (z )


B1;1 (z ) :

0
;1
0

(6:9)
(6:10)

Note that the condition (6.8) is satised if L(s) is a proper rational transfer matrix.
Furthermore, for single-input single-output systems (n = 1),

 Yk



w Bi;1(z) = Yk  z + pi 
 i=1
 i=1  z ; pi 

and

Z1

Yk  + pi 
ln jS (j!)j x2 + (!x0; y )2 d! =  ln  zz ;
pi  :
0
;1
0
i=1

The more interesting result, however, is the inequality (6.10). This result again suggests
that the multivariable sensitivity properties are closely related to the pole and zero
directions. This result implies that the sensitivity reduction ability of the system may
be severely limited by the open-loop unstable poles and non-minimum phase zeros,
especially when these poles and zeros are close to each other and the angles between
their directions are small.

6.3. Design Limitations and Sensitivity Bounds

149

6.3 Design Limitations and Sensitivity Bounds

The integral relations derived in the preceding section are now used to analyze the design tradeos and the limitations imposed by the bandwidth constraint and right-half
plane poles and zeros upon sensitivity reduction properties. Similar to their counterparts for single-input single-output systems, these integral relations show that there will
necessarily exist frequencies at which the sensitivity function exceeds one if it is to be
kept below one over other frequencies, hence exhibiting a tradeo between the reduction
of the sensitivity over one frequency range against its increase over another frequency
range.
Suppose that the feedback system is designed such that the level of sensitivity reduction is given by

 (S (j!))  ML < 1; 8! 2 [;!L; !L ];

(6:11)
where ML > 0 is a given constant. Let z = x0 + jy0 2 C + be an open right-half plane
zero of L(s) with output direction w. Dene also
Z !L
x0
d!:
(z ) :=
2
;!L x0 + (! ; y0 )2
The following lower bound on the maximum sensitivity displays a limitation due to the
open right-half plane zeros upon the sensitivity reduction properties.

Corollary 6.5 Let the assumption in Theorem 6.4 holds. In addition, suppose that the
condition (6.11) is satised. Then, for each open right-half plane zero z 2 C + of L(s)
with output direction w,

 ; z z 
w Bk;1(z)


B1;1 (z) ; z ;
kS (s)k1  M
L

and

( )
( )

kS (s)k1  M
L

( )

 ; z z

( )
( )

((S (z ))) ;(z) :

(6:12)
(6:13)

Proof. Note that

Z1

ln  (S (j!)) x2 + (!x0; y )2 d!  ( ; (z )) ln kS (j!)k1 + (z ) ln(ML):

0
;1
0

Then the inequality (6.12) follows by applying inequality (6.10) and inequality (6.13)
follows by applying inequality (6.9)
2
The interpretation of Corollary 6.5 is similar to that in single-input single-output
systems. Roughly stated, this result shows that for a non-minimum phase system, its

PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS

150

sensitivity must increase beyond one at certain frequencies if the sensitivity reduction is
to be achieved at other frequencies. Of particular importance here is that the sensitivity
function will in general exhibit a larger peak in multivariable systems than in singleinput single-output systems, due to the fact that (S (z ))  1.
The design tradeos and limitations on the sensitivity reduction which arise from
bandwidth constraints as well as open-loop unstable poles can be studied using the
extended Bode integral relations. However, these integral relations by themselves do
not mandate a meaningful tradeo between the sensitivity reduction and the sensitivity
increase, since the sensitivity function can be allowed to exceed one by an arbitrarily
small amount over an arbitrarily large frequency range so as not to violate the Bode
integral relations. However, bandwidth constraints in feedback design typically require
that the open-loop transfer function be small above a specied frequency, and that it roll
o at a rate of more than one pole-zero excess above that frequency. These constraints
are commonly needed to ensure stability robustness despite the presence of modeling
uncertainty in the plant model, particularly at high frequencies. One way of quantifying
such bandwidth constraints is by requiring the open-loop transfer function to satisfy

(L(j!))  !M1+Hk   < 1; 8! 2 [!H ; 1)

(6:14)

where !H > !L , and MH > 0, k > 0 are some given constants. With the bandwidth
constraint given as such, the following result again shows that the sensitivity reduction
specied by (6.11) can be achieved only at the expense of increasing the sensitivity at
certain frequencies.

Corollary 6.6 Suppose the Assumptions 6.1-6.2 hold. In addition, suppose that the

conditions (6.11) and (6.14) are satised for some !H and !L such that !H > !L .
Then
 1  !H!;L!L
!H

(6:15)
max  (S (j!))  e
(1 ; ) k(!H ;!L)

ML

!2[!L ;!H ]

where

max

Pk

i=1 (Repi ) i i
!H ; !L


:

Proof. Note rst that for !  !H ,

 (S (j!)) = (I + 1L(j!))  1 ;  (1L(j!)) 
and

Z1 


1 Z 1 1  M i
X
M
H
H d!
; ln 1 ; !1+k d! =
1+
k
!H
i=1 !H i !

1 ; !M1+Hk

6.4. Bode's Gain and Phase Relation

151

!i

1 1
X

!H
MH
=
1+k
i
i
(1
+
k
)
;
1
!
H
i=1
!
1 1 M !i
X
!
!
M
H
H
H
H
 k
1+k = ; k ln 1 ; ! 1+k
H
i=1 i !H
!
H
 ; k ln(1 ; ):

Then

Z1
0

ln  (S (j!))d! =

Z !L
0

ln  (S (j!))d! +

Z !H
!L

ln (S (j!))d! +

Z1 

Z1
!H

ln  (S (j!))d!

 !L ln ML + (!H ; !L ) !2max
ln (S (j!)) ;
ln 1 ; !M1+Hk d!
[!L ;!H ]
!H
!
 !L ln ML + (!H ; !L ) !2max
ln (S (j!)) ; kH ln(1 ; )
[! ;! ]
L H

and the result follows from applying (6.4).

The above lower bound shows that the sensitivity can be very signicant in the
transition band.

6.4 Bode's Gain and Phase Relation

In the classical feedback theory, the Bode's gain-phase integral relation (see Bode [1945])
has been used as an important tool to express design constraints in scalar systems. The
following is an extended version of the Bode's gain and phase relationship for an openloop stable scalar system with possible right-half plane zeros, see Freudenberg and Looze
[1988] and Doyle, Francis, and Tannenbaum [1992]:

Z 1 d ln jLj
Yk j!0 + zi
j

j
1
ln coth 2 d + \ j! ; z
\L(j!0 ) = 
;1 d
i=1 0 i

where zi 's are assumed to be the right-half plane zeros of L(s) and  := ln(!=!0 ). Note
L(j!)j is the slope of the Bode plot which is almost always negative. It follows
that d ln jd
that \L(j!0 ) will be large if the gain L attenuates slowly and small if it attenuates
rapidly. The behavior of \L(j!) is particularly important near the crossover frequency
!c where jL(j!c )j = 1 since  + \L(j!c) is the phase margin of the feedback system,
and further the return dierence is given by
  + \L(j! ) 
c 
;
1
j1 + L(j!c )j = j1 + L (j!c )j = 2 sin

2

PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS

152

which must not be too small for good stability robustness. If  + \L(j!c ) is forced to
be very small by rapid gain attenuation, the feedback system will amplify disturbances
0 + z i  0 for each i,
and exhibit little uncertainty tolerance at and near !c . Since \ j!
j!0 ; zi
a non-minimum phase zero contributes an additional phase lag and imposes limitations
upon the rollo rate of the open-loop gain. The con ict between attenuation rate
and loop quality near crossover is thus clearly evident. A thorough discussion of the
limitations these relations impose upon feedback control design is given by Bode [1945],
Horowitz [1963], and Freudenberg and Looze [1988]. See also Freudenberg and Looze
[1988] for some multivariable generalizations.
In the classical feedback theory, it has been common to express design goals in
terms of the \shape" of the open-loop transfer function. A typical design requires that
the open-loop transfer function have a high gain at low frequencies and a low gain at
high frequencies while the transition should be well-behaviored. The same conclusion
applies to multivariable system where the singular value plots should be well-behaviored
between the transition band.

6.5 Notes and References

The results presented in this chapter are based on Chen [1992a, 1992b, 1995]. Some
related results can be found in Boyd and Desoer [1985] and Freudenberg and Looze
[1988]. The related results for scalar systems can be found in Bode [1945], Horowitz
[1963], Doyle, Francis, and Tannenbaum [1992], and Freudenberg and Looze [1988].
The study of analytic functions, harmonic functions1 , and various integral relations
in the scalar case can be found in Garnett [1981] and Homan [1962].

1 A function : C 7;! R is said to be a harmonic function (subharmonic function) if 52 ( ) = 0

(52 ( )  0) where the symbol 52 ( ) with = + denotes the Laplacian of ( ) and is dened
by
2
2
52 ( ) := (2 ) + (2 )
f

f s

f s

f s

f s

jy

f s

@ f s

@ f s

@x

@y

Model Reduction by Balanced

Truncation
In this chapter we consider the problem of reducing the order of a linear multivariable
dynamical system. There are many ways to reduce the order of a dynamical system.
However, we shall study only two of them: balanced truncation method and Hankel
norm approximation method. This chapter focuses on the balanced truncation method
while the next chapter studies the Hankel norm approximation method.
A model order reduction problem can in general be stated as follows: Given a full
order model G(s), nd a lower order model, say, an r-th order model Gr , such that G
and Gr are close in some sense. Of course, there are many ways to dene the closeness
of an approximation. For example, one may desire that the reduced model be such that

G = Gr +
a
and
a is small in some norm. This model reduction is usually called an additive model
reduction problem. On the other hand, one may also desire that the approximation be
in relative form
Gr = G(I +
rel )
so that
rel is small in some norm. This is called a relative model reduction problem.
We shall be only interested in L1 norm approximation in this book. Once the norm is
chosen, the additive model reduction problem can be formulated as
inf

deg(Gr )r

kG ; Gr k1

153

154

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

and the relative model reduction problem can be formulated as

inf G;1 (G ; Gr ) 1
deg(Gr )r

if G is invertible. In general, a practical model reduction problem is inherently frequency

weighted, i.e., the requirement on the approximation accuracy at one frequency range
can be drastically dierent from the requirement at another frequency range. These
problems can in general be formulated as frequency weighted model reduction problems
inf kW (G ; Gr )Wi k1
deg(G )r o
r

with appropriate choice of Wi and Wo . We shall see in this chapter how the balanced
realization can give an eective approach to the above model reduction problems.

7.1 Model Reduction by Balanced Truncation

A B
is a balanced realizaConsider a stable system G 2 RH1 and suppose G =
C D

tion, i.e., its controllability and observability Gramians are equal and diagonal. Denote
the balanced Gramians by , then
A + A + BB  = 0
(7:1)
A  + A + C  C = 0:
(7:2)
 0 
Now partition the balanced Gramian as  = 01  and partition the system
2
accordingly as
2
3

A11 A12
G = 4 A21 A22
C1 C2

B1
B2
D

5:

Then (7.1) and (7.2) can be written in terms of their partitioned matrices as
A11 1 + 1 A11 + B1 B1 = 0
(7.3)
1 A11 + A11 1 + C1 C1 = 0
(7.4)


A21 1 + 2 A12 + B2 B1 = 0
(7.5)


2 A21 + A12 1 + C2 C1 = 0
(7.6)


A22 2 + 2 A22 + B2 B2 = 0
(7.7)
2 A22 + A22 2 + C2 C2 = 0:
(7.8)
The following theorem characterizes the properties of these subsystems.
Theorem 7.1 Assume that 1 and 2 have no diagonal entries in common. Then both
subsystems (Aii ; Bi ; Ci ); i = 1; 2 are asymptotically stable.

7.1. Model Reduction by Balanced Truncation

155

Proof. It is clearly sucient to show that A11 is asymptotically stable. The proof for
the stability of A22 is similar.
By Lemma 3.20 or Lemma 3.21, 1 can be assumed to be positive denite without
loss of generality. Then it is obvious that i (A11 )  0 by Lemma 3.19. Assume that
A11 is not asymptotically, then there exists an eigenvalue at j! for some !. Let V be
a basis matrix for Ker(A11 ; j!I ). Then we have
(A11 ; j!I )V = 0
which gives

(7:9)

V  (A11 + j!I ) = 0:

Equations (7.3) and (7.4) can be rewritten as

(A11 ; j!I )1 + 1 (A11 + j!I ) + B1 B1 = 0

1 (A11 ; j!I ) + (A11 + j!I )1 + C1 C1 = 0:

(7.10)
(7.11)

Multiplication of (7.11) from the right by V and from the left by V  gives V  C1 C1 V = 0,
which is equivalent to
C1 V = 0:
Multiplication of (7.11) from the right by V now gives
(A11 + j!I )1 V = 0:
Analogously, rst multiply (7.10) from the right by 1 V and from the left by V  1 to
obtain
B1 1 V = 0:
Then multiply (7.10) from the right by 1 V to get
(A11 ; j!I )21 V = 0:
It follows that the columns of 21 V are in Ker(A11 ; j!I ). Therefore, there exists a
matrix  1 such that
21 V = V  21 :
Since  21 is the restriction of 21 to the space spanned by V , it follows that it is possible
to choose V such that  21 is diagonal. It is then also possible to choose  1 diagonal and
such that the diagonal entries of  1 are a subset of the diagonal entries of 1 .
Multiply (7.5) from the right by 1 V and (7.6) by V to get

A21 21 V + 2 A12 1 V = 0

2 A21 V + A12 1 V = 0
which gives

(A21 V ) 21 = 22 (A21 V ):

156

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

This is a Sylvester equation in (A21 V ). Because  21 and 22 have no diagonal entries in
common it follows from Lemma 2.7 that

A21 V = 0

(7:12)

is the unique solution. Now (7.12) and (7.9) implies that

A

11
A21

A12
A22

 V 
0

V 

= j! 0

which means that the A-matrix of the original system has an eigenvalue at j!. This
contradicts the fact that the original system is asymptotically stable. Therefore A11
must be asymptotically stable.
2

Corollary 7.2 If  has distinct singular values, then every subsystem is asymptotically

stable.

The stability condition in Theorem 7.1 is only sucient. For example,

2 ;2 ;2:8284 ;2 3
(s ; 1)(s ; 2) = 4 0
;1 ;1:4142 5
(s + 1)(s + 2)
2

1:4142

is a balanced realization with  = I and every subsystem of the realization is stable.

On the other hand,

1
1:4142 1:4142
s2 ; s + 2 = 4 ;1;:4142
0
0 5
s2 + s + 2
;1:4142 0
1
is also a balanced realization with  = I but one of the subsystems is not stable.

Theorem 7.3 Suppose G(s) 2 RH1 and

2 A A
11
12
G(s) = 4 A21 A22
C1 C2

B1
B2
D

3
5

is a balanced realization with Gramian  = diag(1 ; 2 )

1 = diag(1 Is1 ; 2 Is2 ; : : : ; r Isr )

2 = diag(r+1 Isr+1 ; r+2 Isr+2 ; : : : ; N IsN )
and

1 > 2 >


> r > r+1 > r+2 >


> N

7.1. Model Reduction by Balanced Truncation

157

where i has multiplicity si ; i = 1; 2; : : :; N and s1 + s2 +


+ sN = n. Then the

truncated system


Gr (s) = AC11 BD1
1

is balanced and asymptotically stable. Furthermore

kG(s) ; Gr (s)k1  2(r+1 + r+2 +


+ N )
and the bound is achieved if r = N ; 1, i.e.,
kG(s) ; GN ;1 (s)k1 = 2N :

Proof. The stability of Gr follows from Theorem 7.1. We shall now prove the error
bound for the case si = 1 for all i. The case where the multiplicity of i is not equal to
one is more complicated and an alternative proof is given in the next chapter. Hence,
we assume si = 1 and N = n.
Let
(s) := (sI ; A11 );1
(s) := sI ; A22 ; A21 (s)A12
B~ (s) := A21 (s)B1 + B2
C~ (s) := C1 (s)A12 + C2
then using the partitioned matrix results of section 2.3,
G(s) ; Gr (s) = C (sI ; A);1 B ; C1 (s)B1
=

 C C   sI ; A11 ;A12 ;1  B1  ; C (s)B

1
2
1
1
;A21 sI ; A22
B2

= C~ (s) ;1 (s)B~ (s)

computing this quantity on the imaginary axis to get
=2 h ;1 (j! )B~ (j! )B~  (j! ) ; (j! )C~  (j! )C~ (j! )i : (7:13)
 [G(j!) ; Gr (j!)] = 1max
Expressions for B~ (j!)B~  (j!) and C~  (j!)C~ (j!) are obtained by using the partitioned
form of the internally balanced Gramian equations (7.3){(7.8).
An expression for B~ (j!)B~  (j!) is obtained by using the denition of B (s), substituting for B1 B1 , B1 B2 and B2 B2 from the partitioned form of the Gramian equations
(7.3){(7.5), we get
B~ (j!)B~  (j!) = (j!)2 + 2  (j!):
The expression for C~  (j!)C~ (j!) is obtained analogously and is given by
C~  (j!)C~ (j!) = 2 (j!) +  (j!)2 :

158

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

These expressions for B~ (j!)B~  (j!) and C~  (j!)C~ (j!) are then substituted into (7.13)
to obtain
=2  + ;1 (j! )  (j! ) + ; (j! ) (j! ) :
 [G(j!) ; Gr (j!)] = 1max
2
2
2
2

Now consider one-step order reduction, i.e., r = n ; 1, then 2 = n and



=2
 [G(j!) ; Gr (j!)] = n 1max
1 + ;1(j!) [1 + (j!)]

(7:14)

where  := ; (j!) (j!) = ; is an \all pass" scalar function. (This is the only
place we need the assumption of si = 1) Hence j(j!)j = 1.
Using triangle inequality we get

 [G(j!) ; Gr (j!)]  n [1 + j(j!)j] = 2n :

(7:15)

This completes the bound for r = n ; 1.

The remainder of the proof is achieved
 the order reduction by one step
 A byB using
results and by noting that Gk (s) = C11 D1 obtained by the \k-th" order parti1
tioning is internally balanced with balanced Gramian given by
1 = diag(1 Is1 ; 2 Is2 ; : : : ; k Isk ):
Let Ek (s) = Gk+1 (s) ; Gk (s) for k = 1; 2; : : : ; N ; 1 and let GN (s) = G(s). Then

 [Ek (j!)]  2k+1

since Gk (s) is a reduced order model obtained from the internally balanced realization
of Gk+1 (s) and the bound for one-step order reduction, (7.15) holds.
Noting that

G(s) ; Gr (s) =
by the denition of Ek (s), we have

 [G(j!) ; Gr (j!)] 

NX
;1
k =r

NX
;1
k=r

Ek (s)

 [Ek (j!)]  2

NX
;1
k=r

k+1 :

This is the desired upper bound.

To see that the bound is actually achieved when r = N ; 1, we note that (0) = I .
Then the right hand side of (7.14) is 2N at ! = 0.
2
The singular values i are called the Hankel singular values. A useful consequence
of the above theorem is the following corollary.

7.1. Model Reduction by Balanced Truncation

159

Corollary 7.4 Let i ; i = 1; : : : ; N be the Hankel singular values of G(s) 2 RH1 .

Then
kG(s) ; G(1)k1  2(1 + : : : + N ):
The above bound can be tight for some systems. For example, consider an n-th order
transfer function
n
2j
X
G(s) = s + 2j ;
j =1

with  > 0. Then kG(s)k1 = G(0) = n and G(s) has the following state space
realization
2 2
3

66
G = 666
4

;4

...

;2n
n

77
77
7
n 5
..
.

0
and the controllability and observability Gramians of the realization are given by

i+j

P = Q = 2i+ 2j

and P = Q ! 21 In as  ! 1. So the Hankel singular values j ! 12 and 2(1 + 2 +

+ n ) ! n = kG(s)k1 as  ! 1.
The model reduction bound can also be loose for systems with Hankel singular values
close to each other. For example, consider the balanced realization of a fourth order
system
2 ;19:9579 ;5:4682 9:6954 0:9160 ;6:3180 3
66 5:4682
0
0
0:2378 0:0020 77
6
0
0
;4:0051 ;0:0067 7
G(s) = 6 ;9:6954
4 0:9160 ;0:2378 4:0051 ;0:0420 0:2893 75
;6:3180 ;0:0020 0:0067 0:2893
0
with Hankel singular values given by

1 = 1; 2 = 0:9977; 3 = 0:9957; 4 = 0:9952:

The approximation errors and the estimated bounds are listed in the following table.
The table shows that the actual error for an r-th order approximation is almost the same
as 2r+1 which would be the estimated bound if we regard r+1 = r+2 =


= 4 . In
general, it is not hard to construct an n-th order system so that the r-th order balanced
model reduction error is approximately 2r+1 but the error bound is arbitrarily close
to 2(n ; r)r+1 . One method to construct such system is as follows: Let G(s) be a
stable all-pass function, i.e., G(s) G(s) = I , then there is a balanced realization for
G so that the controllability and observability Gramians are P = Q = I . Next make

160

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

a very small perturbation to the balanced realization then the perturbed system has
a balanced realization with distinct singular values and P = Q  I . This perturbed
system will have the desired properties and this is exactly how the above example is
constructed.

0
1
2
3
2
1.996 1.991 1.9904
Bounds: 2 4i=r+1 i 7.9772 5.9772 3.9818 1.9904
2r+1
2
1.9954 1.9914 1.9904

kG ; GPr k1

7.2 Frequency-Weighted Balanced Model Reduction

This section considers the extension of the balanced truncation method to frequency
weighted case. Given the original full order model G 2 RH1 , the input weighting
matrix Wi 2 RH1 and the output weighting matrix Wo 2 RH1 , our objective is to
nd a lower order model Gr such that

kWo (G ; Gr )Wi k1
is made as small as possible. Assume that G; Wi , and Wo have the following state space
realizations

A B 
A B 
A B
i
i
G = C 0 ; Wi = C D ; Wo = Co Do
i
i
o
o

with A 2 Rnn . Note that there is no loss of generality in assuming D = G(1) = 0

since otherwise it can be eliminated by replacing Gr with D + Gr .
Now the state space realization for the weighted transfer matrix is given by

2 A 0 BC BD 3
" A B #
i
i
6
7
B
C
A
0
0
o
o
Wo GWi = 64 0 0 Ai Bi 75 =: 
:
C 0
Do C Co

Let P and Q be the solutions to the following Lyapunov equations

AP + P A + B B  = 0
Q A + A Q + C  C = 0:

(7.16)
(7.17)

Then the input weighted Gramian P and the output weighted Gramian Q are dened
by
I 
I 




n


P := In 0 P 0 ; Q := In 0 Q 0n :

7.3. Relative and Multiplicative Model Reductions

161

It can be shown easily that P and Q satisfy the following lower order equations

A
0

BC
A



P P12
P12 P22

 
+

 A

P P12
P12 P22

BC
A

  BD  BD 
i

=0

(7 18)

Q Q12
Q12 Q22



A 0
BC A
o

 
+

A 0
BC A
o

 

Q Q12
Q12 Q22

  C D  C D 
C

C
o

=0

(7 19)

The computation can be further reduced if Wi = I or Wo = I . In the case of Wi = I ,

P can be obtained from

PA + AP + BB  = 0

(7:20)

while in the case of Wo = I , Q can be obtained from

QA + A Q + C  C = 0:
Now let T be a nonsingular matrix such that

(7:21)

TPT  = (T ;1 ) QT ;1 = 1 
2

(i.e., balanced) with 1 = diag(1 Is1 ; : : : ; r Isr ) and 2 = diag(r+1 Isr+1 ; : : : ; n Isn )
and partition the system accordingly as

 TAT ;1 TB  2 A11 A12 B1 3

4
5
CT ;1 0 = A21 A22 B2 :
C1

Then a reduced order model Gr is obtained as

Gr =

A

11
C1

C2

B1 :
0

Unfortunately, there is generally no known a priori error bound for the approximation
error and the reduced order model Gr is not guaranteed to be stable either.

7.3 Relative and Multiplicative Model Reductions

A very special frequency weighted model reduction problem is the relative error model
reduction problem where the objective is to nd a reduced order model Gr so that

Gr = G(I +
rel )

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

162

and k
rel k1 is made as small as possible.
rel is usually called the relative error. In
the case where G is square and invertible, this problem can be simply formulated as
G;1 (G ; G ) :
min
r 1
degG r
r

Of course the dual approximation problem

Gr = (I +
rel )G
can be obtained by taking the transpose of G. We will show below that, as a bonus,
the approximation Gr obtained below also serves as a multiplicative approximation:
G = Gr (I +
mul )
where
mul is usually called the multiplicative error.
Theorem 7.5 Let G; G;1 2 RH1 be an n-th order square transfer matrix with a state
space realization
A B
G(s) = C D :

 A ; BD;1C ;BD;1 
;1
;1 .

Let Wi = I and Wo = G;1 (s) =

D C
D
(a) Then the weighted Gramians P and Q for the frequency weighted balanced realization of G can be obtained as
PA + AP + BB  = 0
(7:22)
Q(A ; BD;1 C ) + (A ; BD;1 C ) Q + C  (D;1 ) D;1 C = 0:
(7:23)
(b) Suppose the realization for G is weighted balanced, i.e.,
P = Q = diag(1 Is1 ; : : : ; r Isr ; r+1 Isr+1 ; : : : ; N IsN ) = diag(1 ; 2 )
with 1 > 2 > : : : > N  0 and let the realization of G be partitioned compatibly
with 1 and 2 as

2A A B 3
1
11
12
G(s) = 4 A21 A22 B2 5 :
C1

Then

Gr (s) =

A

C2 D

is stable and minimum phase. Furthermore

k
rel k1 
k
mul k1 

N 
Y

i=r+1
N 
Y

i=r+1

1 + 2i (

1 + 2i (

B1
D

11
C1

1 +  2 + i )

;1

1 + 2 + i )

; 1:

7.3. Relative and Multiplicative Model Reductions

163

Proof. Since the input weighting matrix Wi = I , it is obvious that the input weighted
Gramian is given by P . Now the output weighted transfer matrix is given by

G;1 (G ; D) =

2 A
3 "
0
B
 B #
A
;
1
;
1
4 ;BD C A ; BD C 0 5 =: 
:
C 0
;1
;1
D C

It is easy to verify that

D C

Q
Q := Q
Q Q

satises the following Lyapunov equation

Q A + A Q + C  C = 0:
Hence Q is the output weighted Gramian.
The proof for part (b) is more involved and needs much more work. We refer readers
to the references at the end of the chapter for details.
2
In the above theorem, we have assumed that the system is square, we shall now
extend the results to include non-square case. Let G(s) be a minimum phase transfer
matrix with a minimal realization

B
G(s) = CA D

and assume that D has full row rank. Without loss of generality, we shall also assume
that D
such that DD = I . Let D? be a matrix with full row rank such
 isDnormalized

that D is square and unitary.
?

Lemma 7.6 A complex number z 2 C is a zero of G(s) if and only if z is an uncontrollable mode of (A ; BD C; BD? ).

A B
Proof. Since D has full row rank and G(s) = C D is a minimal realization, z
is a transmission zero of G(s) if and only if

 A ; zI B 
C

does not have full row rank. Now note that

 A ; zI B  I
C

2 I 0

0
4 ;C I
[D ; D ]
?

0
0

0 I

3
5

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

164

Then it is clear that


 BD
? :
= A ; BD0 C ; zI BD
I
0

 A ; zI B 
C

does not have full row rank if and only if

 A ; BD C ; zI BD 
?

does not have full row rank. By PBH test, this implies that z is a zero of G(s) if and
only if it is an uncontrollable mode of (A ; BD C; BD? ).
2

Corollary 7.7 There exists a matrix C~ such that the augmented system

 A B  2 A B 3  G(s) 
Ga := C D = 4 C D 5 = G~ (s)
a
a
C~ D?

is minimum phase.

Proof. Note that the zeros of Ga are given by the eigenvalues of

 D ;1  C 

~
A;B D
C~ = A ; BD C ; BD? C:
?

Hence C~ can always be chosen so that A ; BD C ; BD? C~ is stable.

If the previous model reduction algorithms are applied to the augmented system Ga ,
the corresponding P and Q equations are given by
PA + AP + BB  = 0
Q(A ; BDa;1 Ca ) + (A ; BDa;1 Ca ) Q + Ca (Da;1 ) Da;1 Ca = 0:
Moreover, we have
" ^ # 
"
#
G(s) = G(s)  (I +
);  G(s)  = G^ (s) (I +
)
rel
mul
G~ (s)
G~ (s)
G^~ (s)
G^~ (s)
and
G^ (s) = G(s)(I +
rel ); G(s) = G^ (s)(I +
mul ):
However, there are in general innitely many choices of C~ and the model reduction
results will in general depend on the specic choice. Hence an appropriate choice of C~
is important. To motivate our choice, note that the equation for Q can be rewritten as
Q(A;BD C )+(A;BD C ) Q;QBD? D? B  Q+C  C +(C~ ;D? B  Q) (C~ ;D?B  Q) = 0

7.3. Relative and Multiplicative Model Reductions

A natural choice might be

165

C~ = D?B  Q:

The existence of a solution Q to the following so-called algebraic Riccati equation

Q(A ; BD C ) + (A ; BD C ) Q ; QBD? D? B  Q + C  C = 0

such that

A ; BDa;1 Ca = A ; BD C ; BD? C~ = A ; BD C ; BD? D? B  Q

is stable will be shown in Chapter 13.
In the case where the model is not stable and /or is not minimum phase, the following
procedure can be used: Let G(s) be factorized as G(s) = Gap (s)Gmp (s) such that Gap
is an all-pass, i.e., Gap Gap = I , and Gmp is stable and minimum phase. Let G^ mp be a
relative/multiplicative reduced model of Gmp such that

G^ mp = Gmp (I +
rel )
and

Gmp = G^ mp (I +
mul):

Then G^ := Gap G^ mp has exactly the same right half plane poles and zeros as that of G
and
G^ = G(I +
rel )
G = G^ (I +
mul):
Unfortunately, this approach may be conservative if the transfer matrix has many nonminimum phase zeros or unstable poles.
An alternative relative/multiplicative model reduction approach, which does not
require that the transfer matrix be minimum phase but does require solving an algebraic
Riccati equation, is the so-called Balanced Stochastic Truncation (BST) method. Let
G(s) 2 RH1 be a square transfer matrix with a state space realization

B
G(s) = CA D

and det(D) 6= 0. Let W (s) 2 RH1 be a minimum phase left spectral factor of
G(s)G (s), i.e,
W  (s)W (s) = G(s)G (s):
Then W (s) can be obtained as

 A B 
W
W (s) =

CW D

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

166
with

BW = PC  + BD
CW = D;1 (C ; BW X )
where P is the controllability Gramian given by

AP + PA + BB  = 0

(7.24)

and X is the solution of a Riccati equation

XAW + AW X + XBW (DD );1 BW X + C  (DD );1 C = 0

(7:25)

 X is stable. The
with AW := A ; BW (DD );1 C such that AW + BW (DD );1 BW
realization G is said to be a balanced stochastic realization if

2I
66 1 s 2Is
P = X = 64
1

...

n Isn

3
77
75

with 1 > 2 > : : : > n  0. i is in fact the i-th Hankel singular value of the so-called
\phase matrix" (W  (s));1 G(s).

Theorem 7.8 Let G(s) 2 RH1 have the following balanced stochastic realization

 A B  2 A11 A12 B1 3
G(s) = C D = 4 A21 A22 B2 5
C1

C2 D

with det(D) 6= 0 and P = X = diag(M1 ; M2 ) where

M1 = diag(1 Is1 ; : : : ; r Isr ); M2 = diag(r+1 Isr+1 ; : : : ; n Isn ):

Then

G^ = A11 B1

C1 D

is stable and

n 1+
;1

Y
i ;1
G (G ; G^) 1 
1
;

i
i=r+1
n 1+
;1

Y
i
G^ (G ; G^ ) 1 
1 ; i ; 1:
i=r+1

7.4. Notes and References

167

It can be shown that the balanced stochastic realization

p and the self-weighted balanced
realization in Theorem 7.5 are the same and i = i = 1 + i2 if G(s) is minimum phase.
To illustrate, consider a third order stable and minimum phase transfer function
3 + 2s2 + 3s + 4
G(s) = ss3 +
3s2 + 4s + 4 :

It is easy to show that the Hankel singular values of the phase function is given by

1 = 0:55705372196966; 2 = 0:53088390857035; 3 = 0:03715882438832;

and a rst order BST approximation is given by
+ 0:00375717470515:
G^ = ss +
0:00106883052786
The relative approximation error is 2:51522024045904 and the error bound is

Y3 1 + i

i=2 1 ; i

; 1 = 2:51522024046226:

7.4 Notes and References

The balanced model reduction method was rst introduced by Moore [1981]. The stability properties of the reduced order model were shown by Pernebo and Silverman [1982].
The error bound for the balanced model reduction was shown by Enns [1984] and Glover
[1984] subsequently gave an independent proof. The frequency weighted balanced model
reduction method was also introduced by Enns [1984] from a somewhat dierent perspective. The error bounds for the relative and multiplicative approximations using the
self-weighted balanced realization were shown by Zhou [1993]. The Balanced Stochastic
Truncation (BST) method was proposed by Desai and Pal [1984] and generalized by
Green [1988a,1988b] and many other people. The relative error bound for the Balanced
Stochastic Truncation method was obtained by Green [1988a] and the multiplicative
error bound for the BST was obtained by Wang and Safonov [1992]. It was also shown
in Zhou [1993] that the frequency self-weighted method and the BST method are the
same if the transfer matrix is minimum phase. Improved error bounds for the BST
reduction were reported in Wang and Safonov [1990,1992] where it was claimed that
the following error bounds hold
n
;1

X
i
G (G ; G^) 1  2
1
;
i
i=r+1
n
;1

X
i
^
^
G (G ; G) 1  2
1 ; i :
i=r+1

168

MODEL REDUCTION BY BALANCED TRUNCATION

However, the example in the last section gives

2

3
X
i

i=2 1 ; i

= 2:34052280324021

which is smaller than the actual error. Other weighted model reduction methods can
be found in Al-Saggaf and Franklin [1988], Glover [1986,1989], Glover, Limebeer and
Hung [1992], Hung and Glover [1986] and references therein. Discrete time balance
model reduction results can be found in Al-Saggaf and Franklin [1987], Hinrichsen and
Pritchard [1990], and references therein.

Hankel Norm Approximation

This chapter is devoted to the study of optimal Hankel norm approximation and its
applications in L1 norm model reduction. The Hankel operator is introduced rst
together with some time domain and frequency domain characterizations. The optimal
Hankel norm approximation problem can be stated as follows:
Given G (s) of McMillan
degree n, nd G^ (s) of McMillan degree k < n such that G(s) ; G^ (s) is minimized.
H
The solution to this approximation problem relies on the all-pass dilation result of a
square transfer function which will be given for a general class of transfer functions.
The all-pass dilation results are then specialized to obtain the optimal Hankel norm
approximations, which gives


inf G(s) ; G^ (s) = k+1
H

where 1 > 2 : : : > k+1 : : : > n are the Hankel singular values of G(s). Moreover,
we show that a square stable transfer function G(s) can be represented as
G(s) = D0 + 1 E1 (s) + 2 E2 (s) + : : : + n En (s)
where Ek (s) are all-pass functions and the partial sum D0 + 1 E1 (s) + 2 E2 (s) + : : : +
k Ek (s) have McMillan degrees k. This representation is obtained by reducing the order
one dimension at a time via optimal Hankel norm approximations. This representation
also gives that
kGk1  2(1 + : : : + n )
and further that there exists a constant D0 such that
kG(s) ; D0 k1  (1 + : : : + n ):
169

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

170

The above bounds are then used to show that the k-th order optimal Hankel norm
approximation, G^ (s), together with some constant matrix D0 satises

G(s) ; G^ (s) ; D0 1  (k+1 + : : : + n ):

We shall also provide an alternative proof for the error bounds derived in the last chapter
for the truncated balanced realizations using the results obtained in this chapter.
Finally we consider the Hankel operator in discrete time and oer some alternative
proof of the well-known Nehari's theorem.

8.1 Hankel Operator

Let G(s) 2 L1 be a matrix function. The Hankel operator associated with G will be
denoted by ;G and is dened as
;G : H2? 7;! H2

;G f := (P+ MG)f = P+ (Gf ); for f 2 H2?

i.e., ;G = P+ MGjH?2 . This is shown in the following diagram:

MG





H2?

>



;G

L2
P+

H2

There is a corresponding Hankel operator in the time domain. Let g(t) denote the
inverse (bilateral) Laplace transform of G(s). Then the time domain Hankel operator
is
;g : L2 (;1; 0] 7;! L2 [0; 1)
;g f := P+ (g  f ); for f 2 L2 (;1; 0]:
Thus
 R 0 g(t ;  )f ( )d; t  0;
(;g f )(t) = ;1
0;
t < 0:
Because of the isometric isomorphism property between the L2 spaces in the time domain and in the frequency domain, we have

k;g k = k;G k :

8.1. Hankel Operator

171

Hence, in this book we will use the time domain and the frequency domain descriptions
for Hankel operators interchangeably.
For the interest of this book, we will now further restrict G to be rational, i.e.,
G(s) 2 RL1 . Then G can be decomposed into strictly causal part and anticausal part,
i.e., there are Gs (s) 2 RH2 and Gu (s) 2 RH?2 such that

G(s) = Gs (s) + G(1) + Gu (s):

Now for any f 2 H2? , it is easy to see that
;Gf = P+ (Gf ) = P+ (Gs f ):
Hence, the Hankel operator associated with G 2 RL1 depends only on the strictly
causal part of G. In particular, if G is antistable, i.e., G (s) 2 RH1 , then ;G = 0.
Therefore, there is no loss of generality in assuming G 2 RH1 and strictly proper.
The adjoint operator of ;G can be computed easily from the denition as below: let
f 2 H2? ; g 2 H2 , then

h;G f; gi := hP+ Gf; gi

= hP+ Gf; gi + hP; Gf; gi (since P; Gf and g are orthogonal )
= hGf; gi
= hf; G gi
= hf; P+ G gi + hf; P; G gi
= hf; P; G gi (since f and P+ G g are orthogonal ):
Hence ;Gg = P; (G g) : H2 7;! H2? or ;G = P; MG jH2 .
Now suppose G 2 RH1 has a state space realization as given below:
x_ = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
with A stable and x(;1) = 0. Then the Hankel operator ;g can be written as
;g u(t) =

Z0

;1

CeA(t; )Bu( )d; for t  0

and has the interpretation of the system future output

y(t) = ;g u(t); t  0
based on the past input u(t); t  0.
In the state space representation, the Hankel operator can be more specically decomposed as the composition of maps from the past input to the initial state and then

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

172

u(t)

y(t)

Figure 8.1: System theoretical interpretation of Hankel operators

from the initial state to the future output. These two operators will be called the controllability operator, c , and the observability operator, o, respectively, and are dened
as
c : L2 (;1; 0] 7;! C n
c u :=
and

Z0

;1

e;A Bu( )d

o : C n 7;! L2 [0; 1)
o x0 := CeAt x0 ; t  0:
(If all the data are real, then the two operators become c : L2 (;1; 0] 7;! Rn and
o : Rn 7;! L2 [0; 1).) Clearly, x0 = cu(t) for u(t) 2 L2 (;1; 0] is the system state
at t = 0 due to the past input and y(t) = o x0 ; t  0, is the future output due to the
initial state x0 with the input set to zero.
It is easy to verify that
;g = o c:




L2 (;1; 0]

>



Cn

;g

ZZ
ZZo
ZZ~
- L2[0; 1)

The adjoint operators of c and o can also be obtained easily from their denitions
as follows: let u(t) 2 L2 (;1; 0], x0 2 C n , and y(t) 2 L2 [0; 1), then

h c u; x0 iC n

Z0

;1

u ( )B  e;A  x0 d = hu; B  e;A  x0 iL2 (;1;0] = hu; c x0 iL2 (;1;0]

8.1. Hankel Operator

and

h o x0 ; yiL2 [0;1) =

Z1
0

173

x (t)eA t C  y(t)dt = hx0 ;

Z1
0

eAt C  y(t)dtiC n = hx0 ; o yiC n

where h
;
iX denotes the inner product in the Hilbert space X . Therefore, we have
c : C n 7;! L2 (;1; 0]

c x0 = B  e;A  x0 ;   0
and
o : L2 [0; 1) 7;! C n
o y(t) =

Z1
0

eA t C  y(t)dt:

This also gives the adjoint of ;g :

;g = ( o c) = c o : L2 [0; 1) 7;! L2 (;1; 0]
; y =
g

Z1
0

B  eA(t; )C  y(t)dt;   0:

Let Lc and Lo be the controllability and observability Gramians of the system, i.e.,

Lc =
Lo =
Then we have

Z1
Z01
0

eAt BB  eA t dt
eAt C  CeAt dt:

c c x0 = Lcx0
o ox0 = Lox0
for every x0 2 C n . Thus Lc and Lo are the matrix representations of the operators
c c and o o.
Theorem 8.1 The operator ;g ;g (or ;Gp;G) and the matrix LcLo have the same
nonzero eigenvalues. In particular k;g k = (Lc Lo).

Proof. Let 2 6= 0 be an eigenvalue of ;g ;g , and let 0 6= u 2 L2 (;1; 0] be a corresponding eigenvector. Then by denition
;g ;g u = c o o cu = 2 u:
Pre-multiply (8.1) by c and dene x = cu 2 C n to get
LcLo x = 2 x:

(8:1)
(8:2)

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

174

Note that x = cu 6= 0 since otherwise 2 u = 0 from (8.1) which is impossible. So 2

is an eigenvalue of LcLo .
On the other hand, suppose 2 6= 0 and x 6= 0 are an eigenvalue and a corresponding
eigenvector of LcLo . Pre-multiply (8.2) by c Lo and dene u = c Lox to get (8.1). It
is easy to see that u 6= 0 since c u = c c Lox = LcLo x = 2 x 6= 0. Therefore 2 is
an eigenvalue of ;g ;g .
Finally, since G(s) is rational,
;g ;g is compact and self-adjoint and has only discrete


2
spectrum. Hence k;g k = ;g ;g = (Lc Lo).
2

Remark 8.1 Let 2 6= 0 be an eigenvalue of ;g ;g and 0 6= u 2 L2 (;1; 0] be a

corresponding eigenvector. Dene

v := 1 ;g u 2 L2 [0; 1):

Then (u; v) satisfy

;g u = v
;g v = u:
This pair of vectors (u; v) are called a Schmidt pair of ;g . The proof given above suggests
a way to construct this pair: nd the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of LcLo , i.e., i2 and
xi such that
Lc Loxi = i2 xi :
Then the pairs (ui ; vi ) given below are the corresponding Schmidt pairs:
u =  ( 1 L x ) 2 L (;1; 0]; v = x 2 L [0; 1):
i

c i o i

o i

Remark 8.2 As seen in various literature, there are some alternative ways to write a
Hankel operator. For comparison, let us examine some of the alternatives below:
(i) Let v(t) = u(;t) for u(t) 2 L2 (;1; 0], and then v(t) 2 L2 [0; 1). Hence, the
Hankel operator can be written as
;g : L2 [0; 1) 7;! L2 [0; 1) or ;G : H2 7;! H2
(;g v)(t) =
=

 R 1 g(t +  )v( )d; t  0;

0
0;
t<0
Z1
0

CeA(t+ )Bv( )d; for t  0:

8.2. All-pass Dilations

175

(ii) In some applications, it is more convenient to work with an anticausal operator G

and view the Hankel operator associated with G as the mapping from the future
input to the past output. It will be clear in later chapters that this operator is
closely related to the problem of approximating an anticausal function by a causal
function, which is the problem at the heart of the H1 Control Theory.

Let G(s) = CA B0 be an antistable transfer matrix, i.e., all the eigenvalues of

A have positive real parts. Then the Hankel operator associated with G(s) can
be written as
;^ g : L2 [0; 1) 7;! L2 (;1; 0]
(;^ g v)(t) =
=

 R 1 g(t ;  )v( )d; t  0;

0
0;
t>0
Z1
0

CeA(t; )Bv( )d; for t  0

or in the frequency domain

;^ G = P; MGjH2 : H2 7;! H2?

;^ Gv = P; (Gv); for v 2 H2 :
Now for any v 2 H2 and u 2 H2? , we have

hP; (Gv); ui = hGv; ui = hv; G ui = hv; P+ (G u)i:

Hence, ;^ G = ;G .

8.2 All-pass Dilations

This section considers the dilation of a given transfer function to an all-pass transfer
function. This transfer function dilation is the key to the optimal Hankel norm approximation in the next section. But rst we need some preliminary results and some state
space characterizations of all-pass functions.

Denition 8.1 The inertia of a general complex, square matrix A denoted In(A) is the
triple ((A);  (A); (A)) where
(A) = number of eigenvalues of A in the open right half-plane.
 (A) = number of eigenvalues of A in the open left half-plane.
(A) = number of eigenvalues of A on the imaginary axis.

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

176

Theorem 8.2 Given complex n  n and n  m matrices A and B, and hermitian matrix
P = P  satisfying

AP + PA + BB  = 0

(8:3)

then
(1) If (P ) = 0 then (A)   (P );  (A)  (P ).
(2) If (A) = 0 then (P )   (A);  (P )  (A).

Proof. (1) If (P ) = 0 then observe that (8.3) implies

AP + PA  0:
Now suppose (A) >  (P ) then there is an eigenvalue of A,  2 C with Re() > 0,
and a corresponding eigenvector, x 2 C n , such that x A = x and x Px > 0, which
implies
x (AP + PA )x = ( + )x Px  0
i.e., Re()  0, a contradiction. Hence (A)   (P ). Similarly, we can show that
 (A)  (P ).


(2) Assume (A) = 0 and that P = U P01 00 U  with (P1 ) = 0; U U = I , and
dene


 
11 A12 ; B~ = U  B = B1 :
A~ = U  AU = A
A A
B
Then U  (8:3)U gives

21

 

22

A~ P01 00 + P01 00 A~ + B~ B~  =
(8:4) ) B2 B2 = 0 ) B2 =
(8:4); (8:5) ) A21 P1 = 0 ) A21 =
(8:4) ) A11 P1 + P1 A11 + B1 B1 =
) (by part (1))  (A11 ) 
(A11 ) 
but since (A11 ) = (P1 ) = 0
(P1 ) =  (A11 )   (A)
 (P1 ) = (A11 )  (A):

(8.4)

0
0
0

(8.5)
(8.6)
(8.7)

(P1 )
 (P1 )

Theorem 8.3 Given a realization (A; B; C ) (not necessarily stable) with A 2 C nn ,
B 2 C nm , C 2 C mn , then

8.2. All-pass Dilations

177

(1) If (A; B; C ) is completely controllable and completely observable the following two
statements are equivalent:
(a) there exists a D such that GG = 2 I where G(s) = D + C (sI ; A);1 B .
(b) there exist P; Q 2 C nn such that
(i) P = P  , Q = Q
(ii) AP + PA + BB  = 0
(iii) A Q + QA + C  C = 0
(iv) PQ = 2 I
(2) Given that part (1b) is satised then there exists a D satisfying
D D =  2 I

D C + BQ = 0
DB  + CP = 0
and any such D will satisfy part (1a) (note, observability and controllability are
not assumed).

Proof. Anyp systems satisfying

part (1a) or (1b) can be transformed to the case  = 1
p
by B^ = B=  , C^ = C= , D^ = D=, P^ = P=, Q^ = Q=. Hence, without loss of
generality the proof will be given for the case  = 1 only.
(1a) ) (1b) This is proved by constructing P and Q to satisfy (1b) as follows. Given
(1a), G(1) = D ) DD = I . Also GG = I ) G = G;1 , i.e.,
G;1 (s) =

 A ; BD;1C ;BD;1   A ; BDC ;BD 

=
;1
D;1 C
D C
D
 ;A ;CD 

= G =

B

D

These two transfer functions are identical and both minimal (since (A; B; C ) is assumed
to be minimal), and hence there exists a similarity transformation T relating the statespace descriptions, i.e.,
;A = T (A ; BD C )T ;1
(8.8)
C  = TBD
(8.9)


;
1
B = D CT :
(8.10)
Further
(8:9) ) B  = D C (T  );1
(8.11)



(8:10) ) C = T BD
(8.12)



;
1


(8:8) ) ;A = ;C DB + (T A T )
= T (A ; (T  );1 C  DB  T )(T  );1
(8:9) and (8:10) ) = T (A ; BD C )(T  );1 :
(8.13)

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

178

Hence, T and T  satisfy identical equations, (8.8) to (8.10) and (8.11) to (8.13), and
minimality implies these have a unique solution and hence T = T  .
Now setting

Q = ;T
P = ;T ;1

(8.14)
(8.15)

clearly satises part (1b), equations (i) and (iv). Further, (8.8) and (8.9) imply

TA + A T ; C  C = 0

(8:16)

which veries (1b), equation (iii). Also (8.16) implies

AT ;1 + T ;1A ; T ;1 C  CT ;1 = 0

(8:17)

which together with (8.10) implies part (1b), equation (ii).

(1b) ) (1a) This is proved by rst constructing D according to part (2) and then verifying part (1a) by calculation. Firstly note that since Q = P ;1 , Q((1b); equation (ii))
Q gives
QA + A Q + QBB  Q = 0
(8:18)
which together with part (1b), equation (iii) implies that

QBB  Q = C  C

(8:19)

and hence by Lemma 2.14 there exists a D such that D D = I and

DB  Q = ;C
DB  = ;CQ;1 = ;CP:

(8.20)
(8.21)

Equations (8.20) and (8.21) imply that the conditions of part (2) are satised. Now
note that

BB  = (sI ; A)P + P (;sI ; A )

;
1


;
) C (sI ; A) BB (;sI ; A ) 1 C  = CP (;sI ; A );1 C  + C (sI ; A);1 PC 
(8:21) ) = ;DB  (;sI ; A );1 C  ; C (sI ; A);1 BD :
Hence, on expanding G(s)G (s) we get

G(s)G = I:
Part (2) follows immediately from the proof of (1b) ) (1a) above.
The following theorem dilates a given transfer function to an all-pass function.

8.2. All-pass Dilations

179



Theorem 8.4 Let G(s) = CA DB with A 2 C nn ; B 2 C nm ; C 2 C mn ; D 2
C mm

satisfy

AP + PA + BB  = 0
A Q + QA + C  C = 0

(8.22)
(8.23)

P = P  = diag(1 ; Ir )
Q = Q = diag(2 ; Ir )

(8.24)
(8.25)

for

with 1 and 2 diagonal,  6= 0 and (1 2 ; 2 I ) = 0.

Partition (A; B; C ) conformably with P , as

11 A12 ; B = B1 ; C =  C C
A= A
1
2
A21 A22
B2

 ^ ^
and dene W (s) := A^ B^
C D
A^
B^
C^
D^

=
=
=
=

(8:26)

with

;;1 (2 A11 + 2 A11 1 ; C1 UB1 )

;;1 (2 B1 + C1 U )
C1 1 + UB1

D ; U

(8.27)
(8.28)
(8.29)
(8.30)

where U is a unitary matrix satisfying

B2 = ;C2 U

(8.31)

; = 1 2 ; 2 I:

(8.32)

and
Also dene the error system

A B 
E (s) = G(s) ; W (s) = e e
Ce De

with

Then

 C ;C^  ; D = D ; D:
^
Ae = A0 A0^ ; Be = B
;
C
=
e
e
^
B

(8:33)

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

180
(1) (Ae ; Be ; Ce ) satisfy

Ae Pe + Pe Ae + Be Be = 0
Ae Qe + Qe Ae + Ce Ce = 0

with

Pe =

4
2

Qe =

(8.34)
(8.35)
3

1 0
I
0 Ir
0 5
I 0 2 ;;1
3
2 0 ;;
0 Ir 0 5
;; 0 1 ;

Pe Qe = 2 I

(8.36)
(8.37)
(8.38)

(2) E (s)E  (s) = 2 I .

(3) If (A) = 0 then
(a) (A^) = 0
(b) If (1 2 ) = 0 then

In(A^) = In(;1 ;) = In(;2 ;)

^ B;
^ C^ )
(c) If P > 0; Q > 0 then the McMillan degree of the stable part of (A;
equals (1 ;) = (2 ;).
(d) If either (i) 1 ; > 0 and 2 ; > 0 or (ii) 1 ; < 0 and 2 ; < 0 then
^ B;
^ C^ ) is a minimal realization.
(A;

Proof. For notational convenience it will be assumed that  = 1 and this can be done

without loss of generality since B; C and  can be simply rescaled to give  = 1.

It is rst necessary to verify that there exists a unitary matrix U satisfying (8.31).
The (2,2) blocks of (8.22) and (8.23) give

A22 + A22 + B2 B2 = 0

A22 + A22 + C2 C2 = 0

(8.39)
(8.40)

and hence B2 B2 = C2 C2 and by Lemma 2.14 there exists a unitary U satisfying (8.31).
(1) The proof of equations (8.34) to (8.38) is by a straightforward calculation, as
follows. To verify (8.34) and (8.36) we need (8.22) which is assumed, together with
A11 + A^ + B1 B^  = 0
(8.41)
A21 + B2 B^  = 0
(8.42)
;
1
;
1


^
^
^
^
A2 ; + 2 ; A + B B = 0
(8.43)

8.2. All-pass Dilations

which will now be veried.
B2 B^  =
(8.31) ) =
=
=

181

B2 (B1 2 + U  C1 );;1
(B2 B1 2 ; C2 C1 );;1
((;A21 1 ; A12 )2 + A12 2 + A21 );;1
;A21 ) (8:42)

(8.44)
(8.45)
(8.46)

where B2 B1 and C2 C1 were substituted in (8.45) using the (2,1) blocks of (8.22) and
(8.23), respectively. To verify (8.41)

B1 B^  = (B1 B1 2 + B1 U  C1 );;1

(8.47)


;
1
= (;A11 1 2 ; 1 A11 2 + B1 U C1 );
(8.48)

^
= ;A11 ; A ) (8:41)
where B1 B1 was substituted using the (1; 1) block of (8.22) and (8.27) substituting in
(8.48). Finally to verify (8.43) consider

;A^2 + 2 A^ ; = (A11 + 2 A11 1 ; C1 UB1 )2 + 2 (A11 + 1 A11 2 ; B1 U  C1 )

(8.49)





= ;(2 B1 + C1 U )(B1 2 + U C1 ) + (A11 2 + 2 A11 + C1 C1 )
+2 (A11 1 + 1 A11 + B1 B1 )2
(8.50)

= ;;B^ B^ ; ) (8:43)
where (8.27)!(8.49) and (8.50) is a rearrangement of (8.49) and nally, the (1; 1) blocks
of (8.22) and (8.23) are used. Equations (8.34) and (8.36) are hence veried.
Similarly in order to verify (8.35) and (8.37) we need (8.23) which is assumed together
with
A11 (;;) + (;;)A^ ; C1 C^ = 0
(8.51)


^
A12 (;;) ; C2 C = 0
(8.52)
A^ 1 ; + 1 ;A^ + C^  C^ = 0:
(8.53)
Equations (8.51) to (8.53) are now veried in an analogous manner to equations (8.41)
to (8.43)
C2 C^ = C2 (C1 1 + UB1 )
= (;A12 2 ; A21 )1 ; B2 B1
= ;A12 ; ) (8:52)
C1 C^ = C1 C1 1 + C1 UB1
= ;A11 2 1 ; 2 A11 1 + C1 UB1

182

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

= ;A11 ; ; ;A^ ) (8:51)

A^ 1 ; + 1 ;A^ = (A11 + 1 A11 2 ; B1 U  C1 )1 + 1 (A11 + 2 A11 1 ; C1 UB1 )
= ;(1 C1 + B1 U )(C1 1 + UB1 )
+1 (A11 2 + 2 A11 + C1 C1 )1 + (A11 1 + 1 A11 + B1 B1 )
= ;C^  C^ ) (8:53)
Therefore, (8.35) and (8.37) have been veried, (8.38) is immediate, and the proof of
part (1) is complete.
(2) Equations (8.34), (8.35) and (8.38) ensure the conditions of Theorem 8.3, part
(1b) are satised and Theorem 8.3, part (2) can be used to show that the De given in
(8.33) makes E (s) all-pass. (Note it is still assumed that  = 1.) We hence need to
verify that
De De = I
(8.54)


De Ce + Be Qe = 0
(8.55)

De Be + Ce Pe = 0:
(8.56)
^ C;
^ De
Equation (8.54) is immediate, (8.55) follows by substituting the denitions of B;
and Q, and (8.56) follows from De  (8:55)  Pe .
(3) (a) To show that (A^) = 0 if (A) = 0 we will assume that there exists x 2 C n;r
^ = x and  +  = 0, and show that this implies x = 0. From
and  2 C such that Ax

x (8:53)x,
^ = 0
( + )x 1 ;x + x C^  Cx
(8.57)
^ = 0:
) Cx
(8.58)
Now (8:51)x gives
^ = 0
;A11 ;x ; ;x + C1 Cx
) x ;A11 = ;x ;:
(8.59)
Also (8:52)x and (8.58) give
A12 ;x = 0:
(8:60)
Equations (8.59) and (8.60) imply that (x ;; 0)A = ;(x ;; 0) but since it is assumed
that (A) = 0,  +  = 0 and ;;1 exists this implies that x = 0 and (A^) = 0 is proven.
(b) Since (A^) = 0 has been proved and (1 2 ) = 0 is assumed () (2 ;;1 ) =
(1 ;) = 0) Theorem 8.2 can be applied since equations (8.43) and (8.53) have been
veried. Hence
In(A^) = In(;1 ;;1 ) = In(;1 ;) = In(;2 ;)
^ = x and
(c) Assume that there exists x 6= 0 2 C n;r and  2 C such that Ax
^ = 0 (i.e., (C;
^ A^) is not completely observable). Then (8:51)x and (8:52)x give
Cx
;A11 ;x ; ;x = 0
;A12 ;x = 0

8.2. All-pass Dilations

183

hence (;) is an eigenvalue of A since ;x 6= 0. However, since P > 0 and (A) = 0

are assumed then In(A) = (0; n; 0) and all the unobservable modes must be in the open
^ B^ ) is not completely controllable
right half plane. Similarly, if it is assumed that (A;
then (8.41) and (8.42) will give the analogous conclusion and therefore all the modes in
the left half-plane are controllable and observable, and the condition in (3b) gives their
number.
(d) (i) If 1 ; > 0 or 2 ; > 0 then by (3b) In(A^) = (0; n ; r; 0) and by (3c) the
^ B;
^ C^ ) is n ; r and the result is proven.
McMillan degree of (A;
^ = x and Cx
^ = 0. Then x (8:53)x gives
(ii) Assume there exists x such that Ax
( + )x 1 ;x = 0
^ A^) is
but ( + ) 6= 0 by (3a) and 1 ; < 0 is assumed so that x = 0. Hence (C;
^
^
completely observable. Similarly (8.43) gives (A; B ) completely controllable.
2

Example 8.1 Take

2 105s + 250
G(s) = 39(ss ++2)(
s + 5)2 :

This has a balanced realization given by

2
3
2
3
2
;2 4 ;4
2
1 0 0


A = 4 ;4 ;1 ;4 5 ; B = 4 1 5 ; C = 2 ;1 6 ;  = 4 0 12 0
;4 4 ;9
6
0 0 2


3
5

Now using the above construction with 1 = 10 01 ,  = 2 gives

2





^ 1 2
^ 
^
A^ = 31 ;28 10
5 ; B = 3 ;2 ; C = ;2 ;5=2 ; D = 2
2
s + 90 ; G(s) ; W (s) = 2(;s + 2)(;s + 5)2 (3s2 + 7s + 30)
W (s) = 63ss2;;13
7s + 30
(s + 2)(s + 5)2 (3s2 ; 7s + 30)
W (s) is an optimal anticausal approximation to G(s) with L1 error of 2.
3
Example 8.2 Let us also illustrate Theorem 8.4 when (21 ; 2 I ) is indenite. Take
G(s) as in the above example and permute the rst and third states of the balanced
realization so that  = diag(2; 21 ; 1), 1 = diag(2; 12 ),  = 1. The construction of
Theorem 8.4 now gives






;
3
2
2
^
^
A = 8 3 ; B = ;2 ; C^ = 6 ;3=2 ; D^ = 1:
Theorem 8.4, part (2b) implies that


;
6
0
2
2
^
In(A) = In(;1 (1 ;  I )) = In 0 3 = (1; 1; 0)
8

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

184

which is veried by noting that A^ has eigenvalues of 5 and ;5.

"
#
A^ B^
W (s) = ^ ^ = ss++20
5
C D
and we note that the stable part of W (s) has McMillan degree 1 as predicted by Theo^ B;
^ C^ )
rem 8.4, part (3c). However, this example has been constructed to show that (A;
itself may not be minimal when the conditions of part (3d) are not satised, and in this
case the unstable pole at +5 is both uncontrollable and unobservable. ss+20
+5 is in fact
an optimal Hankel norm approximation to G(s) of degree 1 and
+ 2)(;s + 5) :
E (s) = (;(ss +
2)(s + 5)2
2

In general the error E (j!) will have modulus equal to  but E (s) will contain unstable
poles.
3

Example 8.3 Let us nally complete the analysis of this G(s) by permuting the second
and third states in the balanced realization of the last example to obtain 1 = diag(2; 1),

 = 21 . We will nd


"


1
15 ;4
4
^
^ 
^
A^ = ;
;20 ;6 ; B = 4 ; C = 15 3 ; D = ; 2

2
A^ B^
s + 110)
W (s) = ^ ^ = 21 (;(ss2 ++ 123
21s + 10)
C D
2)(;s + 5)2 (s2 ; 21s + 10) :
E (s) = G(s) ; W (s) = ; 12 (;(ss +
+ 2)(s + 5)2 (s2 + 21s + 10)
Note that ;1 ; = diag(;15=2; ;3=4) so that A^ is stable by Theorem 8.4, part (3b).
^ C^ ) is minimal by Theorem 8.4, part (3d).
jE (j!)j = 12 by Theorem 8.4, part (2), (A;^ B;
W (s) is in fact an optimal second-order Hankel norm approximation to G(s).
3

8.3 Optimal Hankel Norm Approximation

We are now ready to give a solution to the optimal Hankel norm approximation problem
based on Theorem 8.4. The following Lemma gives a lower bound on the achievable
Hankel norm of the error


inf G(s) ; G^ (s)  k+1 (G)
G^

and then Theorem 8.6 shows that the construction of Theorem 8.4 can be used to achieve
this lower bound.

8.3. Optimal Hankel Norm Approximation

185

Lemma 8.5 Given a stable, rational, p  m, transfer function matrix G(s) with Hankel
singular values 1  2 : : :  k  k+1  k+2 : : :  n > 0, then for all G^ (s) stable
and of McMillan degree  k
i (G(s) ; G^ (s))  i+k (G(s)); i = 1; : : : ; n ; k;
(8.61)
^
i+k (G(s) ; G(s))  i (G(s)); i = 1; : : : ; n:
(8.62)
In particular,

G(s) ; G^ (s) H  k+1 (G(s)):

(8:63)

Proof. We shall prove (8.61) only and the inequality (8.62) follows from (8.61) by
setting
G(s) = (G(s) ; G^ (s)) ; (;G^ (s)):
^ B;
^ C^ ) be a minimal state space realization of G^ (s), then (Ae ; Be ; Ce ) given by
Let (A;
(8.33) will be a state space realization of G(s) ; G^ (s). Now let P = P  and Q = Q
satisfy (8.34) and (8.35) respectively (but not necessary (8.36) and (8.37) and write


11 Q12 ; P ; Q 2 Rnn :
P = PP11 PP12 ; Q = Q
11 11
12 Q22
Q
22
12

Since P  0 it can be factorized as

where

P = RR


12
R = R011 R
R22

with

 = P11 ; R12 R
R22 = P221=2 ; R12 = P12 P22;1=2 ; R11 R11
12
^ B;
^ C^ ) is a minimal realization.)
(P22 > 0 since (A;
i (G(s) ; G^ (s)) = i (PQ) = i (RR Q) = i (R QR)


 i In 0 R QR I0n



 

R
11
R 0 Q
= 
i

11

 Q11 R11 ) = i (Q11 R11 R )

= i (R11
11
 ))
= i (Q11 (P11 ; R12 R12
= i (Q1=2 P11 Q1=2 ; XX ) where X = Q1=2 R12
11

11

 i+k (Q111=2 P11 Q111=2 )

=

i+k (P11 Q11 ) = i2+k (G)

11

(8.64)

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

186

where (8.64) follows from the fact that X is an n  k matrix () rank(XX )  k). 2
We can now give a solution to the optimal Hankel norm approximation problem for
square transfer functions.
Theorem 8.6 Given a stable, rational, m  m, transfer function G(s) then



^ (s) ; F (s) , McMillan degree (G^ )  k.
(1) k+1 (G(s)) =
inf
G(s) ; G
G^ 2H1 ;F 2H;1

(2) If G(s) has Hankel singular values 1  2 : : :  k > k+1 = k+2 : : : = k+r >
k+r+1  : : :  n > 0 then G^ (s) of McMillan degree k is an optimal Hankel norm
; (whose McMillan
approximation to G(s) if and only if there exists F (s) 2 H1
degree can be chosen  n + k ; 1) such that E (s) := G(s) ; G^ (s) ; F (s) satises
E (s)E  (s) = k2+1 I:
(8:65)
In which case



^ (s) = k+1 :
(8:66)
G(s) ; G
H

(3) Let G(s) be as in (2) above, then an optimal Hankel norm approximation of McMillan degree k, G^ (s), can be constructed as follows. Let (A; B; C ) be a balanced
realization of G(s) with corresponding
 = diag(1 ; 2 ; : : : ; k ; k+r+1 ; : : : ; n ; k+1 ; : : : ; k+r );
^ B;
^ C;
^ D^ ) from equations (8.26) to (8.31). Then
and dene (A;
#
"
A^ B^
^
(8:67)
G(s) + F (s) = ^ ^
C D
; with the McMillan degree of G^ (s) = k and the
where G^ (s) 2 H1 and F (s) 2 H1
McMillan degree of F (s) = n ; k ; r.

Proof. By the denition of L1 norm, for all F (s) 2 H1; , and G^(s) of McMillan degree
k

G(s) ; G^ (s) ; F (s) 1 


=

sup

sup

sup

f 2H?2 ;kf k2 1
f 2H?2 ;kf k2 1
f 2H?2 ;kf k2 1

G ; G^ H
 k+1 (G(s))
=

G(s) ; G^ (s) ; F (s))f 2

P+ (G ; G^ ; F )f 2

P+ (G ; G^ )f 2
(8.68)

8.3. Optimal Hankel Norm Approximation

187

where (8.68) follows from Lemma 8.5.

Now dene G^ (s) and F (s) via equation (8.26), then Theorem 8.4, part (2) implies
that (8.65) holds and hence
kE (s)k1 = k+1 :
(8:69)
Also from Theorem 8.4, part (3b)
In(A^) = In(;1 (21 ; k2+1 I )) = (n ; k ; r; k; 0):
(8:70)
Hence, G^ has McMillan degree k and it in the correct class, and therefore (8.69) implies
that the inequalities in (8.68) becomes equalities, and part (1) is proven, as in part (3).
Clearly the suciency of part (2) can be similarly veried by noting that (8.65) implies
that (8.68) is satised with equality.
To show the necessity of part (2) suppose that G^ (s) is an optimal Hankel norm approximation to G(s) of McMillan degree k, i.e, equation (8.66) holds. Now Theorem 8.4
can be applied to G(s) ; G^ (s) to produce an optimal anticausal approximation F (s),
such that (G(s) ; G^ (s) ; F (s))=k+1 (G) is all-pass since k+1 (G) = 1 (G ; G^ ). Further,
the McMillan degree of this F (s) will be, the McMillan degree of (G(s) ; G^ (s)) minus
the multiplicity of 1 (G ; G^ ),  n + k ; 1.
2
The following corollary gives the solution to the well-known Nehari's problem.
Corollary 8.7 Let G(s) be a stable, rational, m  m, transfer function of McMillan
degree n such that 1 (G) has multiplicity r1 . Also let F (s) be an optimal anticausal
approximation of degree n ; r1 given by the construction of Theorem 8.4. Then
(1) (G(s) ; F (s))=1 is all-pass.
(2) i;r1 (F (;s)) = i (G(s)); i = r1 + 1; : : : ; n.

Proof. (1) is proved in Theorem 8.4, part (2). (2) is obtained from the forms of Pe and
Qe in Theorem 8.4, part (1). F (;s) is used since it will be stable and have well-dened
Hankel singular values.
2
The optimal Hankel norm approximation for non-square case can be obtained by rst
augmenting the function to form a square function. Forexample,
consider a stable, ra
G
tional, p  m (p < m), transfer function G(s). Let Ga = 0 be an augmented square

^ 
G
^
transfer function and let Ga = ^ be the optimal Hankel norm approximation of
G2
Ga such that



^ a = k+1 (Ga ):
Ga ; G
H
Then




k+1 (G)  G ; G^ H  Ga ; G^ a H = k+1 (Ga ) = k+1 (G)
i.e., G^ is an optimal Hankel norm approximation of G(s).

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

188

8.4 L1 Bounds for Hankel Norm Approximation

The natural question that arise now is, does the Hankel norm being small imply that
any other more familiar norms are also small? We shall have a denite answer in this
section.


Lemma 8.8 Let an m  m transfer matrix E = CA DB satisfy E (s)E  (s) = 2 I

and all equations of Theorem 8.3 and let A have dimension n1 + n2 with n1 eigenvalues
strictly in the left half plane and n2 < n1 eigenvalues strictly in the right half plane. If
E = Gs + F with Gs 2 RH1 and F 2 RH;1 then,

i = 1; 2; : : :; n1 ; n2
i (Gs ) = 
i = n1 ; n2 + 1; : : : ; n1
i;n1 +n2 (F (;s))

Proof. Firstly let the realization be transformed to,

2



A1 0 B1
B
A
4
5
E = 0 A2 B2 = C D ; Rei (A1 ) < 0; Rei (A2 ) > 0;
C1 C2 D




B
B
A
A
1
2
2
1
in which case G = C D , F = C 0 . The equations of Theorem 8.3
1
2
(i)-(iv) are then satised by a transformed P and Q, partitioned as,



21 
P
P
Q
Q
11
12
11
P = P P ; Q = Q Q
22
21
22
12
PQ = 2 I implies that,
det(I ; P11 Q11 ) = det(I ; (2 I ; P12 Q21 ))
= det(( ; 2 )I + P12 Q21 )
= ( ; 2 )n1 ;n2 det(( ; 2 )I + Q21 P12 )
= ( ; 2 )n1 ;n2 det(I ; Q22 P22 ):
The result now follows on observing that i (G(s)) = i (P11 Q11 ) and i2 (F (;s)) =
i (Q22 P22 ):
2

Corollary 8.9 Let E (s) = G(s) ; G^(s) ;;F (s) be as dened in part (3) of Theorem 8.6
with G(s); G^ (s) 2 RH1 and F (s) 2 RH1 . Then for i = 1; 2; :::; 2k + r,
i (G ; G^ ) = k+1 (G);
and for i = 1; 2; :::; n ; k ; r,
i+3k+r (G)  i (F (;s)) = i+2k+r (G ; G^ )  i+k+r (G)

8.4. L1 Bounds for Hankel Norm Approximation

189

Proof. The construction of E (s) ensures that the all-pass equations are satised and
an inertia argument easily establishes that the A-matrix has precisely n1 = n + k
eigenvalues in the open left half plane and n2 = n ; k ; r in the open right half plane.

Hence Lemma 8.8 can be applied to give the equalities. The inequalities follow from
Lemma 8.5.
2
The following lemma gives the properties of certain optimal Hankel norm approximations when the degree is reduced by the multiplicity of n . In this case some precise
statements on the error and the approximating system can be made.

Lemma 8.10 Let G(s) be a stable, rational m  m, transfer function of McMillan

degree n and such that n (G) has multiplicity r. Also let G^ (s) be an optimal Hankel
norm approximation of degree n ; r given by Theorem 8.6, part (3) (with F (s)  0)
then

(1) (G(s) ; G^ (s))=n (G(s)) is all-pass.

(2) i (G^ (s)) = i (G(s)); i = 1; : : : ; n ; r.

Proof. Theorem 8.6 gives that A^ 2 R(n;r)(n;r) is stable and hence F (s) can be
chosen to be zero and therefore (G(s) ; G^ (s))=n (G) is all-pass. The i (G^ (s)) are
2

obtained from Lemma 8.8.

Applying the above reduction procedure again on G^ (s) and repeating until G^ (s) has
zero McMillan degree gives the following new representation of stable systems.

Theorem 8.11 Let G(s) be a stable, rational m  m, transfer function with Hankel

singular values 1 > 2 : : : > N where i has multiplicity ri and r1 + r2 + : : : + rN = n.

Then there exists a representation of G(s) as

G(s) = D0 + 1 E1 (s) + 2 E2 (s) + : : : + N EN (s)

where
(1) Ek (s) are all-pass and stable for all k.
(2) For k = 1; 2; : : : ; N

G^ k (s) := D0 +
has McMillan degree r1 + r2 + : : : + rk .

k
X
i=1

i Ei (s)

(8:71)

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

190

Proof. Let G^k (s) be the optimal Hankel norm approximation to G^k+1 (s) (given by

Lemma 8.10) of degree r1 + r2 + : : : + rk , with G^ N (s) := G(s). Lemma 8.10 (2) applied
at each step then gives that the Hankel singular values of G^ k (s) will be 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; k
with multiplicities r1 ; r2 ; : : : ; rk , respectively. Hence Lemma 8.10 (1) gives that G^ k (s) ;
G^ k;1 (s) = k Ek (s) for some stable, all-pass Ek (s). Note also that Theorem 8.4, part
(3d), relation (i) also ensures that each G^ k (s) will have McMillan degree r1 + r2 + : : : + rk .
Finally taking D0 = G^ 0 (s) which will be a constant and combining the steps gives the
result.
2
Note that the construction
of Theorem
8.11 immediately gives an approximation




^
algorithm that will satisfy G(s) ; G(s)  k+1 + k+2 + : : : + N . This will not be
1
an optimal Hankel norm approximation in general, but would involve less computation
since the decomposition into G^ (s) = F (s) need not be done, and at each step a balanced
realization of G^ k (s) is given by (A^k ; B^k ; C^k ) with a diagonal scaling.
An upper-bound on the L1 norm of G(s) is now obtained as an immediate consequence of Theorem 8.11.

Corollary 8.12 Let G(s) be a stable, rational p  m, transfer function with Hankel
singular values 1 > 2 > : : : > N , where each i has multiplicity ri , and such that
G(1) = 0. Then
(1) kG(s)k1  2(1 + 2 + : : : + N )
(2) there exists a constant D0 such that

kG(s) ; D0 k1  1 + 2 + : : : + N :

Proof. For p = m consider the representation of G(s) given by Theorem 8.11 then
kG(s) ; D0 k1 = k1 E1 (s) + 2 E2 (s) + : : : + N EN (s)k1
 1 + 2 + : : : + N
since Ek (s) are all-pass. Further setting s = 1, since G(1) = 0, gives
kD0 k  1 + 2 + : : : + N
) kG(s)k1  2(1 + 2 + : : : + N ):
For the case p =
6 m just augment G(s) by zero rows or columns to make it square, but
will have the same L1 norm, then the above argument gives upper bounds on the L1
norm of this augmented system.

Theorem 8.13 Given a stable, rational, m  m, transfer function G(s) with Hankel
singular values 1  2 : : :  k > k+1 = k+2 : : : = k+r > k+r+1  : : :  n > 0

8.4. L1 Bounds for Hankel Norm Approximation

191

and let G^ (s) 2 RH1 of McMillan degree k be an optimal Hankel norm approximation
to G(s) obtained in Theorem 8.6, then there exists a D0 such that

k+1 (G)  kG ; G^ ; D0 k1  k+1 (G) +

n;X
k;r
i=1

i+k+r (G):

Proof. The theorem follows from Corollary 8.9 and Corollary 8.12.

It should be noted that if G^ is an optimal Hankel norm approximation of G then

^
G + D for any constant matrix D is also an optimal Hankel norm approximation. Hence
the constant term of G^ can not be determined from Hankel norm.
An appropriate constant term D0 in Theorem 8.13 can be obtained in many ways.
We shall mention three of them:
 Apply Corollary 8.12 to G(s) ; G^ (s). This is usually complicated since (G(s) ;
G^ (s)) in general has McMillan degree of n + k.
 An alternative is to use the unstable part of the optimal Hankel norm approximation in Theorem 8.6. Let G^ + F be obtained from Theorem 8.6, part (3) such
that F (s) 2 RH;1 has McMillan degree  n ; k ; r then


kG ; G^ ; D0 k1  G ; G^ ; F + kF ; D0 k1 = k+1 (G) + kF ; D0 k1
1

Now Corollary 8.12 can be applied to F (;s) to obtain a D0 such that

kF ; D0 k1 
since by Corollary 8.9,

n;X
k ;r
i=1

i (F (;s)) 

n;X
k;r
i=1

i+k+r (G):

i (F (;s))  i+k+r (G)

for i = 1; 2; :::; n ; k ; r.
 D0 can of course be obtained using any standard convex optimization algorithm:


D0 = arg min G ; G^ ; D0 :
D0

Note that Theorem 8.13 can also be applied to non-square systems. For example,


G
consider a stable, rational, p  m (p < m), transfer function G(s). Let Ga = 0

^ 
be an augmented square transfer function and let G^ a = G
G^ 2 be the optimal Hankel
norm approximation of Ga such that

k+1 (Ga )  Ga ; G^ a ; Da 1  k+1 (Ga ) +

n;X
k ;r
i=1

i+k+r (Ga )

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

192


0
with Da = D
D . Then
2

k+1 (G)  G ; G^ ; D0 1  k+1 (G) +

n;X
k;r
i=1

i+k+r (G)

since i (G) = i (Ga ) and G ; G^ ; D0  Ga ; G^ a ; Da .

1
1
A less tighter error bound can be obtained without computing the appropriate D0 .
Corollary 8.14 Given a stable, rational, m  m, strictly proper transfer function G(s),
with Hankel singular values 1  2 : : :  k > k+1 = k+2 : : : = k+r > k+r+1 
: : :  n > 0 and let G^ (s) 2 RH1 of McMillan degree k be a strictly proper optimal
Hankel norm approximation to G(s) obtained in Theorem 8.6, then

k+1 (G)  kG ; G^ k1  2(k+1 (G) +

n;X
k ;r
i=1

i+k+r (G))

Proof. The result follows from Theorem 8.13.

8.5 Bounds for Balanced Truncation

Very similar techniques to those of Theorem 8.11 can be used to bound the error obtained
by truncating a balanced realization. We will rst need a lemma that gives a perhaps
surprising relationship between a truncated balanced realization of degree (n ; rN ) and
an optimal Hankel norm approximation of the same degree.
Lemma 8.15 Let (A; B; C ) be a balanced realization of the stable, rational, m  m
transfer function G(s), and let


11 A12 ; B = B1 ; C =  C C
A= A
1
2
A21 A22
B2


0
 = 01 I
^ B;
^ C;
^ D^ ) be dened by equations (8.27) to (8.32) (where 2 = 1 ) and dene
Let (A;

Gb :=
Gh :=
then

A11 B1
C1 0

A^ B^
C^ D^

8.5. Bounds for Balanced Truncation

193

(1) (Gb (s) ; Gh (s))= is all-pass.

(2) kG(s) ; Gb (s)k1  2.
(3) If 1 > I then kG(s) ; Gb (s)kH  2.

Proof. (1) In order to prove that (Gb (s) ; Gh(s))= is all-pass we note that
"

A~
Gb (s) ; Gh (s) = ~
C

where

B~
D~



^
A~ = A011 A0^ ; B~ = BB^1 ; C~ = C1 ;C^ ; D~ = ;D:
Now Theorem 8.4, part (1) gives that the solutions to Lyapunov equations
A~P~ + P~ A~ + B~ B~  = 0
A~ Q~ + Q~ A~ + C~  C~ = 0
are





I

;
;
1
1
~
~
P = I  ;;1 ; Q = ;;  ;

(8.72)
(8.73)
(8:74)

(This is veried by noting that the blocks of equations (8.72) and (8.73) are also blocks
of equations (8.34) and (8.35) for Pe and Qe .) Hence P~ Q~ = 2 I and by Theorem 8.3
there exists D~ such that (Gb (s) ; Gh (s))= is all-pass. That D~ = ;D^ is an appropriate
choice is veried from equations (8.54) to (8.56) and Theorem 8.3, part (2).
(2) (G(s) ; Gb (s))= = (G(s) ; Gh (s))= + (Gb (s) ; Gh (s))= but the rst term on
the right hand side is all-pass by Theorem 8.4, part (2) and the second term is all-pass
by part (1) above. Hence kG(s) ; Gb (s)k1  2.
(3) Similarly using the fact that all-pass functions have unity Hankel norms gives
that
kG(s) ; Gb (s)kH  kG(s) ; Gh (s)kH + kGb (s) ; Gh (s)kH = 2
(Note that Gh (s) is stable if 1 > I .)
2
Given the results of Lemma 8.15 bounds on the error in a truncated balanced realization are easily proved as follows.
Theorem 8.16 Let G(s) be a stable, rational, p  m, transfer function with Hankel
singular values 1 > 2 : : : > N , where each i has multiplicity ri and let G~ k (s) be
obtained by truncating the balanced realization of G(s) to the rst (r1 + r2 + : : : + rk )
states. Then

(1) G(s) ; G~ k (s)  2(k+1 + k+2 + : : : + N ).

(2) G(s) ; G~ k (s

1
H

 2(k+1 + k+2 + : : : + N ).

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

194

Proof. If p 6= m then augmenting B or C by zero columns or rows, respectively, will

still give a balanced realization and the same argument is valid. Hence assume p = m.
Notice that since truncation of balanced realization are also balanced, satisfying the
truncated Lyapunov equations, the Hankel singular values of G~ i (s) will be 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; i
~
with multiplicities r1 ; r2 ; : : : ; ri , respectively. Also
obtained by truncating
Gi (s) can be


~
~
~
the balanced realization of Gi+1 (s) and hence Gi+1 (s) ; Gi (s)  2i+1 for both L1
and Hankel norms. Hence (GN (s) := G(s))

G(s) ; G~ k (s

;1
N
X
= ( ~ i+1 (

i=k

))

s) ; G~ i (s

 2(k+1 + k+2 + : : : + N )
2

for both norms, and the proof is complete.

8.6 Toeplitz Operators

In this section, we consider another operator. Again let G(s) 2 L1 . Then a Toeplitz
operator associated with G is denoted by TG and is dened as

TG : H2 7;! H2
TGf := (P+ MG)f = P+ (Gf ); for f 2 H2
i.e., TG = P+ MG jH2 . In particular if G(s) 2 H1 then TG = MGjH2 .
MG 



H2



TG


>


L2
P+

?
- H2

Analogous to the Hankel operator, there is also a corresponding time domain description for the Toeplitz operator:

Tg : L2 [0; 1) 7;! L2 [0; 1)

Tg f := P+ (g  f ) =
for f (t) 2 L2 [0; 1).

g(t ;  )f ( )d; t  0

8.7. Hankel and Toeplitz Operators on the Disk*

195

It is seen that the multiplication operator (in frequency domain) or the convolution
operator (in time domain) plays an important role in the development of the Hankel
and Toeplitz operators. In fact, a multiplication operator can be decomposed as several
Hankel and Toeplitz operators: let L2 = H2? H2 and G 2 L1 . Then the multiplication
operator associated with G can be written as

MG : H2?  H2 7;! H2?  H2


 
P M j ? P M j  
MG = P; MGjH?2 P; MGjH2 = P; M;GjH?2 ;TG :
+ G H2
+ G H2
G
G
Note that P; MG jH?2 is actually a Toeplitz operator; however, we will not discuss it
further here. A fact worth mentioning is that if G is causal, i.e., G 2 H1 , then
;G = 0 and MG is a lower block triangular operator. In fact, it can be shown that G
is causal if and only if ;G = 0, i.e., the future input does not aect the past output.
This is yet another characterization of causality.

8.7 Hankel and Toeplitz Operators on the Disk*

It is sometimes more convenient and insightful to study operators on the disk. From the
control system point of view, some operators are much easier to interpret and compute
in discrete time. The objective of this section is to examine the Hankel and Toeplitz
operators in discrete time (i.e., on the disk) and, hopefully, to give the readers some
intuitive ideas about these operators since they are very important in the H1 control
theory. To start with, it is necessary to introduce some function spaces in respect to a
unit disk.
Let D denote the unit disk :
D

:= f 2 C : jj < 1g ;

and let D and @ D denote its closure and boundary, respectively:

D

:= f 2 C : jj  1g

@ D := f 2 C : jj = 1g :

Let L2 (@ D ) denote the Hilbert space of matrix valued functions dened on the unit
circle @ D as


Z 2


L2 (@ D ) = F () : 21
Trace F  (ej )F (ej ) d < 1
0
with inner product
Z 2


1
Trace F  (ej )G(ej ) d:
hF; Gi := 2
0

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

196

Furthermore, let H2 (@ D ) be the (closed) subspace of L2 (@ D ) with matrix functions F ()

analytic in D , i.e.,


H2 (@ D ) = F () 2 L2 (@ D ) : 21

2

F (ej )ejn d = 0; for all n > 0 ;

and let H2? (@ D ) be the (closed) subspace of L2 (@ D ) with matrix functions F () analytic
in C nD .
It can be shown that the Fourier transform (or bilateral Z transform) gives the
following isometric isomorphism:


= l2 (;1; 1)

= l2 [0; 1)

= l2 (;1; 0):

L2 (@ D )
H2 (@ D )
H2? (@ D )

Remark 8.3 It should be kept in mind that, in contrast to the variable z in the standard Z -transform,  here denotes  = z ;1 .
~
Analogous to the space in the half plane, L1 (@ D ) is used to denote the Banach
space of essentially bounded matrix functions with norm


kF k1 = ess sup  F (ej ) :

2[0;2]

The Hardy space H1 (@ D ) is the closed subspace of L1 (@ D ) with functions analytic in

D and is dened as


H1 (@ D ) = F () 2 L1 (@ D ) :
The H1 norm is dened as

2

F (ej )ejn d = 0; for all n > 0 :



kF k1 := sup  [F ()] = ess sup  F (ej ) :

2D

2[0;2]

It is easy to see that L1 (@ D )  L2 (@ D ) and H1 (@ D )  H2 (@ D ). (However, it should

be pointed out that these inclusions are not true for functions in the half planes or for
continuous time functions.)

Example 8.4 Let F () 2 L2 (@ D ), and let F () have a power series representation as
follows:

F () =

1
X

i=;1

Fi i :

Then F () 2 H2 (@ D ) if and only if Fi = 0 for all i < 0 and F () 2 H2? (@ D ) if and only
if Fi = 0 for all i  0.
3

8.7. Hankel and Toeplitz Operators on the Disk*

197

Now let P; and P+ denote the orthogonal projections:

P+ : l2 (;1; 1) 7;! l2 [0; 1) or L2 (@ D ) 7;! H2 (@ D )
P; : l2 (;1; 1) 7;! l2 (;1; 0) or L2 (@ D ) 7;! H2? (@ D ):
Suppose Gd () 2 L1 (@ D ). Then the Hankel operator associated with Gd () is dened
as
;Gd : l2 (;1; 0) 7;! l2 [0; 1) or H2? (@ D ) 7;! H2 (@ D )
;Gd = P+ MGd jH?2 (@ D) :
Similarly, a Toeplitz operator associated with Gd() is dened as
TGd : l2 [0; 1) 7;! l2 [0; 1) or H2 (@ D ) 7;! H2 (@ D )
TGd = P+ MGd jH2 (@ D) :
P1
Now let Gd () = i=;1 Gi i 2 L1 (@ D ) be a linear system transfer matrix, u() =
P1
i
i=;1 ui  2 L2 (@ D ) be the system input in the frequency domain, and ui be the input
at time t = i. Then the system output in the frequency domain is given by

y() = Gd ()u() =

1
X

1
X

i=;1 j =;1

Gi uj i+j =:

1
X

i=;1

yi i

where yi is the system time response at time t = i, and consequently, we have

2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4




y2
y1
y0
y;1
y;2
y;3





7 6 
7 6
7 6 
7 6
7 6 
7 6
7 6 
7=6
7 6 
7 6
7 6 
7 6
7 6 
7 6
5 4 
















G0
G;1
G;2
G;3
G;4
G;5







G1
G0
G;1
G;2
G;3
G;4




G2
G1
G0
G;1
G;2
G;3

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

y0
y1
y2




y;1
y;2
y;3




7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

G3
G2
G1
G0
G;1
G;2




Equation (8.75) can be rewritten as

2













G4
G3
G2
G1
G0
G;1




G0 G;1 G;2   G1
G1 G0 G;1   G2
G2 G1 G0   G3



















G;1 G;2 G;3

G;2 G;3 G;4
G;3 G;4 G;5









  
  
G5  
G4  
G3  
G2  
G1  
G0  
  
  

32
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
54

G2 G3  
G3 G4  
G4 G5  


 
 

 G0 G1
 G;1 G0
 G;2 G;1
 

 


  
  
G2  
G1  
G0  
  
  







7
7

u2 77
u1 77
u0 77
u;1 77 : (8:75)
u;2 77
u;3 77

32
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
54

u0
u1
u2




u;1
u;2
u;3




3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

198
2

=:

T1 H1
H2 T2

u0
u1
u2

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4




3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

u;1 :
u;2
u;3




Matrices like T1 and T2 are called (block) Toeplitz matrices and matrices like H1 and
H2 are called (block) Hankel matrices. In fact, H1 is the matrix representation of the
Hankel operator ;Gd and T1 is the matrix representation of the Toeplitz operator TGd ,
and so on. Thus these operator norms can be computed from the matrix norms of their
corresponding matrix representations.



Lemma 8.17 kGd()k1 = HT12 HT21



,

k;Gd k = kH1 k, and kTGd k = kT1 k.

Example 8.5 Let Gd() 2 RH1(@ D ) and Gd() = C (;1 I ; A);1 B + D be a state
space realization of Gd () and let A have all the eigenvalues in D . Then

Gd () = D +

1
X
i=0

i+1 CAi B =

1
X
i=0

Gi i

with G0 = D and Gi = CAi;1 B; 8i  1. The state space equations are given by

xk+1 = Axk + Buk ; x;1 = 0;

yk = Cxk + Duk :

P
i;1
Then for u 2 l2 (;1; 0), we have x0 = 1
i=1 A Bu;i , which denes the controllability
operator
2
3


x0 = cu = B AB A2 B

6
6
6
4

u;1
u;2
u;3

7
7
7
5

2 Rn :

..
.
n
On the other hand, given x0 and uk = 0; i  0, x 2 R , the output can be computed as
2

y0
6 y1
ox0 = 664 y2
..
.

C
7 6 CA 7
7 6
7
7 = 6 CA2 7 x0 2 l2 [0; 1)
5 4
5
..
.

8.7. Hankel and Toeplitz Operators on the Disk*

199

which denes the observability operator. Of course, the adjoint operators of c and o
can be computed easily as
2

B
6 B  A 7
c x0 = 664 B  (A )2 775 x0 2 l2 (;1; 0)
..
.

and

2


o y = C  A C  (A )2 C 

6
6
6
4

y0
y1
y2

3
7
7
7
5

2 Rn :

..
.
Hence, the Hankel operator has the following matrix representation:
2

C
6 CA
H = 664 CA2
..
.

7
7
7
5

G1 G2 G3



6 G2 G3 G4


7

B AB A2 B


= 664 G3 G4 G5


775 :
..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

It is interesting to establish some connections between a Hankel operator dened on

the unit disk and the one dened on the half plane. First dene the map as
1+
1
(8:76)
 = ss ;
+ 1; s = 1 ; ;
which maps the closed right-half plane Re(s)  0 onto the closed unit disk, D .
Suppose G(s) 2 H1 (j R) and dene
(8:77)
Gd () := G(s)js= 11+; :
Since G(s) is analytic in Re(s) > 0, including the point at 1, Gd () is analytic in D ,
i.e., Gd () 2 H1 (@ D ).



Lemma 8.18 ;G(s) = ;Gd() .

Proof. Dene the function

(s) = s +21 :

The relation between a point j! on the imaginary axis and the corresponding point ej
on the unit circle is, from (8.76),
; 1:
ej = j!
j! + 1

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

200
This yields

d = ; !2 2+ 1 d! = ;j(j!)j2 d!;

which implies that the mapping

fd() 7;! (s)f (s) : H2 (@ D ) 7;! H2 (j R)

where f (s) = fd()j= ss;+11 is an isomorphism. Similarly,

fd () 7;! (s)f (s) : H2? (@ D ) 7;! H2? (j R)

is an isomorphism; note that if fd() 2 H2? (@ D ), then fd (1) = 0, so that f (;1) = 0,
and hence (s)f (s) is analytic in Re(s) < 0.
The lemma now follows from the commutative diagram
;Gd ()
- H2 (@ D )
H2? (@ D )

?
H2? (j R)

;G(s)

?
- H2 (j R )
2

The above isomorphism between H2 (@ D ) and H2 (j R) has also the implication that
every discrete time H2 control problem can be converted to an equivalent continuous
time H2 control problem. It should be emphasized that the bilinear transformation is
not an isomorphism between H2 (@ D ) and H2 (j R).

8.8 Nehari's Theorem*

As we have mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, a Hankel operator is closely
related to an analytic approximation problem. In this section, we shall be concerned
with approximating G by an anticausal transfer matrix, i.e., one analytic in Re(s) < 0
(or jj > 1), where the approximation is with respect to the L1 norm. For convenience,
; (@ D ) denote the subspace of L1 (@ D ) with functions analytic in jj > 1. So
let H1
; (@ D ) if and only if G(;1 ) 2 H1 (@ D ).
G() 2 H1

Minimum Distance Problem

In the following, we shall establish that the distance in L1 from G to the nearest
; equals k;Gk. This is the classical Nehari Theorem. Some applications
matrix in H1

8.8. Nehari's Theorem*

201

and explicit construction of the approximation for the matrix case will be considered in
the later chapters.

Theorem 8.19 Suppose G 2 L1, then

inf kG ; Qk1 = k;Gk

Q2H;1

and the inmum is achieved.

Remark 8.4 Note that from the mapping (8.76) and Lemma 8.18, the above theorem
is the same whether the problem is on the unit disk or on the half plane. Hence, we will
only give the proof on the unit disk.
~
Proof. We shall give the proof on the unit disk. First, it is easy to establish that the
; (@ D ), we have
Hankel norm is the lower bound: for xed Q 2 H1
k(G ; Q)f k2
kG ; Qk1 = sup
kf k2
?
f 2H2 (@ D )
kP+ (G ; Q)f k2
 sup
kf k2
?
f 2H2 (@ D )
kP+ Gf k2
=
sup
?
f 2H2 (@ D ) kf k2
= k;G k :
; (@ D ) such that
Next we shall construct a Q() 2 H1

kG ; Qk1 = k;G k :
Let the power series expansion of G() and Q() be

G() =
Q() =

1
X
i=;1
0
X

i=;1

i Gi
i Qi :

The left-hand side of (8.78) equals the norm of the operator

f 7;! (G() ; Q())f () : H2?(@ D ) 7;! L2 (@ D ):

(8:78)

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

202

From the discussion of the last section, there is a matrix representation of this operator:
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4







G3
G2
G1

G4
G3
G2
G1










G0 ; Q0
G;1 ; Q;1 G0 ; Q0
G;2 ; Q;2 G;1 ; Q;1



G5

G4

G3

G2

G1

G0 ; Q0 






 77
 77
 77
 77 :
 77
 77
 77
5


(8:79)

The idea in the construction of a Q to satisfy (8.78) is to select Q0 , Q;1 , : : : , in turn

to minimize the matrix norm of (8.79). First choose Q0 to minimize
2


6
6
6
6
6
6
4







G3
G2
G1

G4
G3
G2
G1

G0 ; Q0

  
  
G5  
G4  
G3  
G2  

3


7
7
7
7
7
7
5

By Parrott's Theorem (i.e., matrix dilation theory presented in Chapter 2), the minimum equals the norm of the following matrix
2
6
6
6
6
4







  
  
G3 G4 G5  
G2 G3 G4  
G1 G2 G3  

3
7
7
7
7
5

which is the rotated Hankel matrix H1 . Hence, the minimum equals the Hankel norm
k;Gk. Next, choose Q;1 to minimize
2


6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4




G3
G2
G1

G0 ; Q0
G;1 ; Q;1




  
  
G4
G5  
G3
G4  
G2
G3  
G1
G2  
G0 ; Q0 G1  

3


7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

Again, the minimum equals k;G k. Continuing in this way gives a suitable Q.

As we have mentioned earlier we might be interested in approximating an L1 function by an H1 function. Then we have the following corollary.

8.8. Nehari's Theorem*

203

Corollary 8.20 Suppose G 2 L1, then

inf
k
G
;
Q
k
=
1 ;^ G
Q2H1
and the inmum is achieved.

Proof. This follows from the fact that

 ; Q k = k;G k = ;^ G :
inf
k
G
;
Q
k
=
inf
k
G
1
1
 ;
Q2H1
Q 2H1

Let G 2 RH1 and g be the impulse response of G and let 1 be the largest Hankel
singular value of G, i.e., k;G k = 1 . Suppose u 2 L2 (;1; 0] (or l2 (;1; 0)) and
v 2 L2 [0; 1) (or l2 [0; 1)) are the corresponding Schmidt pairs:
;g u = 1 v
;g v = 1 u:
Now denote the Laplace transform (or Z -transform) of u and v as U 2 RH?2 and
V 2 RH2 .
Lemma 8.21 Let G 2 RH1 and 1 be the largest Hankel singular value of G. Then
inf; kG ; Qk1 = 1
Q2H1

and

(G ; Q)U = 1 V:
Moreover, if G is a scalar function, then Q = G ; 1 V=U is the unique solution and
G ; Q is all-pass.

Proof. Let H := (G ; Q)U and note that ;GU 2 RH2 and P+H = P+(GU ) = ;GU .
Then

kH ; ;GU k22
kH k22 + k;G U k22 ; hH; ;G U i ; h;G U; H i
kH k22 + k;G U k22 ; hP+ H; ;G U i ; h;G U; P+ H i
kH k22 ; h;G U; ;GU i
kH k22 ; hU; ;G ;GU i
kH k22 ; 12 hU; U i
kH k22 ; 12 kU k22
 kG ; Qk21 kU k22 ; 12 kU k22

0 
=
=
=
=
=
=

= 0:

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

204

Hence, H = ;G U , i.e., (G ; Q)U = ;GU = 1 V .

Now if G is a scalar function, then Q is uniquely determined and Q = G ; 1 V=U .
We shall prove through explicit construction below that V=U is an all-pass.
2

Formulas for Continuous Time

Let G(s) 2 RH1 and let

G(s) = CA B0 :

Let Lc and Lo be the corresponding controllability and observability Gramians:

ALc + LcA + BB  = 0
A Lo + Lo A + C  C = 0:

And let 12 ,  be the largest eigenvalue and the corresponding eigenvector of Lc Lo:

Lc Lo = 12 :
Dene
Then

 := 1 Lo:
1

u = c  = B  e;A   2 L2 (;1; 0]
v = o = CeAt  2 L2 [0; 1)

are the Schmidt pair and

U (s) =
V (s) =




;A  2 RH?
2
;B  0

A 
C 0 2 RH2 :

It is easy to show that if G is a scalar, then U; V are scalar transfer functions and
U  U = V  V . Hence, V=U is an all-pass. The details are left as an exercise for the
reader.

Formulas for Discrete Time

Similarly, let G be a discrete time transfer matrix and let

G() = C (;1 I ; A);1 B =

A B
C 0 :

8.8. Nehari's Theorem*

205

Let Lc and Lo be the corresponding controllability and observability Gramians:

ALcA ; Lc + BB  = 0
A Lo A ; Lo + C  C = 0:
And let 12 ,  be the largest eigenvalue and a corresponding eigenvector of LcLo:
Lc Lo = 12 :
Dene
 := 1 Lo:
Then

B
6 B  A 7
u = c  = 664 B  (A )2 775  2 l2 (;1; 0)
..
.

C
6 CA 7
v = o = 664 CA2 775  2 l2 [0; 1)
..
.

are the Schmidt pair and

1
X

A B  2 RH?
U () =
2
 0
i=1


1
X
A

i
i
V () =
CA  = CA C 2 RH2
i=0
B  (A )i;1 ;i =

where W () := W T (;1 ).

Alternatively, since the Hankel operator has a matrix representation H , u and v can
be obtained from a \singular value decomposition" (possibly innite size): let

G() =

1
X
i=1

Gi i ; Gi 2 Rpq

(in fact, Gi = CAi;1 B if a state space realization of G is available) and let

2

G1 G2 G3



6 G2 G3 G4


7
H = 664 G3 G4 G5


775 :
..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

HANKEL NORM APPROXIMATION

206

Suppose H has a \singular value decomposition"

H = U V 
 = diag
f1 ; 2 ;


g

U = u1 u2





V = v1 v2



with U  U = UU  = I and V  V = V V  = I . Then
2
3
2
u11
v11
6 u12 7
6 v12
u = u1 = 4 . 5 ; v = v1 = 4 .
..

..

3
7
5

where u and v are partitioned such that u1i 2 Rp and v1i 2 Rq . Finally, U () and V ()
can be obtained as

U () =
V () =

1
X
i=1

1
X
i=1

u1i ;i 2 RH?2

v1i i;1 2 RH2 :

In particular, if G() is an n-th order matrix polynomial, then matrix H has only a
nite number of nonzero elements and


H
0
n
H= 0 0
with

Hn

6
6
= 666
4

G1 G2


Gn;1 Gn
G2 G3


Gn 0 77
G3 G4


0
0 77 :
. .
.
. 7
..

..
..
.. 5
Gn 0


0
0
Hence, u and v can be obtained from a standard SVD of Hn .

8.9 Notes and References

The study of the Hankel operators and of the optimal Hankel norm approximation
theory can be found in Adamjan, Arov, and Krein [1978], Bettayeb, Silverman, and
Safonov [1980], Kung and Lin [1981], Power [1982], Francis [1987], Kavranoglu and
Bettayeb [1994] and references therein. The presentation of this chapter is based on
Francis [1987] and Glover [1984,1989].

Model Uncertainty and

Robustness
In this chapter we brie y describe various types of uncertainties which can arise in
physical systems, and we single out \unstructured uncertainties" as generic errors which
are associated with all design models. We obtain robust stability tests for systems under
various model uncertainty assumptions through the use of the small gain theorem. And
we also obtain some sucient conditions for robust performance under unstructured
uncertainties. The diculty associated with MIMO robust performance design and the
role of plant condition numbers for systems with skewed performance and uncertainty
specications are revealed. We show by examples that the classical gain margin and
phase margin are insucient indicators for the system robustness. A simple example
is also used to indicate the fundamental dierence between the robustness of an SISO
system and that of an MIMO system. In particular, we show that applying the SISO
analysis/design method to an MIMO system may lead to erroneous results.

9.1 Model Uncertainty

Most control designs are based on the use of a design model. The relationship between
models and the reality they represent is subtle and complex. A mathematical model
provides a map from inputs to responses. The quality of a model depends on how closely
its responses match those of the true plant. Since no single xed model can respond
exactly like the true plant, we need, at the very least, a set of maps. However, the
207

208

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

modeling problem is much deeper { the universe of mathematical models from which a
model set is chosen is distinct from the universe of physical systems. Therefore, a model
set which includes the true physical plant can never be constructed. It is necessary for
the engineer to make a leap of faith regarding the applicability of a particular design
based on a mathematical model. To be practical, a design technique must help make
this leap small by accounting for the inevitable inadequacy of models. A good model
should be simple enough to facilitate design, yet complex enough to give the engineer
condence that designs based on the model will work on the true plant.
The term uncertainty refers to the dierences or errors between models and reality,
and whatever mechanism is used to express these errors will be called a representation
of uncertainty. Representations of uncertainty vary primarily in terms of the amount
of structure they contain. This re ects both our knowledge of the physical mechanisms
which cause dierences between the model and the plant and our ability to represent
these mechanisms in a way that facilitates convenient manipulation. For example, consider the problem of bounding the magnitude of the eect of some uncertainty on the
output of a nominally xed linear system. A useful measure of uncertainty in this context is to provide a bound on the spectrum of the output's deviation from its nominal
response. In the simplest case, this spectrum is assumed to be independent of the input.
This is equivalent to assuming that the uncertainty is generated by an additive noise
signal with a bounded spectrum; the uncertainty is represented as additive noise. Of
course, no physical system is linear with additive noise, but some aspects of physical
behavior are approximated quite well using this model. This type of uncertainty received a great deal of attention in the literature during the 1960's and 1970's, and the
attention is probably due more to the elegant theoretical solutions that are yielded (e.g.,
white noise propagation in linear systems, Wiener and Kalman ltering, LQG) than to
the great practical signicance oered.
Generally, the deviation's spectrum of the true output from the nominal will depend
signicantly on the input. For example, an additive noise model is entirely inappropriate for capturing uncertainty arising from variations in the material properties of
physical plants. The actual construction of model sets for more general uncertainty can
be quite dicult. For example, a set membership statement for the parameters of an
otherwise known FDLTI model is a highly-structured representation of uncertainty. It
typically arises from the use of linear incremental models at various operating points,
e.g., aerodynamic coecients in ight control vary with ight environment and aircraft
congurations, and equation coecients in power plant control vary with aging, slag
buildup, coal composition, etc. In each case, the amounts of variation and any known
relationships between parameters can be expressed by conning the parameters to appropriately dened subsets of parameter space. However, for certain classes of signals
(e.g., high frequency), the parameterized FDLTI model fails to describe the plant because the plant will always have dynamics which are not represented in the xed order
model.
In general, we are forced to use not just a single parameterized model but model sets
that allow for plant dynamics which are not explicitly represented in the model structure.

9.1. Model Uncertainty

209

A simple example of this involves using frequency-domain bounds on transfer functions

to describe a model set. To use such sets to describe physical systems, the bounds
must roughly grow with frequency. In particular, at suciently high frequencies, phase
is completely unknown, i.e., 180o uncertainties. This is a consequence of dynamic
properties which inevitably occur in physical systems. This gives a less structured
representation of uncertainty.
Examples of less-structured representations of uncertainty are direct set membership
statements for the transfer function matrix of the model. For instance, the statement
(9:1)
P
(s) = P (s) + W1 (s)
(s)W2 (s);  [
(j!)] < 1; 8!  0;
where W1 and W2 are stable transfer matrices that characterize the spatial and frequency
structure of the uncertainty, connes the matrix P
to a neighborhood of the nominal
model P . In particular, if W1 = I and W2 = w(s)I where w(s) is a scalar function,
then P
describes a disk centered at P with radius w(j!) at each frequency as shown
in Figure 9.1. The statement does not imply a mechanism or structure which gives rise
to
. The uncertainty may be caused by parameter changes, as mentioned above or by
neglected dynamics or by a host of other unspecied eects. An alternative statement
to (9.1) is the so-called multiplicative form:
P
(s) = (I + W1 (s)
(s)W2 (s))P (s):
(9:2)
This statement connes P
to a normalized neighborhood of the nominal model P . An
advantage of (9.2) over (9.1) is that in (9.2) compensated transfer functions have the
same uncertainty representation as the raw model (i.e., the weighting functions apply to
PK as well as P ). Some other alternative set membership statements will be discussed
later.

P(j )

w(j )

Figure 9.1: Nyquist Diagram of an Uncertain Model

The best choice of uncertainty representation for a specic FDLTI model depends, of
course, on the errors the model makes. In practice, it is generally possible to represent

210

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

some of these errors in a highly-structured parameterized form. These are usually

the low frequency error components. There are always remaining higher frequency
errors, however, which cannot be covered this way. These are caused by such eects as
innite-dimensional electro-mechanical resonance, time delays, diusion processes, etc.
Fortunately, the less-structured representations, e.g., (9.1) or (9.2), are well suited to
represent this latter class of errors. Consequently, (9.1) and (9.2) have become widely
used \generic" uncertainty representations for FDLTI models. An important point is
that the construction of the weighting matrices W1 and W2 for multivariable systems is
not trivial.
Motivated from these observations, we will focus for the moment on the multiplicative description of uncertainty. We will assume that P
in (9.2) remains a strictly proper
FDLTI system for all
. More general perturbations (e.g., time varying, innite dimensional, nonlinear) can also be covered by this set provided they are given appropriate
\conic sector" interpretations via Parseval's theorem. This connection is developed in
[Safonov, 1980] and [Zames, 1966] and will not be pursued here.
When used to represent the various high frequency mechanisms mentioned above,
the weighting functions in (9.2) commonly have the properties illustrated in Figure 9.2.
They are small ( 1) at low frequencies and increase to unity and above at higher
frequencies. The growth with frequency inevitably occurs because phase uncertainties
eventually exceed 180 degrees and magnitude deviations eventually exceed the nominal transfer function magnitudes. Readers who are skeptical about this reality are
encouraged to try a few experiments with physical devices.
nominal model

log

actual model

Figure 9.2: Typical Behavior of Multiplicative Uncertainty: p (s) = [1 + w(s)(s)]p(s)

Also note that the representation of uncertainty in (9.2) can be used to include perturbation eects that are in fact certain. A nonlinear element, may be quite accurately

9.2. Small Gain Theorem

211

modeled, but because our design techniques cannot eectively deal with the nonlinearity, it is treated as a conic linearity1 . As another example, we may deliberately choose
to ignore various known dynamic characteristics in order to achieve a simple nominal
design model. This is the model reduction process discussed in the previous chapters.
The following terminologies are used in this book.

Denition 9.1 Given the description of an uncertainty model set  and a set of performance objectives, suppose P 2  is the nominal design model and K is the resulting
controller. Then the closed-loop feedback system is said to have

Nominal Stability (NS): if K internally stabilizes the nominal model P .

Robust Stability (RS): if K internally stabilizes every plant belong to .
Nominal Performance (NP): if the performance objectives are satised for the
nominal plant P .

Robust Performance (RP): if the performance objectives are satised for every
plant belong to .
The nominal stability and performance can be easily checked using various standard
techniques. The conditions for which the robust stability and robust performance are
satised under various assumptions on the uncertainty set  will be considered in the
following sections.

9.2 Small Gain Theorem

This section and the next section consider the stability test of a nominally stable system
under unstructured perturbations. The basis for the robust stability criteria derived in
the sequel is the so-called small gain theorem.
Consider the interconnected system shown in Figure 9.3 with M (s) a stable p  q
transfer matrix.

w1

- e e1
+ 6
+

-

M 

++ w2
e2 e?


Figure 9.3: Small Gain Theorem

1

See, for example, Safonov [1980] and Zames [1966].

212

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

Theorem 9.1 (Small Gain Theorem) Suppose M 2 RH1 . Then the interconnected system shown in Figure 9.3 is well-posed and internally stable for all
(s) 2
RH1 with
(a) k
k1  1= if and only if kM (s)k1 < ;
(b) k
k1 < 1= if and only if kM (s)k1  .
Proof. We shall only prove part (a). The proof for part (b) is similar. Without loss

of generality, assume = 1.
(Suciency) It is clear that M (s)
(s) is stable since both M (s) and
(s) are stable.
Thus by Theorem 5.7 (or Corollary 5.6) the closed-loop system is stable if det(I ; M
)
has no zero in the closed right-half plane for all
2 RH1 and k
k1  1. Equivalently,
the closed-loop system is stable if
inf  (I ; M (s)
(s)) 6= 0
s2C +

for all
2 RH1 and k
k1  1. But this follows from

inf  (I ; M (s)
(s))  1; sup  (M (s)
(s)) = 1;kM (s)
(s)k1  1;kM (s)k1 > 0:
s2C +

s2C +

(Necessity) This will be shown by contradiction. Suppose kM k1  1. We will show

that there exists a
2 RH1 with k
k1  1 such that det(I ; M (s)
(s)) has a zero
on the imaginary axis, so the system is unstable. Suppose !0 2 R+ [ f1g is such that
 (M (j!0 ))  1. Let M (j!0 ) = U (j!)(j!0 )V  (j!0 ) be a singular value decomposition
with


U (j!0 ) = u1 u2


up


V (j!0 ) = v1 v2


vq
2

(j!0 ) = 64

1

2

...

7
5

and kM k1 =  (M (j!0)) = 1 . To obtain a contradiction, it now suces to construct

a
2 RH1 such that
(j!0 ) = 11 v1 u1 and k
k1  1. Indeed, for such
(s),
det(I ; M (j!0 )
(j!0 )) = det(I ; U V  v1 u1 =1 ) = 1 ; u1 U V  v1 =1 = 0
and thus the closed-loop system is either not well-posed (if !0 = 1) or unstable (if
! 2 R). There are two dierent cases:
(1) !0 = 0 or 1: then U and V are real matrices. In this case,
(s) can be chosen as

= 1 v u 2 Rqp :

1

1 1

9.2. Small Gain Theorem

213

(2) 0 < !0 < 1: write u1 and v1 in the following form:

2
6

u1 = 664

u11 ej1
u12 ej2
..
.

u1p ejp

3
7
7
7
5

v1 = 664

v11 ej1
v12 ej2
..
.

3
7
7
7
5

v1q ejq
where u1i 2 R and v1j 2 R are chosen so that i ; j 2 [;; 0) for all i; j .
Choose i  0 and j  0 so that




j!0 =  ; \ j ; j!0 = 
\ i ;
i
j
j + j!0
i + j!0
for i = 1; 2; : : :; p and j = 1; 2; : : :; q. Let
2
v11 11 ;+ss 3 h
i
..
7
u11 11 ;+ss


u1p pp ;+ss 2 RH1 :

(s) = 1 64
5
.
1
v1q qq ;+ss
Then k
k1 = 1=1  1 and
(j!0 ) = 11 v1 u1 .

The theorem still holds even if
and M are innite dimensional. This is summarized
as the following corollary.
Corollary 9.2 The following statements are equivalent:
(i) The system is well-posed and internally stable for all
2 H1 with k
k1 < 1= ;
(ii) The system is well-posed and internally stable for all
2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1= ;
(iii) The system is well-posed and internally stable for all
2 C qp with k
k < 1= ;
(iv) kM k1  .
Remark 9.1 It can be shown that the small gain condition is sucient to guarantee
internal stability even if
is a nonlinear and time varying \stable" operator with an
appropriately dened stability notion, see Desoer and Vidyasagar [1975].
~
The following lemma shows that if kM k1 > , there exists a destabilizing
with
k
k1 < 1= such that the closed-loop system has poles in the open right half plane.
(This is stronger than what is given in the proof of Theorem 9.1.)
Lemma 9.3 Suppose M 2 RH1 and kM k1 > . Then there exists a 0 > 0 such
that for any given  2 [0; 0 ] there exists a
2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1= such that
det(I ; M (s)
(s)) has a zero on the axis Re(s) = .

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

214

Proof. Without loss of generality, assume = 1. Since M 2 RH1 and kM k1 > 1,

there is a suciently small 0 > 0 such that kM (0 + s)k1 := sup kM (0 + s)k > 1.
Re(s)>0
Now let  2 [0; 0 ]. Then there exists a 0 < !0 < 1 such that kM ( + j!0)k > 1.
Let M ( + j!0 ) = U V  be a singular value decomposition with


U = u1 u2


up


V = v1 v2


vq
3
2
1
7
2
 = 64
5:
Write u1 and v1 in the following form:
2
6

u1 = 664

u11 ej1
u12 ej2
..
.

...

3
7
7
7
5

v1 = 664

v11 ej1
v12 ej2
..
.

3
7
7
7
5

v1q ejq
where u1i 2 R and v1j 2 R are chosen so that i ; j 2 [;; 0) for all i; j .
Choose i  0 and j  0 so that





;

;
j!

;

;
j!
j
0
i
0
\  +  + j! = i ; \  +  + j! = j
i
0
j
0
for i = 1; 2; : : : ; p and j = 1; 2; : : : ; q. Let
2
v11 11 +;ss 3 h
i
..
7
u11 11 +;ss


u1p pp;+ss 2 RH1 :

(s) = 1 64
5
.
1
v1q qq ;+ss
u1p ejp

Then k
k1 = 1=1 < 1 and det (I ; M ( + j!0 )
( + j!0 )) = 0. Hence s =  + j!0
is a zero for the transfer function det (I ; M (s)
(s)).
2
The above lemma plays a key role in the necessity proofs of many robust stability
tests in the sequel.

9.3 Stability under Stable Unstructured Uncertainties

The small gain theorem in the last section will be used here to derive robust stability
tests under various assumptions of model uncertainties. The modeling error
will again

9.3. Stability under Stable Unstructured Uncertainties

215

be assumed to be stable. (Most of the robust stability tests discussed in the sequel can
be easily generalized to unstable
case with some mild assumptions on the number
of unstable poles of the uncertain model, we encourage readers to ll in the details.)
In addition, we assume that the modeling error
is suitably scaled with weighting
functions W1 and W2 , i.e., the uncertainty can be represented as W1
W2 .
We shall consider the standard setup shown in Figure 9.4, where  is the set of uncertain plants with P 2  as the nominal plant and with K as the internally stabilizing
controller for P . The sensitivity and complementary sensitivity matrix functions are
dened as usual as
So = (I + PK );1 ; To = I ; So
and
Si = (I + KP );1 ; Ti = I ; Si :
Recall that the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally stable if and only if




I K ;1 = (I + K );1 ;K (I + K );1 2 RH :
1
; I
(I + K );1  (I + K );1

-f
6
;

- K

- 

Figure 9.4: Unstructured Robust Stability Analysis

9.3.1 Additive Uncertainty

We assume that the model uncertainty can be represented by an additive perturbation:

 = P + W1
W2 :
Theorem 9.4 Let  = fP + W1
W2 :
2 RH1g and let K be a stabilizing controller for the nominal plant P . Then the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally
stable for all k
k1 < 1 if and only if kW2 KSoW1 k1  1.

Proof. Let  = P + W1
W2. Then



K ;1 =
(I + KSo W1
W2 );1 Si
;KSo(I + W1
W2 KSo );1
;
1
; I
(I + So W1
W2 K ) So (P + W1
W2 ) So (I + W1
W2 KSo);1
is well-posed and internally stable if (I +
W2 KSo W1 );1 2 RH1 since
det(I + KSo W1
W2 ) = det(I + W1
W2 KSo) = (I + SoW1
W2 K )
= det(I +
W2 KSoW1 ):

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

216

But (I +
W2 KSo W1 );1 2 RH1 is guaranteed if k
W2 KSoW1 k1 < 1. Hence
kW2 KSoW1 k1  1 is sucient for robust stability.
To show the necessity, note that robust stability implies that
K (I + K );1 = KSo(I + W1
W2 KSo );1 2 RH1
for all admissible
. This in turn implies that

W2 K (I + K );1 W1 = I ; (I +
W2 KSoW1 );1 2 RH1
for all admissible
. By small gain theorem, this is true for all
2 RH1 with

k
k1 < 1 only if kW2 KSoW1 k1  1.

Similarly, it is easy to show that the closed-loop system is stable for all
2 RH1
with k
k1  1 if and only if kW2 KSoW1 k1 < 1.

9.3.2 Multiplicative Uncertainty

In this section, we assume that the system model is described by the following set of
multiplicative perturbation
P
= (I + W1
W2 )P
with W1 ; W2 ;
2 RH1 . Consider the feedback system shown in the Figure 9.5.

dm
z
w
- W2 -
- e?
- W1
r - e- K
;6

- P

d~
?
Wd
d
?
?
- e - e y- We

e-

Figure 9.5: Output Multiplicative Perturbed Systems

Theorem 9.5 Let  = f(I + W1
W2 )P :
2 RH1g and let K be a stabilizing controller for the nominal plant P . Then
(i) the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally stable for all
2 RH1 with
k
k1 < 1 if and only if kW2 ToW1 k1  1.
(ii) the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally stable for all
2 RH1 with
k
k1  1 if kW2 ToW1 k1 < 1.

9.3. Stability under Stable Unstructured Uncertainties

217

(iii) the robust stability of the closed-loop system for all
2 RH1 with k
k1  1
does not necessarily imply kW2 To W1 k1 < 1.
(iv) the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally stable for all
2 RH1 with
k
k1  1 only if kW2 To W1 k1  1.

(v) In addition, assume that neither P nor K has poles on the imaginary axis. Then
the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally stable for all
2 RH1 with
k
k1  1 if and only if kW2 ToW1 k1 < 1.

Proof. We shall rst prove that the condition in (i) is necessary for robust stability.
Suppose kW2 ToW1 k1 > 1. Then by Lemma 9.3, for any given suciently small  > 0,
there is a
2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1 such that (I +
W2 ToW1 );1 has poles on the axis
Re(s) = . This implies

(I + K );1 = So (I + W1
W2 To);1

has poles on the axis Re(s) =  since  can always be chosen so that the unstable poles
are not cancelled by the zeros of So . Hence kW2 To W1 k1  1 is necessary for robust
stability. In fact, we have also proven part (iv). The suciency parts of (i), (ii), and
(v) follow from the small gain theorem.
To show the necessity part of (v), suppose kW2 ToW1 k1 = 1. From the proof of the
small gain theorem, there is a
2 RH1 with k
k1  1 such that (I +
W2 To W1 );1
has poles on the imaginary axis. This implies
(I + K );1 = So (I + W1
W2 To);1
has poles on the imaginary axis since the imaginary axis poles of (I + W1
W2 To);1 are
not cancelled by the zeros of So , which are the poles of P and K . Hence kW2 ToW1 k1 < 1
is necessary for robust stability.
The proof of part (iii) is given below by exhibiting an example with kW2 ToW1 k1 = 1
but there is no destabilizing
2 RH1 with k
k1  1.
2

Example 9.1 Let P (s) = 1s , K (s) = 1, and W1 = W2 = 1. It is easy to check that K

stabilizes P . We have
and

To = s +1 1 ; kTo k1 = 1

(I + K );1 = (I + K );1 = K (I + K );1 = s +s 1

(I + K );1  = s +1 1 1 +1
:
1 + s+1

1
1

1 + s+1

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

218


1  < 1 for all 0 6= s 2 C and Re(s)  0, 1 + 1
6= 0 for all

Since jTo (s)j =  s+1
s+1
1
= 0 in
0=
6 s 2 C , Re(s)  0,
2 RH1 and k
k  1. The only point where 1 + s+1
the closed right half plane is s = 0. Then
(0) = ;1. By assumption,
is analytic in
a neighborhood of the origin since
2 RH1 . Hence, we can write

(s) = ;1 +

1
X
i=1

an sn ; ai 2 R:



s) 
We now claim that a1  0. Otherwise, d
(
ds s=0 = a1 < 0, along with
(0) = ;1,
implies k
k1 > 1. Hence
(s) = ;1 + a1 s + s2 g(s) for some g(s) and a1  0 and
(I + K );1 = (I + K );1 = K (I + K );1 = s +s 1

1+

1
s+1

= 1 + a1 + sg
1

(I + K );1  = s +1 1 1 +1
= 1 +a1a+ +sgsg

1 + s+1

1
both of which are bounded in the neighborhood of the origin. Hence there is no destabilizing
2 RH1 with k
k1  1.
3
The gap between the necessity and the suciency of the above robust stability conditions
for the closed ball of uncertainty is only technique and will not be considered in the
sequel. The reason for the existence of a such gap may be attributed to the fact that in
the multiplicative perturbed case, the signals z , w, and dm in Figure 9.5 are articial
and they are not physical signals. Indeed,  = (I + W1
W2 )P is a single system, the
internal stability of the closed-loop system does not necessarily imply the boundedness
of the articial signals z or w with respect to the articial disturbance dm . This is the
case for the above example where  = (1 +
)P = (a1 s + s2 g(s))=s = a1 + sg(s) and
the pole s = 0 is cancelled. This cancelation is articial and is caused by the particular
model representation (i.e., there is really no cancelation in the physical system.) Thus
the closed-loop system is robustly stable although the transfer function from dm to z is
unstable.

9.3.3 Coprime Factor Uncertainty

As another example, consider a left coprime factor perturbed plant described in Figure 9.6.

Theorem 9.6 Let

 = (M~ +
~ M );1 (N~ +
~ N )

~ N;
~
~ M ,
~ N 2 RH1 . The transfer matrices (M;
~ N~ ) are assumed to be a
with M;
;
1
~
~
stable left coprime factorization of P (i.e., P = M N ), and K internally stabilizes

9.3. Stability under Stable Unstructured Uncertainties

z1
~ N
r-e K
;6

;
~ 
- e
M
w
-?
-M~ ;1
e

- N~

219

z2
y
-

Figure 9.6: Left Coprime Factor Perturbed Systems



the nominal system P . Dene
:=
~ N
~ M . Then the closed-loop system is
well-posed and internally stable for all k
k1 < 1 if and only if


K (I + PK );1 M~ ;1  1:

I
1

Proof. Let K = UV ;1 be a right coprime factorization over RH1. By Lemma 5.10,

the closed-loop system is internally stable if and only if


(N~ +
~ N )U + (M~ +
~ M )V

;1

2 RH1 :

(9:3)

~ + MV
~ );1 2 RH1 . Hence (9.3) holds if and only if
Since K stabilizes P , (NU


~ + MV
~ );1
I + (
~ N U +
~ M V )(NU

;1

2 RH1 :

By the small gain theorem, the above is true for all k
k1 < 1 if and only if


K
U ~
;1 ~ ;1
~ ;1

V (NU + MV ) 1 = I (I + PK ) M 1  1:

Similarly, one can show that the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally
stable for all k
k1  1 if and only if


K (I + PK );1 M~ ;1 < 1:

I
1

9.3.4 Unstructured Robust Stability Tests

Table 9.1 summaries robust stability tests on the plant uncertainties under various
assumptions. All of the tests pertain to the standard setup shown in Figure 9.4, where
 is the set of uncertain plants with P 2  as the nominal plant and with K as the
internally stabilizing controller of P .

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

220

Table 9.1 should be interpreted as

UNSTRUCTURED ANALYSIS THEOREM

Given NS & Perturbed Model Sets
Then Closed-Loop Robust Stability
if and only if Robust Stability Tests
The table also indicates representative types of physical uncertainties which can
be usefully represented by cone bounded perturbations inserted at appropriate locations. For example, the representation P
= (I + W1
W2 )P in the rst row is useful
for output errors at high frequencies (HF), covering such things as unmodeled high
frequency dynamics of sensors or plant, including diusion processes, transport lags,
electro-mechanical resonances, etc. The representation P
= P (I + W1
W2 ) in the
second row covers similar types of errors at the inputs. Both cases should be contrasted
with the third and the fourth rows which treat P (I + W1
W2 );1 and (I + W1
W2 );1 P .
These representations are more useful for variations in modeled dynamics, such as low
frequency (LF) errors produced by parameter variations with operating conditions, with
aging, or across production copies of the same plant. Discussion of still other cases is
left to the table.
Note from the table that the stability requirements on
do not limit our ability to
represent variations in either the number or locations of rhp singularities as can be seen
from some simple examples.

Example 9.2 Suppose an uncertain system with changing numbers of right-half plane
poles is described by

P
= s ;1  :  2 R; jj  1 :
1 2 P
has no right-half
Then P1 = s;1 1 2 P
has one right-half plane pole and P2 = s+1
plane pole. Nevertheless, the set of P
can be covered by a set of feedback uncertain
plants:

with P = 1s .

P
  := P (1 + P );1 :  2 RH1 ; kk1  1

Example 9.3 As another example, consider the following set of plants:


P
= (s s++1)(1 +
s + 2) ; jj  2:

9.3. Stability under Stable Unstructured Uncertainties

221

W1 2 RH1 W2 2 RH1
2 RH1 k
k1 < 1

Perturbed Model Sets

(I + W1
W2 );1 P

Representative Types of
Uncertainty Characterized
output (sensor) errors
neglected HF dynamics
changing # of rhp zeros
input (actuators) errors
neglected HF dynamics
changing # of rhp zeros
LF parameter errors
changing # of rhp poles

P (I + W1
W2 );1

LF parameter errors
changing # of rhp poles

(I + W1
W2 )P

P (I + W1
W2 )

P + W1
W2
P (I + W1
W2 P );1
(M~ +
~ M );1 (N~ +
~ N )
P = M~ ;1 N~



=
~ N
~ M
(N +
N )(M +
M );1
;1
P = NM



N

=

M

additive plant errors

neglected HF dynamics
uncertain rhp zeros
LF parameter errors
uncertain rhp poles
LF parameter errors
neglected HF dynamics
uncertain rhp poles & zeros
LF parameter errors
neglected HF dynamics
uncertain rhp poles & zeros

Robust Stability Tests

kW2 ToW1 k1  1
kW2 Ti W1 k1  1
kW2 So W1 k1  1
kW2 Si W1 k1  1
kW2 KSoW1 k1  1
kW2 So PW1 k1  1



K

;
1

~
S
M
o
I

;1

M Si [K I ]
1

1

1

Table 9.1: Unstructured Robust Stability Tests (# stands for `the number'.)

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

222

This set of plants have changing numbers of right-half plane zeros since the plant has
no right-half plane zero when  = 0 and has one right-half plane zero when  = ;2.
The uncertain plant can be covered by a set of multiplicative perturbed plants:


P
  := s +1 2 (1 + s 2+ 1 );  2 RH1 ; kk1  1 :

It should be noted that this covering can be quite conservative.

9.3.5 Equivalence: Robust Stability vs. Nominal Performance

A robust stability problem can be viewed as another nominal performance problem. For
example, the output multiplicative perturbed robust stability problem can be treated as
a sensor noise rejection problem shown in Figure 9.7 and vise versa. It is clear that the
system with output multiplicative uncertainty as shown in Figure 9.5 is robustly stable
for k
k1 < 1 i the H1 norm of the transfer function from w to z , Tzw , is no greater
than 1. Since Tzw = Ten~ , hence kTzw k1  1 i supkn~ k2 1 kek2 = kW2 ToW1 k1  1.
e

;6

- K

- P

- W2

e
-

? W1  n~

Figure 9.7: Equivalence Between Robust Stability With Output Multiplicative Uncertainty and Nominal Performance With Sensor Noise Rejection
There is, in fact, a much more general result along this line of equivalence: any
robust stability problem (with open ball of uncertainty) can be regarded as an equivalent
performance problem. This will be considered in Chapter 11.

9.4 Unstructured Robust Performance

Consider the perturbed system shown in Figure 9.8 with the set of perturbed models
described by a set . Suppose the weighting matrices Wd ; We 2 RH1 and the performance criterion is to keep the error e as small as possible in some sense for all possible
models belong to the set . In general, the set  can be either parameterized set or
unstructured set such as those described in Table 9.1. The performance specications
are usually specied in terms of the magnitude of each component e in time domain, i.e.,
L1 norm, with respect to bounded disturbances, or alternatively and more conveniently
some requirements on the closed-loop frequency response of the transfer matrix between
d~ and e, say, integral of square error or the magnitude of the steady state error with

9.4. Unstructured Robust Performance

r-e - K
;6

223

d~
?
Wd
d
?
- P
2  - e y- We

e-

Figure 9.8: Diagram for Robust Performance Analysis

respect to sinusoidal disturbances. The former design criterion leads to the so-called

L1 -optimal control framework and the latter leads to H2 and H1 design frameworks,
respectively. In this section, we will focus primarily on the H2 and H1 performance
objectives with unstructured model uncertainty descriptions. The performance under
structured uncertainty will be considered in Chapter 11.

9.4.1 Robust H2 Performance

Although nominal H2 performance analysis is straightforward and involves only the

computation of H2 norms, the H2 performance analysis with H1 norm bounded model
uncertainty is much harder and little studied. Nevertheless, this problem is sensible and
important for the reason that performance is sometimes more appropriately specied
in terms of the H2 norm than the H1 norm. On the other hand, model uncertainties
are more conveniently described using the H1 norm bounded sets and arise naturally
in identication processes.
Let Te
d~ denote the transfer matrix between d~ and e, then
Te
d~ = We (I + P
K );1 Wd ; P
2 :
(9:4)
And the robust H2 performance analysis problem can be stated as nding


sup Te
d~ 2 :
P
2

To simplify our analysis, consider a scalar system with Wd = 1, We = ws , P = p, and

assume that the model is given by a multiplicative uncertainty set
 = f(1 + wt)p :  2 RH1; kk1 < 1g :
Assume further that the system is robustly stabilized by a controller k. Then
sup

P
2

Te
d~ 2 =

sup

kk1 <1

1 +

ws " = ws "
wt  2 1 ; jwt j 2

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

224

where " = (1 + pk);1 and  = 1 ; ".

The exact analysis for the matrix case is harder to determine although some upper
bounds can be derived as we shall do for the H1 case below. However, the upper
bounds do not seem to be insightful in the H2 setting, and, therefore, are omitted. It
should be pointed out that synthesis for robust H2 performance is much harder even in
the scalar case although synthesis for nominal performance is relatively easy and will
be considered in Chapter 14.

9.4.2 Robust H1 Performance with Output Multiplicative Uncertainty

Suppose the performance criterion is to keep the energy of error e as small as possible,
i.e.,
sup kek2  

kd~k2 1

for some small . By scaling the error e (i.e., by properly selecting We ) we can assume
without loss of generality that  = 1. Then the robust performance criterion in this case
can be described as requiring that the closed-loop system be robustly stable and that

Te
d~ 1  1; 8P
2 :

(9:5)

More specically, an output multiplicatively perturbed system will be analyzed rst.
The analysis for other classes of models can be done analogously. The perturbed model
can be described as

 := f(I + W1
W2 )P :
2 RH1; k
k1 < 1g

(9:6)
with W1 ; W2 2 RH1 . The explicit system diagram is as shown in Figure 9.5. For this
class of models, we have

Te
d~ = We So (I + W1
W2 To);1 Wd ;

and the robust performance is satised i

kW2 ToW1 k1  1
and

Te
d~ 1  1; 8
2 RH1 ; k
k1 < 1:

The exact analysis for this robust performance problem is not trivial and will be given
in Chapter 11. However, some sucient conditions are relatively easy to obtain by
bounding these two inequalities, and they may shed some light on the nature of these
problems. It will be assumed throughout that the controller K internally stabilizes the
nominal plant P .

9.4. Unstructured Robust Performance

225

Theorem 9.7 Suppose P
2 f(I + W1
W2)P :
2 RH1 ; k
k1 < 1g and K internally stabilizes P . Then the system robust performance is guaranteed if either one of
the following conditions is satised
(i) for each frequency !

(Wd ) (We So) +  (W1 ) (W2 To )  1;

(9:7)

(W1;1 Wd ) (We So Wd ) + (W2 To W1 )  1

(9:8)

(ii) for each frequency !

where W1 and Wd are assumed to be invertible and (W1;1 Wd ) is the condition
number.

Proof. It is obvious that both condition (9.7) and condition (9.8) guarantee that
kW2 To W1 k1  1. So it is sucient to show that Te
d~ 1  1; 8
2 RH1 ; k
k1 < 1.
Now for any frequency !, it is easy to see that

(Te
d~)   (We So ) [(I + W1
W2 To);1 ](Wd )

e So ) (Wd )
= (I(W
+ W1
W2 To)

(
W
(Wd )
 1 ;  (eWSo)
W
1
2 To )

(
W
S
)

e
o
d)
 1 ;  (W )(W(W
T )(
) :
1

2 o

Hence condition (9.7) guarantees  (Te
d~)  1 for all
2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1 at all
frequencies.
Similarly, suppose W1 and Wd are invertible; write

Te
d~ = We So Wd (W1;1 Wd );1 (I +
W2 ToW1 );1 (W1;1 Wd );

and then

Wd )(W1;1 Wd ) :
(Te
d~)  1(W;eS(oW
T W )(
)
2 o 1

Hence by condition (9.8),  (Te
d~)  1 is guaranteed for all
2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1
at all frequencies.
2

Remark 9.2 It is not hard to show that either one of the conditions in the theorem is
also necessary for scalar valued systems.

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

226

Remark 9.3 Suppose (W1;1Wd)  1 (weighting matrices satisfying this condition

are usually called round weights). This is particularly the case if W1 = w1 (s)I and
Wd = wd (s)I . Recall that (We So Wd )  1 is the necessary and sucient condition for
nominal performance and that (W2 To W1 )  1 is the necessary and sucient condition
for robust stability. Hence it is clear that in this case nominal performance plus robust
stability almost guarantees robust performance, i.e., NP + RS  RP. However, this is
not necessarily true for other types of uncertainties as will be shown later.
~
Remark 9.4 Note that in light of the equivalence relation between the robust stability and nominal performance, it is reasonable to conjecture that the above robust
performance problem is equivalent to the robust stability problem in Figure 9.4 with
the uncertainty model set given by

 := (I + Wd
e We );1(I + W1
W2)P

and k
e k1 < 1, k
k1 < 1, as shown in Figure 9.9. This conjecture is indeed true;
however, the equivalent model uncertainty is structured, and the exact stability analysis
for such systems is not trivial and will be studied in Chapter 11.
~

- W2 -
- W1
- K
6
;
e

e 

?
Wd

- e?- e? - We

- P

Figure 9.9: Robust Performance with Unstructured Uncertainty vs. Robust Stability
with Structured Uncertainty

Remark 9.5 Note that if W1 and Wd are invertible, then Te
d~ can also be written as
Te
d~ = We So Wd I + (W1;1 Wd );1
W2 ToW1 (W1;1 Wd ) ;1 :


So another alternative sucient condition for robust performance can be obtained as

 (We So Wd ) + (W1;1 Wd ) (W2 ToW1 )  1:

A similar situation also occurs in the skewed case below. We will not repeat all these
variations.
~

9.4. Unstructured Robust Performance

227

9.4.3 Skewed Specications and Plant Condition Number

We now consider the system with skewed specications, i.e., the uncertainty and performance are not measured at the same location. For instance, the system performance
is still measured in terms of output sensitivity, but the uncertainty model is in input
multiplicative form:
 := fP (I + W1
W2) :
2 RH1; k
k1 < 1g :
For systems described by this class of models, see Figure 9.8, the robust stability condition becomes
kW2 Ti W1 k1  1;
and the nominal performance condition becomes
kWe So Wd k1  1:
To consider the robust performance, let T~e
d~ denote the transfer matrix from d~ to e.
Then
T~e
d~ = We So (I + PW1
W2 KSo);1 Wd


= We So Wd I + (Wd;1 PW1 )
(W2 Ti W1 )(Wd;1 PW1 );1 ;1 :
The last equality follows if W1 , Wd , and P are invertible and, if W2 is invertible, can
also be written as


T~e
d~ = We So Wd (W1;1 Wd );1 I + (W1;1 PW1 )
(W2 P ;1 W2;1 )(W2 ToW1 ) ;1 (W1;1 Wd ):
Then the following results follow easily.
Theorem 9.8 Suppose P
2  = fP (I + W1
W2 ) :
2 RH1 ; k
k1 < 1g and K
internally stabilizes P . Assume that P; W1 ; W2 , and Wd are square and invertible. Then
the system robust performance is guaranteed if either one of the following conditions is
satised
(i) for each frequency !
 (We So Wd ) + (Wd;1 PW1 ) (W2 Ti W1 )  1;
(9:9)
(ii) for each frequency !
(W1;1 Wd ) (We So Wd ) +  (W1;1 PW1 ) (W2 P ;1 W2;1 ) (W2 ToW1 )  1: (9:10)

Remark 9.6 If the appropriate invertibility conditions are not satised, then an alter-

native sucient condition for robust performance can be given by

(Wd )(We So ) +  (PW1 )(W2 KSo )  1:
Similar to the previous case, there are many dierent variations of sucient conditions
although (9.10) may be the most useful one.
~

228

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

Remark 9.7 It is important to note that in this case, the robust stability condition is

given in terms of Li = KP while the nominal performance condition is given in terms

of Lo = PK . These classes of problems are called skewed problems or problems with
skewed specications.2 Since, in general, PK 6= KP , the robust stability margin or
tolerances for uncertainties at the plant input and output are generally not the same.

Remark 9.8 It is also noted that the robust performance condition is related to the

condition number of the weighted nominal model. So in general if the weighted nominal
model is ill-conditioned at the range of critical frequencies, then the robust performance
condition may be far more restrictive than the robust stability condition and the nominal
performance condition together. For simplicity, assume W1 = I , Wd = I and W2 = wt I
where wt 2 RH1 is a scalar function. Further, P is assumed to be invertible. Then
robust performance condition (9.10) can be written as

 (We So ) + (P )(wt To )  1; 8!:

Comparing these conditions with those obtained for non-skewed problems shows that
the condition related to robust stability is scaled by the condition number of the plant3 .
Since (P )  1, it is clear that the skewed specications are much harder to satisfy
if the plant is not well conditioned. This problem will be discussed in more detail in
section 11.3.3 of Chapter 11.
~
Remark 9.9 Suppose K is invertible, then T~
~ can be written as
ed

T~e
d~ = We K ;1 (I + Ti W1
W2 );1 Si KWd:

Assume further that We = I; Wd = ws I; W2 = I where ws 2 RH1 is a scalar function.

Then a sucient condition for robust performance is given by

(K )(Si ws ) + (Ti W1 )  1; 8!;

with (K ) :=  (K )(K ;1 ). This is equivalent to treating the input multiplicative plant
uncertainty as the output multiplicative controller uncertainty.
~
These skewed specications also create problems for MIMO loop shaping design
which has been discussed brie y in Chapter 5. The idea of loop shaping design is
based on the fact that robust performance is guaranteed by designing a controller with
a sucient nominal performance margin and a sucient robust stability margin. For
example, if (W1;1 Wd )  1, the output multiplicative perturbed robust performance is
guaranteed by designing a controller with twice the required nominal performance and
robust stability margins.
See Stein and Doyle [1991].
Alternative condition can be derived so that the condition related to nominal performance is scaled
by the condition number.
2
3

9.5. Gain Margin and Phase Margin

229

The fact that the condition number appeared in the robust performance test for
skewed problems can be given another interpretation by considering two sets of plants
1 and 2 as shown below.

1 := fP (I + wt
) :
2 RH1; k
k1 < 1g

2 := f(I + w~t
)P :
2 RH1; k
k1 < 1g :
- wt -

- e? - P

- w~t -

-

- P

- e? -

Figure 9.10: Converting Input Uncertainty to Output Uncertainty

Assume that P is invertible, then

2  1 if jw~t j  jwt j(P ) 8!

since P (I + wt
) = (I + wt P
P ;1 )P .
The condition number of a transfer matrix can be very high at high frequency which
may signicantly limit the achievable performance. The example below, taken from
the textbook [Franklin, Powell, and Workman, 1990], shows that the condition number
shown in Figure 9.11 may increase with the frequency:
2

;0:2 0:1 1 0 1 3
6 ;0:05

0 0 0 0:7 77
6
1
s
(s + 1)(s + 0:07)
6
7
0 ;1 1 0 7 =
P (s) = 6 0
;
0
:
05
0
:
7(s + 1)(s + 0:13)
a
(
s
)
4
1
0 0 0 0 5
0

0 0 0

where a(s) = (s + 1)(s + 0:1707)(s + 0:02929).

9.5 Gain Margin and Phase Margin

In this section, we show that the gain margin and phase margin dened in classical
control theory may not be sucient indicators of a system's robustness. Let L(s) be a
scalar transfer function and consider a unit feedback system such as the one shown in
the following diagram:

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

230

10

condition number

10

10

10 -3
10

-2

10

10

-1

10

10

10

frequency

Figure 9.11: Condition Number (!) =  (P (j!))=(P (j!))

-e
;6

- L(s)

Suppose that the above closed-loop feedback system with L(s) = L0 (s) is stable.
Then the system is said to have
Gain Margin kmin and kmax if the closed-loop system is stable for all L(s) = kL0(s) with
kmin < k < kmax but unstable for L(s) = kmax L0 (s) and for L(s) = kmin L0 (s)
where 0  kmin  1 and kmax  1.
Phase Margin min and max if the closed-loop system is stable for all L(s) = e;j L0 (s)
with min <  < max but unstable for L(s) = e;jmax L0 (s) and for L(s) =
e;jmin L0(s) where ;  min  0 and 0  max  .
These margins can be easily read from the open-loop system Nyquist diagram as shown
in Figure 9.12 where kmax and kmin represent how much the loop gain can be increased

9.5. Gain Margin and Phase Margin

231

and decreased, respectively, without causing instability. Similarly max and min represent how much loop phase lag and lead can be tolerated without causing instability.
1/K min
1/K max

min

-1

-1
max

L(j)

L(j)

Figure 9.12: Gain Margin and Phase Margin of A Scalar System

However, gain margin or phase margin alone may not be a sucient indicator of a
system's robustness. To be more specic, consider a simple dynamical system

a;s ; a>1
P = as
;1

with a stabilizing controller K . Now let L = PK and consider a controller

K = bsb ++s1 ; b > 0:
It is easy to show that the closed-loop system is stable for any
1 < b < a:

To compute the stability margins, consider three cases:

(i) b = 1: in this case, K = 1 and the stability margins can be easily shown to be
 2
; 1  =: :
kmin = a1 ; kmax = a; min = ;; max = sin;1 aa2 +
1
It is easy to see that both gain margin and phase margin are very large for large
a.
(ii) a1 < b < a and b ! a: in this case
k = 1 ! 1 ; k = ab ! a2 ;  = ;;  ! 0
min

ab

a2

max

min

max

i.e., very large gain margin but arbitrarily small phase margin.

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

232

(iii) a1 < b < a and b ! a1 : in this case

1 ! 1; k = ab ! 1;  = ;;  ! 2
kmin = ab
max
min
max

i.e., very large phase margin but arbitrarily small gain margin.
The open-loop frequency response of the system is shown in Figure 9.13 for a = 2 and
b = 1; b = 1:9 and b = 0:55, respectively.
Sometimes, gain margin and phase margin together may still not be enough to
indicate the true robustness of a system. For example, it is possible to construct a
(complicated) controller such that
k < 1 ; k > a;  = ;;  > 
min

max

min

max

but the Nyquist plot is arbitrarily close to (;1; 0). Such a controller is complicated to
construct; however, the following controller should give the reader a good idea of its
construction:
+ 0:55 1:7s2 + 1:5s + 1 :
Kbad = 3s:3+s 3+:31 0s:55
s + 1 s2 + 1:5s + 1:7

The open-loop frequency response of the system with this controller is also shown in
Figure 9.13 by the dotted line. It is easy to see that the system has at least the same
gain margin and phase margin as the system with controller K = 1, but the Nyquist plot
is closer to (;1; 0). Therefore this system is less robust with respect to the simultaneous
gain and phase perturbations. The problem is that the gain margin and phase margin
do not give the correct indication of the system's robustness when the gain and phase
are varying simultaneously.

9.6 Deciency of Classical Control for MIMO Systems

In this section, we show through an example that the classical control theory may not
be reliable when it is applied to MIMO system design.
Consider a symmetric spinning body with torque inputs, T1 and T2 , along two orthogonal transverse axes, x and y, as shown in Figure 9.14. Assume that the angular
velocity of the spinning body with respect to the z axis is constant,
. Assume further
that the inertia of the spinning body with respect to the x; y, and z axes are I1 , I2 = I1 ,
and I3 , respectively. Denote by !1 and !2 the angular velocities of the body with respect to the x and y axes, respectively. Then the Euler's equation of the spinning body
is given by

I1 !_ 1 ; !2
(I1 ; I3 ) = T1
I1 !_ 2 ; !1
(I3 ; I1 ) = T2 :

9.6. Deciency of Classical Control for MIMO Systems

233

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

Figure 9.13: Nyquist Plots of L with a = 2 and b = 1(solid), b = 1:9(dashed), b =

0:55(dashdot) and with Kbad (dotted)
Dene

u1 := T1 =I1 ; a := (1 ; I =I )
:
3 1
u2
T2 =I1

Then the system dynamical equations can be written as


 

 

!_ 1 = 0 a
!1 + u1 :
!_ 2
;a 0 !2
u2
Now suppose that the angular rates !1 and !2 are measured in scaled and rotated
coordinates:


 




cos  sin 
!1 = 1 a
!1
y1 = 1
!2
;a 1 !2
y2
cos  ; sin  cos 
where tan  := a. (There is no specic physical meaning for the measurements of y1 and
y1 but they are assumed here only for the convenience of discussion.) Then the transfer
matrix for the spinning body can be computed as
Y (s) = P (s)U (s)
with


2
1
s
;
a
a
(
s
+
1)
P (s) = s2 + a2 ;a(s + 1) s ; a2 :

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

234

Figure 9.14: Spinning Body

Suppose the control law is chosen as

u = K1 r ; y
where

K1 = 1 +1 a2 a1 ;1a :
y


P 

 r~
6;
f

K1 

Figure 9.15: Closed-loop with a \Bizarre" Controller

Then the closed-loop transfer function is given by


1
1
0
Y (s) = s + 1 0 1 R(s)

9.6. Deciency of Classical Control for MIMO Systems

235

and the sensitivity function and the complementary sensitivity function are given by




1
1
s
;
a
1
a
;
1
;
1
S = (I + P ) = s + 1 a s ; T = P (I + P ) = s + 1 ;a 1 :
It is noted that this controller design has the property of decoupling the loops. Furthermore, each single loop has the open-loop transfer function as
1

so each loop has phase margin max = ;min = 90o and gain margin kmin = 0; kmax =
1.
Suppose one loop transfer function is perturbed, as shown in Figure 9.16.

w
y1


 

6z

?
e


y2

 u2

u1
e

6
;

6
;

Figure 9.16: One-Loop-At-A-Time Analysis

Denote

1
z (s)
w(s) = ;T11 = ; s + 1 :

Then the maximum allowable perturbation is given by

kk < 1 = 1
1

kT11 k1

which is independent of a. Similarly the maximum allowable perturbation on the other

loop is also 1 by symmetry. However, if both loops are perturbed at the same time,
then the maximum allowable perturbation is much smaller, as shown below.
Consider a multivariable perturbation, as shown in Figure 9.17, i.e., P
= (I +
)P ,
with




11
12

=  
2 RH1
21

22

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

236

y1


y2



6SoS
f

?
/
f


6
f

11 

g11 

12 

g12 

21 

g21 

22 

?
f

g22 

;
r~1
?
f


6
;
f

r~2

Figure 9.17: Simultaneous Perturbations

a 2  2 transfer matrix such that k
k1 < . Then by the small gain theorem, the
system is robustly stable for every such
i
 kT1k = p 1 2 ( 1 if a  1):
1+a
1
In particular, consider



=
d = 11 
2 R22 :
22
Then the closed-loop system is stable for every such
i
;


det(I + T
d) = (s +1 1)2 s2 + (2 + 11 + 22 )s + 1 + 11 + 22 + (1 + a2 )11 22
has no zero in the closed right-half plane. Hence the stability region is given by
2 + 11 + 22 > 0
1 + 11 + 22 + (1 + a2 )11 22 > 0:
It is easy to see that the system is unstable with
11 = ;22 = p 1 2 :
1+a

9.7. Notes and References

237
22

0.707

0.707

11

Figure 9.18: Stability Region for a = 1

The stability region is drawn in the Figure 9.18. This clearly shows that the analysis of
an MIMO system using SISO methods can be misleading and can even give erroneous
results. Hence an MIMO method has to be used.

9.7 Notes and References

The small gain theorem was rst presented by Zames [1966]. The book by Desoer and
Vidyasagar [1975] contains a quite extensive treatment and applications of this theorem
in various forms. Robust stability conditions under various uncertainty assumptions are
discussed in Doyle, Wall, and Stein [1982]. It was rst shown in Kishore and Pearson
[1992] that the small gain condition may not be necessary for robust stability with
closed-ball perturbed uncertainties. In the same reference, some extensions of stability
and performance criteria under various structured/unstructured uncertainties are given.
Some further extensions are also presented in Tits and Fan [1994].

238

MODEL UNCERTAINTY AND ROBUSTNESS

10

Linear Fractional
Transformation
This chapter introduces a new matrix function: linear fractional transformation (LFT).
We show that many interesting control problems can be formulated in an LFT framework and thus can be treated using the same technique.

10.1 Linear Fractional Transformations

This section introduces the matrix linear fractional transformations. It is well known
from the one complex variable function theory that a mapping F : C 7! C of the form
bs
F (s) = ca ++ ds
with a; b; c and d 2 C is called a linear fractional transformation. In particular, if c 6= 0
then F (s) can also be written as
F (s) =  + s(1 ; s);1
for some ;  and 2 C . The linear fractional transformation described above for
scalars can be generalized to the matrix case.
Denition 10.1 Let M be a complex matrix partitioned as


11 M12
(p1 +p2 )(q1 +q2 ) ;
M= M
M21 M22 2 C

239

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

240

and let
` 2 C q2 p2 and
u 2 C q1 p1 be two other complex matrices. Then we can
formally dene a lower LFT with respect to
` as the map

F`(M; ) :

C q2 p2

7! C p1 q1

with

F` (M;
` ) =
M11 + M12
` (I ; M22
` );1 M21

provided that the inverse (I ; M22
` );1 exists. We can also dene an upper LFT with
respect to
u as

Fu (M; ) :

with

C q1 p1

7! C p2 q2

Fu (M;
u ) = M22 + M21
u (I ; M11
u );1 M12

provided that the inverse (I ; M11
u );1 exists.
The matrix M in the above LFTs is called the coecient matrix. The motivation for
the terminologies of lower and upper LFTs should be clear from the following diagram
representations of F` (M;
` ) and Fu (M;
u ):

z
1


M 

y1

-
`

w1
u1

z2

y2

-
u

M 

The diagram on the left represents the following set of equations:



z1
y1

while the diagram on the right represents



y2
z2



w1 ;
u1



u2
w2 ;

11 M12
= M wu 1 = M
M21 M22
1
u1 =
` y1


11 M12
= M wu2 = M
M21 M22
2
u =
u y2 :

u2

w2

It is easy to verify that the mapping dened on the left diagram is equal to F`(M;
` )
and the mapping dened on the right diagram is equal to Fu (M;
u ). So from the
above diagrams, F`(M;
` ) is a transformation obtained from closing the lower loop
on the left diagram; similarly Fu (M;
u ) is a transformation obtained from closing the
upper loop on the right diagram. In most cases, we will use the general term LFT in
referring to both upper and lower LFTs and assume that the contents will distinguish
the situations. The reason for this is that one can use either of these notations to express

10.1. Linear Fractional Transformations

241


22 M21
a given object. Indeed, it is clear that Fu (N;
) = F` (M;
) with N = M
M12 M11 .
It is usually not crucial which expression is used; however, it is often the case that one
expression is more convenient than the other for a given problem. It should also be
clear to the reader that in writing F` (M;
) (or Fu (M;
)) it is implied that
has
compatible dimensions.
A useful interpretation of an LFT, e.g., F` (M;
), is that F` (M;
) has a nominal
mapping, M11 , and is perturbed by
, while M12; M21 , and M22 re ect a prior knowledge as to how the perturbation aects the nominal map, M11 . A similar interpretation
can be applied to Fu (M;
). This is why LFT is particularly useful in the study of
perturbations, which is the focus of the next chapter.
The physical meaning of an LFT in control science is obvious if we take M as a proper
transfer matrix. In that case, the LFTs dened above are simply the closed-loop transfer
matrices from w1 7! z1 and w2 7! z2 , respectively, i.e.,

Tzw1 = F` (M;
` );

Tzw2 = Fu (M;
u )

where M may be the controlled plant and
may be either the system model uncertainties or the controllers.

Denition 10.2 An LFT, F`(M;
), is said to be well dened (or well-posed) if (I ;
M22
) is invertible.

Note that this denition is consistent with the well-posedness denition of the feedback system, which requires the corresponding transfer matrix be invertible in Rp (s). It
is clear that the study of an LFT that is not well-dened is meaningless, hence throughout the book, whenever an LFT is invoked, it will be assumed implicitly to be well
dened. It is also clear from the denition that, for any M , F` (M; 0) is well dened;
hence any function that is not well dened at the origin cannot be expressed as an LFT
in terms of its variables. For example, f () = 1= is not an LFT of .
In some literature, LFT is used to refer to the following matrix functions:
(A + BQ)(C + DQ);1

(C + QD);1 (A + QB )

or

where C is usually assumed to be invertible due to practical consideration. The following

is true.
Lemma 10.1 Suppose C is invertible. Then
(A + BQ)(C + DQ);1 = F`(M; Q)
(C + QD);1 (A + QB ) = F`(N; Q)

with

;1 B ; AC ;1 D
C ;1 A
C ;1 :
M = AC
;
N
=
;
1
;
1
;
1
C
;C D
B ; DC A ;DC ;1

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

242

The converse also holds if M satises certain conditions.

11 M12
Lemma 10.2 Let F`(M; Q) be a given LFT with M = M
M21 M22 , then
(a) if M21 is invertible,

F` (M; Q) = (A + BQ)(C + DQ);1

with

A = M11 M21;1; B = M12 ; M11 M21;1 M22; C = M21;1; D = ;M21;1 M22 :

(b) if M12 is invertible,

F` (M; Q) = (C + QD);1 (A + QB )
with

A = M12;1 M11; B = M21 ; M22 M12;1 M11; C = M12;1; D = ;M22 M12;1 :

However, for an arbitrary LFT F`(M; Q), neither M21 nor M12 is necessarily square
and invertible; therefore, the alternative fractional formula is more restrictive.
It should be pointed out that some seemingly similar functions do not have simple
LFT representations. For example,
(A + QB )(I + QD);1
cannot always be written in the form of F` (M; Q) for some M ; however, it can be
written as
(A + QB )(I + QD);1 = F`(N;
)
with
3
2

A I A
N = 4 ;B 0 ;B 5 ;
D 0 D

= Q Q :

Note that the dimension of
is twice as many as Q.

The following lemma summarizes some of the algebraic properties of LFT s.

Lemma 10.3 Let M; Q, and G be suitably partitioned matrices:



Q11 Q12
11 M12
M= M
M21 M22 ; Q = Q21 Q22

A B1 B2
; G = 4 C1 D11 D12 5 :
C2 D21 D22

10.1. Linear Fractional Transformations

(i) Fu (M;
) = Fl (N;
) with


243


22 M21
N = I0 I0 M I0 I0 = M
M12 M11

where the dimensions of identity matrices are compatible with the partitions of M
and N .
(ii) Suppose Fu (M;
) is square and well-dened and M22 is nonsingular. Then the
inverse of Fu (M;
) exists and is also an LFT with respect to
:

(Fu (M;
));1 = Fu (N;
)

with N given by

;1
;1
N = M11 ;MM;121 MM22 M21 ;MM12;M1 22 :
22 21
22

(iii) Fu (M;
1 ) + Fu (Q;
2 ) = Fu (N;
) with

2
M12
M11 0
Q12
N = 4 0 Q11
M21 Q21 M22 + Q22
(iv) Fu (M;
1 )Fu (Q;
2 ) = Fu (N;
) with
2

3
5

M11 M12Q21 M12 Q22

M11
Q12 5 ;
N =4 0
M21 M22Q21 M22 Q22

=
01
0 :
2

=
01
0 :
2

(v) Consider the following interconnection structure where the dimensions of
1 are
compatible with A:

z



Fu (G;
1 ) 

- Fu (Q;
2 )
Then the mapping from w to z is given by

Fl (Fu (G;
1 ); Fu (Q;
2 )) = Fu (Fl (G; Fu (Q;
2 )) ;
1 ) = Fu (N;
)

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

244
2

A + B2 Q22 L1 C2
B2 L2 Q21
B1 + B2 Q22 L1 D21
Q12 L1 C2
Q11 + Q12 L1 D22 Q21
Q12 L1 D21
N =4
C1 + D12 L2 Q22 C2
D12 L2Q21
D11 + D12 Q22 L1 D21
where L1 := (I ; D22 Q22 );1 , L2 := (I ; Q22 D22 );1 , and
=

3
5

1 0 .
0
2

Proof. These properties can be straightforwardly veried by the denition of LFT ,

2

so the proofs are omitted.

Property (v) shows that if the open-loop system parameters are LFTs of some variables, then the closed-loop system parameters are also LFTs of the same variables. This
property is particularly useful in perturbation analysis and in building the interconnection structure. Similar results can be stated for lower LFT. It is usually convenient to
interpret an LFT Fu (M;
) as a state space realization of a generalized system with
frequency structure
. In fact, all the above properties can be reduced to the standard
transfer matrix operations if
= 1s I .
The following proposition is concerned with the algebraic properties of LFT s in the
general control setup.


Lemma 10.4 Let P = PP1121 PP1222 and let K be rational transfer function matrices
and let G = F` (P; K ). Then
(a) G is proper if P and K are proper with det(I ; P22 K )(1) =
6 0.
(b) F`(P; K1 ) = F`(P; K2 ) implies that K1 = K2 if P12 and P21 have normal full
column and row rank in Rp (s), respectively.




(c) If P and G are proper, det P (1) 6= 0, det P ; G0 00 (1) 6= 0 and P12 and
P21 are square and invertible for almost all s, then K is proper and
K = Fu (P ;1 ; G):

Proof.

(a) is immediate from the denition of F`(P; K ) (or well-posedness condition).

(b) follows from the identity

F`(P; K1 ) ; F`(P; K2 ) = P12 (I ; K2 P22 );1 (K1 ; K2)(I ; P22 K1 );1 P21 :

(c) it is sucient to show that the formula for K is well-posed and K thus obtained
is proper. Let Q = P ;1 , which will be proper since det P (1) 6= 0, and dene

K = Fu (Q; G) = Q22 + Q21 G(I ; Q11 G);1 Q12 :

10.1. Linear Fractional Transformations

245

This expression is well-posed and proper since at s = 1



det(I ; Q11 G) = det I ;






I 0 P ;1 I0 G


= det P ;1 P ; G0 00



6= 0:

We also need to ensure that F` (P; K ) is well-posed:

I ; P22 K = (I ; P22 Q22 ) ; P22 Q21 G(I ; Q11 G);1 Q12
= P21 Q12 + P21 Q11 G(I ; Q11 G);1 Q12
= P21 (I ; Q11 G);1 Q12 :
The above form is obtained by using the fact that PQ = I . Then det(I ;P22 K ) 6= 0
since P21;1 exists and Q;121 = P21 ;P22 P12;1P11 . Hence the LFTs are both well-posed
and we immediately obtain that F`(P; K ) = G as required upon substituting for
K and (I ; P22 K ), as shown above.

Remark 10.1 This lemma shows that under certain conditions, an LFT of transfer

matrices is a bijective map between two sets of proper and real rational matrices. When
given proper transfer matrices P and G with compatible dimensions which satisfy conditions in (c), there exists a unique proper K such that G = Fl (P; K ). On the other
hand, the conditions of part (c) show that the feedback systems are well-posed.
~
Remark 10.2 A simple interpretation of the result (c) is given by considering the
signals in the feedback systems,

z

w
P 
y
u
- K

assuming this structure is well-posed. And we have



hence

w
u

z
y

= P wu ;

u = Ky
) z = F` (P; K )w = Gw;


= P ;1 yz ; z = Gw
) u = Fu (P ;1 ; G)y; or K = Fu (P ;1 ; G):

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

246

10.2 Examples of LFTs

LFT is a very convenient tool to formulate many mathematical objects. In this section
and the sections to follow, some commonly encountered control or mathematical objects
are given new perspectives, i.e., they will be examined from the LFT point of view.

Polynomials

A very commonly encountered object in control and mathematics is a polynomial function. For example,
p() = a0 + a1  +


+ an n
with indeterminate . It is easy to verify that p() can be written in the following LFT
form:
p() = F`(M; In )
with
3
2

a0 a1


an;1 an

1 0


0 0 77
M = 0 1.


0. 0. 777 :
.
.. 5
0 .. . . ..
0 0


1 0
Hence every polynomial is a linear fraction of their indeterminates. More generally, any
multivariate (matrix) polynomials are also LFTs in their indeterminates; for example,
6
6
6
6
6
4

p(1 ; 2 ) = a1 12 + a2 22 + a3 1 2 + a4 1 + a5 2 + a6 :

Then
with

p(1 ; 2 ) = F` (N;
)
2
6
6
6
6
4

a6 1 0 1 0
a4 0 a1 0 a3

3
7
7

N = 1 0 0 0 0 77 ;

= 1 I2  I :
2 2
a5 0 0 0 a2 5
1 0 0 0 0
It should be noted that these representations or realizations of polynomials are neither
unique nor necessarily minimal. Here a minimal realization refers to a realization with
the smallest possible dimension of
. As commonly known, in multidimensional systems
and lter theory, it is usually very hard, if not impossible, to nd a minimal realization
for even a two variable polynomial. In fact, the minimal dimension of
depends also on
the eld (real, complex, etc.) of the realization. More detailed discussion of this issue
is beyond the scope of this book, the interested readers should consult the references in
2-d or n-d systems or lter theory.

10.2. Examples of LFTs

247

Rational Functions

As another example of LFT representation, we consider a rational matrix function (not

necessarily proper), F (1 ; 2 ;


; m), with a nite value at the origin: F (0; 0;


; 0) is
nite. Then F (1 ; 2 ;


; m ) can be written as an LFT in (1 ; 2 ;


; m ) (some i may
be repeated). To see that, write
F (1 ; 2 ;


; m ) = Nd((1;;2;;





;;m)) = N (1 ; 2 ;


; m ) (d(1 ; 2 ;


; m )I );1
1 2
m
where N (1 ; 2 ;


; m ) is a multivariate matrix polynomial and d(1 ; 2 ;


; m) is a
scalar multivariate polynomial with d(0; 0;


; 0) 6= 0. Both N and dI can be represented as LFTs, and, furthermore, since d(0; 0;


; 0) 6= 0, the inverse of dI is also an
LFT as shown in Lemma 10.3. Now the conclusion follows by the fact that the product
of LFTs is also an LFT. (Of course, the above LFT representation problem is exactly
the problem of state space realization for a multidimensional discrete transfer matrix.)
However, this is usually not a nice way to get an LFT representation for a rational matrix since this approach usually results in a much higher dimensioned
than required.
For example,
+  = F (M; )
f () = 1 +
`

with


M = 1  ;
; :

By using the above approach, we would end up with

f () = F` (N; I2 )
and
3
2

  ;
N = 4 1 0 ; 5 :
1 0 ;

Although the latter can be reduced to the former, it is not easy to see how to carry out
such reduction for a complicated problem, even if it is possible.

State Space Realizations

We can use the LFT formulae to establish the relationship between transfer matrices
and their state space realizations. A system with a state space realization as
x_ = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
has a transfer matrix of


A
B
;
1
G(s) = D + C (sI ; A) B = F (
; 1 I ):
u

C D

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

248

Now take
= 1s I , the transfer matrix can be written as



B ;
):
G(s) = Fu ( CA D
More generally, consider a discrete time 2-D (or MD) system realized by the rst-order
state space equation

x1 (k1 + 1; k2 ) = A11 x1 (k1 ; k2 ) + A12 x2 (k1 ; k2 ) + B1 u(k1 ; k2 )

x2 (k1 ; k2 + 1) = A21 x1 (k1 ; k2 ) + A22 x2 (k1 ; k2 ) + B2 u(k1 ; k2 )
y(k1 ; k2 )
= C1 x1 (k1 ; k2 ) + C2 x2 (k1 ; k2 ) + Du(k1 ; k2 ):
In the same way, take


;1

= z10 I z ;01I =: 10I 0I
2
2

where zi denotes the forward shift operator, and let



B1


11 A12
A= A
A21 A22 ; B = B2 ; C = C1 C2

then its transfer matrix is

G(z1 ; z2 ) = D + C (

A
=: Fu ( C

z1 I
0

;1
;1
z2 I ; A) B = D + C
(I ;
A) B

B
D ;
):

Both formulations can correspond to the following diagram:

-



A B
C D




The following notation for a transfer matrix has already been adopted in the previous
chapters:




A B := F ( A B ;
):
u C D
C D

10.2. Examples of LFTs

249

It is easy to see that this notation can be adopted for general dynamical systems,
e.g., multidimensional systems, as far as the structure
is specied. This notation
means that
the transfer
matrix can be expressed as an LFT of
with the coecient


A
B
matrix C D . In this special case, we say the parameter matrix
is the frequency
structure of the system state space realization. This notation is deliberately somewhat
ambiguous and can be viewed as both a transfer matrix and one of its realizations. The
ambiguity is benign and convenient and can always be resolved from the context.

Frequency Transformation
The bilinear transformation between the z -domain and s-domain
+1
s = zz ;
1
transforms the unit disk to the left-half plane and is the simplest example of an LFT.
We may rewrite it in our standard form as
1 I = I ; p2I z ;1I (I + z ;1I );1 p2I = F (N; z ;1I )
u
s

where

p 
I
p
N = ; 2I ;2II :


Now consider a continuous system



B = F (M; 1 I )
G(s) = CA D
u
s
where

B ;
M = CA D

then the corresponding discrete time system realization is given by

; 1 I ) = F (M; F (N; z ;1 I )) = F (M;

G~ (z ) = Fu (M; zz +
u
u
u ~ z ;1 I )
1
with

;1
A);1 B :
M~ = ;(pI 2;CA(I) ; (AI)+;1A) C;(I ;2(IA;
;
) 1B + D
The transformation from the z -domain to the s-domain can be obtained similarly.

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

250

u
f
i

;6

W1 

y K

d
?
-i

- P

v-

- W2
? n

F 

Simple Block Diagrams

A feedback system with the following block diagram

can be rearranged as an LFT:

z

w
G 
y
u
- K

with

w=

and

d
n

z=

W2 P
W1
G=4 0
;FP ;F ;FP
W2 P

v
uf

0
0

Constrained Structure Synthesis

Using the properties of LFTs, we can show that constrained structure control synthesis
problems can be converted to constrained structure constant output feedback problems.
Consider the synthesis structure in the last example and assume
2

A B1 B2
G = 4 C1 D11 D12
C2 D21 D22

3
5

BK :
K = ACK D
K
K

Then it is easy to show that

F`(G; K ) = F` (M (s); F )

10.2. Examples of LFTs

where

and

251
2

A 0 B1 0 B2
6 0 0
0 I 0
6
M (s) = 66 C1 0 D11 0 D12
4 0 I
0 0 0
C2 0 D21 0 D22


3
7
7
7
7
5

BK :
F = ACK D
K
K

Note that F is a constant matrix, not a system matrix. Hence if the controller structure
is xed (or constrained), then the corresponding control problem becomes a constant
(constrained) output feedback problem.

Parametric Uncertainty: A Mass/Spring/Damper System

One natural type of uncertainty is unknown coecients in a state space model. To motivate this type of uncertainty description, we will begin with a familiar mass/spring/damper
system, shown below in Figure 10.1.

6
F
m

XX
k 
XX
X

XX

Figure 10.1: Mass/Spring/Damper System

The dynamical equation of the system motion can be described by

F:
x + mc x_ + mk x = m
Suppose that the 3 physical parameters m; c, and k are not known exactly, but are
believed to lie in known intervals. In particular, the actual mass m is within 10% of
a nominal mass, m , the actual damping value c is within 20% of a nominal value of
c, and the spring stiness is within 30% of its nominal value of k. Now introducing
perturbations m , c, and k , which are assumed to be unknown but lie in the interval
[;1; 1], the block diagram for the dynamical system can be shown in Figure 10.2.

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

252

x_

x

1
m (1+0:1m )


6;

-d
6+

c(1 + 0:2c )

(1 + 0:3k )
k

Figure 10.2: Block Diagram of Mass/Spring/Damper Equation

It is easy to check that m1 can be represented as an LFT in m :
1
1
1 0:1
;1
m = m (1 + 0:1m) = m ; m m (1 + 0:1m) = F` (M1 ; m ) :
"

; 0m:1 . Suppose that the input signals of the dynamical system are
1 ;0:1
1

m

with M1 =
selected as x1 = x; x2 = x;_ F , and the output signals are selected as x_ 1 and x_ 2 . To
represent the system model as an LFT of the natural uncertainty parameters m ; c and
k , we shall rst isolate the uncertainty parameters and denote the inputs and outputs
of k ; c and m as yk ; yc ; ym and uk ; uc ; um, respectively, as shown in Figure 10.3. Then
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

i.e.,

x_ 1
x_ 2
yk
yc
ym

7
7
7
7
7
7
5

6
6
6
6
6
6
4

; mk

; mc

1
m

0:3k 0 0
0 0:2c 0
;k ;c 1

"

; m1
0
0
;1

x_ 1
x_ 2

; m1

2
6

6
; 0m:1 777 66

0
0
0
0
;1 ;0:1

76
76
76
56
6
4

x1
6
= F` (M;
) 4 x2
F

x1
7
x2 77
F 77 ;
7
uk 77
uc 75
um
3
7
5

2
6
4

uk
uc
um

yk
7
6
=


5
4 yc
ym

3
7
5

10.2. Examples of LFTs

where

2
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

; mk ; mc

M = 0:3k

253
0

0
0
;1

0
0
0
0
;1 ;0:1

; m1 ; m1 ; 0m:1

m

0 0
0 0:2c 0
;k ;c 1

x1

 x2


ym

7
7
7
7
7
7
5

F
6;


M1 

um

- m

- c
- k

k 0 0
6
;
= 4 0 c 0 75 :
0 0 m

- 0:2 - c
yc

-e -e
6 6
uc

- 0:3

-e
6
uk

yk k

Figure 10.3: Mass/Spring/Damper System

General Ane State-Space Uncertainty

We will consider a special class of state space models with unknown coecients and show
how this type of uncertainty can be represented via the LFT formulae with respect to
an uncertain parameter matrix so that the perturbations enter the system in a feedback
form. This type of modeling will form the basic building blocks for components with
parametric uncertainty.
Consider a linear system G (s) that is parameterized by k uncertain parameters,
1 ; : : : ; k , and has the realization
2

G (s)

6
6
= 66
4

A+
C+

k
X

i A^i B +

k
X

i=1
k
X

i=1
k
X

i=1

i=1

i C^i D +

i B^i

i D^i

3
7
7
7
7
5

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

254

Here A; A^i 2 Rnn ; B; B^i 2 Rnnu ; C; C^i 2 Rny n , and D; D^i 2 Rny nu .
The various terms in these state equations are interpreted as follows: the nominal
system description G(s), given by known matrices A; B; C; and D, is (A; B; C; D) and
the parametric uncertainty in the nominal system is re ected by the k scalar uncertain
parameters 1 ; : : : ; k , and we can specify them, say by i 2 [;1; 1]. The structural
knowledge about the uncertainty is contained in the matrices A^i ; B^i ; C^i , and D^i . They
re ect how the i'th uncertainty, i , aects the state space model.
Now, we consider the problem of describing the perturbed system via the LFT
formulae so that all the uncertainty can be represented as a nominal system with the
unknown parameters entering it as the feedback gains. This is shown in Figure 10.4.
Since G (s) = Fu (M ; 1s I ) where
2
6

6
6

M = 6
4

A+
C+

k
X

k
X

i=1
k
X

i=1
k
X

i A^i B +

i=1

i C^i D +

i=1

i B^i

i D^i

3
7
7
7
7
5

we need to nd an LFT representation for the matrix M with respect to

p = diag f1 I; 2 I; : : : k I g :
To achieved this with the smallest possibly size of repeated blocks, let qi denote the
rank of the matrix
"
#

A^i B^i
Pi = ^ ^ 2 R( n+ny )(n+nu )

Ci Di

for each i. Then Pi can be written as

"

#"

Pi = Li
Wi

#

Ri
Zi

where Li 2 Rnqi , Wi 2 Rny qi , Ri 2 Rnqi and Zi 2 Rnu qi . Hence, we have
"

i Pi = Li
Wi

"

Ri
[i Iqi ]
Zi

#

and M can be written as

z"

M =

M11
}|

A B
C D

#{

z"

M12
}|

L1


Lk
W1


Wk

z
#{ 2
6
6
4

p

1 Iq1

}|

{ z2
3

...

76
76
54

k Iqk

M21
}|

R1 Z1
..
.

..
.

Rk Zk

{
3
7
7
5

10.2. Examples of LFTs

i.e.

255
"

M = F`( M11 M12 ;
p ):

M21 0

A B B2
C D D12
C2 D21 D22

x_
y

1I

y2

1 I

...

u2

k I

Figure 10.4: LFT Representation of State Space Uncertainty

Therefore, the matrices B2 ; C2 ; D12 ; D21 , and D22 in the diagram are

B2 =
D12 =
C2 =

and

h
h
h
h

L1 L2


Lk

W1 W2


Wk
R1 R2


Rk

D21 = Z1 Z2


Zk
D22 = 0
"

i
i

i

G (
) = Fu (F`( M11 M12 ;
p ); 1s I ):

M21 0

256

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

10.3 Basic Principle

We have studied several simple examples of the use of LFTs and, in particular, their
role in modeling uncertainty. The basic principle at work here in writing a matrix
LFT is often referred to as \pulling out the
s". We will try to illustrate this with
another picture (inspired by Boyd and Barratt [1991]). Consider a structure with four
substructures interconnected in some known way as shown in Figure 10.5.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......... . . . . ....................................................................
.... .
1  ....................... .. .. .. .. .... . .
.. . . . . .
.....
. .
. . . . . . . . . ....................................
2 .........
. . . .... ...... ............ ..... ... .......
. .
.... ...... ............ ..... ... ... ....... . . . . .........
 ..... . .
.................................................................
.... .
........
. . . . .
3 ...............................
.
.
 . .. .
... .
. . . . ..
.... .. .. ... .. ....................................... K ...........
........................................ . . . . . .......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 10.5: Multiple Source of Uncertain Structure
This diagram can be redrawn as a standard one via \pulling out the
s" in Figure 10.6. Now the matrix \M " of the LFT can be obtained by computing the corresponding transfer matrix in the shadowed box.
We shall illustrate the above principle with an example. Consider an input/output
relation
b2 + c1 22 w =: Gw
z = 1a ++ d
 + e2
1 2

where a; b; c; d and e are given constants or transfer functions. We would like to write
G as an LFT in terms of 1 and 2 . We shall do this in three steps:
1. Draw a block diagram for the input/output relation with each  separated as
shown in Figure 10.7.
2. Mark the inputs and outputs of the 's as y's and u's, respectively. (This is
essentially pulling out the s).
3. Write z and y's in terms of w and u's with all 's taken out. (This step is equivalent
to computing the transformation in the shadowed box in Figure 10.6.)
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

y1
y2
y3
y4
z

u1
7
6
7
6 u2
7
6
7 = M 6 u3
7
6
7
6
5
4 u4
w

3
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

10.4. Redheer Star-Products

257

-
1
-
2

-
3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 .......... . . . . ....................................................................
 .... .
 ....................... .. .. .. .. .... . .
.. . . . . .
 .....
. .
. . . . . . . . . .................................... ? .........
. .
. . . .... ...... ............ ..... ... .......
.... ...... ............ ..... ... ... ....... . . . . .........
 ..... . .
.................................................................
.... .
........
...............................
.....
 ........
. .
. . . . ...
 ......... .. ... .. .......................................
.......
........................................ . . . . . .......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

- K
Figure 10.6: Pulling out the
s
where

M=
Then

6
6
6
6
6
6
4

0
1
1
0
0

0
0

be
ae

0
0 0
0 0
bd + c 0
ad 1
"

z = Fu (M;
)w;
= 1 I2
0

1
0 777
0 77 :

b
a

7
5

2 I2

All LFT examples in the last section can be obtained following the above steps.

10.4 Redheer Star-Products

The most important property of LFTs is that any interconnection of LFTs is again an
LFT. This property is by far the most often used and is the heart of LFT machinery.
Indeed, it is not hard to see that most of the interconnection structures discussed early,
e.g., feedback and cascade, can be viewed as special cases of the so-called star product.

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

258

a 
u4
y
z ?
e
2  4 e
6
c
6

b 

u3

y u
y
2  3 1 1  1

?
;d

y2
1

 w
6

u2
;e

-e
6

Figure 10.7: Block diagram for G

Suppose that P and K are compatibly partitioned matrices
"

"

P = P11 P12 ; K = K11 K12

P21 P22
K21 K22
such that the matrix product P22 K11 is well dened and square, and assume further
that I ; P22 K11 is invertible. Then the star product of P and K with respect to this
partition is dened as

"

Fl (P; K11 )
P12 (I ; K11 P22 );1 K12 :
S (P; K ) :=
K21 (I ; P22 K11 );1 P21
Fu (K; P22 )

Note that this denition is dependent on the partitioning of the matrices P and K
above. In fact, this star product may be well dened for one partition and not well
dened for another; however, we will not explicitly show this dependence because it is
always clear from the context. In a block diagram, this dependence appears, as shown
in Figure 10.8.
Now suppose that P and K are transfer matrices with state space representations:
2

A B1 B2
P = 64 C1 D11 D12
C2 D21 D22
Then the transfer matrix

AK BK 1 BK 2
K = 64 CK 1 DK 11 DK 12 75 :
CK 2 DK 21 DK 22

7
5

"

"

z
S (P; K ) : w !
7
w^
z^

10.4. Redheer Star-Products

z


P 
aa !!!
a
!
!! aaa

K 

z^

259

z
z^

w
S (P; K )  w^

w^

Figure 10.8: Interconnection of LFTs

has a representation
2

A B1 B2
6
6
S (P; K ) = 4 C1 D 11 D 12
C2 D 21 D 22
where

A =
B =
C =
D =

"
"
"
"

3
7
7
5

"

A B
=  
C D

A + B2 R~ ;1 DK 11 C2
B2 R~ ;1 CK 1
;
1
BK 1 R C2
AK + BK 1 R;1 D22 CK 1
#
B1 + B2 R~ ;1 DK 11 D21
B2 R~ ;1 DK 12
BK 1 R;1 D21
BK 2 + BK 1 R;1 D22 DK 12
#
C1 + D12 DK 11 R;1 C2
D12 R~ ;1 CK 1
DK 21 R;1C2
CK 2 + DK 21 R;1 D22 CK 1
D11 + D12 DK 11 R;1D21
D12 R~ ;1 DK 12
DK 21 R;1 D21
DK 22 + DK 21 R;1 D22 DK 12
R = I ; D22 DK 11 ; R~ = I ; DK 11 D22 :

In fact, it is easy to show that

A = S
B = S

"
"

A
C2
B1
D21

# "

B2 ; DK 11
D22
BK 1
# "
B2 ; DK 11
D22
BK 1

#!

CK 1 ;
AK
#!
DK 12 ;
BK 2

LINEAR FRACTIONAL TRANSFORMATION

260

C = S
D = S

"
"

C1
C2
D11
D21

# "

D12 ; DK 11
D22
DK 21
# "
D12 ; DK 11
D22
DK 21

#!

CK 1 ;
CK 2
#!
DK 12 :
DK 22

10.5 Notes and References

This chapter is based on the lecture notes by Packard [1991] and the paper by Doyle,
Packard, and Zhou [1991].

11

Structured Singular Value

It is noted that the robust stability and robust performance criteria derived in Chapter 9
vary with the assumptions on the uncertainty descriptions and performance requirements. We will show in this chapter that they can all be treated in a unied framework
using the LFT machinery introduced in the last chapter and the structured singular
value to be introduced in this chapter. This, of course, does not mean that those special
problems and their corresponding results are not important; on the contrary, they are
sometimes very enlightening to our understanding of complex problems such as those
in which complex problems are formed from simple problems. On the other hand, a
unied approach may relieve the mathematical burden of dealing with specic problems repeatedly. Furthermore, the unied framework introduced here will enable us to
treat exactly the robust stability and robust performance problems for systems with
multiple sources of uncertainties, which is a formidable problem in the standing point of
Chapter 9, in the same fashion as single unstructured uncertainty. Indeed, if a system
is subject to multiple sources of uncertainties, in order to use the results in Chapter 9
for unstructured cases, it is necessary to re ect all sources of uncertainties from their
known point of occurrence to a single reference location in the loop. Such re ected
uncertainties invariably have a great deal of structure which must then be \covered up"
with a large, arbitrarily more conservative perturbation in order to maintain a simple
cone bounded representation at the reference location. Readers might have already had
some idea about the conservativeness in such re ection from the skewed specication
problem, where an input multiplicative uncertainty of the plant is re ected at the output and the size of the re ected uncertainty is proportional to the condition number of
the plant. In general, the re ected uncertainty may be proportional to the condition
261

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

262

number of the transfer matrix between its original location and the re ected location.
Thus it is highly desirable to treat the uncertainties as they are and where they are.
The structured singular value is dened exactly for that purpose.

11.1 General Framework for System Robustness

As we have illustrated in the last chapter, any interconnected system may be rearranged
to t the general framework in Figure 11.1. Although the interconnection structure
can become quite complicated for complex systems, many software packages, such as
SIMULINK1 and -TOOLS2, are available which could be used to generate the interconnection structure from system components. Various modeling assumptions will be
considered and the impact of these assumptions on analysis and synthesis methods will
be explored in this general framework.
Note that uncertainty may be modeled in two ways, either as external inputs or
as perturbations to the nominal model. The performance of a system is measured in
terms of the behavior of the outputs or errors. The assumptions which characterize
the uncertainty, performance, and nominal models determine the analysis techniques
which must be used. The models are assumed to be FDLTI systems. The uncertain
inputs are assumed to be either ltered white noise or weighted power or weighted
Lp signals. Performance is measured as weighted output variances, or as power, or as
weighted output Lp norms. The perturbations are assumed to be themselves FDLTI
systems which are norm-bounded as input-output operators. Various combinations of
these assumptions form the basis for all the standard linear system analysis tools.
Given that the nominal model is an FDLTI system, the interconnection system has
the form
2
3
P11 (s) P12 (s) P13 (s)
P (s) = 64 P21 (s) P22 (s) P23 (s) 75
P31 (s) P32 (s) P33 (s)
and the closed-loop system is an LFT on the perturbation and the controller given by

z = Fu (F` (P; K );
) w
= F` (Fu (P;
); K ) w:
We will focus our discussion in this section on analysis methods; therefore, the
controller may be viewed as just another system component and absorbed into the
interconnection structure. Denote
"

M (s) = F` (P (s); K (s)) = M11(s) M12 (s) ;

M21(s) M22 (s)
SIMULINK is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.
-TOOLS is a trademark of MUSYN Inc.

1
2

11.1. General Framework for System Robustness

263

-

z





- K
Figure 11.1: General Framework
and then the general framework reduces to Figure 11.2, where


z = Fu (M;
)w = M22 + M21
(I ; M11
);1 M12 w:

-


M 

z


Figure 11.2: Analysis Framework

Suppose K (s) is a stabilizing controller for the nominal plant P . Then M (s) 2 RH1 .
In general, the stability of Fu (M;
) does not necessarily imply the internal stability of
the closed-loop feedback system. However, they can be made equivalent with suitably
chosen w and z . For example, consider again the multiplicatively perturbed system
shown in Figure 11.3. Now let
"

"

w := d1 ; z := e1
d2
e2

then the system is robustly stable for all
(s) 2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1 if and only if
Fu (M;
) 2 RH1 for all admissible
, which is guaranteed by kM11 k1  1. (Note
that this is not necessarily equivalent to (I ; M11
);1 2 RH1 if
belongs to a closed
ball as shown in Theorem 9.5.)
The analysis results presented in the previous chapters together with the associated synthesis tools are summarized in Table 11.1 with various uncertainty modeling
assumptions.
However, the analysis is not so simple for systems with multiple sources of model
uncertainties, including the robust performance problem for systems with unstructured

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

264

d2
e
d1 e1
- e - K - e? 2- P
;6

e
3
- W2 3-
dW1

- e?

Figure 11.3: Multiplicatively Perturbed Systems

uncertainty. As we have shown in the last chapter, if a system is built from components
which are themselves uncertain, then, in general, the uncertainty in the system level is
structured involving typically a large number of real parameters. The stability analysis
involving real parameters is much more involved and is beyond the scope of this book
and that, instead, we shall simply cover the real parametric uncertainty with norm
bounded dynamical uncertainty. Moreover, the interconnection model M can always be
chosen so that
(s) is block diagonal, and, by absorbing any weights, k
k1 < 1. Thus
we shall assume that
(s) takes the form of

(s) = fdiag [1 Ir1 ; : : : ; s IrS ;
1 ; : : : ;
F ] : i (s) 2 RH1 ;
j 2 RH1 g
with ki k1 < 1 and k
j k1 < 1. Then the system is robustly stable i the interconnected system in Figure 11.4 is stable.

-
F (s)
..
.

- 1 (s)I

..
.


M11 (s)

..
.

Figure 11.4: Robust Stability Analysis Framework

The results of Table 11.1 can be applied to the analyses of the system's robust
stability in two ways:

11.1. General Framework for System Robustness

Input
Assumptions

Performance
Specications

Perturbation
Assumptions

265
Analysis
Tests

Synthesis
Methods

E (w(t)w(t) ) = I E (z (t) z (t))  1

LQG

=0

w = U0 (t)
E (U0 U0 ) = I

E (kz k22 )  1

kwk2  1

kz k2  1

=0

kwk2  1

Internal Stability

k
k1 < 1

kM22 k2  1

Wiener-Hopf

H2
kM22 k1  1 Singular Value
Loop Shaping

kM11 k1  1

H1

Table 11.1: General Analysis for Single Source of Uncertainty

(1) kM11 k1  1 implies stability, but not conversely, because this test ignores the
known block diagonal structure of the uncertainties and is equivalent to regarding

as unstructured. This can be arbitrarily conservative3 in that stable systems
can have arbitrarily large kM11k1 .
(2) Test for each i (
j ) individually (assuming no uncertainty in other channels).
This test can be arbitrarily optimistic because it ignores interaction between the
i (
j ). This optimism is also clearly shown in the spinning body example.
The dierence between the stability margins(or bounds on
) obtained in (1) and (2)
can be arbitrarily far apart. Only when the margins are close can conclusions be made
about the general case with structured uncertainty.
The exact stability and performance analysis for systems with structured uncertainty
requires a new matrix function called the structured singular value (SSV) which is
denoted by .
3 By \arbitrarily conservative," we mean that examples can be constructed where the degree of
conservatism is arbitrarily large. Of course, other examples exist where it is quite reasonable, see for
example the spinning body example.

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

266

11.2 Structured Singular Value

11.2.1 Basic Concept

Conceptually, the structured singular value is nothing but a straightforward generalization of the singular values for constant matrices. To be more specic, it is instructive
at this point to consider again the robust stability problem of the following standard
feedback interconnection with stable M (s) and
(s).

w1

- e e1

+ 6
+

-

++ w2
e2 e?


M 

One important question one might ask is how large
(in the sense of k
k1 ) can
be without destabilizing the feedback system. Since the closed-loop poles are given by
det(I ; M
) = 0, the feedback system becomes unstable if det(I ; M (s)
(s)) = 0 for
some s 2 C + . Now let  > 0 be a suciently small number such that the closed-loop
system is stable for all stable k
k1 < . Next increase  until max so that the closedloop system becomes unstable. So max is the robust stability margin. By small gain
theorem,
1 = kM k := sup (M (s)) = sup  (M (j!))
1

max

s2C +

if
is unstructured. Note that for any xed s 2 C + ,  (M (s)) can be written as

1
(M (s)) = min f(
) : det (I ; M (s)
)
(11:1)
= 0;
is unstructuredg :
In other words, the reciprocal of the largest singular value of M is a measure of the
smallest unstructured
that causes instability of the feedback system.
To quantify the smallest destabilizing structured
, the concept of singular values
needs to be generalized. In view of the characterization of the largest singular value of
a matrix M (s) given by (11.1), we shall dene
(11:2)

(M (s)) = min f(
) : det (I ; M (s1)
) = 0;
is structuredg
as the largest structured singular value of M (s) with respect to the structured
. Then
it is obvious that the robust stability margin of the feedback system with structured
uncertainty
is
1
 = sup 
(M (s)) = sup 
(M (j!)):
max

s2C +

The last equality follows from the following lemma.

11.2. Structured Singular Value

267

Lemma 11.1 Let
be a structured set and M (s) 2 RH1. Then

sup 
(M (s)) = sup 
(M (s)) = sup 
(M (j!)):

s2C +

s2C +

Proof. It is clear that

sup 
(M (s)) = sup 
(M (s))  sup 
(M (j!)):

s2C +

s2C +

Now suppose sups2C + 
(M (s)) > 1=, then by the denition of , there is an so 2
[ f1g and a complex structured
such that (
) <  and det(I ; M (so )
) = 0.
This implies that there is a 0  !^  1 and 0 <   1 such that det(I ; M (j !^ )
) =
0. This in turn implies that 
(M (j !^ )) > 1= since  (
) < . In other words,
sups2C + 
(M (s))  sup! 
(M (j!)). The proof is complete.
2

C+

The formal denition and characterization of the structured singular value of a

constant matrix will be given below.

11.2.2 Denitions of 

This section is devoted to dening the structured singular value, a matrix function
denoted by  (
). We consider matrices M 2 C nn . In the denition of  (M ), there is an
underlying structure
(a prescribed set of block diagonal matrices) on which everything
in the sequel depends. For each problem, this structure is, in general, dierent; it
depends on the uncertainty and performance objectives of the problem. Dening the
structure involves specifying three things: the type of each block, the total number of
blocks, and their dimensions.
There are two types of blocks: repeated scalar and full blocks. Two nonnegative
integers, S and F , represent the number of repeated scalar blocks and the number of
full blocks, respectively. To bookkeep their dimensions, we introduce positive integers
r1 ; : : : ; rS ; m1 ; : : : ; mF . The i'th repeated scalar block is ri  ri , while the j 'th full block
is mj  mj . With those integers given, we dene
 C nn as

= diag [1Ir1 ; : : : ; sIrS ;
1; : : : ;
F ] : i 2 C ;
j 2 C mj mj :
(11:3)
For consistency among all the dimensions, we must have
S
X
i=1

ri +

F
X
j =1

mj = n:

Often, we will need norm bounded subsets of
, and we introduce the following notation:
B
= f
2
: (
)  1g
(11:4)
Bo
= f
2
: (
) < 1g
(11:5)

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

268

where the superscript \o" symbolizes the open ball. To keep the notation as simple as
possible in (11.3), we place all of the repeated scalar blocks rst; in actuality, they can
come in any order. Also, the full blocks do not have to be square, but restricting them
as such saves a great deal in terms of notation.

Denition 11.1 For M 2 C nn ; 
(M ) is dened as


(M ) := min f(
) :
2
1; det (I ; M
) = 0g

(11:6)

unless no
2
makes I ; M
singular, in which case 
(M ) := 0.

Remark 11.1 Without a loss in generality, the full blocks in the minimal norm
can
each be chosen to be dyads (rank = 1). To see this, assume S = 0, i.e., all blocks are
full blocks. Suppose that I ; M
is singular for some
2
. Then there is an x 2 C n

such that M
x = x. Now partition x conformably with
:

2
6
6

x1
x2

x = 66 ..

xF

3
7
7
7
7
5

; xi 2 C mi ; i = 1; : : : ; F

and dene

D = diag(d1 Im1 ; : : : ; dF ImF )

where di = 1 if xi = 0 and di = 1= kxi k if xi 6= 0. Next dene
2
6
6

x~1
x~2

x~ = 66 ..
and

.
x~F

y1
y2

7
7
7
7
5

:= Dx = 66

6
6
4

d1 x1
d2 x2
..
.

dm xF

3
7
7
7
7
5

1 x~1
6
7
6
~2 77
6
7
6
2 x
y = 66 .. 77 :=
~x = 66 .. 77 :
4 . 5
4
. 5
yF

~xF
It follows that kx~i k = 1 if xi 6= 0, kx~i k = 0 if xi = 0 , and y 6= 0. Hence, dene a new
perturbation
~ 2 C nn as

~ := diag [y1 x~1 ; : : : ; yF x~F ] :

11.2. Structured Singular Value

269

~   (
) and y =
~
~ x. Note that D
=
D and D
~ =
~ D, we have
Obviously,  (
)
M
x = x =) MD;1
~x = x =) MD;1 y = x
~ x = x =) M
~ x = x
=) MD;1
~
i.e., I ; M
~ is also singular. Hence we have replaced a general perturbation
which
satises the singularity condition with a perturbation
~ that is no larger (in the (
)
sense) and has rank 1 for each blocks but still satises the singularity condition. ~
An alternative expression for 
(M ) follows from the denition.
Lemma 11.2 
(M ) = max  (M
)

2B

In view of this lemma, continuity of the function  : C nn ! R is apparent. In general,

though, the function  : C nn ! R is not a norm, since it doesn't satisfy the triangle
inequality; however, for any  2 C ,  (M ) = jj (M ), so in some sense, it is related
to how \big" the matrix is.
We can relate 
(M ) to familiar linear algebra quantities when
is one of two
extreme sets.
 If
= fI :  2 C g (S = 1; F = 0; r1 = n), then 
(M ) =  (M ), the spectral
radius of M .

Proof. The only
's in
which satisfy the det (I ; M
) = 0 constraint are
reciprocals of nonzero eigenvalues of M . The smallest one of these is associated
with the largest (magnitude) eigenvalue, so, 
(M ) =  (M ).
2

 If
= C nn (S =0; F =1; m1 = n), then 
(M ) = (M ).

Proof. If  (
) < (1M ) , then  (M
) < 1, so I ; M
is nonsingular. Applying

equation (11.6) implies 
(M )   (M ). On the other hand, let u and v be unit
1
1

vectors satisfying Mv =  (M ) u, and dene
:= (M ) vu . Then  (
) = (M )

2
and I ; M
is obviously singular. Hence, 
(M )  (M ).

Obviously, for a general
as in (11.3) we must have

fIn :  2 C g 
 C nn :
(11:7)
Hence directly from the denition of  and from the two special cases above, we conclude
that
 (M )  
(M )   (M ) :
(11:8)
These bounds alone are not sucient for our purposes"because the
# gap between  and

0
 can be arbitrarily large. For example, suppose
= 1
and consider
0 2

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

270
"

0 
(1) M =
for any  > 0. Then (M ) = 0 and  (M ) =  . But det(I ;M
) =
0 0
1 so (M ) = 0.
"

;1=2 1=2 . Then (M ) = 0 and (M ) = 1. Since det(I ; M
) =

(2) M =
;1=2 1=2



;

1
2
1 + 2 , it is easy to see that min maxi ji j; 1 + 1 ;2 2 = 0 = 1, so (M ) = 1.

Thus neither  nor  provide useful bounds even in simple cases. The only time they
do provide reliable bounds is when    .
However, the bounds can be rened by considering transformations on M that do
not aect 
(M ), but do aect  and  . To do this, dene the following two subsets
of C nn :
(

U = fU 2
: UU  = In g

diag D1 ; : : : ; DS ; d1 Im1 ; : : : ; dF ;1 ImF ;1 ; ImF :

:
Di 2 C ri ri ; Di = Di > 0; dj 2 R; dj > 0
Note that for any
2
; U 2 U , and D 2 D,
U  2 U U
2

U 2
 (U
) =  (
U ) =  (
)
D
=
D:
Consequently,
Theorem 11.3 For all U 2 U and D 2 D
;



(MU ) = 
(UM ) = 
(M ) = 
DMD;1 :

D =

(11:9)
(11:10)
(11:11)
(11:12)

(11:13)

Proof. For all D 2 D and
2
,

;


;


det (I ; M
) = det I ; MD;1
D = det I ; DMD;1

;


since D commutes with
. Therefore 
(M ) = 
DMD;1 . Also, for each U 2
U , det (I ; M
) = 0 if and only if det (I ; MUU 
) = 0. Since U 
2
and
 (U 
) =  (
), we get 
(MU ) = 
(M ) as desired. The argument for UM is the
2

same.

Therefore, the bounds in (11.8) can be tightened to

;
;1

max

(
UM
)

max

(

M
)
=

(
M
)

inf

DMD


U 2U
D2D

2B

(11:14)

where the equality comes from Lemma 11.2. Note that the last element in the D matrix
is normalized to 1 since for any nonzero scalar , DMD;1 = ( D) M ( D);1 .

11.2. Structured Singular Value

271

Remark 11.2 Note that the scaling set D in Theorem 11.3 and in the inequality (11.14)
does not necessarily be restricted to Hermitian. In fact, they can be replaced by any
set of nonsingular matrices that satisfy (11.12). However, enlarging the set of scaling
matrices does not improve the upper bound in inequality (11.14). This can be shown
as follows: Let D be any nonsingular matrix such that D
=
D. Then there exist a
Hermitian matrix 0 < R = R 2 D and a unitary matrix U such that D = UR and
;

inf
 DMD;1 = inf
 URMR;1U  = Rinf
 RMR;1 :
D
D
2D
Therefore, there is no loss of generality in assuming D to be Hermitian.

11.2.3 Bounds

In this section we will concentrate on the bounds

;

max
 (UM )  
(M )  Dinf
 DMD;1 :
U 2U
2D
The lower bound is always an equality [Doyle, 1982].

Theorem 11.4 max

(MU ) = (M ).
U 2U
Unfortunately, the quantity  (UM ) can have multiple local maxima which are not
global. Thus local search cannot be guaranteed to obtain , but can only yield a lower
bound. For computation purposes one can derive a slightly dierent formulation of
the lower bound as a power algorithm which is reminiscent of power algorithms for
eigenvalues and singular values [Packard, Fan, and Doyle, 1988]). While there are open
questions about convergence, the algorithm usually works quite well and has proven to
be an eective method to compute .
The upper bound can be reformulated as a convex optimization problem, so the
global minimum can, in principle, be found. Unfortunately, the upper bound is not
always equal to . For block structures
satisfying 2S + F  3, the upper bound is
always equal to 
(M ), and for block structures with 2S + F > 3, there exist matrices
for which  is less than the inmum. This can be summarized in the following diagram,
which shows for which cases the upper bound is guaranteed to be equal to .

Theorem 11.5 (M ) = Dinf2D (DMD;1) if 2S + F  3

S=
0
1
2

F=

0
yes
no

yes yes yes no

yes no no no
no no no no

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

272

Several of the boxes have connections with standard results.

 S = 0, F = 1 : 
(M ) =  (M ).
;


 S = 1, F = 0 : 
(M ) =  (M ) = Dinf2D DMD;1 . This is a standard result in

linear algebra. In fact, without a loss in generality, the matrix M can be assumed
in Jordan Canonical form. Now let
2

J1 =

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

 1
 1

... ...

 1


7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

6
6
6
= 666
6
4

; D1

...

kn1 ;2

kn1 ;1

7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

2 C n1 n1 :

Then infn1 n1 (D1 J1 D1;1 ) = klim

 (D1 J1 D1;1 ) = jj. (Note that by Re!1
D1 2C
mark 11.2, the scaling matrix does not need to be Hermitian.) The conclusion
follows by applying this result to each Jordan block.
It is also equivalent to the fact that Lyapunov asymptotic stability and exponential stability are equivalent for discrete time systems. This is because  (M ) < 1
(exponential stability of a discrete time system matrix M ) implies for some nonsingular D 2 C nn

(DMD;1 ) < 1 or (D;1 ) M  D DMD;1 ; I < 0

which in turn is equivalent to the existence of a P = D D > 0 such that

M  PM ; P < 0
(Lyapunov asymptotic stability).

 S = 0, F = 2 : This case was studied by Redheer [1959].

 S = 1, F = 1 : This is equivalent to a state space characterization of the H1
norm of a discrete time transfer function, see Chapter 21.

 S = 2, F = 0 : This is equivalent to the fact that for multidimensional systems

(2-d, in fact), exponential stability is not equivalent to Lyapunov stability.

 S = 0, F  4 : For this case, the upper bound is not always equal to . This

is important, as these are the cases that arise most frequently in applications.
Fortunately, the bound seems to be close to . The worst known example has a
ratio of  over the bound of about :85, and most systems are close to 1.

11.2. Structured Singular Value

273

The above bounds are much more than just computational schemes. They are also
theoretically rich and can unify a number of apparently quite dierent results in linear
systems theory. There are several connections with Lyapunov asymptotic stability, two
of which were hinted at above, but there are further connections between the upper
bound scalings and solutions to Lyapunov and Riccati equations. Indeed, many major
theorems in linear systems theory follow from the upper bounds and from some results
of Linear Fractional Transformations. The lower bound can be viewed as a natural
generalization of the maximum modulus theorem.
Of course one of the most important uses of the upper bound is as a computational
scheme when combined with the lower bound. For reliable use of the  theory, it is
essential to have upper and lower bounds. Another important feature of the upper bound
is that it can be combined with H1 controller synthesis methods to yield an ad-hoc
-synthesis method. Note that the upper bound when applied to transfer functions is
simply a scaled H1 norm. This is exploited in the D ; K iteration procedure to perform
approximate -synthesis (Doyle[1982]), which will be brie y introduced in section 11.4.

11.2.4 Well Posedness and Performance for Constant LFTs

Let M be a complex matrix partitioned as
"

M = M11 M12
M21 M22

(11:15)

and suppose there are two dened block structures,
1 and
2 , which are compatible
in size with M11 and M22 , respectively. Dene a third structure
as

=

("

1 0
0
2

:
1 2
1 ;
2 2
2 :

(11:16)

Now, we may compute  with respect to three structures. The notations we use to keep
track of these computations are as follows: 1 (
) is with respect to
1 , 2 (
) is with
respect to
2 , and 
(
) is with respect to
. In view of these notations, 1 (M11 ),
2 (M22 ) and 
(M ) all make sense, though, for instance, 1 (M ) does not.
This section is interested in following constant matrix problems:
 determine whether the LFT Fl (M;
2 ) is well posed for all
2 2
2 with (
2 ) 
 (<  ), and,
 if so, then determine how \large" Fl (M;
2 ) can get for this norm-bounded set
of perturbations.
Let
2 2
2 . Recall that Fl (M;
2 ) is well posed if I ; M22
2 is invertible. The
rst theorem is nothing more than a restatement of the denition of .

Theorem 11.6 The linear fractional transformation Fl (M;
2) is well posed

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

274

(a) for all
2 2 B
2 if and only if 2 (M22) < 1.

(b) for all
2 2 Bo
2 if and only if 2 (M22 )  1.
As the \perturbation"
2 deviates from zero, the matrix Fl (M;
2 ) deviates from
M11 . The range of values that 1 (Fl (M;
2 )) takes on is intimately related to 
(M ),
as shown in the following theorem:
Theorem 11.7 (MAIN LOOP THEOREM) The following are equivalent:


(M ) < 1


(M )  1

()

()

8
>
>
<
>
>
:

2 (M22 ) < 1; and

max 1 (Fl (M;
2 )) < 1:

2 2B
2

8
>
>
<

2 (M22 )  1; and

>
>
:

max 1 (Fl (M;
2 ))  1:

2 2 Bo
2

Proof. We shall only prove the rst part of the equivalence. The proof for the second
part is similar.
( Let
i 2
i be given, with  (
i )  1, and dene
= diag [
1 ;
2 ]. Obviously

2
. Now
"
#
I
;
M
11
1 ;M12
2
det (I ; M
) = det
:
(11:17)
;M
I ; M

21 1

22 2

By hypothesis I ; M22
2 is invertible, and hence, det (I ; M
) becomes



det (I ; M22
2 ) det I ; M11
1 ; M12
2 (I ; M22
2 );1 M21
1 :

Collecting the
1 terms leaves
det (I ; M
) = det (I ; M22
2 ) det (I ; Fl (M;
2 )
1 ) :
(11:18)
But, 1 (Fl (M;
2 )) < 1 and
1 2 B
1 , so I ; Fl (M;
2 )
1 must be nonsingular.
Therefore, I ; M
is nonsingular and, by denition, 
(M ) < 1.
) Basically, the argument above is reversed. Again let
1 2 B
1 and
2 2
B
2 be given, and dene
= diag [
1;
2]. Then
2 B
and, by hypothesis,
det (I ; M
) 6= 0. It is easy to verify from the denition of  that (always)
 (M )  max f1 (M11 ) ; 2 (M22 )g :
We can see that 2 (M22 ) < 1, which gives that I ;M22
2 is also nonsingular. Therefore,
the expression in (11.18) is valid, giving
det (I ; M22
2 ) det (I ; Fl (M;
2 )
1 ) = det (I ; M
) 6= 0:

11.2. Structured Singular Value

275

Obviously, I ; Fl (M;
2 )
1 is nonsingular for all
i 2 B
i , which indicates that

the claim is true.
2

Remark 11.3 This theorem forms the basis for all uses of  in linear system robustness
analysis, whether from a state-space, frequency domain, or Lyapunov approach.
~
The role of the block structure
2 in the MAIN LOOP theorem is clear - it is
the structure that the perturbations come from; however, the role of the perturbation
structure
1 is often misunderstood. Note that 1 (
) appears on the right hand side
of the theorem, so that the set
1 denes what particular property of Fl (M;
2 ) is
considered. As an example, consider the theorem applied with the two simple block
structures considered right after Lemma 11.2. Dene
1 := f1 In : 1 2 C g . Hence, for
A 2 C nn ; 1 (A) =  (A). Likewise, dene
2 = C mm ; then for D 2 C mm ; 2 (D) =
(D). Now, let
be the diagonal augmentation of these two sets, namely

:=

("

1 In 0nm :  2 C ;
2 C mm  C (n+m)(n+m) :

1
2

0mn

2

Let A 2 C nn ; B 2 C nm ; C 2 C mn , and D 2 C mm be given, and interpret them as
the state space model of a discrete time system

xk+1 = Axk + Buk

yk = Cxk + Duk :
And let M 2 C (n+m)(n+m) be the block state space matrix of the system
"

M= A B :
C D
Applying the theorem with this data gives that the following are equivalent:
 The spectral radius of A satises  (A) < 1, and


max  D + C1 (I ; A1 );1 B < 1:

1 2C
j1 j1

(11:19)

 The maximum singular value of D satises (D) < 1, and


;1 C  < 1:

A
+
B


(
I
;
D


)
max
2
2
mm

(11:20)

 The structured singular value of M satises


(M ) < 1:

(11:21)

2 2C
 (
2 )1

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

276

The rst condition is recognized by two things: the system is stable, and the jj
jj1
norm on the transfer function from u to y is less than 1 (by replacing 1 with 1z )


 D + C (zI ; A);1 B = max  D + C1 (I ; A1 );1 B :

kGk1 := max
 2C
z2C
1

jzj1

j1 j1

The second condition implies that (I ; D
2 );1 is well dened for all  (
2 )  1 and
that a robust stability result holds for the uncertain dierence equation


xk+1 = A + B
2 (I ; D
2 );1 C xk

where
2 is any element in C mm with (
2 )  1, but otherwise unknown.
This equivalence between the small gain condition, kGk1 < 1, and the stability
robustness of the uncertain dierence equation is well known. This is the small gain
theorem, in its necessary and sucient form for linear, time invariant systems with one
of the components norm-bounded, but otherwise unknown. What is important to note
is that both of these conditions are equivalent to a condition involving the structured
singular value of the state space matrix. Already we have seen that special cases of  are
the spectral radius and the maximum singular value. Here we see that other important
linear system properties, namely robust stability and input-output gain, are also related
to a particular case of the structured singular value.

11.3 Structured Robust Stability and Performance

11.3.1 Robust Stability

The most well-known use of  as a robustness analysis tool is in the frequency domain.
Suppose G(s) is a stable, multi-input, multi-output transfer function of a linear system.
For clarity, assume G has q1 inputs and p1 outputs. Let
be a block structure, as in
equation (11.3), and assume that the dimensions are such that
 C q1 p1 . We want
to consider feedback perturbations to G which are themselves dynamical systems with
the block-diagonal structure of the set
.
Let M (
) denote the set of all block diagonal and stable rational transfer functions
that have block structures such as
.


M (
) :=
(
) 2 RH1 :
(so ) 2
for all so 2 C +

Theorem 11.8 Let  > 0. The loop1 shown below is well-posed and internally stable
for all
(
) 2 M (
) with k
k1 <  if and only if
sup 
(G(j!))  

!2R

11.3. Structured Robust Stability and Performance

w1

- e e1

+ 6
+

277

-

G(s) 

++ w2
e2 ?
e

Proof. ((=) By Lemma 11.1, sups2C + 
(G(s)) = sup!2R 
(G(j!))  . Hence

det(I ; G(s)
(s)) 6= 0 for all s 2 C + [ f1g whenever k
k1 < 1= , i.e., the system is
robustly stable.
(=)) Suppose sup!2R 
(G(j!)) >  . Then there is a 0 < !o < 1 such that

(G(j!o )) >  . By Remark 11.1, there is a complex
c 2
that each full block
has rank 1 and  (
c ) < 1= such that I ; G(j!o )
c is singular. Next, using the same
construction used in the proof of the small gain theorem (Theorem 9.1), one can nd a
rational
(s) such that k
(s)k1 = (
c ) < 1= ,
(j!o ) =
c , and
(s) destabilizes

the system.
2
Hence, the peak value on the  plot of the frequency response determines the size
of perturbations that the loop is robustly stable against.
Remark 11.4 The internal stability with closed ball of uncertainties is more complicated. The following example is shown in Tits and Fan [1994]. Consider
"
#
0 ;1
1
G(s) = s + 1
1 0
and
= (s)I2 . Then
sup 
(G(j!)) = sup jj! 1+ 1j = 
(G(j 0)) = 1:
! 2R
! 2R
On the other hand, 
(G(s)) < 1 for all s 6= 0; s 2 C + , and the only matrices in the
form of ; = I2 with j j  1 for which
det(I ; G(0);) = 0
are the complex matrices jI2 . Thus, clearly, (I ; G(s)
(s));1 2 RH1 for all real
rational
(s) = (s)I2 with kk1  1 since
(0) must be real. This shows that
sup!2R 
(G(j!)) < 1 is not necessary for (I ; G(s)
(s));1 2 RH1 with the closed
ball of structured uncertainty k
k1  1. Similar examples with no repeated blocks are
1 M where M is any real matrix with  (M ) = 1 for
generated by setting G(s) = s+1


which there is no real
2
with (
) = 1 such that det(I ; M
) = 0. For example,
let
82
9
2
3
3
#
0  "
>
>
< 1
=


6
7 ;
6
7
M =4  5
;
= >4
2
5 ; i 2 C
>
0 ;
:
;

3

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

278

with 2 = 12 and  2 + 22 = 1. Then it is shown in Packard and Doyle [1993] that


(M ) = 1 and all
2
with (
) = 1 that satisfy det(I ; M
) = 0 must be
complex.
~
Remark 11.5 Let
2 RH1 be a structured uncertainty and
"

G(s) = G11 (s) G12 (s) 2 RH1

G21 (s) G22 (s)
then Fu (G;
) 2 RH1 does not necessarily imply (I ; G11
);1 2 RH1 whether
is
in an open ball or is in a closed ball. For example, consider
2

s+1

G(s) = 64 0
1

"

1

10

s+1

1
0
0

3
7
5

1
with k
k1 < 1. Then Fu (G;
) =
1 2 RH1 for all
1 ; 1 s+1
2
admissible
(k
k1 < 1) but (I ; G11
);1 2 RH1 is true only for k
k1 < 0:1. ~
and
=

11.3.2 Robust Performance

Often, stability is not the only property of a closed-loop system that must be robust to
perturbations. Typically, there are exogenous disturbances acting on the system (wind
gusts, sensor noise) which result in tracking and regulation errors. Under perturbation,
the eect that these disturbances have on error signals can greatly increase. In most
cases, long before the onset of instability, the closed-loop performance will degrade to
the point of unacceptability, hence the need for a \robust performance" test. Such a
test will indicate the worst-case level of performance degradation associated with a given
level of perturbations.
Assume Gp is a stable, real-rational, proper transfer function with q1 + q2 inputs
and p1 + p2 outputs. Partition Gp in the obvious manner
"

Gp (s) = G11 G12

G21 G22
so that G11 has q1 inputs and p1 outputs, and so on. Let
 C q1 p1 be a block
structure, as in equation (11.3). Dene an augmented block structure
("

P :=
0
0 :
2
;
f 2 C q2 p2 :
f
The setup is to theoretically address the robust performance questions about the
loop shown below

11.3. Structured Robust Stability and Performance

279

-
(s)

Gp (s) 

z


The transfer function from w to z is denoted by Fu (Gp ;
).

Theorem 11.9 Let  > 0. For all
(s) 2 M (
) with k
k1 < 1 , the loop shown
above is well-posed, internally stable, and kFu (Gp ;
)k1   if and only if
sup 
P (Gp (j!))  :
!2R

Note that by internal stability, sup!2R 
(G11 (j!))   , then the proof of this
theorem is exactly along the lines of the earlier proof for Theorem 11.8, but also appeals
to Theorem 11.7. This is a remarkably useful theorem. It says that a robust performance
problem is equivalent to a robust stability problem with augmented uncertainty
as
shown in Figure 11.5.

-
f
-



Gp (s)

Figure 11.5: Robust Performance vs Robust Stability

11.3.3 Two Block : Robust Performance Revisited

Suppose that the uncertainty block is given by
"

=

1

2

2 RH1

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

280

with k
k1 < 1 and that the interconnection model G is given by

"

G(s) = G11 (s) G12 (s) 2 RH1 :

G21 (s) G22 (s)
Then the closed-loop system is well-posed and internally stable i sup! 
(G(j!))  1.
Let
"
#
d
I
!
D! =
; d! 2 R+

then

"

D! G(j!)D!;1 = 1G11 (j!) d! G12 (j!) :

d! G21 (j! ) G22 (j! )
Hence by Theorem 11.5, at each frequency !


(G(j!)) = d inf
2R
!

"

G11 (j!) d! G12 (j!)

1 G21 (j! ) G22 (j! )
d!

#!

(11:22)

Since the minimization is convex in log d! [see, Doyle, 1982], the optimal d! can be found
by a search; however, two approximations to d! can be obtained easily by approximating
the right hand side of (11.22):
(1) From Lemma 2.10, we have



(G(j!))  d inf
2R
!


=

inf

d! 2R+

"

kG11 (j!)k d! kG12 (j!)k

1 kG21 (j! )k kG22 (j! )k
d!

kG11 (j!)k2 + d2! kG12 (j!)k2 +

#!

1
2
2
d2 kG21 (j!)k + kG22 (j!)k

kG11 (j!)k2 + kG22 (j!)k2 + 2 kG12 (j!)k kG21 (j!)k

with the minimizing d! given by

d^! =

8 q
kG21 (j!)k
>
>
<
kG12 (j!)k
>
>
:

if G12 6= 0 & G21 6= 0;

if G21 = 0;
if G12 = 0:

(11:23)

(2) Alternative approximation can be obtained by using the Frobenius norm


(G(j!)) 

"


inf

d! 2R+

G11 (j!) d! G12 (j!)

1 G21 (j! ) G22 (j! )
d!

11.3. Structured Robust Stability and Performance

s

=
=

inf
d 2R

kG11

281

kG11 (j!)k2F + d2! kG12 (j!)k2F + d12 kG21 (j!)k2F + kG22 (j!)k2F

(j!)k2

F + kG22

(j!)k2

F + 2 kG12 (j! )kF kG21 (j! )kF

with the minimizing d! given by

8 q
kG21 (j!)kF
>
>
<
kG12 (j!)k

d~! = > 0
>
:

if G12 6= 0 & G21 6= 0;

if G21 = 0;
if G12 = 0:

(11:24)

It can be shown that the approximations for the scalar d! obtained above are exact
for a 2  2 matrix G. For higher dimensional G, the approximations for d! are still
reasonably good. Hence an approximation of  can be obtained as


(G(j!))  

"

G11 (j!) d^! G12 (j!)

1 G21 (j! ) G22 (j! )
d^!

#!

"

G11 (j!) d~! G12 (j!)

1 G21 (j! ) G22 (j! )
d~!

#!

(11:25)

or, alternatively, as


(G(j!))  

(11:26)

We can now see how these approximated  tests are compared with the sucient
conditions obtained in Chapter 9.

Example 11.1 Consider again the robust performance problem of a system with output multiplicative uncertainty in Chapter 9 (see Figure 9.5):

P
= (I + W1
W2 )P; k
k1 < 1:

Then it is easy to show that the problem can be put in the general framework by
selecting
"
#

G(s) = ;W2 To W1 ;W2 ToWd

We So W1 We So Wd

and that the robust performance condition is satised if and only if

and

kW2 ToW1 k1  1

(11:27)

kFu (G;
)k1  1

(11:28)

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

282

for all
2 RH1 with k
k1 < 1. But (11.27) and (11.28) are satised i for each
frequency !


(G(j!)) = d inf

2R
!

"

;W2 ToW1 ;d! W2 To Wd

1

d! We So W1

We So Wd

#!

 1:

Note that, in contrast to the sucient condition obtained in Chapter 9, this condition is
an exact test for robust performance. To compare the  test with the criteria obtained
in Chapter 9, some upper bounds for  can be derived. Let
s

e So W1 k :
d! = kkW
W2 ToWd k

Then, using the rst approximation for , we get

q

kW2 To W1 k2 + kWe So Wd k2 + 2 kW2 ToWd k kWe So W1 k

 kW2 To W1 k2 + kWe So Wd k2 + 2(W1;1 Wd ) kW2 ToW1 k kWe SoWd k
 kW2 To W1 k + (W1;1 Wd ) kWe So Wd k


(G(j!)) 

where W1 is assumed to be invertible in the last two inequalities. The last term is
exactly the sucient robust performance criteria obtained in Chapter 9. It is clear that
any term preceding the last forms a tighter test since (W1;1 Wd )  1. Yet another
alternative sucient test can be obtained from the above sequence of inequalities:
q


(G(j!))  (W1;1 Wd )(kW2 ToW1 k + kWe SoWd k):

Note that this sucient condition is not easy to get from the approach taken in Chapter 9
and is potentially less conservative than the bounds derived there.
3
Next we consider the skewed specication problem, but rst the following lemma is
needed in the sequel.

Lemma 11.10 Suppose  = 1  2  : : :  m =  > 0, then



inf max (di

d2R i
+

)2 +

(di )2

=  +  :

Proof. Consider a function y = x + 1=x, then y is a convex function and the maximization over a closed interval is achieved at the boundary of the interval. Hence for
any xed d




1
1
1
2
2
2
max
(di ) + (d )2 = max (d ) + (d )2 ; (d ) + (d )2 :
i
i

11.3. Structured Robust Stability and Performance

283

Then the minimization over d is obtained i

(d )2 + (d1 )2 = (d )2 + (d1 )2
which gives d2 = 1 . The result then follows from substituting d.

Example 11.2 As another example, consider again the skewed specication problem
from Chapter 9. Then the corresponding G matrix is given by
"

G = ;W2 Ti W1 ;W2 KSoWd :

We So PW1

We So Wd

So the robust performance specication is satised i



(G(j!)) = d inf
2R
!

"

;W2 Ti W1

d! We So PW1

;d! W2 KSoWd
We So Wd

#!

1

for all !  0. As in the last example, an upper bound can be obtained by taking
s

We So PW1 k :
d! = kkW
2 KSo Wd k
Then


(G(j!))  (Wd;1 PW1 )(kW2 Ti W1 k + kWe So Wd k):

In particular, this suggests that the robust performance margin is inversely proportional
to the square root of the plant condition number if Wd = I and W1 = I . This can be
further illustrated by considering a plant-inverting control system.
To simplify the exposition, we shall make the following assumptions:

We = ws I; Wd = I; W1 = I; W2 = wt I;
and P is stable and has a stable inverse (i.e., minimum phase) (P can be strictly proper).
Furthermore, we shall assume that the controller has the form

K (s) = P ;1 (s)l(s)
where l(s) is a scalar loop transfer function which makes K (s) proper and stabilizes
the closed-loop. This compensator produces diagonal sensitivity and complementary
sensitivity functions with identical diagonal elements, namely
So = Si = 1 +1l(s) I; To = Ti = 1 +l(sl)(s) I:

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

284
Denote

"(s) = 1 +1l(s) ;  (s) = 1 +l(sl)(s)

and substitute these expressions into G; we get

"

;1
G = ;wt I ;wt P
:

ws "P

ws "I

The structured singular value for G at frequency ! can be computed by


(G(j!)) = dinf

2R

"

;wt I ;wt  (dP );1

ws "dP

#!

ws "I

Let the singular value decomposition of P (j!) at frequency ! be

P (j!) = U V  ;  = diag(1 ; 2 ; : : : ; m )
with 1 =  and m =  where m is the dimension of P . Then

(G(j!)) = dinf

2R

"

;wt I ;wt  (d);1

ws "d

#!

ws "I

since unitary operations do not change the singular values of a matrix. Note that
"

;wt I ;wt  (d);1 = P diag(M ; M ; : : : ; M )P

1
1 2
m 2
ws "d

ws "I

where P1 and P2 are permutation matrices and where

Mi =

"

;wt  ;wt  (di );1 :

ws "di

Hence


(G(j!)) = dinf
max 
2R+ i

"

ws "

;wt  ;wt  (di );1

#!

ws "di
ws "
#
!
h
i
;
w

t
= dinf
max 
1 (di );1
2R+ i
ws "di
p
= dinf
max
(1 + jdi j;2 )(jws "di j2 + jwt  j2 )
2R i
+

"

= dinf
max jws "j2 + jwt  j2 + jws "di j2 +  wdt   :
2R+ i
i

11.3. Structured Robust Stability and Performance

285

Using Lemma 11.10, it is easy to show that the maximum is achieved at either  or 
and that optimal d is given by
j ;
d2 = jwjw"tj
s

so the structured singular value is

s


(G(j!)) = jws "j2 + jwt  j2 + jws "jjwt  j[(P ) + (1P ) ]:

(11:29)

Note that if jws "j and jwt  j are not too large, which are guaranteed if the nominal
performance and robust stability conditions are satised, then the structured singular
value is proportional to the square root of the plant condition number:
p


(G(j!))  jws "jjwt  j(P ) :

(11:30)

3
This conrms our intuition that an ill-conditioned plant with skewed specications is
hard to control.

11.3.4 Approximation of Multiple Full Block 

The approximations given in the last subsection can be generalized to the multiple block
 problem by assuming that M is partitioned consistently with the structure of

= diag(
1 ;
2 ; : : : ;
F )
so that

M=
and

6
6
6
6
4

M11 M12


M1F

M21 M22


M2F
..
.

..
.

..
.

MF 1 MF 2


MFF

3
7
7
7
7
5

D = diag(d1 I; : : : ; dF ;1 I; I ):

Now

DMD;1 = Mij di ; dF := 1:
dj

And hence


(M ) 

inf (DMD;1 ) = Dinf

 Mij ddi
D2D
2D
j

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

286

v
u

F X
F
uX
2 d2i
t
 Dinf2D  kMij k ddi  Dinf
k
M
k
ij
2D i=1 j=1
d2j
j


 Dinf2D

v
u F F
uX X
t

i=1 j =1

kMij k2F ddi2 :

j

An approximate D can be found by solving the following minimization problem:

inf
D2D

F X
F
X
i=1 j =1

kMij k2 dd2i
j

or, more conveniently, by minimizing

inf
D2D

F X
F
X
i=1 j =1

kMij k2F ddi2

j

with dF = 1. The optimal di minimizing of the above two problems satisfy, respectively,

d4

k=

and

2 2

i6=k kMik k di ;
2 2
j 6=k kMkj k =dj

k = 1; 2; : : :; F ; 1

(11:31)

kMik k2F d2i

2 2 ; k = 1; 2; : : : ; F ; 1:
j 6=k kMkj kF =dj

(11:32)

i6=k
k=P

d4

Using these relations, dk can be obtained by iterations.

Example 11.3 Consider a 3  3 complex matrix

2
1 + j 10 ; 2j ;20j
6
M = 4 5j 3 + j ;1 + 3j
;2
j
4;j

3
7
5

with structured
= diag(1 ; 2 ; 3 ). The largest singular value of M is (M ) = 22:9094

and the structured singular value of M computed using the -TOOLS is equal to its
upper bound:

(M ) = Dinf
(DMD;1 ) = 11:9636
2D
with the optimal scaling Dopt = diag(0:3955; 0:6847; 1). The optimal D minimizing
inf
D2D

F X
F
X
i=1 j =1

kMij k2 dd2i
j

11.4. Overview on  Synthesis

287

is Dsubopt = diag(0:3212; 0:4643; 1) which is solved from equation (11.31). Using this
Dsubopt , we obtain another upper bound for the structured singular value:
;1 ) = 12:2538:

(M )   (Dsubopt MDsubopt

One may also use this Dsubopt as an initial guess for the exact optimization.

11.4 Overview on  Synthesis

This section brie y outlines various synthesis methods. The details are somewhat complicated and are treated in the other parts of the book. At this point, we simply want
to point out how the analysis theory discussed in the previous sections leads naturally
to synthesis questions.
From the analysis results, we see that each case eventually leads to the evaluation
of
kM k  = 2; 1; or 
(11:33)
for some transfer matrix M . Thus when the controller is put back into the problem, it
involves only a simple linear fractional transformation as shown in Figure 11.6 with
"

M = F` (G; K ) = G11 + G12 K (I ; G22 K );1 G21 :

G11 G12
where G =
G21 G22

is chosen, respectively, as
"

 nominal performance only (
= 0): G = P22 P23

P32 P33
"

 robust stability only: G = P11 P13

P31 P33

P11 P12 P13

 robust performance: G = P = 64 P21 P22 P23 75.
P31 P32 P33
Each case then leads to the synthesis problem
min
kF` (G; K )k for  = 2; 1; or 
K

(11:34)

which is subject to the internal stability of the nominal.

The solutions of these problems for  = 2 and 1 are the focus of the rest of this
book. The solutions presented in this book unify the two approaches in a common
synthesis framework. The  = 2 case was already known in the 1960's, and the results

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

288

z



G 
-K

Figure 11.6: Synthesis Framework

are simply a new interpretation. The two Riccati solutions for the  = 1 case were
new products of the late 1980's.
The synthesis for the  =  case is not yet fully solved. Recall that  may be
obtained by scaling and applying k
k1 (for F  3 and S = 0), a reasonable approach
is to \solve"


DF` (G; K )D;1
min
inf
(11:35)
1
;
1
K
D;D 2H1

by iteratively solving for K and D. This is the so-called D-K Iteration. The stable and
minimum phase scaling matrix D(s) is chosen such that D(s)
(s) =
(s)D(s) (Note
that D(s) is not necessarily belong to D since D(s) is not necessarily
Hermitian,
see


Remark 11.2). For a xed scaling transfer matrix D, minK DF` (G; K )D;1 1 is a
standard H1 optimization problem which will be solved
in the later part of the book.

For a given stabilizing controller K , inf D;D;1 2H1 DF`(G; K )D;1 1 is a standard
convex optimization problem and it can be solved pointwise in the frequency domain:


sup Dinf2D  D! F` (G; K )(j!)D!;1 :

!

Indeed,
inf
D;D;1 2H1

DF` (G; K )D;1 1 = sup Dinf2D  D! F`(G; K )(j!)D!;1 :

!

This follows intuitively from the following arguments: the left hand side is always no
smaller than the right hand side, and, on the other hand, given the minimizing D!
from the right hand side across the frequency, there is always a rational function D(s)
uniformly approximating the magnitude frequency response D! .
Note that when S = 0, (no scalar blocks)

D! = diag(d!1 I; : : : ; d!F ;1 I; I ) 2 D;
which is a block-diagonal scaling matrix applied pointwise across frequency to the frequency response F` (G; K )(j!).
D-K Iterations proceed by performing this two-parameter minimization in sequential
fashion: rst minimizing over K with D! xed, then minimizing pointwise over D!
with K xed, then again over K , and again over D! , etc. Details of this process are
summarized in the following steps:

11.4. Overview on  Synthesis



289

D 


G 

D;1 

- K
Figure 11.7: -Synthesis via Scaling
(i) Fix an initial estimate of the scaling matrix D! 2 D pointwise across frequency.
(ii) Find scalar transfer functions di (s); d;i 1 (s) 2 RH1 for i = 1; 2; : : :; (F ; 1) such
that jdi (j!)j  d!i . This step can be done using the interpolation theory [Youla
and Saito, 1967]; however, this will usually result in very high order transfer
functions, which explains why this process is currently done mostly by graphical
matching using lower order transfer functions.
(iii) Let
D(s) = diag(d1 (s)I; : : : ; dF ;1 (s)I; I ):
Construct a state space model for system
"

G^ (s) = D(s)

"

;1
G(s) D (s)

(iv) Solve an H1 -optimization problem to minimize

^ K )
F` (G;
1

over all stabilizing K 's. Note that this optimization problem uses the scaled
version of G. Let its minimizing controller be denoted by K^ .
(v) Minimize ! F` (G; K^ )D!;1 ] over D! , pointwise across frequency.4 Note that
this evaluation uses the minimizing K^ from the last step, but that G is unscaled.
The minimization itself produces a new scaling function. Let this new function
be denoted by D^ ! .
(vi) Compare D^ ! with the previous estimate D! . Stop if they are close, but, otherwise,
replace D! with D^ ! and return to step (ii).
With either K or D xed, the global optimum in the other variable may be found using
the  and H1 solutions. Although the joint optimization of D and K is not convex and
4

The approximate solutions given in the last section may be used.

290

STRUCTURED SINGULAR VALUE

the global convergence is not guaranteed, many designs have shown that this approach
works very well [see e.g. Balas, 1990]. In fact, this is probably the most eective design
methodology available today for dealing with such complicated problems. The detailed
treatment of  analysis is given in Packard and Doyle [1991]. The rest of this book will
focus on the H1 optimization which is a fundamental tool for  synthesis.

11.5 Notes and References

This chapter is partially based on the lecture notes given by Doyle [1984] in Honeywell
and partially based on the lecture notes by Packard [1991] and the paper by Doyle,
Packard, and Zhou [1991]. Parts of section 11.3.3 come from the paper by Stein and
Doyle [1991]. The small  theorem for systems with non-rational plants and uncertainties is proven in Tits [1994]. Other results on  can be found in Fan and Tits [1986],
Fan, Tits, and Doyle [1991], Packard and Doyle [1993], Packard and Pandey [1993],
Young [1993], and references therein.

12

Parameterization of
Stabilizing Controllers
The basic conguration of the feedback systems considered in this chapter is an LFT
as shown in Figure 12.1, where G is the generalized plant with two sets of inputs: the
exogenous inputs w, which include disturbances and commands, and control inputs u.
The plant G also has two sets of outputs: the measured (or sensor) outputs y and the
regulated outputs z . K is the controller to be designed. A control problem in this setup
is either to analyze some specic properties, e.g., stability or performance, of the closedloop or to design the feedback control K such that the closed-loop system is stable
in some appropriate sense and the error signal z is specied, i.e., some performance
condition is satised. In this chapter we are only concerned with the basic internal
stabilization problems. We will see again that this setup is very convenient for other
general control synthesis problems in the coming chapters.
Suppose that a given feedback system is feedback stabilizable. In this chapter, the
problem we are mostly interested in is parameterizing all controllers that stabilize the
system. The parameterization of all internally stabilizing controllers was rst introduced
by Youla et al [1976]; in their parameterization, the coprime factorization technique is
used. All of the existing results are mainly in the frequency domain although they can
also be transformed to state-space descriptions. In this chapter, we consider this issue
in the general setting and directly in state space without adopting coprime factorization
technique. The construction of the controller parameterization is done via considering
a sequence of special problems, which are so-called full information (FI) problems, disturbance feedforward (DF) problems, full control (FC) problems and output estimation
291

292

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

z

w
G 
y
u
- K

Figure 12.1: General System Interconnection

(OE) problems. On the other hand, these special problems are also of importance in
their own right.
In addition to presenting the controller parameterization, this chapter also aims at
introducing the synthesis machinery, which is essential in some control syntheses (the
H2 and H1 control in Chapter 14 and Chapter 16), and at seeing how it works in
the controller parameterization problem. The structure of this chapter is as follows: in
section 12.1, the conditions for the existence of a stabilizing controller are examined.
In section 12.2, we shall examine the stabilization of dierent special problems and
establish the relations among them. In section 12.3, the construction of controller
parameterization for the general output feedback problem will be considered via the
special problems FI , DF , FC and OE . In section 12.4, the structure of the controller
parameterization is displayed. Section 12.5 shows the closed-loop transfer matrix in
terms of the parameterization. Section 12.6 considers an alternative approach to the
controller parameterization using coprime factorizations and establishes the connections
with the state space approach. This section can be either studied independently of all
the preceding sections or skipped over without loss of continuity.

12.1 Existence of Stabilizing Controllers

Consider a system described by the standard block diagram in Figure 12.1. Assume
that G(s) has a stabilizable and detectable realization of the form
2

A B1 B2
G
11 (s) G12 (s)
6
G(s) =
= 4 C1 D11 D12 75 :
(12:1)
G21 (s) G22 (s)
C2 D21 D22
The stabilization problem is to nd feedback mapping K such that the closed-loop
"

system is internally stable; the well-posedness is required for this interconnection. This
general synthesis question will be called the output feedback (OF) problem.

Denition 12.1 A proper system G is said to be stabilizable through output feedback

if there exists a proper controller K internally stabilizing G in Figure 12.1. Moreover,

a proper controller K (s) is said to be admissible if it internally stabilizes G.

12.1. Existence of Stabilizing Controllers

293

The following result is standard and follows from Chapter 3.

Lemma 12.1 There exists a proper K achieving internal stability i (A; B2) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable. Further, let F and L be such that A + B2 F and A + LC2
are stable, then an observer-based stabilizing controller is given by
#

"

K (s) = A + B2 F + LC2 + LD22 F ;L :

F
0

Proof. (() By the stabilizability and detectability assumptions, there exist F and

L such that A + B2 F and A + LC2 are stable. Now let K (s) be the observer-based
controller given in the lemma, then the closed-loop A-matrix is given by
A~ =

"

A
B2 F
:
;LC2 A + B2 F + LC2

It is easy to check that this matrix is similar to the matrix

"

A + LC2
0
:
;LC2 A + B2 F

Thus the spectrum of A~ equals the union of the spectra of A + LC2 and A + B2 F . In
particular, A~ is stable.
()) If (A; B2 ) is not stabilizable or if (C2 ; A) is not detectable, then there are some
eigenvalues of A~ which are xed in the right half-plane, no matter what the compensator
is. The details are left as an exercise.
2
The stabilizability and detectability conditions of (A; B2 ; C2 ) are assumed throughout the remainder of this chapter1. It follows that the realization for G22 is stabilizable
and detectable, and these assumptions are enough to yield the following result:

G22 
u

- K
Figure 12.2: Equivalent Stabilization Diagram
1 It should be clear that the stabilizability and detectability of a realization for G do not guarantee
the stabilizability and/or detectability of the corresponding realization for G22 .

294

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

"

Lemma 12.2 Suppose (A; B2 ; C2 ) is stabilizable and detectable and G22 = A B2 .

C2 D22
Then the system in Figure 12.1 is internally stable i the one in Figure 12.2 is internally
stable.

In other words, K (s) internally stabilizes G(s) if and only if it internally stabilizes

G22 .

Proof. The necessity follows from the denition. To show the suciency, it is sucient

to show that the system in Figure 12.1 and that in Figure 12.2 share the same A-matrix,
which is obvious.
2
From Lemma 12.2, we see that the stabilizing controller for G depends only on G22 .
Hence all stabilizing controllers for G can be obtained by using only G22 , which is how
it is usually done in the conventional Youla parameterization. However, it will be shown
that the general setup is very convenient and much more useful since any closed-loop
system information can also be considered in the same framework.

Remark 12.1 There should be no confusion between a given realization for a transfer

matrix G22 and the inherited realization from G where G22 is a submatrix. A given
realization for G22 may be stabilizable and detectable while the inherited realization
may be not. For instance,
"

G22 = s +1 1 = ;1 1
1 0

is a minimal realization but the inherited realization of G22 from

2
"

;1 0 0 1

6
G11 G12 = 66 0 1 1 0
6
G21 G22
1 0 0
4 0

1 0 0 0

is

;1 0 1

G22 = 64 0 1 0
1 0 0

which is neither stabilizable nor detectable.

3
7
5

= s +1 1

3
7
7
7
7
5

12.2. Duality and Special Problems

295

12.2 Duality and Special Problems

In this section, we will discuss four problems from which the output feedback solutions
are constructed via a separation argument. These special problems are fundamental
to the approach taken for synthesis in this book, and, as we shall see, they are also of
importance in their own right.

12.2.1 Algebraic Duality and Special Problems

Before we get into the study of the algebraic structure of control systems, we now introduce the concept of algebraic duality which will play an important role. It is well known
that the concepts of controllability (stabilizability) and observability (detectability) of
a system (C; A; B ) are dual because of the duality between (C; A; B ) and (B T ; AT ; C T ).
So, to deal with the issues related to a system's controllability and/or observability, we
only need to examine the issues related to the observability and/or controllability of its
dual system, respectively. The notion of duality can be generalized to a general setting.
Consider a standard system block diagram

z

w
G 
y
u
- K

where the plant G and controller K are assumed to be linear time invariant. Now
consider another system shown below
 z~
 w~

y~

GT 

- KT

u~

whose plant and controller are obtained by transposing G and K . We can check easily
T = [F` (G; K )]T = F` (GT ; K T ) = Tz~w~ . It is not dicult to see that K internally
that Tzw
stabilizes G i K T internally stabilizes GT . And we say that these two control structures
are algebraically dual, especially, GT and K T which are dual objects of G and K ,
respectively. So as far as stabilization or other synthesis problems are concerned, we
can obtain the results for GT from the results for its dual object G if they are available.
Now, we consider some special problems which are related to the general OF problems stated in the last section and which are important in constructing the results for
OF problems. The special problems considered here all pertain to the standard block
diagram, but to dierent structures than G. The problems are labeled as

296

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

FI. Full information, with the corresponding plant

2

A
6
6 C1
GFI = 66 " #
I
4

B1
D
" 11#

B2
7
D 7
" 12# 7 :
7

0
0

FC. Full control, with the corresponding plant

2

A B1
6
GFC = 664 C1 D11
C2 D21

h
h
h

i 3

I 0
0 I

i 7
7
7
i 5

0 0

DF. Disturbance feedforward, with the corresponding plant

3

A B1 B2
GDF = 64 C1 D11 D12 75 :
C2 I
0
OE. Output estimation, with the corresponding plant
2

A B1 B2
6
GOE = 4 C1 D11 I 75 :
C2 D21 0
The motivations for these special problems will be given later when they are considered. There are also two additional structures which are standard and which will not
be considered in this chapter; they are
SF. State feedback

OI. Output injection

A B1 B2
6
GSF = 4 C1 D11 D12 75 :
I 0 0
2

A B1 I
6
GOI = 4 C1 D11 0 75 :
C2 D21 0

12.2. Duality and Special Problems

297

Here we assume that all physical variables have compatible dimensions. We say
that these special problems are special cases of OF problems in the sense that their
structures are specied in comparison to OF problems.
The structure of transfer matrices shows clearly that FC, OE (and OI) are duals of
FI, DF (and SF), respectively. These relationships are shown in the following diagram:
FI 

dual

- FC
6

equivalent

equivalent

dual

- OE
DF 
The precise meaning of \equivalent" in this diagram will be explained below.

12.2.2 Full Information and Disturbance Feedforward

"

x .
In the FI problem, the controller is provided with Full Information since y =
w
For the FI problem, we only need to assume that (A; B2 ) is stabilizable to guarantee the

solvability. It is clear that if any output feedback control problem is to be solvable then
the corresponding FI problem has to be solvable, provided FI is of the same structure
with OF except for the specied parts.
To motivate the name Disturbance Feedforward, consider the special case with C2 =
0. Then there is no feedback and the measurement is exactly w, where w is generally
regarded as disturbance to the system. Only the disturbance, w, is fed through directly
to the output. As we shall see, the feedback caused by C2 6= 0 does not aect the
transfer function from w to the output z , but it does aect internal stability. In fact,
the conditions for the solvability of the DF problem are that (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and
(C2 ; A) is detectable.
Now we examine the connection between the DF problem and the FI problem and
show the meaning of their equivalence. Suppose that we have controllers KFI and KDF
and let TFI and TDF denote the closed-loop Tzw s in

z

w
GFI 
yFI
u
- KFI

z

w
GDF 
yDF
u
- KDF

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

298

The question of interest is as follows: given either the KFI or the KDF controller,
can we construct the other in such a way that TFI = TDF ? The answer is positive.
Actually, we have the following:
Lemma 12.3 Let GFI and GDF be given as above. Then
"
#
I
0 0
(i) GDF (s) =
GFI (s).
0 C2 I
(ii) GFI = S (GDF ; PDF ) (where S (
;
) denotes the star-product)


GDF 
aa !!!
a
!
!! aaa

PDF 

2
6
6

PDF (s) = 66
4

A ; B1 C2
"

I
; C2

B1

0
0

"

B2
7
I # 77 :
"
7
0
0

Proof. Part (i) is obvious. Part (ii) follows from applying the star product formula.
Nevertheless, we will give a direct proof to show the system structure. Let x and x^
denote the state of GDF and PDF , respectively. Take e := x ; x^ and x^ as the states of
the resulting interconnected system; then its realization is
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

A ; B1 C2
B1 C2
C
" 1 #
0

A
C
" 1#
I

B1
D
" 11#
0

I
0
which is exactly GFI , as claimed.
C2

7
2 7
7
7
12
"
# 7
0 75

B
D

A
6
6 C1
= 66 " #
I
4

B1
D
" 11#

B2
D
" 12#

0
0

3
7
7
7
7
5

Remark 12.2 There is an alternative way to see part (ii). The fact is that in the DF

problems, the disturbance w and the system states x can be solved in terms of y and u:
2

A ; B1 C2 B1 B2
x =6
I
0 0
4
w
;C2
I 0
Now connect V up with GDF as shown below
"

3
7
5

"

y =: V
u

"

y :
u

12.2. Duality and Special Problems

z 

299


GDF 

y
x 
w 

w
u




Then it is easy to show that the transfer function from (w; u) to (z; x; w) is GFI , and,
furthermore, that the internal stability is not changed if A ; B1 C2 is stable.
~
The following theorem follows immediately:

Theorem 12.4 Let GFI , GDF , and PDF be given as above.

h

(i) KFI := KDF C2 I

GDF . Furthermore,

internally stabilizes GFI if KDF internally stabilizes

h

F`(GFI ; KDF C2 I ) = F` (GDF ; KDF ):

(ii) Suppose A ; B1 C2 is stable. Then KDF := F` (PDF ; KFI ) as shown below

u
y^

PDF

- KFI

yDF

u

internally stabilizes GDF if KFI internally stabilizes GFI . Furthermore,

F`(GDF ; F` (PDF ; KFI )) = F` (GFI ; KFI ):

Remark 12.3 This theorem shows that if A ; B1C2 is stable, then problems FI and

DF are equivalent in the above sense. Note that the transfer function from w to yDF is
"

G21 (s) = A B1 :
C2 I
Hence this stability condition implies that G21 (s) has neither right half plane invariant
zeros nor hidden unstable modes.
~

300

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

12.2.3 Full Control and Output Estimation

For the FC problem, the term Full Control is used because the controller has full access
to both the state through output injection and the output z . The only restriction on the
controller is that it must work with the measurement y. This problem is dual to the FI
case and has the dual solvability condition to the FI problem, which is also guaranteed
by the assumptions on OF problems. The solutions to this kind of control problem can
be obtained by rst transposing GFC , and solving the corresponding FI problem, and
then transposing back.
On the other hand, problem OE is dual to DF . Thus the discussion of the DF
problem is relevant here, when appropriately dualized. And the solvability conditions
for the OE problem are that (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable. To examine
the physical meaning of output estimation, rst note that

z = C1 x + D11 w + u
where z is to be controlled by an appropriately designed control u. In general, our
control objective will be to specify z in some well-dened mathematical sense. To put
it in other words, it is desired to nd a u that will estimate C1 x + D11 w in such dened
mathematical sense. So this kind of control problem can be regarded as an estimation
problem. We are focusing on this particular estimation problem because it is the one
that arises in solving the output feedback problem. A more conventional estimation
problem would be the special case where no internal stability condition is imposed
and B2 = 0. Then the problem would be that of estimating the output z given the
measurement y. This special case motivates the term output estimation and can be
obtained immediately from the results obtained for the general case.
The following discussion will explain the meaning of equivalence between FC and
OE problems. Consider the following FC and OE diagrams:

z
yFC

GFC

- KFC

w

u

z
yOE

GOE

- KOE

We have similar results to the ones in the last subsection:

Lemma 12.5 Let GFC and GOE be given as above. Then

2

I 0
6
(i) GOE (s) = GFC (s) 4 0 B2
0 I

3
7
5

w

u

12.3. Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers

(ii) GFC = S (GOE ; POE ), where POE is given by
2

A ; B2 C1 0
6
6
POE (s) = 64 C1
0
C2
I

I ;B2i
h
0 I i
h
0 0

301
i 3
7
7
7
5

Theorem 12.6 Let GFC ; GOE , and POE be given as above.

"

B2 K internally stabilizes G if K internally stabilizes G .

(i) KFC :=
OE
FC
OE
OE
I
Furthermore,

"

F` (GFC ; B2 KOE ) = F`(GOE ; KOE ):

I
(ii) Suppose A ; B2 C1 is stable. Then KOE := F` (POE ; KFC ), as shown below
u
y
POE 
y^
u^
- KFC
internally stabilizes GOE if KFC internally stabilizes GFC . Furthermore,
F` (GOE ; F`(POE ; KFC )) = F`(GFC ; KFC ):

Remark 12.4 It is seen that if A ; B2C1 is stable, then FC and OE problems are
equivalent in the above sense. This condition implies that the transfer matrix G12 (s)
from u to z has neither right half-plane invariant zeros nor hidden unstable modes,
which indicates that it has a stable inverse.
~

12.3 Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers

12.3.1 Problem Statement and Solution

Consider again the standard system block diagram in Figure 12.1 with
2

"
#
A B1 B2
G
7
11 (s) G12 (s)
6
:
G(s) = 4 C1 D11 D12 5 =
G21 (s) G22 (s)
C2 D21 D22
Suppose (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable. In this section we discuss the

following problem:

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

302

Given a plant G, parameterize all controllers K that internally stabilize G.

This parameterization for all stabilizing controllers is usually called Youla parameterization. As we have mentioned early, the stabilizing controllers for G will depend only on
G22 . However, it is more convenient to consider the problem in the general framework
as will be shown. The parameterization of all stabilizing controllers is easy when the
plant itself is stable.

Theorem 12.7 Suppose G 2 RH1; then the set of all stabilizing controllers can be
described as

K = Q(I + G22 Q);1

for any Q 2 RH1 and I + D22 Q(1) nonsingular.

(12:2)

Remark 12.5 This result is very natural considering Corollary 5.5, which says that a
controller K stabilizes a stable plant G22 i K (I ; G22 K );1 is stable. Now suppose
Q = K (I ; G22 K );1 is a stable transfer matrix, then K can be solved from this equation
which gives exactly the controller parameterization in the above theorem.
~
Proof. Note that G22 (s) is stable by the assumptions on G. Now use straightforward
algebra to verify that the controllers given above stabilize G22 . On the other hand,
suppose K0 is a stabilizing controller; then Q0 := K0(I ; G22 K0 );1 2 RH1 , so K0 can
be expressed as K0 = Q0 (I + G22 Q0 );1 . Note that the invertibility in the last equation
is guaranteed by the well posedness of the interconnected system with controller K0
since I + D22 Q0 (1) = (I ; D22 K0 (1));1 .
2

However, if G is not stable, the parameterization is much more complicated. The

results can be more conveniently stated using state space representations.

Theorem 12.8 Let F and L be such that A + LC2 and A + B2F are stable, and then all

controllers that internally stabilize G can be parameterized as the transfer matrix from
y to u below

u

y
J 
- Q

A + B2 F + LC2 + LD22F ;L B2 + LD22

6
J =4
F
0
I
;(C2 + D22 F )
I
;D22

3
7
5

with any Q 2 RH1 and I + D22 Q(1) nonsingular.

A non-constructive proof of the theorem can be given by using the same argument
as in the proof of Theorem 12.7, i.e., rst verify that any controller given by the formula
indeed stabilizes the system G, and then show that we can construct a stable Q for any

12.3. Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers

303

given stabilizing controller K . This approach, however, does not give much insight into
the controller construction and thus can not be generalized to other synthesis problems.
The conventional Youla approach to this problem is via coprime factorization [Youla
et al, 1976, Vidyasagar, 1985, Desoer et al, 1982], which will be adopted in the later
part of this chapter as an alternative approach.
In the following sections, we will present a novel approach to this problem without
adopting coprime factorizations. The idea of this approach is to reduce the output
feedback problem into some simpler problems, such as FI and OE or FC and DF which
admit simple solutions, and then to solve the output feedback problem by the separation
argument. The advantages of this approach are that it is simple and that many other
synthesis problems, such as H2 and H1 optimal control problems in Chapters 14 and 16,
can be solved by using the same machinery.
Readers should bear in mind that our objective here is to nd all admissible controllers for the OF problem. So at rst, we will try to build up enough tools for this
objective by considering the special problems. We will see that it is not necessary to parameterize all stabilizing controllers for these special problems to get the required tools.
Instead, we only parameterize some equivalent classes of controllers which generate the
same control action.
Denition 12.2 Two controllers K and K^ are of equivalent control actions if their
corresponding closed loop transfer matrices are identical, i.e. Fl (G; K ) = Fl (G; K^ ),
written as K 
= K^ .
Algebraically, the controller equivalence is an equivalence relation. We will see that
for dierent special problems we have dierent rened versions of this relation. We
will also see that the characterizations of equivalent classes of stabilizing controllers for
special problems are good enough to construct the parameterization of all stabilizing
controllers for the OF problem. In the next two subsections, we mainly consider the
stabilizing controller characterizations for special problems. Also, we use the solutions
to these special problems and the approach provided in the last section to characterize
all stabilizing controllers of OF problems.

12.3.2 Stabilizing Controllers for FI and FC Problems

In this subsection, we rst examine the FI structure

z
yFI

GFI

- KFI

w

u

where the transfer matrix GFI is given in section 12.2. The purpose of this subsection
is to characterize the equivalent classes of stabilizing controllers KFI that stabilize

304

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

internally GFI and to build up enough tools to be used later. For this problem, we
say two controllers KFI and K^ FI are equivalent if they produce the same closed-loop
transfer function from w to u. Obviously, this also guarantees that Fl (GFI ; KFI ) =
Fl (GFI ; K^ FI ). The characterization of equivalent classes of controllers can be suitably
called the control parameterization in contrast with controller parameterization. Note
that the same situation will occur in FC problems by duality.
Since we have full information for feedback, our controller will have the following
general form:
h
i
KFI = K1 (s) K2(s)
with K1 (s) stabilizing internally (sI ; A);1 B2 and arbitrary K2 (s) 2 RH1 . Note that
the stability of K2 is required to guarantee the internal stability of the whole system
since w is fed directly through K2.
Lemma 12.9 Let F be a constant matrix such that A + B2F is stable. Then all stabilizing controllers, in the sense of generating all admissible closed-loop transfer functions,
for FI can be parameterized as
h

KFI 
= F Q

with any Q 2 RH1 .

Note that for the parameter matrix Q 2 RH1 , it is reasonable to assume that the
realization of Q(s) is stabilizable and detectable.

Proof. It is easy to see that the controller given in the above formula stabilizes the
system GFI . Hence we only need to show that the given set of controllers parameterizes
all stabilizing control action, u, i.e., there is a choice of Q 2 RH
h 1 such that thei transfer
functions from w to u for any stabilizing controller KFI = K1 (s) K2 (s) and for
h
i
0 = F Q are the same. To show this, make a change of control variable as
KFI
v = u ; Fx, where x denotes the state of the system GFI ; then the system with the
controller KFI will be as shown in the following diagram:
z

yFI
with

A + B2 F
6
6 C1 + D12 F
G~ FI = 66 " #
I
4
0

w

v

G~ FI

- K~ FI

B1
D
" 11#
0

B2
7
7
D
12
~ FI = KFI ; [F 0]:
"
# 7; K
0 7
0

12.3. Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers

305

Let Q be the transfer matrix from w to hv; Q belongs

to RH1 by internal stability.
i

Then u = Fx + v = Fx + Qw, so KFI = F Q .
2
0 in the above equation can actually be
Remark 12.6 The equivalence of KFI = KFI

shown by directly computing Q from equating the transfer matrices from w to u for the
0 . In fact, the transfer matrices from w to u with KFI and K 0
cases of KFI and KFI
FI
are given by



I ; K1(sI ; A);1 B2 ;1 K1(sI ; A);1 B1 + I ; K1 (sI ; A);1 B2 ;1 K2

(12:3)




I ; F (sI ; A);1 B2 ;1 F (sI ; A);1 B1 + I ; F (sI ; A);1 B2 ;1 Q;

(12:4)

and


respectively. We can verify that

Q = K2 + (K1 ; F )(sI ; A ; B2 K1 );1 (B2 K2 + B1 )

is stable and makes the formulas in (12.3) and (12.4) equal.

Now we consider the dual FC problem; the system diagram pertinent to this case is

z

w
GFC 
yFC
u
- KFC
Dually, we say controllers KFC and K^ FC are equivalent in the sense that the same
injection inputs yFC 's produce the same outputs z 's. This also guarantees the identity
of their resulting closed-loop transfer matrices from w to z . And we also have

Lemma 12.10 Let L be a constant matrix such that A + LC2 is stable. Then the

set of equivalent classes of all stabilizing controllers for FC in the above sense can be
parameterized as
"
#

L
KFC 
=
Q

with any Q 2 RH1 .

306

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

12.3.3 Stabilizing Controllers for DF and OE Problems

In the DF case we have the following system diagram:

z
yDF

GDF

- KDF

w

u

The transfer matrix is given as in section 12.2.1. We will further assume that A ; B1 C2
is stable in this subsection. It should be pointed out that the existence of a stabilizing
controller for this system is guaranteed by the stabilizability of (A; B2 ) and detectability
of (C2 ; A). Hence this assumption is not necessary for our problem to be solvable;
however, it does simplify the solution.
We will now parameterize stabilizing controllers for GDF by invoking the relationship
between the FI problem and DF problem established in section 12.2. We say that the
controllers KDF and K^ DF are equivalent for the DF problem if the two transfer matrices
from w to u in the above diagram are the same. Of course, the resulting two closed-loop
transfer matrices from w to z are identical.
Remark 12.7 By the equivalence between FI and DF
it is heasy to show
h problems,
i
i


^
^
that if KDF = KDF in the DF structure, then KDF C2 I = KDF C2 I in
the corresponding FI structure. We also have that if KFI 
= K^ FI , then Fl (PDF ; KFI ) 
=
^
Fl (PDF ; KFI ).
~
Now we construct the parameterization of equivalent classes of stabilizing controllers
in DF structure via the tool we have developed in section 12.2.
h
i
Let KDF (s) be a stabilizing control for DF ; then KFI (s) = KDF (s) C2 I
h
i
stabilizes the corresponding GFI . Assume KFI 
= K^ FI = F Q for some Q 2
RH1 ; then K^ FI stabilizes GFI and F` (JDF ; Q) = F` (PDF ; K^ FI ) where
2

A + B2 F ; B1 C2 B1 B2
JDF = 64
F
0 I
I 0
;C2

3
7
5

with F such that A + B2 F is stable. Hence by Theorem 12.4, K^ DF := F` (JDF ; Q)

stabilizes GDF for any Q 2 RH1 . Since KFI 
= K^ FI , by Remarks 12.7 we have

^
KDF = KDF = F`(JDF ; Q). This equation characterizes an equivalent class of all
controllers for the DF problem by the equivalence of FI and DF .
In fact, we have the following lemma which shows that the above construction of
parameterization characterizes all stabilizing controllers for the DF problem.

12.3. Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers

307

Lemma 12.11 All stabilizing controllers for the DF problem can be characterized by
KDF = F` (JDF ; Q) with Q 2 RH1 , where JDF is given as above.
Proof. We have already shown that the controller KDF = F`(JDF ; Q) for any given
Q 2 RH1 does internally stabilize GDF . Now let KDF be any stabilizing controller for
GDF ; then F` (J^DF ; KDF ) 2 RH1 where
2

A B1 B2
6
^
JDF = 4 ;F 0 I 75 :
C2 I 0
(J^DF is stabilized by KDF since it has the same `G22 ' matrix as GDF .)
Let Q0 := F` (J^DF ; KDF ) 2 RH1 ; then F`(JDF ; Q0 ) = F`(JDF ; F`(J^DF ; KDF )) =:
F` (Jtmp ; KDF ), where Jtmp can be obtained by using the state space star product
formula given in Chapter 10:
3

A ; B1 C2 + B2 F ;B2F B1 B2
7
6
6
;B1 C2
A B1 B2 77
Jtmp = 66
F
;F 0 I 75
4
I 0
;C2
C2
3
2
A ; B1 C2 ;B2F B1 B2
7
6
6
0
A + B2 F 0 0 77
= 66
0
;F
0 I 75
4
I 0
0
C2
"
#
0 I
=
:
I 0
Hence F` (JDF ; Q0 ) = F`(Jtmp ; KDF ) = KDF . This shows that any stabilizing
controller can be expressed in the form of F` (JDF ; Q0 ) for some Q0 2 RH1 .
2
Now we turn to the dual OE case. The corresponding system diagram is shown as
below:

z

yOE

GOE

- KOE

w

u

We will assume that A ; B2 C1 is stable. Again this assumption is made only for
the simplicity of the solution, it is not necessary for the stabilization problem to be

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

308

solvable. The parameterization of an equivalent class of stabilizing controllers for OE

can be obtained by invoking Theorem 12.6 and the equivalent classes of controllers for
FC . Here we say controllers KOE and K^ OE are equivalent if the transfer matrices from
yOE to z are the same. This also guarantees that the resulting closed-loop transfer
matrices are identical.
Now we construct the parameterization for the OE structure as a dual
" case
# to DF .
B
2
Assume that KOE is an admissible controller for OE ; then KFC =
KOE 
=
"

L =: K^ for some Q 2 RH , and K^ stabilizes G and F (J ; Q) =

FC
1
FC
FC
` OE
Q
F` (POE ; K^ FC ), where
2

A ; B2 C1 + LC2 L ;B2
6
JOE = 4
C1
0 I
C2
I 0

3
7
5

with L such that A + LC2 is stable. Hence by Theorem 12.6, K^ OE = F`(JOE ; Q)

stabilizes GOE for any Q 2 RH1 . Since KOE 
= K^ OE , KOE 
= F` (JOE ; Q). In fact, we
have the following lemma.

Lemma 12.12 All admissible controllers for the OE problem can be characterized as
F` (JOE ; Q0 ) with any Q0 2 RH1 , where JOE is dened as above.
Proof. The controllers in the form as stated in the theorem are admissible since the
corresponding FC controllers internally stabilize resulting GFC .
Now assume KOE is any stabilizing controller for GOE ; then F`(J^OE ; KOE ) 2 RH1
where
2
3
A ;L B2
J^OE = 64 C1
C2

7
5

Let Q0 := F` (J^OE ; KOE ) 2 RH1 . Then F`(JOE ; Q0 ) = F` (JOE ; F` (J^OE ; KOE )) =

KOE , by using again the state space star product formula given in Chapter 10. This
shows that any stabilizing controller can be expressed in the form of F` (JOE ; Q0 ) for
some Q0 2 RH1 .
2

12.3.4 Output Feedback and Separation

We are now ready to give a complete proof for Theorem 12.8. We will assume the
results of the special problems and show how to construct all admissible controllers for
the OF problem from them. And we can also observe the separation argument as the

12.3. Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers

309

byproduct; this essentially involves reducing the OF problem to the combination of

the simpler FI and FC problems. Moreover, we can see from the construction why
the stability conditions of A ; B1 C2 and A ; B2 C1 in DF and OE problems were
reasonably assumed and are automatically guaranteed in this case. Again we assume
that the system has the following standard system block diagram:

z

w
G 
y
u
- K

with

A B1 B2
G(s) = 64 C1 D11 D12 75
C2 D21 D22
and that (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable.

Proof of Theorem 12.8. Without loss of generality, we shall assume D22 = 0. For
more general cases, i.e. D22 6= 0, the mapping
K^ (s) = K (s)(I ; D22 K (s));1
is well dened if the closed-loop system is assumed to be well posed. Then the system
in terms of K^ has the structure
z
y
where

w

G^ 

- K^

A B1 B2
6
^
G(s) = 4 C1 D11 D12 75 :
C2 D21 0

Now we construct the controllers for the OF problem with D22 = 0. Denote x the
state of system G; then the open-loop system can be written as
2
6
4

x_
A B1 B2
7 6
z 5 = 4 C1 D11 D12
y
C2 D21 0

32
76
54

x
w 75 :
u

310

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

Since (A; Bh2 ) is stabilizable,

there is a constant matrix F such that A + B2 F is stable.
i
Note that F 0 is actually a special FI stabilizing controller. Now let

v = u ; Fx:
Then the system can be broken into two subsystems:
"

"

x_ = A + B2 F B1 B2
z
C1 + D12 F D11 D12

and

2
6
4

A B1 B2
x_
7 6
v 5 = 4 ;F 0 I
C2 D21 0
y

32
76
54

2
6
4

x
w
v

3
7
5

x
w 75 :
u

This can be shown pictorially below:


G1  v

z
y


Gtmp 

w
u

- K
with
and

"

G1 = A + B2 F B1 B2 2 RH1
C1 + D12 F D11 D12
2

A B1 B2
6
Gtmp = 4 ;F 0 I 75 :
C2 D21 0
Obviously, K stabilizes G if and only if K stabilizes Gtmp ; however, Gtmp is of OE
structure. Now let L be such that A + LC2 is stable. Then by Lemma 12.12 all
controllers stabilizing Gtmp are given by
K = F`(J; Q)

12.3. Parameterization of All Stabilizing Controllers

311

where
2

A + B2 F + LC2 L ;B2
J = 64
;F
0 I
C2
I 0

A + B2 F + LC2 ;L B2
7 6
=
F
0 I 75 :
5 4
;C2
I 0

This concludes the proof.

Remark 12.8 We can also get the same result by applying the dual procedure to the

above construction, i.e., rst use an output injection to reduce the OF problem to a DF
problem. The separation argument is obvious since the synthesis of the OF problem
can be reduced to FI and FC problems, i.e. the latter two problems can be designed
independently.
~

Remark 12.9 Theorem 12.8 shows that any stabilizing controller K (s) can be characterized as an LFT of a parameter matrix Q 2 RH1 , i.e., K (s) = F` (J; Q). Moreover,
using the same argument as in the proof of Lemma 12.11, a realization of Q(s) in terms
of K can be obtained as
Q := F` (J;^ K )
where
3
2

A ;L B2
0 I
C2 I D22

J^ = 64 ;F

7
5

and where K (s) has the stabilizable and detectable realization.

Now we can reconsider the characterizations of all stabilizing controllers for the
special problems with some reasonable assumptions, i.e. the stability conditions of
A ; B1 C2 and A ; B2 C1 for DF and OE problems which were assumed in the last
section can be dropped.
If we specify
"
#
"
#
"
#
I
0
0
C2 =
D21 =
D22 =
;
0
I
0
the OF problem, in its general setting, becomes the FI problem. We know that the
solvability conditions for the FI problem are reduced, because of its special structure,
to (A; B2 ) as stabilizable. By assuming this, we can get the following result from the
OF problem.

Corollary 12.13 Let L1 and F be such that A + L1 and A + B2 F are stable; then all
controllers that stabilize GFI can be characterized as F`(JFI ; Q) with any Q 2 RH1 ,

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

312
where

A + B2 F + L1 L ;B2
6
6
;F #
0 I
"
JFI = 66
I
4
I 0

3
7
7
7
7
5

0
and where L = (L1 L2) is the injection matrix for any L2 with compatible dimensions.
In the same way, we can consider the FC problem as the special OF problem by
specifying
h
i
h
i
h
i
B2 = I 0 D12 = 0 I D22 = 0 0 :
The DF (OE ) problem can also be considered as the special case of OF by simply
setting D21 = I (D12 = I ) and D22 = 0.

Corollary 12.14 Consider the DF problem, and assume that (C2; A; B2 ) is stabilizable
and detectable. Let F and L be such that A + LC2 and A + B2 F are stable, and then
all controllers that internally stabilize G can be parameterized as Fl (JDF ; Q) for some
Q 2 RH1 , i.e. the transfer function from y to u is shown as below
u

JDF

- Q

y


A + B2 F + LC2 ;L B2
6
JDF = 4
F
0 I 75 :
;C2
I 0

Remark 12.10 It would be interesting to compare this result with Lemma 12.11. It
can be seen that Lemma 12.11 is a special case of this corollary. The condition that
A ; B1 C2 is stable, which is required in Lemma 12.11, provides the natural injection
matrix L = ;B1 which satises a partial condition in this corollary.
~

12.4 Structure of Controller Parameterization

Let us recap what we have done. We begin with a stabilizable and detectable realization
of G22
#
"
B
A
2
:
G22 =

C2 D22
We choose F and L so that A + B2 F and A + LC2 are stable. Dene J by the formula
in Theorem 12.8. Then the proper K 's achieving internal stability are precisely those
representable in Figure 12.3 and K = F` (J; Q) where Q 2 RH1 and I + D22 Q(1) is
invertible.

12.4. Structure of Controller Parameterization

z
y

313


G 

D22 

?
 c?

;

C2 

-A

 c c B2 
66
-F

- ;L
u1


6
c

y1

- Q
Figure 12.3: Structure of Stabilizing Controllers

It is interesting to note that the system in the dashed box is an observer-based

stabilizing controller for G (or G22 ). Furthermore, it is easy to show that the transfer
function between (y; y1 ) and (u; u1) is J , i.e.,
"

"

u =J y :
u1
y1
It is also easy to show that the transfer matrix from y1 to u1 is zero.

This diagram of all stabilizing controller parameterization also suggests an interesting interpretation: every internal stabilization amounts to adding stable dynamics to
the plant and then stabilizing the extended plant by means of an observer. The precise
statement is as follows: for simplicity of the formulas, only the cases of strictly proper
G22 and K are treated.
Theorem 12.15 Assume that G22 and K are strictly proper and the system is Figure 12.1 is internally stable. Then G22 can be embedded in a system
"

where

"

Ae Be
Ce 0
"

h
Ae = A 0 ; Be = B2 ; Ce = C2 0
0 Aa
0

(12:5)

314

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

and where Aa is stable, such that K has the form

"

K = Ae + Be Fe + Le Ce ;Le
Fe
0
where Ae + Be Fe and Ae + Le Ce are stable.

(12:6)

Proof. K is representable as in Figure 12.3 for some Q in RH1 . For K to be strictly

proper, Q must be strictly proper. Take a minimal realization of Q:
"

Q = Aa Ba :
Ca 0
Since Q 2 RH1 , Aa is stable. Let x and xa denote state vectors for J and Q, respectively, and write the equations for the system in Figure 12.3:

x_
u
u1
x_ a
y1

(A + B2 F + LC2 )x ; Ly + B2 y1
Fx + y1
;C2 x + y
Aa xa + Ba u1

=
=
=
=
=

Ca xa

These equations yield

x_ e = (Ae + Be Fe + Le Ce )xe ; Le y
u = Fe xe
where

"

"

h
i
xe := x ; Fe := F Ca ; Le := L
xa
; Ba
and where Ae ; Be ; Ce are as in (12.5).

12.5 Closed-Loop Transfer Matrix

Recall that the closed-loop transfer matrix from w to z is a linear fractional transformation F`(G; K ) and that K stabilizes G if and only if K stabilizes G22 . Elimination
of the signals u and y in Figure 12.3 leads to Figure 12.4 for a suitable transfer matrix
T . Thus all closed-loop transfer matrices are representable as in Figure 12.4.

z = F` (G; K )w = F`(G; F` (J; Q))w = F`(T; Q)w:

It remains to give a realization of T .

(12:7)

12.6. Youla Parameterization via Coprime Factorization*

z




315

- Q
Figure 12.4: Closed loop system

Theorem 12.16 Let F and L be such that A + BF and A + LC are stable. Then the
set of all closed-loop transfer matrices from w to z achievable by an internally stabilizing
proper controller is equal to
F` (T; Q) = fT11 + T12 QT21 : Q 2 RH1 ; I + D22 Q(1) invertibleg
where T is given by
2

"

T = T11
T21

;B2 F

B1
B2
# 6
7
6
0
A + LC2 B1 + LD21 0 77 :
T12 = 6
6
T22
;D12F
D11
D12 75
4 C1 + D12 F
0
C2
D21
0
A + B2 F

Proof. This is straightforward by using the state space star product formula and
follows from some tedious algebra. Hence it is left for the readers to verify.

An important point to note is that the closed-loop transfer matrix is simply an ane
function of the controller parameter matrix Q since T22 = 0.

12.6 Youla Parameterization via Coprime Factorization*

In this section, all stabilizing controller parameterization will be derived using the conventional coprime factorization approach. Readers should be familiar with the results
presented in Section 5.4 of Chapter 5 before proceeding further.
Theorem 12.17 Let G22 = NM ;1 = M~ ;1N~ be the rcf and lcf of G22 over RH1 ,
respectively. Then the set of all proper controllers achieving internal stability is parameterized either by
K = (U0 + MQr )(V0 + NQr );1 ; det(I + V0;1 NQr )(1) 6= 0
(12:8)
for Qr 2 RH1 or by
K = (V~0 + Ql N~ );1 (U~0 + Ql M~ ); det(I + Ql N~ V~0;1 )(1) 6= 0
(12:9)

316

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

for Ql 2 RH1 where U0 ; V0 ; U~0 ; V~0 2 RH1 satisfy the Bezout identities:
~ 0 ; NU
~ 0 = I:
V~0 M ; U~0 N = I; MV
Moreover, if U0 ; V0 ; U~0 , and V~0 are chosen such that U0V0;1 = V~0;1 U~0 , i.e.,
"
#"
# "
#
V~0 ;U~0
M U0 = I 0 :
;N~ M~
N V0
0 I
Then
K = (U0 + MQy )(V0 + NQy );1
= (V~0 + Qy N~ );1 (U~0 + Qy M~ )
= F` (Jy ; Qy )
where
"
#
;1
~0;1
U
V
0 V0
Jy :=
;1
;1

V0

;V0 N

(12.10)
(12:11)

and where Qy ranges over RH1 such that (I + V0;1 NQy )(1) is invertible

Proof. We shall prove the parameterization given in (12.8) rst. Assume that K has

the form indicated, and dene

U := U0 + MQr ; V := V0 + NQr :
Then
~ ; NU
~ = M~ (V0 + NQr ) ; N~ (U0 + MQr ) = MV
~ 0 ; NU
~ 0 + (MN
~ ; NM
~ )Qr = I:
MV
Thus K achieves internal stability by Lemma 5.10.
Conversely, suppose K is proper and achieves internal stability. Introduce an rcf of
~ ; NU
~ is invertible in
K over RH1 as K = UV ;1 . Then by Lemma 5.10, Z := MV
RH1 . Dene Qr by the equation
U0 + MQr = UZ ;1;
(12:12)
so
Qr = M ;1 (UZ ;1 ; U0 ):
Then using the Bezout identity, we have
V0 + NQr = V0 + NM ;1(UZ ;1 ; U0 )
= V0 + M~ ;1 N~ (UZ ;1 ; U0 )
~ 0 ; NU
~ 0 + NUZ
~ ;1 )
= M~ ;1(MV
~ ;1 )
= M~ ;1(I + NUZ
;
1
~ )Z ;1
= M~ (Z + NU
~ Z ;1
= M~ ;1MV
= V Z ;1:
(12.13)

12.6. Youla Parameterization via Coprime Factorization*

317

Thus,

K = UV ;1
= (U0 + MQr )(V0 + NQr );1 :
To see that Qr belongs to RH1 , observe rst from (12.12) and then from (12.13) that
both MQr and NQr belong to RH1 . Then
Qr = (V~0 M ; U~0 N )Qr = V~0 (MQr ) ; U~0 (NQr ) 2 RH1 :
Finally, since V and Z evaluated at s = 1 are both invertible, so is V0 + NQr from
(12.13), hence so is I + V0;1 NQr .
Similarly, the parameterization given in (12.9) can be obtained.
To show that the controller can be written in the form of equation (12.10), note that
(U0 + MQy )(V0 + NQy );1 = U0 V0;1 + (M ; U0 V0;1 N )Qy (I + V0;1 NQy );1 V0;1
and that U0 V0;1 = V~0;1 U~0 . We have

(M ; U0 V0;1 N ) = (M ; V~0;1 U~0N ) = V~0;1 (V~0 M ; U~0 N ) = V~0;1

and

K = U0 V0;1 + V~0;1 Qy (I + V0;1 NQy );1 V0;1 :

(12:14)

Corollary 12.18 Given an admissible controller K with coprime factorizations K =

UV ;1 = V~ ;1 U~ , the free parameter Qy 2 RH1 in Youla parameterization is given by
Qy = M ;1 (UZ ;1 ; U0 )
where

~ ; NU:
~
Z := MV

Next, we shall establish the precise relationship between the above all stabilizing
controller parameterization and the parameterization obtained in the previous sections
via LFT framework.

Theorem 12.19 Let the doubly coprime factorizations of G22 be chosen as

3
2
"
#
A + B2 F B2 ;L
M U
0

N V0

= 64

F
I
C2 + D22 F D22

7
5

318

PARAMETERIZATION OF STABILIZING CONTROLLERS

2

A + LC2 ;(B2 + LD22) L

6
=4 F
I
0 75
C2
;D22
I
where F and L are chosen such that A + B2 F and A + LC2 are both stable.
Then Jy can be computed as
"

V~0 ;U~0
;N~ M~

A + B2 F + LC2 + LD22F ;L B2 + LD22

6
7
Jy = 4
F
0
I
5:
;(C2 + D22 F )
I
;D22

Proof. This follows from some tedious algebra.

Remark 12.11
Note that Jy is exactly the same as the J in Theorem 12.8 and that
;1
K0 := U0V0 is an observer-based stabilizing controller with
"

K0 := A + B2 F + LC2 + LD22 F ;L :
F
0

12.7 Notes and References

The special problems FI, DF, FC, and OE were rst introduced in Doyle, Glover, Khargonekar, and Francis [1989] for solving the H1 problem, and they have been since used
in many other papers for dierent problems. The new derivation of all stabilizing controllers was reported in Lu, Zhou, and Doyle [1991]. The paper by Moore et al [1990]
contains some other related interesting results. The conventional Youla parameterization can be found in Youla et al [1976], Desoer et al [1980], Doyle [1984], Vidyasagar
[1985], and Francis [1987]. The parameterization of all two-degree-of-freedom stabilizing
controllers is given in Youla and Bongiorno [1985] and Vidyasagar [1985].

13

Algebraic Riccati Equations

We have studied the Lyapunov equation in Chapter 3 and have seen the roles it played
in some applications. A more general equation than the Lyapunov equation in control
theory is the so-called Algebraic Riccati Equation or ARE for short. Roughly speaking,
Lyapunov equations are most useful in system analysis while AREs are most useful in
control system synthesis; particularly, they play the central roles in H2 and H1 optimal
control.
Let A, Q, and R be real n  n matrices with Q and R symmetric. Then an algebraic
Riccati equation is the following matrix equation:
A X + XA + XRX + Q = 0:
(13:1)
Associated with this Riccati equation is a 2n  2n matrix:
"

H := A R  :
;Q ;A

(13:2)

A matrix of this form is called a Hamiltonian matrix. The matrix H in (13.2) will
be used to obtain the solutions to the equation (13.1). It is useful to note that (H )
(the spectrum of H) is symmetric about the imaginary axis. To see that, introduce the
2n  2n matrix:
"
#
0 ;I
J :=
I 0
having the property J 2 = ;I . Then
J ;1 HJ = ;JHJ = ;H 
319

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

320

so H and ;H  are similar. Thus  is an eigenvalue i ; is.

This chapter is devoted to the study of this algebraic Riccati equation and related
problems: the properties of its solutions, the methods to obtain the solutions, and some
applications.
In Section 13.1, we will study all solutions to (13.1). The word \all" means that any
X , which is not necessarily real, not necessarily hermitian, not necessarily nonnegative,
and not necessarily stabilizing, satises equation (13.1). The conditions for a solution
to be hermitian, real, and so on, are also given in this section. The most important part
of this chapter is Section 13.2 which focuses on the stabilizing solutions. This section is
designed to be essentially self-contained so that readers who are only interested in the
stabilizing solution may go to Section 13.2 directly without any diculty. Section 13.3
presents the extreme (i.e., maximal or minimal) solutions of a Riccati equation and
their properties. The relationship between the stabilizing solution of a Riccati equation and the spectral factorization of some frequency domain function is established in
Section 13.4. Positive real functions and inner functions are introduced in Section 13.5
and 13.6. Some other special rational matrix factorizations, e.g., inner-outer factorizations and normalized coprime factorization, are given in Sections 13.7-13.8.

13.1 All Solutions of A Riccati Equation

The following theorem gives a way of constructing solutions to (13.1) in terms of invariant subspaces of H .

Theorem 13.1 Let V  C 2n be an n-dimensional invariant subspace of H , and let

X1 ; X2 2 C nn be two complex matrices such that
"

V = Im X1 :
X2
If X1 is invertible, then X := X2 X1;1 is a solution to the Riccati equation (13.1) and
(A + RX ) = (H jV ). Furthermore, the solution X is independent of a specic choice
of bases of V .

Proof. Since V is an H invariant subspace, there is a matrix  2 C nn such that

"

A R
;Q ;A

#"

Postmultiply the above equation by X1;1 to get

"

A R
;Q ;A

#"

"

X1 = X1 :
X2
X2
#

"

I = I X X ;1:
X
X 1 1

(13:3)

13.1. All Solutions of A Riccati Equation

h

Now pre-multiply (13.3) by ;X I

321

to get
"

#"

A R
I
0 = ;X I
;Q ;A
X
= ;XA ; A X ; XRX ; Q;
h

which shows that X is indeed a solution of (13.1). Equation (13.3) also gives

A + RX = X1 X1;1;
therefore, (A + RX ) = (). But, by denition,  is a matrix representation of the
map H jV , so (A + RX ) = (H jV ). Finally note that any other basis spanning V can
be represented as
"
#
"
#

X1 P = X1 P
X2
X2 P

for some nonsingular matrix P . The conclusion follows from the fact (X2 P )(X1 P );1 =
X2 X1;1.
2
As we would expect, the converse of the theorem also holds.

Theorem 13.2 If X 2 C nn is a solution to the Riccati equation (13.1),;then

there
nn , with X1 invertible, such that X = X2 X 1 and the
exist matrices
X
;
X
2
C
1
2
1
"
#
columns of

X1
X2

form a basis of an n-dimensional invariant subspace of H .

Proof. Dene  := A + RX . Multiplying this by X gives

X  = XA + XRX = ;Q ; A X
with the second equality coming from the fact that X is a solution to (13.1). Write
these two relations as
"

"

A R
;Q ;A

I
X

#"

"

I = I :
X
X

Hence, the columns of

span an n-dimensional invariant subspace of H , and
dening X1 := I , and X2 := X completes the proof.
2

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

322

Remark 13.1 It is now clear that to obtain solutions to the Riccati equation, it is

necessary to be able to construct bases for those invariant subspaces of H . One way of
constructing those invariant subspaces is to use eigenvectors and generalized eigenvectors
of H . Suppose i is an eigenvalue of H with multiplicity k (then i+j = i for all
j = 1; : : : ; k ; 1), and let vi be a corresponding eigenvector and vi+1 ; : : : ; vi+k;1 be the
corresponding generalized eigenvectors associated with vi and i . Then vj are related
by
(H ; i I )vi
= 0
(H ; i I )vi+1
= vi
..
.
(H ; i I )vi+k;1 = vi+k;2 ;
and the spanfvj ; j = i; : : : ; i + k ; 1g is an invariant subspace of H .
~

Example 13.1 Let

"

"

"

A = ;3 2 R = 0 0 ; Q = 0 0 :
;2 1
0 ;1
0 0
The eigenvalues of H are 1; 1; ;1; ;1, and the corresponding eigenvector and generalized
eigenvector of 1 are

1
;1 7
6
7
6
6 2 7
6 ;3=2 7
7 ; v2 = 6
7:
v1 = 66
7
6
1 75
4 2 5
4
;2
0
The corresponding eigenvector and generalized eigenvector of ;1 are
2

v3 =

6
6
6
6
4

1
7
6
6
1 77
; v4 = 66
7
05
4
0

1
7
3=2 77
:
0 75
0

All solutions of the Riccati equation under various combinations are given below:
"

"

 spanfv1 ; v2 g is H -invariant: let X1 = [v1 v2 ], then X = X2 X1;1 =

X2
is a solution and (A + RX ) = f1; 1g;
"
#
"
X
1
;
1
 spanfv1 ; v3 g is H -invariant: let
= [v1 v3 ], then X = X2 X1 =
X2
is also a solution and (A + RX ) = f1; ;1g;

;10 6
6 ;4
;2 2
2 ;2

13.1. All Solutions of A Riccati Equation

"

323

 spanfv3 ; v4 g is H -invariant: let X1 = [v3 v4 ], then X = 0 is a solution and

X2
(A + RX ) = f;1; ;1g;
 spanfv1 ; v4 g; spanfv2 ; v3 g, and spanfv2 ; v4 g are not H -invariant subspaces. Read-

ers can verify that the matrices constructed from those vectors are not solutions
to the Riccati equation (13.1).

3
Up to this point, we have said nothing about the structure of the solutions given by
Theorem 13.1 and 13.2. The following theorem gives a sucient condition for a Riccati
solution to be hermitian (not necessarily real symmetric).

Theorem 13.3 Let V be an n-dimensional H -invariant subspace and let X1; X2 2

C nn

be such that

"

V = Im X1 :
X2
Then i + j 6= 0 for all i; j = 1; : : : ; n, i ; j 2 (H jV ) implies that X1 X2 is hermitian, i.e., X1X2 = (X1X2 ) . Furthermore, if X1 is nonsingular, then X = X2 X1;1 is
hermitian.

Proof. Since V is an invariant subspace of H , there is a matrix representation  for

H jV such that () = (H jV ) and
"

"

H X1 = X1 :
X2
X2
"

X1
Pre-multiply this equation by
X2
"

X1
X2

#

#

"

J to get
#

"

JH X1 = X1
X2
X2

#

"

J X1 :
X2

(13:4)

Note that JH is hermitian (actually symmetric since H is real); therefore, the left-hand
side of (13.4) is hermitian as well as the right-hand side:
"

i.e.,

X1
X2

#

"

"

J X1  =  X1
X2
X2

#

J

"

"

X1 = ; X1
X2
X2

(;X1X2 + X2 X1 ) = ; (;X1X2 + X2X1 ):

#

"

J X1
X2

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

324

This is a Lyapunov equation. Since i + j 6= 0, the equation has a unique solution:

;X1X2 + X2 X1 = 0:

This implies that X1 X2 is hermitian.

That X is hermitian is easy to see by noting that X = (X1;1 ) (X1 X2 )X1;1 .

Remark 13.2 It is clear from Example 13.1 that the condition i + j 6= 0 is not
necessary for the existence of a hermitian solution.
~
The following theorem gives necessary and sucient conditions for a solution to be
real.

Theorem 13.4 Let V be an n-dimensional H -invariant subspace,

"
# and let X1 ; X2 2
X1 form a basis of V .
C nn be such that X1 is nonsingular and the columns of
X2
;
1
Then X := X2 X1 is real if and only if V is conjugate symmetric, i.e., v 2 V implies
that v 2 V .
Proof. (() Since V is conjugate symmetric, there is a nonsingular matrix P 2 C nn
such that

"

"

X1 = X1 P
X2
X2

where the over bar X denotes the complex conjugate. Therefore, X = X2 X1;1 =
X2 P (X1 P );1 = X2 X1;1 = X is real as desired.
()) Dene X := X2 X1;1. By assumption, X 2 Rnn and
"

I = V;
Im
X
therefore, V is conjugate symmetric.

Example 13.2 This example is intended to show that there are non-real, non-hermitian
solutions to equation (13.1). It is also designed to show that the condition i + j 6=
0; 8 i; j , which excludes the possibility of having imaginary axis eigenvalues since if
l = j! then l + l = 0, is not necessary for the existence of a hermitian solution. Let
2

A = 64

1 0 0
;1 0 ;2
0 0 0
7
6
7
6
0 0 ;1 5 ; R = 4 0 0 0 5 ; Q = 4 0 0 0 75 :
0 1 0
;2 0 ;4
0 0 0

13.2. Stabilizing Solution and Riccati Operator

325

Then H has eigenvalues 1 = 1 = ;2 ; 3 = 5 = j = ;4 = ;6 . It is easy to show

that
2
3
0 0:5 + 0:5j 0:5 ; 0:5j
7
X = 64 0
0
0
5
0
0
0
satises equation (13.1) and that X is neither real nor hermitian. On the other hand,
2

X = 64

2 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

3
7
5

is a real symmetric nonnegative denite solution corresponding to the eigenvalues ;1,

j , ;j .
3

13.2 Stabilizing Solution and Riccati Operator

In this section, we discuss when a solution is stabilizing, i.e., (A + RX )  C ; and

the properties of such solutions. This section is the central part of this chapter and is
designed to be self-contained. Hence some of the material appearing in this section may
be similar to that seen in the previous section.
Assume H has no eigenvalues on the imaginary axis. Then it must have n eigenvalues
in Re s < 0 and n in Re s > 0. Consider the two n-dimensional spectral subspaces,
X; (H ) and X+ (H ): the former is the invariant subspace corresponding to eigenvalues
in Re s < 0 and the latter corresponds to eigenvalues in Re s > 0. By nding a basis
for X; (H ), stacking the basis vectors up to form a matrix, and partitioning the matrix,
we get
"
#

X; (H ) = Im X1
X2

where X1 ; X2 2 C nn . (X1 and X2 can be chosen to be real matrices.) If X1 is

nonsingular or, equivalently, if the two subspaces

X; (H ); Im

"

(13:5)

are complementary, we can set X := X2 X1;1. Then X is uniquely determined by H ,

i.e., H 7;! X is a function, which will be denoted Ric. We will take the domain of Ric,
denoted dom(Ric), to consist of Hamiltonian matrices H with two properties: H has no
eigenvalues on the imaginary axis and the two subspaces in (13.5) are complementary.
For ease of reference, these will be called the stability property and the complementarity

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

326

property, respectively. This solution will be called the stabilizing solution. Thus, X =
Ric(H ) and
Ric : dom(Ric)  R2n2n 7;! Rnn :
The following well-known results give some properties of X as well as veriable conditions under which H belongs to dom(Ric).

Theorem 13.5 Suppose H 2 dom(Ric) and X = Ric(H ). Then

(i) X is real symmetric;
(ii) X satises the algebraic Riccati equation

A X + XA + XRX + Q = 0;
(iii) A + RX is stable .

Proof. (i) Let X1; X2 be as above. It is claimed that

X1X2 is symmetric:
To prove this, note that there exists a stable matrix H; in Rnn such that
"

"

(13:6)

H X1 = X1 H; :
X2
X2
(H; is a matrix representation of H jX; (H ) .) Pre-multiply this equation by
"

to get

"

X1
X2

#

"

X1
X2
"

#

JH X1 = X1
X2
X2

#

"

J X1 H; :
X2

(13:7)

Since JH is symmetric, so is the left-hand side of (13.7) and so is the right-hand side:
(;X1X2 + X2X1 )H; = H; (;X1 X2 + X2 X1 )

= ;H; (;X1 X2 + X2 X1 ):

This is a Lyapunov equation. Since H; is stable, the unique solution is

;X1X2 + X2 X1 = 0:

This proves (13.6).

Since X1 is nonsingular and X = (X1;1 ) (X1 X2 )X1;1 , X is symmetric.

13.2. Stabilizing Solution and Riccati Operator

327

(ii) Start with the equation

"

"

H X1 = X1 H;
X2
X2
and post-multiply by X1;1 to get
"

"

H I = I X1 H; X1;1:
X
X
Now pre-multiply by [X ; I ]:

"

(13:8)

I = 0:
[X ; I ]H
X
This is precisely the Riccati equation.
(iii) Pre-multiply (13.8) by [I 0] to get

A + RX = X1 H; X1;1:

Thus A + RX is stable because H; is.

Now, we are going to state one of the main theorems of this section which gives the
necessary and sucient conditions for the existence of a unique stabilizing solution of
(13.1) under certain restrictions on the matrix R.

Theorem 13.6 Suppose H has no imaginary eigenvalues and R is either positive semidenite or negative semi-denite. Then H 2 dom(Ric) if and only if (A; R) is stabilizable.

Proof. (() To prove that H 2 dom(Ric), we must show that

X; (H ); Im

"

are complementary. This requires a preliminary step. As in the proof of Theorem 13.5
dene X1 ; X2 ; H; so that
"
#

X; (H ) = Im X1

"

"

X2
#

H X1 = X1 H; :
X2
X2

(13:9)

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

328

We want to show that X1 is nonsingular, i.e., Ker X1 = 0. First, it is claimed that Ker
X1 is H; -invariant. To prove this, let x 2 Ker X1 . Pre-multiply (13.9) by [I 0] to get
AX1 + RX2 = X1 H; :
(13:10)
Pre-multiply by x X2 , post-multiply by x, and use the fact that X2 X1 is symmetric
(see (13.6)) to get
x X2RX2 x = 0:
Since R is semidenite, this implies that RX2 x = 0. Now post-multiply (13.10) by x to
get X1 H; x = 0, i.e. H; x 2 Ker X1 . This proves the claim.
Now to prove that X1 is nonsingular, suppose, on the contrary, that Ker X1 6= 0.
Then H; jKer X1 has an eigenvalue, , and a corresponding eigenvector, x:
H; x = x
(13:11)
Re  < 0; 0 6= x 2 Ker X1 :
Pre-multiply (13.9) by [0 I ]:
; QX1 ; A X2 = X2 H; :
(13:12)
Post-multiply the above equation by x and use (13.11):
(A + I )X2 x = 0:
Recall that RX2 x = 0, we have
x X2 [A + I R] = 0:
Then stabilizability
"
# of (A; R) implies X2 x = 0. But if both X1 x = 0 and X2 x = 0, then

x = 0 since X1 has full column rank, which is a contradiction.

X2
()) This is obvious since H 2 dom(Ric) implies that X is a stabilizing solution and
that A + RX is asymptotically stable. It also implies that (A; R) must be stabilizable.
2

Theorem 13.7 Suppose H has the form

"

A ;BB  :
H=
;C  C ;A
Then H 2 dom(Ric) i (A; B ) is stabilizable and (C; A) has no unobservable modes on
the imaginary axis. Furthermore, X = Ric(H )  0 if H 2 dom(Ric), and Ker(X ) = 0
if and only if (C; A) has no stable unobservable modes.
Note that Ker(X )  Ker(C ), so that the equation XM = C  always has a solution
for M , and a minimum F -norm solution is given by X yC  .

13.2. Stabilizing Solution and Riccati Operator

329

Proof. It is clear from Theorem 13.6 that the stabilizability of (A; B) is necessary,
and it is also sucient if H has no eigenvalues on the imaginary axis. So we only need
to show that, assuming (A; B ) is stabilizable, H has no imaginary eigenvalues i (C; A)
has no unobservable
modes on the imaginary axis. Suppose that j! is an eigenvalue
"
#
x
and 0 6=
is a corresponding eigenvector. Then

Ax ; BB  z = j!x

;C  Cx ; A z = j!z:
Re-arrange:

(A ; j!I )x = BB  z
; (A ; j!I ) z = C  Cx:

Thus

(13:13)
(13:14)

hz; (A ; j!I )xi = hz; BB  z i = kB  z k2

;hx; (A ; j!I ) z i = hx; C  Cxi = kCxk2

so hx; (A ; j!I ) z i is real and

;kCxk2 = h(A ; j!I )x; z i = hz; (A ; j!I )xi = kB  z k2:

Therefore B  z = 0 and Cx = 0. So from (13.13) and (13.14)
(A ; j!I )x = 0
(A ; j!I ) z = 0:
Combine the last four equations to get

z  [A ; j!I B ] = 0
"

A ; j!I x = 0:
C

The stabilizability of (A; B ) gives z = 0. Now it is clear that j! is an eigenvalue of H

i j! is an unobservable mode of (C; A).
Next, set X := Ric(H ). We'll show that X  0. The Riccati equation is

A X + XA ; XBB  X + C  C = 0
or equivalently
(A ; BB  X ) X + X (A ; BB  X ) + XBB X + C  C = 0:

(13:15)

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

330

Noting that A ; BB  X is stable (Theorem 13.5), we have

X=

 

e(A;BB X ) t (XBB  X + C  C )e(A;BB X )t dt:

(13:16)

Since XBB  X + C  C is positive semi-denite, so is X .

Finally, we'll show that KerX is non-trivial if and only if (C; A) has stable unobservable modes. Let x 2 KerX , then Xx = 0. Pre-multiply (13.15) by x and post-multiply
by x to get
Cx = 0:
Now post-multiply (13.15) again by x to get

XAx = 0:
We conclude that Ker(X ) is an A-invariant subspace. Now if Ker(X ) 6= 0, then there
is a 0 6= x 2 Ker(X ) and a  such that x = Ax = (A ; BB  X )x and Cx = 0. Since
(A ; BB  X ) is stable, Re < 0; thus  is a stable unobservable mode. Conversely,
suppose (C; A) has an unobservable stable mode , i.e., there is an x such that Ax =
x; Cx = 0. By pre-multiplying the Riccati equation by x and post-multiplying by x,
we get
2Rex Xx ; x XBB  Xx = 0:
Hence x Xx = 0, i.e., X is singular.
2

Example 13.3 This example shows that the observability of (C; A) is not necessary
for the existence of a positive denite stabilizing solution. Let
"

"

h
i
A= 1 0 ; B= 1 ; C= 0 0 :
0 2
1

Then (A; B ) is stabilizable, but (C; A) is not detectable. However,

"

X = 18 ;24 > 0
;24 36

is the stabilizing solution.

Corollary 13.8 Suppose that (A; B) is stabilizable and (C; A) is detectable. Then the
Riccati equation

A X + XA ; XBB  X + C  C = 0

has a unique positive semidenite solution. Moreover, the solution is stabilizing.

13.2. Stabilizing Solution and Riccati Operator

331

Proof. It is obvious from the above theorem that the Riccati equation has a unique
stabilizing solution and that the solution is positive semidenite. Hence we only need
to show that any positive semidenite solution X  0 must also be stabilizing. Then
by the uniqueness of the stabilizing solution, we can conclude that there is only one
positive semidenite solution. To achieve that goal, let us assume that X  0 satises
the Riccati equation but that it is not stabilizing. First rewrite the Riccati equation as
(A ; BB  X ) X + X (A ; BB  X ) + XBB  X + C  C = 0

(13:17)

and let  and x be an unstable eigenvalue and the corresponding eigenvector of A ;

BB  X , respectively, i.e.,
(A ; BB  X )x = x:
Now pre-multiply and postmultiply equation (13.17) by x and x, respectively, and we
have
( + )x Xx + x (XBB  X + CC )x = 0:
This implies
B  Xx = 0; Cx = 0
since Re()  0 and X  0. Finally, we arrive at

Ax = x; Cx = 0
i.e., (C; A) is not detectable, which is a contradiction. Hence Re() < 0, i.e., X  0 is
the stabilizing solution.
2

Lemma 13.9 Suppose D has full column rank and let R = DD > 0; then the following
statements are equivalent:
"

(i)

A ; j!I B
C
D

has full column rank for all !.

(ii) (I ; DR;1 D )C; A ; BR;1 D C has no unobservable modes on j!-axis.

;

Proof. Suppose j! is an unobservable mode of (I ; DR;1D)C; A ; BR;1D C ;

then there is an x =
6 0 such that
(A ; BR;1 D C )x = j!x; (I ; DR;1 D )Cx = 0
i.e.,

"

A ; j!I B
C
D

#"

;R;1D C I

#"

x = 0:
0

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

332
But this implies that

"

A ; j!I B
C
D

(13:18)

does not have full column rank. Conversely,

suppose (13.18) does not have full column
"
#

u 6= 0 such that
v

rank for some !; then there exists

"

Now let

"

Then

"

and

A ; j!I B
C
D

#"

"

u = 0:
v

u =
I
0
v
;R;1D C I
#

"

x =
I
0
y
R;1D C I

#"

#"

x :
y
#

u 6= 0
v

(A ; BR;1 D C ; j!I )x + By = 0
(I ; DR;1D )Cx + Dy = 0:
Pre-multiply (13.20) by D to get y = 0. Then we have
(A ; BR;1 D C )x = j!x; (I ; DR;1 D )Cx = 0
;


i.e., j! is an unobservable mode of (I ; DR;1 D )C; A ; BR;1 D C .

(13:19)
(13:20)

Remark 13.3 If D is not square, then there is a D? such that D? DR;1=2 is

unitary and that D? D? = I ;DR;1 D . Hence, in some cases we will write the condition
(ii) in the above lemma as (D? C; A ; BR;1 D C ) having no imaginary unobservable
modes. Of course, if D is square, the condition is simplied to A ; BR;1 D C with no
imaginary eigenvalues. Note also that if D C = 0, condition (ii) becomes (C; A) with
no imaginary unobservable modes.
~
Corollary 13.10 Suppose D has full column rank and denote R = D D > 0. Let H
have the form

H =

"
"

"

h
A
0
B
;1 D C B 
;
R
;C  C ;A
;C  D
#
A ; BR;1 D C
;BR;1 B 
:
;C  (I ; DR;1 D )C ;(A ; BR;1 D C )

13.3. Extreme Solutions and Matrix Inequalities

"

333
#

A ; j!I B has full column rank

Then H 2 dom(Ric) i (A; B ) is stabilizable and
C
D
for all !. Furthermore, X = Ric(H )  0 if H 2 dom(Ric), and Ker(X ) = 0 if and
only if (D? C; A ; BR;1 D C ) has no stable unobservable modes.

Proof. This is the consequence of the Lemma 13.9 and Theorem 13.7.

Remark 13.4 It is easy to see that the detectability (observability) of (D? C; A ;

BR;1 D C ) implies the detectability (observability) of (C; A); however, the converse is

in general not true. Hence the existence of a stabilizing solution to the Riccati equation
in the above corollary is not guaranteed by the stabilizability of (A; B ) and detectability
of (C; A). Furthermore, even if a stabilizing solution exists, the positive deniteness of
the solution is not guaranteed by the observability of (C; A) unless D C = 0. As an
example, consider
"
#
"
#
"
#
"
#
0 1
0
1 0
1
A=
; B=
; C=
; D=
:
0 0
;1
0 0
0
Then (C; A) is observable, (A; B ) is controllable, and
"
#
h
i
0 1

A ; BD C =
; D? C = 0 0 :
1 0
A Riccati equation with the above data has a nonnegative denite stabilizing solution since (D? C; A ; BR;1 D C ) has no unobservable modes on the imaginary axis.
However, the solution is not positive denite since (D? C; A ; BR;1 D C ) has a stable
unobservable mode. On the other hand, if the B matrix is changed to
"
#
0
B=
;
1
then the corresponding Riccati equation has no stabilizing solution since, in this case,
(A ; BD C ) has eigenvalues on the imaginary axis although (A; B ) is controllable and
(C; A) is observable.
~

13.3 Extreme Solutions and Matrix Inequalities

We have shown in the previous sections that given a Riccati equation, there are generally
many possible solutions. Among all solutions, we are most interested in those which are
real, symmetric, and, in particular, the stabilizing solutions. There is another class of
solutions which are interesting; they are called extreme (maximal or minimal) solutions.
Some properties of the extreme solutions will be studied in this section. The connections
between the extreme solutions and the stabilizing solutions will also be established in
this section. To illustrate the idea, let us look at an example.

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

334

Example 13.4 Let

A = 64

1 0 0
1
h
i
7
6
0 2 0 5 ; B = 4 1 75 ; C = 0 0 0 :
0 0 ;3
1
"

A ;BB  are
The eigenvalues of matrix H =
;C  C ;A
1 = 1; 2 = ;1; 3 = 2; 4 = ;2; 5 = ;3; 6 = 3;
and their corresponding eigenvectors are
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
;
3
0
4
0
3
1
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
6 ;6 7
6 0 7
6 3 7
6 1 7
6 2 7
6 0 7
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
6 0 7
6 ;3 7
6 0 7
6 ;1 7
6 1 7
6 ;12 7
7
6
7
6
7
6
v1 = 66 77 ; v2 = 66
7:
7 ; v6 = 6
7 ; v5 = 6
7 ; v4 = 6
7 ; v3 = 6
6 0 7
6 0 7
6 0 7
6 0 7
7
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
6 6 7
6 0 7
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
6 0 7
6 0 7
4 0 5
4 0 5
4 12 5
4 0 5
5
4
5
4
6
0
0
0
0
0
There are four distinct nonnegative denite symmetric solutions depending on the chosen invariant subspaces:
2
3
"
#
0 0 0
 X1 = [v1 v3 v5 ]; Y1 = X2 X1;1 = 64 0 0 0 75;
X2
0 0 0




"

"

2 0 0
0 0 0 75;
0 0 0

0 0 0
0 4 0 75;
0 0 0

X1 = [v v v ]; Y = X X ;1 = 6
4
2 3 5 2
2 1
X2
#

X1 = [v v v ]; Y = X X ;1 = 6
4
1 4 5 3
2 1
X2
2

18 ;24 0
X
1
6
;
1

= [v2 v4 v5 ]; Y4 = X2 X1 = 4 ;24 36 0 75.
X2
0
0 0
These solutions can be ordered as Y4  Yi  Y1 ; i = 2; 3. Of course, this is only a partial
ordering since Y2 and Y3 are not comparable. Note also that only Y4 is a stabilizing
solution, i.e., A ; BB  Y4 is stable. Furthermore, Y4 and Y1 are the \maximal" and
\minimal" solutions, respectively.
3
"

13.3. Extreme Solutions and Matrix Inequalities

335

The partial ordering concept shown in Example 13.4 can be stated in a much more
general setting. To do that, again consider the Riccati equation (13.1). We shall call
a hermitian solution X+ of (13.1) a maximal solution if X+  X for all hermitian
solutions X of (13.1). Similarly, we shall call a hermitian solution X; of (13.1) a
minimal solution if X;  X for all hermitian solutions X of (13.1). Clearly, maximal
and minimal solutions are unique if they exist.
To study the properties of the maximal and minimal solutions, we shall introduce
the following quadratic matrix:

Q(X ) := A X + XA + XRX + Q:
(13:21)
Theorem 13.11 Assume R  0 and assume there is a hermitian matrix X = X  such
that Q(X )  0.
(i) If (A; R) is stabilizable, then there exists a unique maximal solution X+ to the
Riccati equation (13.1). Furthermore,

X+  X; 8 X such that Q(X )  0

and (A + RX+ )  C ; .
(ii) If (;A; R) is stabilizable, then there exists a unique minimal solution X; to the
Riccati equation (13.1). Furthermore,

X;  X; 8 X such that Q(X )  0

and (A + RX; )  C + .
(iii) If (A; R) is controllable, then both X+ and X; exist. Furthermore, X+ > X; i
(A + RX+ )  C ; i (A + RX;)  C + . In this case,

X+ ; X; =
=

Z
Z

;1

;1

e(A+RX+ )t Re(A+RX+ ) t dt

;1

e(A+RX; )t Re(A+RX; )t dt

(iv) If Q(X ) > 0, the results in (i) and (ii) can be respectively strengthened to X+ > X ,
(A + RX+ )  C ; , and X; < X , (A + RX; )  C + .

Proof. Let R = ;BB for some B. Note the fact that (A; R) is stabilizable (controllable) i (A; B ) is.
(i): Let X be such that Q(X )  0. Since (A; B ) is stabilizable, there is an F0 such
that

A0 := A + BF0

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

336

is stable. Now let X0 be the unique solution to the Lyapunov equation

X0 A0 + A0 X0 + F0 F0 + Q = 0:
Then X0 is hermitian. Dene

F^0 := F0 + B  X;

and we have the following equation:

(X0 ; X )A0 + A0 (X0 ; X ) = ;F^0 F^0 ; Q(X )  0:
The stability of A0 implies that

X0  X:

Starting with X0 , we shall dene a non-increasing sequence of hermitian matrices fXi g.

Associated with fXi g, we shall also dene a sequence of stable matrices fAi g and a
sequence of matrices fFi g. Assume inductively that we have already dened matrices
fXi g, fAi g, and fFi g for i up to n ; 1 such that Xi is hermitian and

X0  X1 


 Xn;1  X;

Next, introduce

Ai = A + BFi ; is stable; i = 0; : : : ; n ; 1;
Fi = ;B  Xi;1 ; i = 1; : : : ; n ; 1;
Xi Ai + Ai Xi = ;FiFi ; Q; i = 0; 1; : : : ; n ; 1:

(13:22)

Fn = ;B  Xn;1 ;
An = A + BFn :

First we show that An is stable. Then, using (13.22), with i = n, we dene a hermitian

matrix Xn with Xn;1  Xn  X . Now using (13.22), with i = n ; 1, we get

Xn;1 An + An Xn;1 + Q + Fn Fn + (Fn ; Fn;1 ) (Fn ; Fn;1 ) = 0:

Let

(13:23)

F^n := Fn + B  X ;

then
(Xn;1 ; X )An + An (Xn;1 ; X ) = ;Q(X ) ; F^nF^n ; (Fn ; Fn;1 ) (Fn ; Fn;1 ): (13:24)
Now assume that An is not stable, i.e., there exists an  with Re  0 and x 6= 0 such
that An x = x. Then pre-multiply (13.24) by x and postmultiply by x, and we have
2Rex (Xn;1 ; X )x = ;x fQ(X ) + F^n F^n + (Fn ; Fn;1 ) (Fn ; Fn;1 )gx:

13.3. Extreme Solutions and Matrix Inequalities

337

Since it is assumed Xn;1  X , each term on the right-hand side of the above equation
has to be zero. So we have

x (Fn ; Fn;1 ) (Fn ; Fn;1 )x = 0:

This implies

(Fn ; Fn;1 )x = 0:

But now

An;1 x = (A + BFn;1 )x = (A + BFn )x = An x = x;

which is a contradiction with the stability of An;1 . Hence An is stable as well.
Now we introduce Xn as the unique solution of the Lyapunov equation
Xn An + A Xn = ;FnFn ; Q:
(13:25)
Then Xn is hermitian. Next, we have
(Xn ; X )An + An (Xn ; X ) = ;Q(X ) ; F^n F^n  0;
and, by using (13.23),
(Xn;1 ; Xn )An + An (Xn;1 ; Xn ) = ;(Fn ; Fn;1 ) (Fn ; Fn;1 )  0:
Since An is stable, we have

Xn;1  Xn  X:
We have a non-increasing sequence fXi g, and the sequence is bounded below by Xi  X .
Hence the limit

Xf := nlim
!1 Xn
exists and is hermitian, and we have Xf  X . Passing the limit n ! 1 in (13.25), we
get Q(Xf ) = 0. So Xf is a solution of (13.1). Since X is an arbitrary element satisfying
Q(X )  0 and Xf is independent of the choice of X , we have
Xf  X; 8 X such that Q(X )  0:
In particular, Xf is the maximal solution of the Riccati equation (13.1), i.e., Xf = X+ .
To establish the stability property of the maximal solution, note that An is stable
for any n. Hence, in the limit, the eigenvalues of
A ; BB  Xf
will have non-positive real parts. The uniqueness follows from the fact that the maximal
solution is unique.
(ii): The results follow by the following substitutions in the proof of part (i):

;A; X

;X ; X+

;X; :

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

338

(iii): The existence of X+ and X; follows from (i) and (ii). Let A+ := A + RX+ ;
we now show that X+ ; X; > 0 i (A+ )  C ; . It is easy to verify that

A+ (X+ ; X; ) + (X+ ; X; )A+ ; (X+ ; X; )R(X+ ; X; ) = 0:

()): Suppose X+ ; X; > 0; then (A+ ; R(X+ ; X; )) is controllable. Therefore,
from Lyapunov theorem, we conclude that A+ is stable.
((): Assuming now that A+ is stable and that X is any other solution to the Riccati
equation (13.1),

A+ (X+ ; X ) + (X+ ; X )A+ ; (X+ ; X )R(X+ ; X ) = 0:

This equation has an invertible solution


X+ ; X = ;

e(A+RX+ )t Re(A+RX+ ) t dt

;1

> 0:

A simple rearrangement of terms gives

(A + RX ) (X+ ; X ) + (X+ ; X )(A + RX ) + (X+ ; X )R(X+ ; X ) = 0:
Since X+ ; X > 0, we conclude (A + RX )  C + . This in turn implies X = X; .
Therefore, X+ > X; . That X+ ; X; > 0 i (A + RX; )  C + follows by analogy.
(iv): We shall only show the case for X+ ; the case for X; follows by analogy. Note
that from (i) we have
(X+ ; X )A+ + A+ (X+ ; X ) = ;Q(X ) + (X+ ; X )R(X+ ; X ) < 0

(13:26)

and X+ ; X  0. Now suppose X+ ; X is singular and there is an x 6= 0 such that

(X+ ; X )x = 0. By pre-multiplying (13.26) by x and post-multiplying by x, we
get x Q(X )x = 0, a contradiction. The stability of A + RX+ then follows from the
Lyapunov theorem.
2

Remark 13.5 The proof given above also gives an iterative procedure to compute

the maximal and minimal solutions. For example, to nd the maximal solution, the
following procedures can be used:
(i) nd F0 such that A0 = A + BF0 is stable;
(ii) solve Xi : Xi Ai + Ai Xi + Fi Fi + Q = 0;
(iii) if kXi ; Xi;1 k   =specied accuracy, stop. Otherwise go to (iv);
(iv) let Fi+1 = ;B  Xi and Ai+1 = A + BFi+1 go to (ii).
This procedure will converge to the stabilizing solution if the solution exists.
~

13.3. Extreme Solutions and Matrix Inequalities

339

Corollary 13.12 Let R  0 and suppose (A; R) is controllable and X1, X2 are two
solutions to the Riccati equation (13.1). Then X1 > X2 implies that X+ = X1 , X; =
X2 , (A + RX1)  C ; and that (A + RX2 )  C + .
The following example illustrates that the stabilizability of (A; R) is not sucient
to guarantee the existence of a minimal hermitian solution of equation (13.1).

Example 13.5 Let

"

"

"

A = 0 0 ; R = ;1 0 ; Q = 1 0 :
0 ;1
0 0
0 0
Then it can be shown that all the hermitian solutions of (13.1) are given by
"

1 0
;
0 0

"

The maximal solution is clearly

;1


;  2 C:
 ; 12 jj2
"

X+ = 1 0 ;
0 0
however, there is no minimal solution.

The Riccati equation appeared in H1 control, which will be considered in the later
part of this book, often has R  0. However, these conditions are only a dual of the
above theorem.

Corollary 13.13 Assume that R  0 and that there is a hermitian matrix X = X 

such that Q(X )  0.
(i) If (A; R) is stabilizable, then there exists a unique minimal solution X; to the
Riccati equation (13.1). Furthermore,

X;  X; 8 X such that Q(X )  0

and (A + RX; )  C ; .
(ii) If (;A; R) is stabilizable, then there exists a unique maximal solution X+ to the
Riccati equation (13.1). Furthermore,

X+  X; 8 X such that Q(X )  0

and (A + RX+ )  C + .

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

340

(iii) If (A; R) is controllable, then both X+ and X; exist. Furthermore, X+ > X; i

(A + RX; )  C ; i (A + RX+)  C + . In this case,

X+ ; X; =
=

Z
Z

;1

e(A+RX; )t Re(A+RX; )t dt

;1

;1

e(A+RX+ )t Re(A+RX+ ) t dt

(iv) If Q(X ) < 0, the results in (i) and (ii) can be respectively strengthened to X+ > X ,
(A + RX+ )  C + , and X; < X , (A + RX; )  C ; .

Proof. The proof is similar to the proof for Theorem 13.11.

Theorem 13.11 can be used to derive some comparative results for some Riccati
equations. More specically, let

and

"

"

;1 
;BRs;1 B 
Hs := A ; BRs;1S 
;P + SRs S ;(A ; BRs;1 S  )

~ ~ ~ ;1 ~
;B~ R~s;1 B~ 
H~ s := A~; B~R~s;1S~
;P + S Rs S ;(A~ ; B~ R~s;1S~ )
where P; P~ ; Rs , and R~s are real symmetric and Rs > 0, R~s > 0. We shall also make use
of the following matrices:

"

"

~ ~
T := P S ; T~ := ~P ~S :
S Rs
S Rs
We denote by X+ and X~+ the maximal solution to the Riccati equation associated with
Hs and H~ s , respectively:
(A ; BRs;1 S  ) X + X (A ; BRs;1 S  ) ; XBRs;1B  X + (P ; SRs;1S  ) = 0 (13:27)
(A~ ; B~ R~s;1 S~ ) X~ + X~ (A~ ; B~ R~s;1 S~) ; X~ B~ R~s;1B~  X~ + (P~ ; S~R~s;1 S~) = 0: (13:28)
Recall that JHs and J H~ s are hermitian where J is dened as
"
#
0 ;I
J=
:
I 0
Let

"

;1 
;1  
K := JHs = P ; SRs;1S  (A ; BR;s1 S )
A ; BRs S
;BRs B
"
#
~ ; S~R~s;1 S~ (A~ ; B~ R~s;1S~ )
P
~
~
K := J Hs = ~ ~ ~ ;1 ~
:
A ; B Rs S
;B~ R~s;1 B~ 

13.3. Extreme Solutions and Matrix Inequalities

341

Theorem 13.14 Suppose (A; B) and (A;~ B~ ) are stabilizable.

(i) Assume that (13.28) has a hermitian solution and that K  K~ (K > K~ ); then
X+ and X~+ exist, and X+  X~+ (X+ > X~+ ).
(ii) Let A = A~, B = B~ , and T  T~ (T > T~). Assume that (13.28) has a hermitian
solution. Then X+ and X~+ exist, and X+  X~+ (X+ > X~+ ).
(iii) If T  0 (T > 0), then X+ exists, and X+  0 (X+ > 0).

Proof. (i): Let X be a hermitian solution of (13:28); then we have

"

Then, since K  K~ , we have

"

Qs (X ) := I
X

#

I
X
"

#

"

K~ I = 0:
X
#

"

K I = I
X
X

#

"

I  0:
(K ; K~ )
X
Now we use Theorem 13.11 to obtain the existence of X+ , and X+  X . Since X is
arbitrary, we get X+  X for all hermitian solutions X of (13.28). The existence of X~+

follows immediately by applying Theorem 13.11. Moreover,

X+  X~+ :
(ii): Let A = A~, B = B~ and let X be a hermitian solution of (13.28). Denote
L = ;Rs;1 (S  + B  X ) and L~ = ;R~s ;1 (S~ + B  X ). Then
"

Qs (X ) = I
X
while (13.28) becomes
It is easy to show that

#

"

K I = A X + XA ; LRs L + P
X

A X + XA ; L~  R~s L~ + P~ = 0:
"

I
X

#

"

I
Qs (X ) =
(K ; K~ )
X
= P" ; P~# ; L Rs L "+ L~ #R~s L~

I
I + (L ; L~ ) R~ (L ; L~ )  0:
=
(T ; T~)
s
L
L
Now as in part (i), there exist X+ and X~+ , and X+  X~+ .
(iii): The condition T  0 implies P ; SRs;1S   0, so we have Qs (0) = P ;
;
SRs 1 S   0. Apply Theorem 13.11 to get the existence of X+ , and X+  0.
2

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

342

13.4 Spectral Factorizations

Let A; B; P; S; R be real matrices of compatible dimensions such that P = P  , R = R ,

and dene a parahermitian rational matrix function
(s) = R + S  (sI ; A);1 B + B  (;sI ; A );1 S + B  (;sI ; A );1 P (sI ; A);1 B
"
#"
#
h
i
;1 B
P
S
(
sI
;
A
)
= B  (;sI ; A );1 I
:
(13.29)


Lemma 13.15 Suppose R is nonsingular and either one of the following assumptions
is satised:

(A1) A has no eigenvalues on j!-axis;

(A2) P is sign denite, i.e., P  0 or P  0, (A; B ) has no uncontrollable modes on
j!-axis, and (P; A) has no unobservable modes on the j!-axis.
Then the following statements are equivalent:
(i) (j!0 ) is singular for some 0  !0  1.
(ii) The Hamiltonian matrix
"

;1 
;BR;1B 
H = A ; BR ;1S 
;(P ; SR S ) ;(A ; BR;1 S )

has an eigenvalue at j!0.

Proof. (i) ) (ii): Let

"

A^
(s) = ^
C

#
A 0
B^ := 6 ;P ;A
4
D^
S B

Then H = A^ ; B^ D^ ;1 C^ and

2
6

;1 (s) = 64

H
R;1S  R;1 B 

"
i

B
;S
R

;BR;1
SR;1
R;1

3
7
5

# 3
7
7
5

If (j!0 ) is singular, then j!0 is a zero of (s). Hence j!0 is a pole of ;1 (s), and j!0
is an eigenvalue of H .

13.4. Spectral Factorizations

343

(ii) ) (i): Suppose j!0 is an eigenvalue ofhH but is not a polei of ;1 (s). Then
j!0 must be either an unobservable mode of ( R;1S  R;1 B  ; H ) or an uncon"

;BR;1 ). Now suppose j! is an unobservable mode of

trollable mode of (H;
0
;1
SR

"

x 6 0 such that
( R;1 S  R;1 B  ; H ). Then there exists an x0 = 1 =
x2
h

Hx0 = j!0 x0 ;

R;1 S  R;1 B  x0 = 0:

These equations can be simplied to

(j!0 I ; A)x1 = 0

(13:30)

(j!0 I + A )x2 = ;Px1

(13:31)

S  x1 + B  x2 = 0:

(13:32)

We now consider two cases under the dierent assumptions:

(a) If assumption (A1) is true, then x1 = 0 from (13.30), and this, in turn, implies
x2 = 0 from (13.31), which is a contradiction.
(b) If assumption (A2) is true, since (13.30) implies x1 (j!0 I + A ) = 0, from (13.31)
we have x1 Px1 = 0. This gives Px1 = 0 since P is sign denite (P  0 or P  0). This
implies, along with (13.30) that j!0 is an unobservable mode of (P; A) if x1 6= 0. On the
other hand, if x1 = 0, then (13.31) and (13.32) imply that (A; B ) has an uncontrollable
mode at j!0 , again a contradiction.
Similarly, a contradiction
will
"
# also be derived if j!0 is assumed to be an uncontrol;1
;
BR
lable mode of (H;
2
;1 ).

SR

Corollary 13.16 Suppose R > 0 and either one of the assumptions (A1) or (A2)
dened in Lemma 13.15 is true. Then the following statements are equivalent:
(i) (j!) > 0 for all 0  !  1.
(ii) The Hamiltonian matrix
"

;1 
;BR;1B 
H = A ; BR ;1S 
;(P ; SR S ) ;(A ; BR;1 S )

has no eigenvalue on j!-axis.

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

344

Proof. (i) ) (ii) follows easily from Lemma 13.15. To prove (ii) ) (i), note that
(j 1) = R > 0 and det (j!) 6= 0 for all ! from Lemma 13.15. Then the continuity of
2

(j!) gives (j!) > 0.

Lemma 13.17 Suppose A is stable and P  0. Then

(i) the matrix
h

0 (s) = B  (;sI ; A );1 I

"

P 0
0 I

#"

(sI ; A);1 B

satises

0 (j!) > 0; for all 0  !  1

if and only if there exists a unique real X = X   0 such that
A X + XA ; XBB  X + P = 0
and (A ; BB  X )  C ; .
(ii) 0 (j!)  0; for all 0  !  1 if and only if there exists a unique real X =
X   0 such that
A X + XA ; XBB  X + P = 0
(13:33)

and (A ; BB X )  C ; .

Proof. (i): ()) From Corollary 13.16, 0(j!) > 0 implies that a Hamiltonian matrix
"
#
A ;BB 
;P ;A
has no eigenvalues on the imaginary axis. This in turn implies from Theorem 13.6 that
(13.33) has a stabilizing solution. Furthermore, since
"

we have

"

A ;BB  = ;I
;P ;A
I
"

#"

A BB 
P ;A
"

#"

;I



Ric A ;BB = ;Ric A BB  0:
;P ;A
P ;A

(() The suciency proof is omitted here and is a special case of (b) ) (a) of
Theorem 13.19 below.
(ii): ()) Let P = ;C  C and G(s) := C (sI ; A);1 B . Then 0 (s) = I ; G (s)G(s).
Let 0 < < 1 and dene
(s) := I ; 2 G (s)G(s):

13.4. Spectral Factorizations

345

Then (j!) > 0; 8!. Thus from part (i), there is an X = X   0 such that
A ; BB  X is stable and

A X + X A ; X BB  X ; 2 C  C = 0:
It is easy to see from Theorem 13.14 that X is monotone-decreasing with , i.e.,
X 1  X 2 if 1  2 . To show that lim !1 X exists, we need to show that X is
bounded below for all 0 < < 1.
In the following, it will be assumed that (A; B ) is controllable. The controllability
assumption will be removed later.
Let Y be the destabilizing solution to the following Riccati equation:

A Y + Y A ; Y BB  Y = 0
with (A ; BB  Y )  C + (note that the existence of such a solution is guaranteed by
the controllability assumption). Then it is easy to verify that
(A ; BB  Y ) (X ; Y ) + (X ; Y )(A ; BB  Y ) ; (X ; Y )BB  (X ; Y ) ; 2C  C = 0:
This implies that

X ; Y =

e;(A;BBY ) t [(X ; Y )BB  (X ; Y ) + 2 C  C ]e;(A;BB Y )t dt  0:

Thus X is bounded below with Y as the lower bound, and lim !1 X exists. Let
X := lim !1 X ; then from continuity argument, X satises the Riccati equation

A X + XA ; XBB  X + P = 0

and (A ; BB  X )  C ; .
Now suppose (A; B ) is not controllable, and then assume without loss of generality
that
"
#
"
#
h
i
A
B
11 A12
1
A=
; B=
; C = C1 C2
0 A22
0
so that (A11 ; B1 ) is controllable and A11 and A22 are stable. Then the Riccati equation
for
"

#
X
X
11
12
X =
) X
(X12
22
can be written as three equations

A11 X11 + X11 A11 ; X11 B1 B1 X11 ; 2 C1 C1 = 0

) X + X A + X A ; 2 C  C = 0
(A11 ; B1 B1 X11
1 2
12
12 22
11 12










A22 X22 + X22 A22 + (X12 ) A12 + A12 X12 ; (X12 ) B1 B1 X12 ; 2 C2 C2 = 0

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

346
and

A ; BB  X =

"

A11 ; B1 B1 X11 A12 ; B1 B1 X12

0
A22

is stable.
Let Y11 be the anti-stabilizing solution to

A11 Y11 + Y11 A11 ; Y11 B1 B1 Y11 = 0

; Y  0. Moreover, X =
with (A11 ; B1 B1 Y11 )  C + . Then it is clear that X11
11
11

lim !1 X11 exists and satises the following Riccati equation:

A11 X11 + X11 A11 ; X11 B1 B1 X11 ; C1 C1 = 0

with (A11 ; B1 B1 X11 )  C ; . Consequently, the following Sylvester equation
(A11 ; B1 B1 X11 ) X12 + X12 A22 + X11 A12 ; C1 C2 = 0
has a unique solution X12 since i (A11 ; B1 B1 X11 ) + j (A22 ) 6= 0; 8i; j . Furthermore,
the following Lyapunov equation has a unique nonnegative denite solution X22 :

A22 X22 + X22 A22 + X12 A12 + A12 X12 ; X12 B1 B1 X12 ; C2 C2 = 0:
We have proven that there exists a unique X such that

A X + XA ; XBB  X ; C  C = 0
and (A ; BB  X )  C ; .
(() same as in part (i).

Lemma 13.18 Let R > 0,

h

(s) = B  (;sI ; A );1 I

and
where

^ (s) = B^  (;sI ; A^ );1 I

"

"

P S
S R
P^ 0
0 I

#"

(sI ; A);1 B

#"

(sI ; A^);1 B^

A^ := A ; BR;1 S  ; B^ := BR;1=2 ; P^ := P ; SR;1 S :

Then (j!)  0 i ^ (j!)  0.

13.4. Spectral Factorizations

Proof. Note that
"

"

P S = I SR;1=2
S R
0 R1=2

347
#"

P^ 0
0 I

#"

R;1=2 S  R1=2

Hence the function (s) can be written as

h

(s) = B  (;sI ; A );1 ' (s)

"

P^ 0
0 I

#"

(sI ; A);1 B
'(s)

with '(s) = R1=2 + R;1=2 S  (sI ; A);1 B . It is easy to verify that

^ (s) = [';1 (s)] (s)';1 (s):

Hence the conclusion follows.

Now we are ready to state and prove one of the main results of this section. The
following theorem and corollary characterize the relations among spectral factorizations,
Riccati equations, and decomposition of Hamiltonians.

Theorem 13.19 Let A; B; P; S; R be matrices of compatible dimensions such that P =

P  , R = R > 0, with (A; B ) stabilizable. Suppose either one of the following assump-

tions is satised:

(A1) A has no eigenvalues on j!-axis;
(A2) P is sign denite, i.e., P  0 or P  0 and (P; A) has no unobservable modes on
the j!-axis.
Then
(I) The following statements are equivalent:
(a) The parahermitian rational matrix
h

(s) = B  (;sI ; A );1 I

"

P S
S R

#"

(sI ; A);1 B

satises

(j!) > 0 for all 0  !  1:

(b) There exists a unique real X = X  such that
(A ; BR;1 S  ) X + X (A ; BR;1 S  ) ; XBR;1B  X + P ; SR;1S  = 0
and that A ; BR;1 S  ; BR;1 B  X is stable.

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

348
(c) The Hamiltonian matrix
"

;1 
;BR;1B 
H = A ; BR ;1S 
;(P ; SR S ) ;(A ; BR;1 S  )

has no j!-axis eigenvalues.

(II) The following statements are also equivalent:
(d) (j!)  0 for all 0  !  1.
(e) There exists a unique real X = X  such that

(A ; BR;1 S  ) X + X (A ; BR;1 S  ) ; XBR;1B  X + P ; SR;1S  = 0

and that (A ; BR;1 S  ; BR;1 B  X )  C ; .

The following corollary is usually referred to as the spectral factorization theory.

Corollary 13.20 If either one of the conditions, (a){(e), in Theorem 13.19 is satised,
then there exists an M 2 Rp such that
 = M RM:
A particular realization of one such M is
"

M= A B
;F I

where F = ;R;1(S  + B  X ). Furthermore, if X is the stabilizing solution, then M ;1 2

RH1 .

Remark 13.6 If the stabilizability of (A; B) is changed into the stabilizability of (;A; B),
then the theorem still holds except that the solutions X in (b) and (e) are changed into
the destabilizing solution ((A ; BR;1 S  ; BR;1 B  X )  C + ) and the weakly destabilizing solution ((A ; BR;1 S  ; BR;1 B  X )  C + ), respectively.
~
Proof. (a) ) (c) follows from Corollary 13.16.
(c) ) (b) follows from Theorem 13.6 and Theorem 13.5.
(b) ) (a) Suppose 9X = X  such that A ; BR;1S  ; BR;1 B  X = A ; BR;1 (S  +

B X ) is stable. Let F = ;R;1(S  + B  X ) and
"

M= A B :
;F I

13.4. Spectral Factorizations

349

It is easily veried by use of the Riccati equation for X and by routine algebra that
 = M RM . Since
"
#
A
+
BF
B
M ;1 =
;

M ;1 2 RH1 . Thus M (s) has no zeros on the imaginary axis and (j!) > 0.
(e) ) (d) follows the same procedure as the proof of (b) ) (a).
(d) ) (e): Assume S = 0 and R = I ; otherwise use Lemma 13.18 rst to get a
new function with such properties. Let P = C1 C1 ; C2 C2 with C1 and C2 square
nonsingular. Note that this decomposition always exists since P = I ; (I ; P ), with
 > 0 suciently large, denes one such possibility. Let X1 be the positive denite
solution to

A X1 + X1 A ; X1 BB  X1 + C1 C1 = 0:
By Theorem 13.7, X1 indeed exists and is stabilizing, i.e., A1 := A ; BB  X1 is stable.
Let
= X ; X1 . Then the equation in
becomes
A1
+
A1 ;
BB 
; C2 C2 = 0:
To show that this equation has a solution, recall Lemma 13.17 and note that A1 is
stable; then it is sucient to show that

I ; B  (;j!I ; A1 );1 C2 C2 (j!I ; A1 );1 B

is positive semi-denite.
Notice rst that



C2 (sI ; A + BB  X1 );1 B = C2 (sI ; A);1 B I + B  X1 (sI ; A);1 B ;1 :

From the denition of X1 and Corollary 13.20, we also have that

I + B  (;sI ; A );1 C1 C1 (sI ; A);1 B

Now, by assumption


 

= I + B  X1 (sI ; A);1 B  I + B  X1 (sI ; A);1 B :

(j!) = I + B  (;j!I ; A );1 C1 C1 (j!I ; A);1 B

;B  (;j!I ; A );1 C2 C2 (j!I ; A);1 B  0:

It follows that

n
o

I ; I + B  (;j!I ; A );1 X1 B ;1 B  (;j!I ; A );1 C2
n


 o
C2 (j!I ; A);1 B I + B  X1 (j!I ; A);1 B ;1  0:

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

350
Consequently,

I ; B  (;j!I ; A1 );1 C2 C2 (j!I ; A1 );1 B  0:

We may now apply Lemma 13.17 to the
equation. Consequently, there exists a unique
solution
such that (A1 ; BB 
) = (A ; BB  X )  C ; . This shows the existence
and uniqueness of X .

We shall now illustrate the proceeding results through a simple example. Note in
particular that the function can have poles on the imaginary axis.

Example 13.6 Let A = 0; B = 1; R = 1; S = 0 and P = 1. Then (s) = 1 ; s12 and

(j!) > 0. It is easy to check that the Hamiltonian matrix

"

H = 0 ;1
;1 0

does not have eigenvalues on the imaginary axis and X = 1 is the stabilizing solution
to the corresponding Riccati equation and the spectral factor is given by
#

"

M (s) = 0 1 = s +s 1 :
1 1

3
Some frequently used special spectral factorizations are now considered.
"

A B
C D

Corollary 13.21 Assume that G(s) :=

2 RL1 is a stabilizable and detectable realization and > kG(s)k1 . Then, there exists a transfer matrix M 2 RL1
such that M M = 2 I ; G G and M ;1 2 RH1 . A particular realization of M is
"

B
A
M (s) =
1
=
2
;R F R1=2

where

R = 2 I ; D D
F = R;1"(B  X + D C )
A + BR;1 D C
BR;1B 
X = Ric
;C  (I + DR;1 D )C ;(A + BR;1 D C )
and X  0 if A is stable.

13.4. Spectral Factorizations

351

Proof. This is a special case of Theorem 13.19. In fact, the theorem follows by letting
P = ;C  C; S = ;C  D; R = 2I ; D D in Theorem 13.19 and by using the fact that
"

A + BR;1 D C
BR;1 B 
Ric
=

;
1

;C (I + DR D )C ;(A + BR;1 D C )
"

;1 
;BR;1 B 
;Ric A + BR ;D1 C
:
C (I + DR D )C ;(A + BR;1 D C )

The spectral factorization for the dual case is also often used and follows by taking
the transpose of the corresponding transfer matrices.
"

Corollary 13.22 Assume G(s) := A B 2 RL1 and > kG(s)k1. Then, there
C D
exists a transfer matrix M 2 RL1 such that MM  = 2 I ; GG and M ;1 2 RH1 .
A particular realization of M is
"

1=2
M (s) = A ;LR1=2
C R

where

R = 2 I ; DD
L = (Y C" + BD )R;1
 ;1 
C  R;1 C
Y = Ric (A + BD R;1 C ) 
;B (I + D R D)B ;(A + BD R;1 C )
and Y  0 if A is stable.

For convenience, we also include the following spectral factorization results which
are again special cases of Theorem 13.19.
"

Corollary 13.23 Let G(s) = A B be a stabilizable and detectable realization.

C D
(a) Suppose G (j!)G(j!) > 0 for all ! or
all !. Let

"

"

A ; j! B
C
D

has full column rank for

A ; BR;1 D C
;BR;1 B 
X = Ric
;C  (I ; DR;1D )C ;(A ; BR;1 D C )

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

352

with R := D D > 0. Then we have the following spectral factorization

W  W = G G
where W ;1 2 RH1 and

"

B :
W = ;1=2 A

R (D C + B X ) R1=2
(b) Suppose G(j!)G (j!) > 0 for all ! or

!. Let

"

A ; j! B
C
D

has full row rank for all

"

 ~ ;1 
;C  R~ ;1 C
Y = Ric (A ; BD R~ ;1 C ) 
;B (I ; D R D)B ;(A ; BD R~ ;1 C )

with R~ := DD > 0. Then we have the following spectral factorization

W~ W~  = GG
where W~ ;1 2 RH1 and

"


 ~ ;1=2
:
W~ = A (BD + ~Y1C=2 )R
R
C

Theorem 13.19 also gives some additional characterizations of a transfer matrix H1

norm.
"

Corollary 13.24 Let > 0, G(s) = A B 2 RH1 and

C D
"

A + BR;1 D C
BR;1 B 
H :=
;C  (I + DR;1D )C ;(A + BR;1 D C )

where R = 2 I ; D D. Then the following conditions are equivalent:

(i) kGk1 < .
(ii)  (D) < and H has no eigenvalues on the imaginary axis.
(iii)  (D) < and H 2 dom(Ric) .
(iv)  (D) < and H 2 dom(Ric) and Ric(H )  0 (Ric(H ) > 0 if (C; A) is observable).

13.5. Positive Real Functions

353

Proof. This follows from the fact that kGk1 < is equivalent to that the following
function is positive denite for all !:

(j!) := 2 I ; GT (;j!)G(j!)
h

= B  (;j!I ; A );1 I

"

;C  C ;C  D
;DC 2 I ; D D

#"

(j!I ; A);1 B

> 0;

and the fact that

"

"

;I 0 H ;I 0 =
0

"

A + BR;1D C
;BR;1 B 
:
C  (I + DR;1 D )C ;(A + BR;1 D C )

2
The equivalence between (i) and (iv) in the above corollary is usually referred as
Bounded Real Lemma.

13.5 Positive Real Functions

A square (m  m) matrix function G(s) 2 RH1 is said to be positive real (PR) if
G(j!) + G (j!)  0 for all nite !, i.e., ! 2 R, and G(s) is said to be strictly positive
real (SPR) if G(j!) + G (j!) > 0 for all ! 2 R.
"

Theorem 13.25 Let A B be a state space realization of G(s) with A stable (not
C D
necessarily a minimal realization). Suppose there exist an X  0, Q, and W such that
XA + A X = ;QQ
BX + W Q = C
D + D = W  W;

(13.34)
(13.35)
(13.36)

Then G(s) is positive real and

G(s) + G (s) = M (s)M (s)

"

A B . Furthermore, if M (j!) has full column rank for all ! 2 R,

with M (s) =
Q W
then G(s) is strictly positive real.

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

354

Proof.

B
6


G(s)+G (s) = 4 0 ;A ;C 
C B  D + D
0

7
5

= 64

"

0
;A ;(XB + Q W ) 75 :
BX + W Q B
W W

I 0 to the last realization to get

Apply a similarity transformation
X I
2

G(s) + G (s) =

6
4
"

XA + A X ;A
W Q
B
#"
A
;A ;Q


B W
Q

B
;QW
W W
#
B :
W

B
A
0
7 6


;QW
5 = 4 ;Q Q ;A
W Q B W W

3
7
5

This implies that

G(j!) + G (j!) = M (j!)M (j!)  0

i.e., G(s) is positive real. Finally note that if M (j!) has full column rank for all ! 2 R,
then M (j!)x 6= 0 for all x 2 C m and ! 2 R. Thus G(s) is strictly positive real.
2

Theorem 13.26 Suppose (A; B; C; D) is a minimal realization of G(s) with A stable

and G(s) is positive real. Then there exist an X  0, Q, and W such that
XA + A X = ;Q Q
BX + W Q = C
D + D = W  W:

and
"

G(s) + G (s) = M (s)M (s)

A B . Furthermore, if G(s) is strictly positive real, then M (j!)

with M (s) =
Q W
given above has full column rank for all ! 2 R.

Proof
. Since
# G(s) is assumed to be positive real, there exists a transfer matrix M (s) =
"
A1 B1
C1 D1

with A1 stable such that

G(s) + G (s) = M (s)M (s)

13.5. Positive Real Functions

355

where A and A1 have the same dimensions. Now let X1  0 be the solution of the
following Lyapunov equation:
X1 A1 + A1 X1 = ;C1 C1 :
Then
2
3
#"
#
"
B1
A1
0


A1 B1 = 6 
7
M  (s)M (s) = ;A1 ;C1
4 ;C1 C1 ;A1 ;C1 D1 5

B1

D1

C1 D1

D1 C1

B1

D1 D1

A1
0
B1
X1 A1 + A1 X1 ;A1 ;C1 D1 75
D1 C1
B1 D1 D1
2
3
A1
0
B1
= 64
0
;A1 ;(X1 B1 + C1 D1 ) 75
B1 X + D1 C1 B1
D1 D1
"
# "
1 ;(B1 X + D1 C1 ) #
A
;
A
B
1
1

= D1 D1 +
+
:
B1 X + D1 C1 0
B1
0
But the realization for G(s) + G (s) is given by
# "
#
"
 ;C 
;
A
A
B


+
:
G(s) + G (s) = D + D +
C 0
B 0
Since the realization for G(s) is minimal, there exists a nonsingular matrix T such that
A = TA1T ;1; B = TB1 ; C = (B1 X + D1 C1 )T ;1; D + D = D1 D1 :
=

6
4

Now the conclusion follows by dening

X = (T ;1) X1 T ;1; W = D1 ; Q = C1 T ;1:
"

Corollary 13.27 Let A B be a state space realization of G(s) 2 RH1 with A

C D
stable and R := D + D > 0. Then G(s) is strictly positive real if and only if there
exists a stabilizing solution to the following Riccati equation:
X (A ; BR;1 C ) + (A ; BR;1 C ) X + XBR;1 B  X + C  R;1 C = 0:
"

B is minimal phase and

Moreover, M (s) =
12
;

R (C ; B X ) R 21
G(s) + G (s) = M  (s)M (s):

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

356

Proof. This follows from Theorem 13.19 and from the fact that
G(j!) + G (j!) > 0
for all ! including 1.

The above corollary also leads to the following special spectral factorization.
"

Corollary 13.28 Let G(s) = A B 2 RH1 with D full row rank and G(j!)G (j!) >
C D
0 for all !. Let P be the controllability grammian of (A; B ):
PA + AP + BB  = 0:
Dene

BW = PC  + BD :

Then there exists an X  0 such that

XA + A X + (C ; BW X ) (DD );1 (C ; BW X ) = 0:

Furthermore, there is an M (s) 2 RH1 such that M ;1 (s) 2 RH1 and

G(s)G (s) = M  (s)M (s)

"

A BW
where M (s) =
CW DW

with a square matrix DW such that

DW DW = DD
and

CW = DW (DD );1 (C ; BW X ):

Proof. This corollary follows from Corollary 13.27 and the fact that G(j!)G (j!) > 0
and

G(s)G (s) =

"

A BW
C 0

"

;A ;C  + DD :
+

BW

A dual spectral factorization can also be obtained easily.

13.6. Inner Functions

357

13.6 Inner Functions

A transfer function N is called inner if N 2 RH1 and N  N = I and co-inner if

N 2 RH1 and NN  = I . Note that N need not be square. Inner and co-inner are
dual notions, i.e., N is an inner i N T is a co-inner. A matrix function N 2 RL1 is
called all-pass if N is square and N  N = I ; clearly a square inner function is all-pass.
We will focus on the characterizations of inner functions here and the properties of
co-inner functions follow by duality.
Note that N inner implies that N has at least as many rows as columns. For
N inner and any q 2 C m , v 2 L2 , kN (j!)qk = kqk, 8! and kNvk2 = kvk2 since
N (j!) N (j!) = I for all !. Because of these norm preserving properties, inner matrices
will play an important role in the control synthesis theory in this book. In this section,
we present a state-space characterization of inner transfer functions.
"

Lemma 13.29 Suppose N = A B 2 RH1 and X = X   0 satises

C D
A X + XA + C  C = 0:

(13:37)

Then
(a) D C + B  X = 0 implies N  N = D D.
(b) (A; B ) controllable, and N  N = D D implies D C + B  X = 0.

Proof. Conjugating the states of

B
A
0
6



6
N N = 4 ;C C ;A ;C  D
D C B  D D
"

"

I 0 on the left and I 0

by
;X I
;X I
2

N N =

6
6
4
2

6
6
4

#;1

"

3
7
7
5

I 0 on the right yields

=
X I

A
0
B
;(A X + XA + C  C ) ;A ;(XB + C  D)
B  X + D C
B
D D
3
A
0
B
7
0
;A ;(XB + C  D) 75 :
B  X + D C B 
D D

Then (a) and (b) follow easily.

3
7
7
5

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

358

This lemma immediately leads to one characterization of inner matrices in terms

of their state space representations. Simply add the condition that D D = I to
Lemma 13.29 to get N  N = I .

Corollary 13.30 Suppose N =

"

A B
C D

is stable and minimal, and X is the ob-

servability grammian. Then N is inner if and only if

(a) D C + B  X = 0
(b) D D = I .

A transfer matrix N? is called a complementary inner factor (CIF) of N if [N N? ]

is square and inner. The dual notion of the complementary co-inner factor is dened in
the obvious way. Given an inner N , the following lemma gives a construction of its CIF.
The proof of this lemma follows from straightforward calculation and from the fact that
CX y X = C since Im(I ; X + X )  Ker(X )  Ker(C ).
"

Lemma 13.31 Let N = A B be an inner and X be the observability grammian.

C D
Then a CIF N? is given by
"

y 
N? = A ;X C D?
C
D?

where D? is an orthogonal complement of D such that [D D? ] is square and orthogonal.

13.7 Inner-Outer Factorizations

In this section, some special form of coprime factorizations will be developed. In particular, explicit realizations are given for coprime factorizations G = NM ;1 with inner
numerator N and inner denominator M , respectively. The former factorization in the
case of G 2 RH1 will give an inner-outer factorization1. The results will be proven for
the right coprime factorizations, while the results for left coprime factorizations follow
by duality.
Let G 2 Rp be a p  m transfer matrix and denote R1=2 R1=2 = R. For a given
full
h column rank imatrix D, let D? denote for any orthogonal complement of D so that
DR;1=2 D? (with R = D D > 0) is square and orthogonal. To obtain an rcf of
G with N inner, we note that if NM ;1 is an rcf, then (NZr )(MZr );1 is also an rcf for
any nonsingular real matrix Zr . We simply need to use the formulas in Theorem 5.9 to
solve for F and Zr .
1 A p  m (p  m) transfer matrix G 2 RH
o
1 is called an outer if Go (s) has full row rank in the
open right half plane, i.e., Go (s) has full row normal rank and has no open right half plane zeros.

13.7. Inner-Outer Factorizations

359

Theorem 13.32 Assume p  m. Then there exists an rcf G = NM ;1 such that N

is inner if and only if G G > 0 on the j!-axis, including at 1. This factorization is
unique" up to a #constant unitary multiple." Furthermore, #assume that the realization of

G = A B is stabilizable and that A ; j!I B has full column rank for all
C
D
C D
! 2 R. Then a particular realization of the desired coprime factorization is
"

M := 6
4
N

where
and

A + BF
F
C + DF

BR;1=2
R;1=2
DR;1=2

3
7
5

2 RH1

R = D D > 0
F = ;R;1(B  X + D C )
"

A ; BR;1 D C
;BR;1B 
X = Ric
 0:
;C  (I ; DR;1 D )C ;(A ; BR;1 D C )

Moreover, a complementary inner factor can be obtained as

"

y 
N? = A + BF ;X C D?
C + DF
D?

if p > m.

Proof. ()) Suppose G = NM ;1 is an rcf and N N = I . Then G G = (M ;1)M ;1 >

0 on the j!-axis since M 2 RH1 .
(() This can be shown by using Corollary 13.20 rst to get a factorization G G =

(M ;1 ) (M ;1 ) and then to compute N = GM . The following proof is more direct.

It will be proven by showing that the denition of the inner and coprime factorization
formula given in Theorem 5.9 lead directly to the above realization of the rcf of G
with an inner numerator. That G = NM ;1 is an rcf follows immediately once it is
established that F is a stabilizing state feedback. Now suppose
"

N = A + BF BZr
C + DF DZr

and let F and Zr be such that

(DZr ) (DZr ) = I

(13:38)

(BZr ) X + (DZr ) (C + DF ) = 0

(13:39)

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

360

(A + BF ) X + X (A + BF ) + (C + DF ) (C + DF ) = 0:
(13:40)
;
1
=
2

Clearly, we have that Zr = R U where R = D D > 0 and where U is any orthogonal
matrix. Take U = I and solve (13.39) for F to get
F = ;R;1(B  X + D C ):
Then substitute F into (13.40) to get
0 = (A + BF ) X + X (A + BF ) + (C + DF ) (C + DF )
= (A ; BR;1 D C ) X + X (A ; BR;1 D C ) ; XBR;1B  X + C  D?D? C
where D? D? = I ; DR;1 D . To show that such choices indeed make sense, we need
to show that H 2 dom(Ric), where
"

;1 D C
;BR;1B 
H = A ; BR


;C D?D? C ;(A ; BR;1 D C )
so X "= Ric(H ). However,
by Theorem 13.19, H 2 dom(Ric) is guaranteed by the fact
#
A
;
j!
B
that
has full column rank (or G (j!)G(j!) > 0.
C
D
The uniqueness of the factorization follows from coprimeness and N inner. Suppose
that G = N1M1;1 = N2 M2;1 are two right coprime factorizations and that both nu-

merators are inner. By coprimeness, these two factorizations are unique up to a right
2 in RH1 . That is, there exists a unit  2 RH1 such that
multiple
"
# which" is a unit
#
M1  = M2 . Clearly,  is inner since   = N  N  = N  N = I .
1 1
2 2
N1
N2
The only inner units in RH1 are constant matrices, and thus the desired uniqueness
property is established. Note that the non-uniqueness is contained entirely in the choice
of a particular square root of R.
Finally, the formula for N? follows from Lemma 13.31.
2

Note that the important inner-outer factorization formula can be obtained from this
inner numerator coprime factorization if G 2 RH1 .
Corollary 13.33 Suppose G 2 RH1 ; then the denominator matrix M in Theorem 13.32
is an outer. Hence, the factorization G = N (M ;1) given in Theorem 13.32 is an innerouter factorization.
Remark 13.7 It is noted that the above inner-outer factorization procedure does not
apply to the strictly proper transfer matrix even if the factorization exists. For example,
;1 1 has inner-outer factorizations but the above procedure cannot be used.
G(s) = ss+1
s+2
The inner-outer factorization for the general transfer matrices can be done using the
method adopted in Section 6.1 of Chapter 6.
~
2 A function  is called a unit in RH if ; ;1 2 RH .
1
1

13.7. Inner-Outer Factorizations

361

Suppose that the system G is not stable; then a coprime factorization with an inner
denominator can also be obtained by solving a special Riccati equation. The proof of
this result is similar to the inner numerator case and is omitted.
"

Theorem 13.34 Assume that G = A B 2 Rp and (A; B) is stabilizable. Then

C D
there exists a right coprime factorization G = NM ;1 such that M 2 RH1 is inner if
and only if G has no poles on j!-axis. A particular realization is
3
2
"
#
B
A + BF
M := 6
F
I 75 2 RH1
4
N
C + DF D
where

F" = ;B  X #

X = Ric A ;BB  0:
0 ;A
Dual results can be obtained when p  m by taking the transpose of the transfer function

matrix. In these factorizations, output injection using the dual Riccati solution replaces
state feedback to obtain the corresponding left factorizations.
Theorem 13.35 Assume p  m. Then there exists an lcf G = M~ ;1N~ such that N~ is
a co-inner if and only if GG > 0 on the j!-axis, including at 1. This factorization is
unique
Furthermore,
"
# assume that the realization of
" up to a#constant unitary multiple.
G = A B is detectable and that A ; j!I B has full row rank for all ! 2 R.
C
D
C D
Then a particular realization of the desired coprime factorization is
"
#
h
i
A
+
LC
L
B
+
LD
2 RH1
M~ N~ := ~ ;1=2 ~ ;1=2 ~ ;1=2
R C R
R D
where
and

R~ = DD > 0
L = ;(BD + Y C  )R~;1
"

 ~ ;1 ~ 
;C  R~ ;1 C
Y = Ric (A ; BD R~ ;1C )
 0:
;B (I ; D R D)B ;(A ; BD R~ ;1 C )
Moreover, a complementary co-inner factor can be obtained as
#
"
A
+ LC B + LD
~
N? =
;D~ ? B  Y y D~ ?
if p < m, where D~ ? is a full row rank matrix such that D~ ? D~ ? = I ; D R~ ;1D.

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

362

"

Theorem 13.36 Assume that G = A B 2 Rp and (C; A) is detectable. Then

C D
there exists a left coprime factorization G = M~ ;1N~ such that M~ 2 RH1 is inner if
and only if G has no poles on j!-axis. A particular realization is
"
#
h
i
A
+
LC
L
B
+
LD
2 RH1
M~ N~ :=
C
I
D
where

L = ;Y C  #


Y = Ric A ;C C  0:
0 ;A
"

13.8 Normalized Coprime Factorizations

A right coprime factorization of G = NM ;1 with N; M 2 RH1 is called a normalized

right coprime factorization if
M M + N N = I
"

i.e., if

M
N

is an inner. Similarly, an lcf G = M~ ;1N~ is called a normalized left

h

coprime factorization if M~ N~ is a co-inner.

The normalized coprime factorization is easy to obtain from the denition. The
following theorem can be proven using the same procedure as in the proof for the
coprime factorization
" with
# inner numerator. In this case, the proof involves choosing F
M
and Zr such that
is an inner.

Theorem 13.37 Let a realization of G be given by

"

G= A B
C D
and dene

R = I + D D > 0; R~ = I + DD > 0:

(a) Suppose (A; B ) is stabilizable and (C; A) has no unobservable modes on the imaginary axis. Then there is a normalized right coprime factorization G = NM ;1
3
2
"
#
BR;1=2
A + BF
M := 6
F
R;1=2 75 2 RH1
4
N
C + DF DR;1=2

13.8. Normalized Coprime Factorizations

where

363

F = ;R;1 (B  X + D C )

and

"

;1D C
;BR;1B 
X = Ric A ; BR
 0:
;C  R~ ;1 C ;(A ; BR;1 D C )

(b) Suppose (C; A) is detectable and (A; B ) has no uncontrollable modes on the imaginary axis. Then there is a normalized left coprime factorization G = M~ ;1 N~
h

"

A + LC L B + LD
M~ N~ := ~ ;1=2 ~ ;1=2 ~ ;1=2
R C R
R D
i

where

L = ;(BD + Y C  )R~;1

and

Y = Ric

"

(A ; BD R~ ;1C )

;BR;1B 

;C  R~ ;1 C
 0:
;(A ; BD R~ ;1 C )
"

M are given
(c) The controllability grammian P and observability grammian Q of
N
by

P = (I + Y X );1Y; Q = X
h
while the controllability grammian P~ and observability grammian Q~ of M~ N~
are given by

P~ = Y; Q~ = (I + XY );1 X:

Proof. We shall only prove the rst part of (c). It is obvious that Q = X since the
Riccati equation for X can be written as

X (A + BF ) + (A + BF ) X +

"

F
C + DF

# "

F
C + DF

while the controllability grammian solves the Lyapunov equation

(A + BF )P + P (A + BF ) + BR;1 B  = 0
or equivalently

"

(A + BF )

0
P = Ric
:
;
1

;BR B ;(A + BF )

=0

ALGEBRAIC RICCATI EQUATIONS

364
"

I X ; then
Now let T =
0 I
"

(A + BF )

0
=T
;
1

;BR B ;(A + BF )

"

A ; BD R~ ;1 C
;C  R~ ;1 C
T ;1:
;BR;1 B  ;(A ; BD R~ ;1 C )

This shows that the stable invariant subspaces for these two Hamiltonian matrices are
related by
"

"

0
A ; BD R~ ;1 C
;C  R~ ;1 C
X;
= T X;
;
1

;
1

;BR B ;(A + BF )
;BR B
;(A ; BD R~ ;1 C )
or
#
#
"
#
"
#
"
"
I
I
+ XY
I
I
:
= Im
= Im
= T Im
Im
Y (I + XY );1
Y
Y
P
Hence we have P = Y (I + XY );1 .
2
(A + BF )

13.9 Notes and References

The general solutions of a Riccati equation are given by Martensson [1971]. The iterative procedure for solving ARE was rst introduced by Kleinman [1968] for a special
case and was further developed by Wonham [1968]. It was used by Coppel [1974], Ran
and Vreugdenhil [1988], and many others for the proof of the existence of maximal
and minimal solutions. The comparative results were obtained in Ran and Vreugdenhil
[1988]. The paper by Wimmer[1985] also contains comparative results for some special
cases. The paper by Willems [1971] contains a comprehensive treatment of ARE and
the related optimization problems. Some matrix factorization results are given in Doyle
[1984]. Numerical methods for solving ARE can be found in Arnold and Laub [1984],
Dooren [1981], and references therein. The state space spectral factorization for functions singular at 1 or on imaginary axis is considered in Clements and Glover [1989]
and Clements [1993].

14

H2 Optimal Control
In this chapter we treat the optimal control of linear time-invariant systems with a
quadratic performance criterion. The material in this chapter is standard, but the
treatment is somewhat novel and lays the foundation for the subsequent chapters on
H1 -optimal control.

14.1 Introduction to Regulator Problem

Consider the following dynamical system:

x_ = Ax + B2 u; x(t0 ) = x0

(14:1)

where x0 is given but arbitrary. Our objective is to nd a control function u(t) dened
on [t0 ; T ] which can be a function of the state x(t) such that the state x(t) is driven to a
(small) neighborhood of origin at time T . This is the so-called Regulator Problem. One
might suggest that this regulator problem can be trivially solved for any T > t0 if the
system is controllable. This is indeed the case if the controller can provide arbitrarily
large amounts of energy since, by the denition of controllability, one can immediately
construct a control function that will drive the state to zero in an arbitrarily short
time. However, this is not practical since any physical system has the energy limitation,
i.e., the actuator will eventually saturate. Furthermore, large control action can easily
drive the system out of the region where the given linear model is valid. Hence certain
limitations have to be imposed on the control in practical engineering implementation.
365

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

366

The constraints on control u may be measured in many dierent ways; for example,
Z

t0

kuk dt;

t0

kuk2 dt;

sup kuk

t2[t0 ;T ]

i.e., in terms of L1 -norm, L2 -norm, and L1 -norm, or more generally, weighted L1 -norm,
L2 -norm, and L1 -norm
T

t0

kWu uk dt;

t0

kWu uk2 dt;

sup kWu uk

t2[t0 ;T ]

for some constant weighting matrix Wu .

Similarly, one might also want to impose some constraints on the transient response
x(t) in a similar fashion
Z

T
t0

kWx xk dt;

t0

kWx xk2 dt;

sup kWx xk

t2[t0 ;T ]

for some weighting matrix Wx . Hence the regulator problem can be posed as an optimal
control problem with certain combined performance index on u and x, as given above.
In this chapter, we shall be concerned exclusively with the L2 performance problem or
quadratic performance problem. Moreover, we will focus on the innite time regulator
problem, i.e., T ! 1, and, without loss of generality, we shall assume t0 = 0. In this
case, our problem is as follows: nd a control u(t) dened on [0; 1) such that the state
x(t) is driven to the origin at t ! 1 and the following performance index is minimized:
1 " x(t) # " Q S
min
u 0
u(t)
S R
Z

#"

x(t) dt
u(t)

(14:2)

for some Q = Q , S , and R = R > 0. This problem is traditionally called a Linear

Quadratic Regulator problem or simply an LQR problem. Here we have assumed R > 0
to emphasis that the control energy has to be nite, i.e., u(t) 2 L2 [0; 1). So this is the
space over which the integral is minimized. Moreover, it is also generally assumed that
"

Q S  0:
S R

(14:3)

Since R is positive denite, it has a square root, R1=2 , which is also positive-denite.
By the substitution

R1=2 u;
we may as well assume at the start that R = I . In fact, we can even assume S = 0 by
using a pre-state feedback u = ;S x + v provided some care is exercised; however, this
u

14.2. Standard LQR Problem

367

will not be assumed in the sequel. Since the matrix in (14.3) is positive semi-denite
with R = I , it can be factored as
"

"

Q S = C1

S I
D12

C1 D12 :

And (14.2) can be rewritten as

min kC1 x + D12 uk22 :

u2L2 [0;1)

In fact, the LQR problem is posed traditionally as the minimization problem

min kC1 x + D12 uk22

u2L2 [0;1)

(14:4)

x_ = Ax + Bu; x(0) = x0

(14:5)
without explicitly mentioning the condition that the control should drive the state to the
origin. Instead some assumptions are imposed on Q; S , and R (or equivalently C1 and
D12 ) to ensure that the optimal control law u has this property. To see what assumption
one needs to make in order to ensure that the minimization problem formulated in (14.4)
and (14.5) has a sensible solution, let us consider a simple example with A = 1; B =
1; Q = 0; S = 0, and R = 1:
min

u2L2 [0;1) 0

u2 dt; x_ = x + u; x(0) = x0 :

It is clear that u = 0 is the optimal solution. However, the system with u = 0 is

unstable and x(t) diverges exponentially to innity, x(t) = et x0 . The problem with
this example is that the performance index does not \see" the unstable state x. This is
true in general, and the proof of this fact is left as an exercise to the reader. Hence in
order to ensure that the minimization problem in (14.4) and (14.5) is sensible, we must
assume that all unstable states can be \seen" from the performance index, i.e., (C1 ; A)
must be detectable. This will be called a standard LQR problem.
On the other hand, if the closed-loopRstability is imposed on the above minimization,
then it can be shown that minu2L2 [0;1) 01 u2 dt = 2x20 and u(t) = ;2x(t) is the optimal
control. This can also be generalized to a more general case where (C1 ; A) is not
necessarily detectable. This problem will be referred to as an Extended LQR problem.

14.2 Standard LQR Problem

In this section, we shall consider the LQR problem as traditionally formulated.

Standard LQR Problem

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

368

Let a dynamical system be described by

x_ = Ax + B2 u; x(0) = x0 given but arbitrary
(14.6)
z = C1 x + D12 u
(14.7)
and suppose that the system parameter matrices satisfy the following assumptions:
(A1) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable;
h
i
(A2) D12 has full column rank with D12 D? unitary;
(A3) ("C1 ; A) is detectable;
#

A ; j!I B2 has full column rank for all !.

C1
D12
Find an optimal control law u 2 L2 [0; 1) such that the performance criterion
kz k22 is minimized.

(A4)

Remark 14.1 Assumption (A1) is clearly necessary for the existence of a stabilizing
control function u. The assumption (A2) is made for simplicity of notation and is
 D12 = I . Note also that D? drops out when D12
actually a restatement that R = D12
is square. It is interesting to point out that (A3) is not needed in the Extended LQR
problem. The assumption (A3) enforces that the unconditional optimization problem
will result in a stabilizing control law. In fact, the assumption (A3) together with (A1)
guarantees that the input/output stability implies the internal stability, i.e., u 2 L2
and z 2 L2 imply x 2 L2 , which will be shown in Lemma 14.1. Finally note that (A4)
 C1 ) has no unobservable modes
is equivalent to the condition that (D? C1 ; A ; B2 D12
on the imaginary axis and is weaker than the popular assumption of detectability of
 C1 ). (A4), together with the stabilizability of (A; B2 ), guarantees by
(D? C1 ; A ; B2 D12
Corollary 13.10 that the following Hamiltonian matrix belongs to dom(Ric) and that
X = Ric(H )  0:
H =

"
"

"

h
A
0
B2


;
;C1 C1 ;A
;C1 D12 D12 C1 B2
#
 C1
A ; B2 D12
;B2B2
:
;C1 D? D? C1 ;(A ; B2 D12 C1 )

(14.8)

 C1 = 0, then (A4) is implied by the detectability of (C1 ; A), while

Note also that if D12
 C1 ).
the detectability of (C1 ; A) is implied by the detectability of (D? C1 ; A ; B2 D12

The above implication is not true if D12 C1 6= 0, for example,
"
#
"
#
h
i
2 0
1
A=
; B2 =
; C1 = 1 0 ; D12 = 1:
0 ;2
0

14.2. Standard LQR Problem

369

 C1 =
Then (C1 ; A) is detectable and A ; B2 D12

"

imaginary axis but is not stable.

1 0
0 ;2

has no eigenvalue on the

Note also that the Riccati equation corresponding to (14.8) is

 C1 ) X + X (A ; B2 D C1 ) ; XB2B  X + C  D? D C1 = 0:
(A ; B2 D12
12
2
1
?

(14:9)

Now let X be the corresponding stabilizing solution and dene

 C1 ):
F := ;(B2 X + D12

(14:10)

Then A + B2 F is stable. Denote

AF := A + B2 F; CF := C1 + D12 F
and re-arrange equation (14.9) to get

AF X + XAF + CF CF = 0:

(14:11)
Thus X is the observability Gramian of (CF ; AF ).
Consider applying the control law u = Fx to the system (14.6) and (14.7). The
controlled system is

x_ = AF x; x(0) = x0
z = CF x
or equivalently

x_ = AF x + x0 (t); x(0; ) = 0
z = CF x:
The associated transfer matrix is

"

Gc (s) = AF I
CF 0
and

kGc x0 k22 = x0 Xx0 :

The proof of the following theorem requires a preliminary result about internal
stability given input-output stability.
Lemma 14.1 If u; z 2 Lp [0; 1) for p  1 and (C1 ; A) is detectable in the system
described by equations (14.6) and (14.7), then x 2 Lp [0; 1). Furthermore, if p < 1,
then x(t) ! 0 as t ! 1.

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

370

Proof. Since (C1; A) is detectable, there exists L such that A + LC1 is stable. Let x^
be the state estimate of x given by
x^_ = (A + LC1 )^x + (LD12 + B2 )u ; Lz:

Then x^ 2 Lp [0; 1) since z and u are in Lp [0; 1). Now let e = x ; x^; then

e_ = (A + LC1 )e
and e 2 Lp [0; 1). Therefore, x = e + x^ 2 Lp [0; 1). It is easy to see that e(t) ! 0
as t ! 1 for any initial condition e(0). Finally, x(t) ! 0 follows from the fact that if
p < 1 then x^ ! 0.
2

Theorem 14.2 There exists a unique optimal control for the LQR problem, namely
u = Fx. Moreover,

min kz k2 = kGc x0 k2 :

u2L2 [0;1)

Note that the optimal control strategy is constant gain state feedback, and this gain
is independent of the initial condition x0 .

Proof. With the change of variable v = u ; Fx, the system can be written as
"

"

x_ = AF B2
z
CF D12

#"

x
v

x(0) = x0 :

(14:12)

Now if v 2 L2 [0; 1), then x; z 2 L2 [0; 1) and x(1) = 0 since AF is stable. Hence
u = Fx + v 2 L2 [0; 1). Conversely, if u; z 2 L2 [0; 1), then from Lemma 14.1 x 2
L2 [0; 1). So v 2 L2 [0; 1). Thus the mapping v = u ; Fx between v 2 L2 [0; 1) and
those u 2 L2 [0; 1) that make z 2 L2 [0; 1) is one-to-one and onto. Therefore,
min kz k2 = v2Lmin
kz k2 :
[0;1)

u2L2 [0;1)

By dierentiating x(t) Xx(t) with respect to t along a solution of the dierential equation (14.12) and by using (14.9) and the fact that CF D12 = ;XB2, we see that

d x Xx = x_  Xx + x X x_
dt
= x (AF X + XAF )x + 2x XB2 v
= ;x CF CF x + 2x XB2 v
= ;(CF x + D12 v) (CF x + D12 v) + 2x CF D12 v + v v + 2x XB2 v
= ; kz k2 + kvk2 :
(14.13)

14.2. Standard LQR Problem

371

Now integrate (14.13) from 0 to 1 to get

kz k22 = x0 Xx0 + kvk22 :

Clearly, the unique optimal control is v = 0, i.e., u = Fx.

This method of proof, involving change of variables and the completion of the square,
is a standard technique and variants of it will be used throughout this book. An alternative proof can be given in frequency domain. To do that, let us rst note the following
fact:
Lemma 14.3 Let a transfer matrix be dened as
"

U := AF B2 2 RH1 :
CF D12
Then U is inner and U  Gc 2 RH?2 .

Proof. The proof uses standard manipulations of state space realizations. From U we

get

"

U (s) =

B2

Then it is easy to compute

2

;AF ;CF CF ;CF D12

U  U = 64 0
B2

B2
I

AF
 CF
D12

;AF ;CF :


D12

3
7
5

; U  Gc = 64 0
B2

Now do the similarity transformation

"

;AF ;CF CF 0

I ;X
0 I

I 75 :
AF
 CF 0
D12

on the states of the transfer matrices and use (14.11) to get

2

;AF

U  U = 64 0
B2
2

U  Gc = 64

;AF
0

B2

;X

AF

AF B2
0 I
3
7
5

3
7
5

=I

"

;AF ;X 2 RH? :
=
2

B2

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

372

An alternative proof of Theorem 14.2 We have in the frequency domain

z = Gc x0 + Uv:
Let v 2 H2 . By Lemma 14.3, Gc x0 and Uv are orthogonal. Hence
kz k22 = kGc x0 k22 + kUvk22 :
Since U is inner, we get
kz k22 = kGc x0 k22 + kvk22 :
This equation immediately gives the desired conclusion.

Remark 14.2 It is clear that the LQR problem considered above is essentially equiva-

lent to minimizing the 2-norm of z with the input w = x0 (t) in the following diagram:

z

A I B2
C1 0 D12
I 0 0




But this problem is a special H2 norm minimization problem considered in a later

section.
~

14.3 Extended LQR Problem

This section considers the extended LQR problem where no detectability assumption is
made for (C1 ; A).

Extended LQR Problem

Let a dynamical system be given by

x_ = Ax + B2 u; x(0) = x0 given but arbitrary

z = C1 x + D12 u
with the following assumptions:
(A1) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable;

14.4. Guaranteed Stability Margins of LQR

h

373
i

(A2) D12 has full column rank with D12 D? unitary;

"

A ; j!I B2 has full column rank for all !.

(A3)
C1
D12
Find an optimal control law u 2 L2 [0; 1) such that the system is internally
stable, i.e., x 2 L2 [0; 1) and the performance criterion kz k22 is minimized.
Assume the same notation as above, and we have
Theorem 14.4 There exists a unique optimal control for the extended LQR problem,
namely u = Fx. Moreover,
min kz k = kGc x0 k2 :
u2L [0;1) 2
2

Proof. The proof of this theorem is very similar to the proof of the standard LQR

problem except that, in this case, the input/output stability may not necessarily imply
the internal stability. Instead, the internal stability is guaranteed by the way of choosing
control law.
Suppose that u 2 L2 [0; 1) is such a control law that the system is stable, i.e.,
x 2 L2 [0; 1). Then v = u ; Fx 2 L2 [0; 1). On the other hand, let v 2 L2 [0; 1) and
consider
"
# "
#"
#
x_ = AF B2
x ; x(0) = x :
0

CF D12

Then x; z 2 L2 [0; 1) and x(1) = 0 since AF is stable. Hence u = Fx + v 2 L2 [0; 1).

Again the mapping v = u ; Fx between v 2 L2 [0; 1) and those u 2 L2 [0; 1) that make
z 2 L2 [0; 1) and x 2 L2 [0; 1) is one to one and onto. Therefore,
min kz k2 = min kz k2 :
u2L2 [0;1)

v2L2 [0;1)

Using the same technique as in the proof of the standard LQR problem, we have
kz k22 = x0 Xx0 + kvk22 :
And the unique optimal control is v = 0, i.e., u = Fx.

14.4 Guaranteed Stability Margins of LQR

Now we will consider the system described by equation (14.6) with the LQR control law
u = Fx. The closed-loop block diagram is as shown in Figure 14.1.
The following result is the key to stability margins of an LQR control law.
Lemma 14.5 Let F = ;(B2X + D12 C1 ) and dene G12 = D12 + C1(sI ; A);1B2 .
Then
;

;


I ; B2 (;sI ; A );1 F  I ; F (sI ; A);1 B2 = G12 (s)G12 (s):

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

374

- x_ = Ax + B2u

x-

Figure 14.1: LQR closed-loop system

Proof. Note that the Riccati equation (14.9) can be written as

XA + A X ; F  F + C1 C1 = 0:
Add and subtract sX to the equation to get

;X (sI ; A) ; (;sI ; A )X ; F  F + C1 C1 = 0:

Now multiply the above equation from the left by B2 (;sI ; A );1 and from the right
by (sI ; A);1 B2 to get
;B2 (;sI ; A );1 XB2 ; B2 X (sI ; A);1 B2 ; B2 (;sI ; A );1 F  F (sI ; A);1 B2
+B2(;sI ; A );1 C1 C1 (sI ; A);1 B2 = 0:
 C1 in the above equation, we have
Using ;B2 X = F + D12

B2 (;sI ; A );1 F  + F (sI ; A);1 B2 ; B2 (;sI ; A );1 F  F (sI ; A);1 B2
 C1 (sI ; A);1 B2
+B2 (;sI ; A );1 C1 D12 + D12
+B2(;sI ; A );1 C1 C1 (sI ; A);1 B2 = 0:
 D12 = I .
Then the result follows from completing the square and from the fact that D12

Corollary 14.6 Suppose D12 C1 = 0. Then

;

;


I ; B2 (;sI ; A );1 F  I ; F (sI ; A);1 B2 = I +B2 (;sI ;A);1 C1 C1 (sI ;A);1 B2 :
In particular,
;

;

I ; B2 (;j!I ; A );1 F  I ; F (j!I ; A);1 B2  I

(14:14)

and
;

;

I + B2 (;j!I ; A ; F  B2 );1 F  I + F (j!I ; A ; B2 F );1 B2  I:

(14:15)

14.5. Standard H2 Problem

375

Note that the inequality (14.15) follows from taking the inverse of inequality (14.14).
Dene G(s) = ;F (sI ; A);1 B2 and assume for the moment that the system is single
input. Then the inequality (14.14) shows that the open-loop Nyquist diagram of the
system G(s) in Figure 14.1 never enters the unit disk centered at (;1; 0) of the complex
plane. Hence the system has at least the following stability margins:
kmin  12 ; kmax = 1; min  ;60o; max  60o
i.e., the system has at least a 6dB (= 20 log 2) gain margin and a 60o phase margin in
both directions. A similar interpretation may be generalized to multiple input systems.
Next, it is noted that the inequality (14.15) can also be given some robustness
interpretation. In fact, it implies that the closed-loop system in Figure 14.1 is stable
even if the open-loop system G(s) is perturbed additively by a
2 RH1 as long as
k
k1 < 1. This can be seen from the following block diagram and small gain theorem
where the transfer matrix from w to z is exactly I + F (j!I ; A ; B2 F );1 B2 .

- x_ = Ax + B2u - ?e -

14.5 Standard H2 Problem

The system considered in this section is described by the following standard block
diagram:

z
y

w


The realization of the transfer matrix G is taken to be of the form

2

A B1 B2
6
G(s) = 4 C1 0 D12 75 :
C2 D21 0

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

376

Notice the special o-diagonal structure of D: D22 is assumed to be zero so that G22
is strictly proper1; also, D11 is assumed to be zero in order to guarantee that the H2
problem properly posed.2 The case for D11 6= 0 will be discussed in Section 14.7.
The following additional assumptions are made for the output feedback H2 problem
in this chapter:
(i) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable;
h

(ii) D12 has full column rank with D12 D? unitary, and D21 has full row rank
"

D
with ~21 unitary;
D?
"

A ; j!I B2
C1
D12

"

A ; j!I B1
C2
D21

(iii)
(iv)

has full column rank for all !;

has full row rank for all !.

The rst assumption is for the stabilizability of G by output feedback, and the third
and the fourth assumptions together with the rst guarantee that the two Hamiltonian matrices associated with the H2 problem below belong to dom(Ric). The rank
assumptions (ii) are necessary to guarantee that the H2 optimal controller is a nite
dimensional linear time invariant one, while the unitary assumptions are made for the
simplicity of the nal solution; they are not restrictions (see e.g., Chapter 17).

H2 Problem The H2 control problem is to nd a proper, real-rational

controller K which stabilizes G internally and minimizes the H2 -norm of
the transfer matrix Tzw from w to z .
In the following discussions we shall assume that we have state models of G and K .
Recall that a controller is said to be admissible if it is internally stabilizing and proper.
We now state the solution of the problem and then take up its derivation in the next
several sections. By Corollary 13.10 the two Hamiltonian matrices
"

"

A
0
B2
H2 :=
;


;C1 C1 ;A
;C1 D12
"

"

A
0
C2
J2 :=
;

;B1 B1 ;A
;B1D21

 C1 B2
D12

D21 B1 C2

1 As we have discussed in Section 12.3.4 of Chapter 12 there is no loss of generality in making this
assumption since the controller for D22 nonzero case can be recovered from the zero case.
2 Recall that a rational proper stable transfer function is an RH function i it is strictly proper.
2

14.5. Standard H2 Problem

377

belong to dom(Ric), and, moreover, X2 := Ric(H2 )  0 and Y2 := Ric(J2 )  0. Dene

 C1 ); L2 := ;(Y2 C  + B1 D )
F2 := ;(B2 X2 + D12
2
21

and

AF2 := A + B2 F2 ; C1F2 := C1 + D12 F2

AL2 := A + L2C2 ; B1L2 := B1 + L2 D21
A^2 := A + B2 F2 + L2C2
#
"
#
"
A
A
I
B
L
F
1L2
2
2
; Gf (s) :=
:
Gc (s) :=
C1F2 0
I
0

Theorem 14.7 There exists a unique optimal controller

#
"
^2 ;L2
A
:
K (s) :=
opt

F2

Moreover, min kTzw k22 = kGc B1 k22 + kF2 Gf k22 = kGc L2k22 + kC1 Gf k22 .

The controller Kopt has the well-known separation structure, which will be discussed
in more detail in Section 14.9. For comparison with the H1 results, it is useful to
describe all suboptimal controllers.

Theorem 14.8 The family of all admissible controllers such that kTzw k2 < equals
the set of all transfer matrices from y to u in

u

M2

y


A^2 ;L2 B2
6
M2 (s) = 4 F2 0 I
;C2 I 0

3
7
5

where Q 2 RH2 , kQk22 < 2 ; (kGc B1 k22 + kF2 Gf k22 ).

Thus, the suboptimal controllers are parameterized by a xed (independent of )

linear-fractional transformation with a free parameter Q. With Q = 0, we recover Kopt .
It is worth noting that the parameterization in Theorem 14.8 makes Tzw ane in Q
and yields the Youla parameterization of all stabilizing controllers when the conditions
on Q are replaced by Q 2 RH1 .

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

378

14.6 Optimal Controlled System

In this section, we look at the controller,

K (s) = F`(M2 ; Q); Q 2 RH1

connected to G. (Keep in mind that all admissible controllers are parameterized by the
above formula). We will give a brief analysis of the closed-loop system. It will be seen
that a direct consequence from this analysis is the results of Theorem 14.7 and 14.8.
The proof given here is not our emphasis. The reason is that this approach does not
generalize nicely to other control problems and is often very involved. An alternative
proof will be given in the later part of this chapter by using the FI and OE results
discussed in section 14.8 and the separation argument. The idea of separation is the
main theme for synthesis. We shall now analyze the system structure under the control
of a such controller. In particular, we will compute explicitly kTzw k22 .
Consider the following system diagram with controller K (s) = F`(M2 ; Q):

z
y

y1

 w
XXXX u
 XXX
M2 

G

u1

Then Tzw = F` (N; Q) with

2

;B2 F2

B1 B2
7
6
6 0
AL2 B1L2 0 77 :
N = 66
0 D12 75
4 C1F2 ;D12 F2
D21 0
0
C2
Dene

"

We have

AF2

"

U = AF2 B2 ; V = AL2 B1L2 :

C1F2 D12
C2 D21

Tzw = Gc B1 ; UF2 Gf + UQV:

It follows from Lemma 14.3 that Gc B1 and U are orthogonal. Thus

kTzw k22 = kGc B1 k22 + kUF2 Gf ; UQV k22 = kGc B1 k22 + kF2 Gf ; QV k22 :

14.7. H2 Control with Direct Disturbance Feedforward*

379

It can also be shown easily by duality that Gf and V are orthogonal, i.e., Gf V  2 RH?2 ,
and V is a co-inner, so we have
kTzw k22 = kGc B1 k22 + kF2 Gf ; QV k22 = kGc B1 k22 + kF2 Gf k22 + kQk22 :
This shows clearly that Q = 0 gives the unique optimal control, so K = F`(M2 ; 0) is
the unique optimal controller. Note also that kTzw k2 is nite if and only if Q 2 RH2 .
Hence Theorem 14.7 and 14.8 follow easily.
It is interesting to examine the structure of Gc and Gf . First of all the transfer
matrix Gc can be represented as a xed system with the feedback matrix F2 wrapped
around it:

A I B2
C1 0 D12
I 0 0




F2

F2 is, in fact, an optimal LQR controller and minimizes the H2 norm of Gc . Similarly,
Gf can be represented as

A B1 I
I 0 0
C2 D21 0




L2

and L2 minimizes the H2 norm of Gf and solves a special ltering problem.

14.7 H2 Control with Direct Disturbance Feedforward*

Let us consider the generalized system structure again with D11 not necessarily zero:
2

A B1 B2
6
G(s) = 4 C1 D11 D12
C2 D21 0

3
7
5

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

380

We shall consider the following question: what will happen and under what condition
will the H2 optimal control problem make sense if D11 6= 0?
Recall that F`(M2 ; Q) with Q 2 RH1 parameterizes all stabilizing controllers for G
regardless of D11 = 0 or not. Now again consider the closed loop transfer matrix with
the controller K = F`(M2 ; Q); then

Tzw = Gc B1 ; UF2 Gf + UQV + D11

and

Tzw (1) = D12 Q(1)D21 + D11 :

Hence the H2 optimal control problem will make sense, i.e., having nite H2 norm, if
and only if there is a constant Q(1) such that

D12 Q(1)D21 + D11 = 0:

This requires that
and that

 D11 D
Q(1) = ;D12
21

; D12 D12 D11 D21 D21 + D11 = 0:

(14:16)

Note that the equation (14.16) is a very restrictive condition. For example, suppose

D12 =

"

D21 = 0 I

and D11 is partitioned accordingly

"

D11 = D1111 D1112 :

D1121 D1122
Then equation (14.16) implies that
"

"

D1111 D1112 = 0 0
D1121 0
0 0

and that Q(1) = ;D1122 . So only D1122 can be nonzero for a sensible H2 problem.
Hence from now on in this section we shall assume that (14.16) holds and denotes
 D11 D21
 . To nd the optimal control law for the system G with D11 6= 0,
DK := ;D12
let us consider the following system conguration:

14.8. Special Problems

381




- DK
- ;DK

Then

and


-f
6

u1

-f
6


G^

K^

A + B2 DK C2 B1 + B2 DK D21 B2
6
^
G = 4 C1 + D12 DK C2
0
D12
C2
D21
0

3
7
5

^
K = DK + K:
It is easy to check that the system G^ satises all assumptions in Section 14.5; hence the
controller formula in Section 14.5 can be used. A little bit of algebra will show that
#
"
^2 ; B2 DK C2 ;(L2 ; B2 DK )
A
K^ =
F2 ; DK C2
0

is the H2 optimal controller for G^ . Hence the controller K for the original system G
will be given by
"
#
^2 ; B2 DK C2 ;(L2 ; B2 DK )
A
K=
= F` (M2 ; DK ):

F2 ; DK C2

14.8 Special Problems

DK

In this section we look at various H2 -optimization problems from which the output
feedback solutions of the previous sections will be constructed via a separation argument.
All the special problems in this section are to nd K stabilizing G and minimizing the
H2 -norm from w to z in the standard setup, but with dierent structures for G. As

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

382

in Chapter 12, we shall call these special problems, respectively, state feedback (SF),
output injection (OI), full information (FI), full control (FC), disturbance feedforward
(DF), and output estimation (OE). OI, FC, and OE are natural duals of SF, FI, and
DF, respectively. The output feedback solutions will be constructed out of the FI and
OE results.
The special problems SF, OI, FI, and FC are not, strictly speaking, special cases of
the output feedback problem since they do not satisfy all of the assumptions for output
feedback (while DF and OE do). Each special problem inherits some of the assumptions
(i)-(iv) from the output feedback as appropriate. The assumptions will be discussed in
the subsections for each problem.
In each case, the results are summarized as a list of three items; (in all cases, K
must be admissible)
1. the minimum of kTzw k2 ;
2. the unique controller minimizing kTzw k2 ;
3. the family of all controllers such that kTzw k2 < , where is greater than the
minimum norm.
Warning: we will be more specic below about what we mean about the uniqueness and
all controllers in the second and third item. In particular, the controllers characterized
here for SF, OI, FI and FC problems are neither unique nor all-inclusive. Once again we
regard all controllers that give the same control signal u, i.e., having the same transfer
function from w to u, as an equivalence class. In other words, if K1 and K2 generate
the same control signal u, we will regard them as the same, denoted as K1 
= K2. Hence
the \unique controller" here means one of the controllers from the unique equivalence
class. The same comments apply to the \all" situation. This will be much clearer in
section 14.8.1 when we consider the state feedback problem. In that case we actually
give a parameterization of all the elements in the equivalence class of the \unique"
optimal controllers. Thus the unique controller is really not unique. We chose not to
give the parameterization of all the elements in an equivalence class in this book since it
is very messy, as can be seen in section 14.8.1, and not very useful. However, it will be
seen that this equivalence class problem will not occur in the general output feedback
case including DF and OE problems.

14.8.1 State Feedback

Consider an open-loop system transfer matrix

2

A B1 B2
6
GSF (s) = 4 C1 0 D12
I 0 0
with the following assumptions:

3
7
5

14.8. Special Problems

383

(i) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable;

(ii) D12 has full column rank with D12 D? unitary;

"

(iii)

A ; j!I B2
C1
D12

has full column rank for all !.

This is very much like the LQR problem except that we require from the start that u
be generated by state feedback and that the detectability of (C1 ; A) is not imposed since
the controllers are restricted to providing internal stability. The controller is allowed to
be dynamic, but it turns out that dynamics are not necessary.

State Feedback:
1. min kTzw k2 = kGc B1 k2 = (trace(B1 X2 B1 ))1=2
2. K (s) 
= F2
Remark 14.3 The class of all suboptimal controllers for state feedback are messy and
are not very useful in this book, so they are omitted, as are the OI problems.
~
Proof. Let K be a stabilizing controller, u = K (s)x. Change control variables by
dening v := u ; F2 x and then write the system equations as
2

x_
AF2
B1 B2
7 6
z 5 = 4 C1F2
0 D12
v
(K ; F2 ) 0 0

6
4

32
76
54

x
w 75 :
v

The block diagram is

z

AF2 B1 B2
C1F2 0 D12
I
0 0




- K ; F2
Let Tvw denote the transfer matrix from w to v. Notice that Tvw 2 RH2 because
K stabilizes G. Then
Tzw = Gc B1 + UTvw

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

384
"

AF2 B2 , and by Lemma 14.3 U is inner and U  G is in RH? . We

where U =
c
2
C1F2 D12
get

kTzw k22 = kGc B1 k22 + kTvw k22 :

Thus min kTzw k22 = kGc B1 k22 and the minimum is achieved i Tvw = 0. Furthermore,
K = F2 is a controller achieving this minimum, and any other controllers achieving
minimum are in the equivalence class of F2 .
2
Note that the above proof actually yields a much stronger result than what is needed.
The proof that the optimal Tvw is Tvw = 0 does not depend on the restriction that the
controller measures just the state. We only require that the controller produce v as a
causal stable function Tvw of w. This means that the optimal state feedback is also
optimal for the full information problem as well.
We now give some further explanation about the uniqueness of the optimal controller
that we commented on before. The important observation for this issue is that the
controllers making Tvw = 0 are not unique. The controller given above, F2 , is only one
of them. We will now try to nd all of those controllers that stabilize the system and
give Tvw = 0, i.e., all K (s) 
= F2 .

Proposition 14.9 Let Vc be a matrix whose columns form a basis for KerB1 (VcB1 =
0). Then all H2 optimal state feedback controllers can be parameterized as Kopt =
F` (Msf ; ) with  2 RH2 and
"

I
Msf =  F2
:
Vc (sI ; AF2 ) ;Vc B2

Proof. Since

"

Tvw = I ; AF2 B2
K ; F2 0

#!;1 "

AF2 B1 = 0;
K ; F2 0

we get

(K ; F2 )(sI ; AF2 );1 B1 = 0

(14:17)
which is achieved if K = F2 . Clearly, this is the only solution if B1 is square and
nonsingular or if K is restricted to be constant and (AF2 ; B1 ) is controllable.
To parameterize all elements in the equivalence class (Tvw = 0) to which K = F2
belongs, let
"
#

Pc (s) := AF2 B2 :
I 0

14.8. Special Problems

385

Then all state feedback controllers stabilizing G can be parameterized as

K (s) = F2 + (I + QPc );1 Q; Q(s) 2 RH1

where Q is free. Substitute K in equation (14.17), and we get

Q(s)(sI ; AF2 );1 B1 = 0:

Hence we have

(14:18)

Q(s)(sI ; AF2 );1 = (s)Vc ; (s) 2 RH2 :

Thus all Q(s) 2 RH1 satisfying (14.18) can be written as

Q(s) = (s)Vc (sI ; AF2 ); (s) 2 RH2 :

(14:19)

Therefore,

Kopt(s) = F2 + (I + (s)Vc (sI ; AF2 )Pc );1 (s)Vc (sI ; AF2 )

= F2 + (I + (s)Vc B2 );1 (s)Vc (sI ; AF2 ); (s) 2 RH2

parameterizes the equivalence class of K = F2 .

14.8.2 Full Information and Other Special Problems

We shall consider the FI problem rst.
2

A
6
6 C1
GFI (s) = 66 " #
I
4
0

B1
"

0
0

B2
D
" 12#
0
0

3
7
7
7
7
5

The assumptions relevant to the FI problem are the same as the state feedback problem.
This is similar to the state feedback problem except that the controller now has more
information (w). However, as was pointed out in the discussion of the state feedback
problem, this extra information is not used by the optimal controller.

Full Information:
1. min kTzw k2 = kGc B1 k2 = (trace(B1 X2 B1 ))1=2
h
i
2. K (s) 
= F2 0
h

3. K (s) 
= F2 Q(s) , where Q 2 RH2 , kQk22 < 2 ; kGcB1 k22

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

386

Proof. Items 1 and 2 follow immediately from the proof of the state feedback results

because the argument that Tvw = 0 did not depend on the restriction to state feedback
only. Thus we only need to prove item 3. Let K be an admissible controller such that
kTzw k2 < . As in the SF proof, dene a new control variable v = u ; F2 x; then the
closed-loop system is as shown below

z
y

with

AF2
6
6 C1F2
G~ FI = 66 " #
I
4

G~ FI

0
0

K~

B1
"

w


B2
7
7
D
12
~ = K ; [F2 0]:
"
# 7; K
7

0
0

I
0
Denote by Q the transfer matrix from w to v; it belongs to RH2 by internal stability
and the fact that D12 has full column rank and Thzw with zi= C1F2 x + Dh12 Qw hasi nite
H2 norm. Then u = F2 x + v = F2 x + Qw = F2 Q y so K 
= F2 Q , and
2
2
2
2
kTzw k2 = kGc B1 + UQk2 = kGc B1 k2 + kQk2; hence,

kQk22 = kTzw k22 ; kGcB1 k22 < 2 ; kGc B1 k22 :

Likewise, one can show that every controller of the form given in item no.3 is admissible
and suboptimal.
2
The results for DF, OI, FC, and OE follow from the parallel development of Chapter 12.

Disturbance Feedforward:

A B1 B2
6
GDF (s) = 4 C1 0 D12
C2 I 0

3
7
5

This problem inherits the same assumptions (i)-(iii) as in the state feedback problem,
in addition to the stability condition of A ; B1 C2 .
1. min kTzw k2 = kGc B1 k2
"

A + B2 F2 ; B1 C2 B1
2. K (s) =
F2
0

14.8. Special Problems

387

3. the set of all transfer matrices from y to u in

u

M2D

y


A + B2 F2 ; B1 C2 B1 B2
6
M2D (s) = 4
F2
0 I
;C2
I 0

where Q 2 RH2 , kQk22 < 2 ; kGcB1 k22

Output Injection:

A B1 I
6
GOI (s) = 4 C1 0 0
C2 D21 0

with the following assumptions:

(i) (C2 ; A) is detectable;

"

D
(ii) D21 has full row rank with ~21
D?
"

(iii)

A ; j!I B1
C2
D21

3
7
5

unitary;

has full row rank for all !.

1. min kTzw k2 = kC1 Gf k2 = (trace(C1 Y2 C1 ))1=2

"

L
2. K (s) 
= 2

Full Control:

A B1
6
6
GFC (s) = 64 C1 0
C2 D21

h
h
h

I 0
0 I

i 3
i 7
7
7
i 5

0 0
with the same assumptions as an output injection problem.
1. min kTzw k2 = kC1 Gf k2 = (trace(C1 Y2 C1 ))1=2
"

L
2. K (s) 
= 2
0

3
7
5

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

388
3. K (s) 
=

"

L2 , where Q 2 RH , kQk2 < 2 ; kC G k2

2
1 f 2
2
Q(s)

Output Estimation:

A B1 B2
GOE (s) = 64 C1 0 I
C2 D21 0

3
7
5

The assumptions are taken to be those in the output injection problem plus an additional
assumption that A ; B2 C1 is stable.
1. min kTzw k2 = kC1 Gf k2
"

A + L2 C2 ; B2 C1 L2
2. K (s) =
C1
0

3. the set of all transfer matrices from y to u in

u

y
M2O 
-

A + L2 C2 ; B2 C1 L2 ;B2
M2O (s) = 64
C1
0 I
C2
I 0

3
7
5

where Q 2 RH2 , kQk22 < 2 ; kC1 Gf k22

14.9 Separation Theory

Given the results for the special problems, we can now prove Theorem 14.7 using separation arguments. This essentially involves reducing the output feedback problem to a
combination of the Full Information and the Output Estimation problems.

14.9.1 H2 Controller Structure

Recall that the unique H2 optimal controller is

"
# "
^2 ;L2
A
A + B2 F2 + L2C2 Y2 C2
K2 (s) :=
=
F2 0
;B2 X2
0
2
2
2
and
min kTzw k2 = kGc B1 k2 + kF2 Gf k2

where X2 := Ric(H2) and Y2 := Ric(J2 ) and the min is over all stabilizing controllers.
Note that F2 is the optimal state feedback in the Full Information problem and L2 is the

14.9. Separation Theory

389

optimal output injection in the Full Control case. The well-known separation property
of the H2 solution is re ected in the fact that K2 is exactly the optimal output estimate
of F2 x and can be obtained by setting C1 = F2 in OE.2. Also, the minimum cost is the
sum of the FI cost (FI.1) and the OE cost for estimating F2 x (OE.1).
The controller equations can be written in standard observer form as

x^_ = Ax^ + B2 u + L2(C2 x^ ; y)

u = F2 x^
where x^ is the optimal estimate of x.

14.9.2 Proof of Theorem 14.7

As before we dene a new control variable, v := u ; F2 x, and the transfer function to

z becomes
#"
#
"

z=

"

AF2 B1 B2
C1F2 0 D12
#

w = G B w + Uv
c 1
v

"

(14:20)

AF2 I and U (s) := AF2 B2 . Furthermore, U is inner

where Gc (s) :=
C1F2 0
C1F2 D12
(i.e., U  U = I ) and U Gc belongs to RH?2 from Lemma 14.3.
Let K be any admissible controller and notice how v is generated:
v
w
2
3
A B1 B2
Gv 
Gv = 64 ;F2 0 I 75
y
u
C2 D21 0
-K
Note that K stabilizes G i K stabilizes Gv (the two closed-loop systems have identical
A-matrices) and that Gv has the form of the Output Estimation problem. From (14.20)
and the properties of U we have that
min kTzw k22 = kGcB1 k22 + min kTvw k22 :
But from item OE.2, kTvw k2 is minimized by the controller
"

A + B2 F2 + L2C2 ;L2 ;
F2
0

and then from OE.1 min kTvw k2 = kF2 Gf k2 .

(14:21)

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

390

14.9.3 Proof of Theorem 14.8

Continuing with the development in the previous proof, we see that the set of all suboptimal controllers equals the set of all K 's such that kTvw k22 < 2 ; kGc B1 k22 . Apply
item OE.3 to get that such K 's are parameterized by

u

M2

y


A^2 ;L2 B2
6
M2 (s) = 4 F2 0 I
;C2 I 0

3
7
5

with Q 2 RH2 , kQk22 < 2 ; kGc B1 k22 ; kF2 Gf k22 .

14.10 Stability Margins of H2 Controllers

We have shown that the system with LQR controller has at least 60o phase margin
and 6dB gain margin. However, it is not clear whether these stability margins will be
preserved if the states are not available and the output feedback H2 (or LQG) controller
has to be used. The answer is provided here through a counterexample: there are no
guaranteed stability margins for a H2 controller.
Consider a single input and single output two state generalized dynamical system:
2

G(s) =

"

1 1
0 1

6
6
6
6 "
6
6
6
6
0
6
4
h

pq pq
0

1 0

p 0
p 0

"

"

"

0 1

0
1
0
1
0

It can be shown analytically that

X2 =
and
where

"

; Y2 =

"

 
"

F2 = ; 1 1 ; L2 = ; 1
1
h

 = 2 + 4 + q ;  = 2 + 4 + :

# 3
7
7
7
# 7
7
7
7
7
7
5

14.10. Stability Margins of H2 Controllers

391

Then the optimal output H2 controller is given by

2
3
1;
1 
Kopt = 64 ;( +  ) 1 ;   75 :
;
; 0
Suppose that the resulting closed-loop controller (or plant G22 ) has a scalar gain k with
a nominal value k = 1. Then the controller implemented in the system is actually
K = kKopt;
and the closed-loop system A-matrix becomes
2
3
1 1
0
0
6
7
6
7
A~ = 66 0 1 ;k ;k 77 :
1;
1 5
4  0
 0 ; ;  1 ; 
It can be shown that the characteristic polynomial has the form
det(sI ; A~) = a4 s4 + a3 s3 + a2 s2 + a1 s + a0
with
a1 =  +  ; 4 + 2(k ; 1); a0 = 1 + (1 ; k):
Note that for closed-loop stability it is necessary to have a0 > 0 and a1 > 0. Note also
that a0  (1 ; k) and a1  2(k ; 1) for suciently large  and  if k 6= 1. It is
easy to see that for suciently large  and  (or q and ), the system is unstable for
arbitrarily small perturbations in k in either direction. Thus, by choice of q and , the
gain margins may be made arbitrarily small.
It is interesting to note that the margins deteriorate as control weight (1=q) gets
small (large q) and/or system deriving noise gets large (large ). In modern control
folklore, these have often been considered ad hoc means of improving sensitivity.
It is also important to recognize that vanishing margins are not only associated with
open-loop unstable systems. It is easy to construct minimum phase, open-loop stable
counterexamples for which the margins are arbitrarily small.
The point of these examples is that H2 (LQG) solutions, unlike LQR solutions,
provide no global system-independent guaranteed robustness properties. Like their more
classical colleagues, modern LQG designers are obliged to test their margins for each
specic design.
It may, however, be possible to improve the robustness of a given design by relaxing
the optimality of the lter (or FC controller) with respect to error properties. A successful approach in this direction is the so called LQG loop transfer recovery (LQG/LTR)
design technique. The idea is to design a ltering gain (or FC control law) in such way
so that the LQG (or H2 ) control law will approximate the loop properties of the regular
LQR control. This will not be explored further here; interested reader may consult
related references.

392

14.11 Notes and References

H2 OPTIMAL CONTROL

The detailed treatment of H2 related theory, LQ optimal control, Kalman ltering, etc.,
can be found in Anderson and Moore [1990] or Kwakernaak and Sivan [1972].

15

Linear Quadratic
Optimization
This chapter considers time domain characterizations of Hankel operators and Toeplitz
operators by means of some related quadratic optimizations. These characterizations
will be used to prove a max-min problem which is the key to the H1 theory considered
in the next chapter.

15.1 Hankel Operators

Let G(s) be a stable real rational transfer matrix with a state space realization

x_ = Ax + Bw
z = Cx + Dw:

(15.1)

Consider rst the problem of using an input w 2 L2; to maximize kP+ z k22. This is
exactly the standard problem of computing the Hankel norm of G, i.e., the induced
norm of the Hankel operator
P+ MG : H2? ! H2 ;
and the norm can be expressed in terms of the controllability Gramian Lc and observability Gramian Lo:

ALc + LcA + BB  = 0

A Lo + LoA + C  C = 0:
393

LINEAR QUADRATIC OPTIMIZATION

394

Although this result is well-known, we will include a time-domain proof similar in technique to the proofs of the optimal H2 and H1 control results.




Lemma 15.1 w2L
inf kwk22  x(0) = x0 = x0 y0 where y0 solves Lcy0 = x0 .
2;

Proof. Assume (A; B) is controllable; otherwise, factor out the uncontrollable subspace. Then Lc is invertible and y0 = L;c 1x0 . Moreover, w 2 L2; can be used to
produce any x(0) = x0 given x(;1) = 0. We need to show

2  x(0) = x = x L;1 x :
inf
k
w
k
(15:2)
0
2
0 c 0
w2L2;
To show this, we can dierentiate x(t) L;c 1 x(t) along the solution of (15.1) for any given
input w as follows:

d (x L;1 x) = x_  L;1 x + x L;1 x_ = x (A L;1 + L;1 A)x + 2hw; B  L;1 xi:
c
c
c
c
c
c
dt
Using Lc equation to substitute for A L;c 1 + L;c 1 A and completion of the squares gives
d  ;1
2
 ;1 2
dt (x Lc x) = kwk ; kw ; B Lc xk :
Integration from t = ;1 to t = 0 with x(;1) = 0 and x(0) = x0 gives
x0 L;c 1x0 = kwk22 ; kw ; B  L;c 1 xk22  kwk22 :
If w(t) = B  e;A t L;c 1x0 = B  L;c 1e(A+BB L;c 1)t x0 on (;1; 0], then w 2 L2; , w =
B  L;c 1 x and equality is achieved, thus proving (15.2).
2

Lemma 15.2

supw2BL2; kP+z k22 = supw2BH?2 kP+ MG wk22 = (LoLc):

Proof. Given x(0) = x0 and w = 0, for t  0 the norm of z(t) = CeAtx0 can be found
from

kP+z k22 =

x0 eAt C  CeAt x0 dt = x0 Lo x0 :

Combine this result with Lemma 15.1 to give

2
x0 Lox0 = (L L ):
sup kP+ z k22 = sup kPkw+kz2k2 = max
o c
x0 6=0 x0 L;
w2BL2;
06=w2L2;
c 1 x0
2

15.2. Toeplitz Operators

395

Remark 15.1 Another useful way to characterize the Hankel norm is to examine the
following quadratic optimization with initial condition x(;1) = 0:


sup kP+ z k22 ;  2 kwk22 :
w2L2;

It is easy to see from the denition of the Hankel norm that

sup kPkw+kz k2  
2
06=w2L2;
i

sup

06=w2L2;

kP+ z k22 ;  2 kwk22  0:

So the Hankel norm is equal to the smallest  such that the above inequality holds.
Now


sup kP+ z k22 ;  2 kwk22

w2L2;

sup (x0 Lo x0 ;  2 x0 L;c 1 x0 )

x0 2Rn
(

0; (Lo Lc)   2 ;
+1; (Lo Lc) >  2 :

Hence the Hankel norm is equal to the square root of (Lo Lc).

15.2 Toeplitz Operators

If a transfer matrix G 2 RH1 and kGk1 < 1, then by Corollary 13.24, the Hamiltonian
matrix
"

A + BR;1 D C
BR;1 B 
H=
;

;
1

;C (I + DR D )C ;(A + BR;1 D C )

R = 2 I ; D D

with = 1 is in dom(Ric), X = Ric(H )  0, A + BR;1 (B  X + D C ) is stable and

A X + XA + (XB + C  D)R;1 (B  X + D C ) + C  C = 0:

(15:3)

The following lemma oers yet another consequence of kGk1 < 1. (Recall that the H1
norm of a stable matrix is the Toeplitz operator norm.)

Lemma 15.3 Suppose kGk1 < 1 and x(0) = x0 . Then

sup (kz k22 ; kwk22 ) = x0 Xx0
w2L2+

and the sup is achieved.

LINEAR QUADRATIC OPTIMIZATION

396

Proof. We can dierentiate x(t) Xx(t) as in the last section, use the Riccati equation
(15.3) to substitute for A X + XA, and complete the squares to get

d (x Xx) = ;kz k2 + kwk2 ; kR;1=2[Rw ; (B  X + D C )x]k2 :

dt
If w 2 L2+ , then x 2 L2+ , so integrating from t = 0 to t = 1 gives
kz k22 ; kwk22 = x0 Xx0 ; kR;1=2 [Rw ; (B  X + D C )x]k22  x0 Xx0 :
(15:4)
;
1


If we let w = R;1 (B  X + D C )x = R;1 (B  X + D C )e[A+BR (B X +D C )]t x0 , then
w 2 L2+ because A + BR;1 (B  X + D C ) is stable. Thus the inequality in (15.4) can
be made an equality and the proof is complete. Note that the sup is achieved for a w
which is a linear function of the state.
2
As a direct consequence of this lemma, we have the following
Corollary 15.4 Let x(0) = x0 and X0 = X0 > 0.
(i) if kGk1 < and X = Ric(H ). Then


supn
kz k22 ; 2 (kwk22 + x0 X0 x0 )
06=(x0 ;w)2R L2 [0;1)

= sup

8
>
<
>
:

06=x0 2Rn

x0 Xx0 ; 2 x0 X0 x0

max (X ; 2 X0 ) < 0;
max (X ; 2 X0 ) = 0;
= +1; max (X ; 2 X0 ) > 0:
< 0;
= 0;

kP+z k2 < 2 if and only if  (D) < , H 2 dom(Ric),

supn
2

k
w
k
06=(x0 ;w)2R L2 [0;1)
2 + x0 X0 x0
and max (X ; 2 X0 ) < 0.
Remark 15.2 The matrix X0 has the interpretation of the condence on the initial
condition x0 . So if (X0 ) is small, then the initial condition is probably not known
very well. In that case min will be large where min denotes the smallest such
that max (X ; 2 X0 )  0. On the other hand, a large (X0 ) implies that the initial
condition is known very well and that min is determined essentially by the condition
H 2 dom(Ric).
~
A dual version of Lemma 15.3 can also be obtained and is useful in characterizing
the so-called 2  2 block mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operator. To do that, we rst note that1
(ii)

GT (s) =

"

A C 
B  D

1 Note that since the system matrices are real, AT = A ; B T = B  , etc. The conjugate transpose is
used here for the transpose for the sake of consistency in notation.

15.3. Mixed Hankel-Toeplitz Operators

397

and kGk1 < 1 i kGT k1 < 1. Let J denote the following Hamiltonian matrix
"

"

h


J = A  0 + C  R~ ;1 DB  C
;BB ;A
;BD

where R~ := I ; DD . Then J 2 dom(Ric), Y = Ric(J )  0, A + (Y C  + BD )R~ ;1 C

is stable and
AY + Y A + (Y C  + BD )R~ ;1 (CY + DB  ) + BB  = 0
(15:5)
if kGk1 < 1. For simplicity, we shall assume that (A; B ) is controllable; hence, Y > 0.
The case in which Y is singular can be obtained by restricting x0 2 Im(Y ) and replacing
Y ;1 by Y + .

Lemma 15.5 Suppose kGk1 < 1 and (A; B) is controllable. Then




sup kP;z k22 ; kwk22  x(0) = x0 = ;x0 Y ;1 x0
w2L2;

and the sup is achieved.

Proof. Analogous to the proof of Lemma 15.3, we can dierentiate x(t) Y ;1x(t), use

the Riccati equation (15.5) to substitute for AY + Y A , and complete the squares to
get
d  ;1
2
2
;1=2
 ;1

2
dt (x Y x) = ;kz k + kwk ; kR [Rw ; (B Y + D C )x]k

where R = I ; D D > 0. If w 2 L2; , then x 2 L2; and x(;1) = 0; so integrating

from t = ;1 to t = 0 gives

kz k22 ; kwk22 = ;x0 Y ;1 x0 ; kR;1=2[Rw ; (B  Y ;1 + D C )x]k22  ;x0 Y ;1 x0 : (15:6)

If we let w = R;1 (B  Y ;1 + D C )x = R;1 (B  Y ;1 + D C )e[A+BR;1 (B Y ;1 +D C )]tx0 ,
then w 2 L2; because A + BR;1(B  Y ;1 + D C ) = ;Y fA +(Y C  + BD )R~ ;1 C g Y ;1
and A + (Y C  + BD )R~ ;1 C is stable. Thus the inequality can be made an equality
and the proof is complete.
2

15.3 Mixed Hankel-Toeplitz Operators

h

Now suppose that the input is partitioned so that B = B1 B2 , D = D1 D2 ,

h

G(s) = G1 (s) G2 (s) 2 RH1 ;

LINEAR QUADRATIC OPTIMIZATION

398

and w is partitioned conformably. Then kG2 k1 < 1 i  (D2 ) < 1, and

"

"

h
A
0
B2
;1 D  C B 
HW :=
+
R
2
2
2
;C  C ;A
;C  D2

is in dom(Ric) where R2 := I ; D2 D2 > 0. For HW 2 dom(Ric), dene W = Ric(HW ).

Let
("
#
)

w
1 
?
?
w 2 W := H2  L2 =
(15:7)
 w1 2 H2 ; w2 2 L2 :


w2
We are interested in a test for supw2BW kP+ z k2 < 1, or, equivalently,
sup k;wk2 < 1

w2BW

(15:8)

where ; = P+ [MG1 MG2 ] : W ! H2 is a mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operator:

"

w
; 1
w2

= P+
= P+

h
h

"

w1
w1 2 H2? ; w2 2 L2
G1 G2
w2
i
G1 G2 P; w + P+ G2 P+ w2 :
i

Thus ; is the sum of the Hankel operator P+ MG : H2?  H2? ! H2 and the Toeplitz
operator P+ MG2 : H2 ! H2 . The following lemma generalizes Corollary 13.24 (B1 =
0; D1 = 0) and Lemma 15.2 (B2 = 0; D2 = 0).

Lemma 15.6 supw2BW k;wk2 < 1 i the following two conditions hold:
(i)  (D2 ) < 1 and HW 2 dom(Ric);
(ii) (WLc) < 1.

Proof. By Corollary 13.24, condition (i) is necessary for (15.8), so we will prove that
given condition (i), (15.8) holds i condition (ii) holds. We will do this by showing,
equivalently, that (WLc)  1 i supw2BW k;wk2  1. By denition of W , if w 2 W
then
kP+ z k22 ; kwk22 = kP+ z k22 ; kP+ w2 k22 ; kP; wk22 :
Note that the last term only contributes to kP+ z k22 through x(0). Thus if Lc is invertible,
then Lemma 15.1 and 15.3 yield




sup kP+ z k22 ; kwk22  x(0) = x0 = x0 Wx0 ; x0 L;c 1 x0

w2W

(15:9)

and the supremum is achieved for some w 2 W that can be constructed from the
previous lemmas. Since (WLc )  1 i 9 x0 6= 0 such that the right-hand side of

15.4. Mixed Hankel-Toeplitz Operators: The General Case*

399

(15.9) is  0, we have, by (15.9), that (WLc)  1 i 9 w 2 W , w 6= 0 such that

kP+ z k22  kwk22 . But this is true i supw2BW k;wk2  1.

If Lc is not invertible, we need only restrict x0 in (15.9) to Im(Lc ), and then the
above argument generalizes in a straightforward way.
2
In the dierential game problem considered later and in the H1 optimal control
problem, we will make use of the adjoint ; : H2 ! W , which is given by
; z =

"

"

P; (G1 z ) = P; G1 z
G2 z
G2

(15:10)

where P; Gz := P; (Gz ) = (P; MG)z . That the expression in (15.10) is actually the
adjoint of ; is easily veried from the denition of the inner product on vector-valued
L2 space. The adjoint of ; : W ! H2 is the operator ; : H2 ! W such that
< z; ;w >=< ; z; w > for all w 2 W , z 2 H2 . By denition, we have

< z; ;w > = < z; P+ (G1 w1 + G2 w2 ) >=< z; G1 w1 > + < z; G2w2 >

= < P; (G1 z ); w1 > + < G2 z; w2 >
= < ; z; w > :
The mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operator just studied is the so-called 2  1-block mixed
Hankel-Toeplitz operator. There is a 2  2-block generalization.

15.4 Mixed Hankel-Toeplitz Operators: The General Case*

Historically, the mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operators have played important roles in H1

theory, so it is interesting to consider the 2  2-block generalization of Lemma 15.6. In
fact, the whole H1 control theory can be developed using these tools. See Section 17.7
in Chapter 17. The proof of Lemma 15.7 below is completely straightforward and fairly
short, given the other results in the previous sections. Suppose that
2

A B1 B2
G(s) = G11 (s) G12 (s) = 64 C1 D11 D12
G21 (s) G22 (s)
C2 D21 D22
#

"

Denote

"

3
7
5

"

A B 2 RH :
=:
1
C D

h
i
D2 := D12
D2 := D21 D22
D22
Rx := I ; D2 D2 Ry := I ; D2 D2

LINEAR QUADRATIC OPTIMIZATION

400
"

"

h
i
A
0
B2
;1 D C B 
HX :=
+
R
x
2
2
;C  C ;A
;C  D2
"
# "
#
h
i


A
0
C
2
;1 D2 B  C2 :
HY :=
+
R
;BB  ;A
;BD2 y

Dene W = H2?  L2 , Z = H2  L2 , and ; : W ! Z as
"

"

#"

w
P 0
; 1 = +
w2
0 I

G11 G12
G21 G22

#"

w1 :
w2

Lemma 15.7 supw2BW k;wk2 < 1 holds i the following three conditions hold:
(i)  (D2 ) < 1 and HX 2 dom(Ric);
(ii)  (D2 ) < 1 and HY 2 dom(Ric);
(iii) (XY ) < 1 for X = Ric(HX ) and Y = Ric(HY ).

Proof. The mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operator can be written as

"

"

w1 = P G w1 + 6 h
4
+
P; G21 G22
w2
w2

;
Hence

"

w1
w2

# 7
5

k;wk22 = kP+ Gwk22 + kP; G21 G22 wk22 :

So supw2BW k;wk < 1 implies

sup kP+ Gwk < 1

w2BW

and
But

"

and
h

sup kP; G21 G22 wk < 1:

w2BW

G21 G22

G12
G22

sup
w2 2H2

P+ G

"

w2

 sup kP+ Gwk < 1

w2BW

= sup P; G21 G22 w  sup kP; G21 G22 wk < 1:

1
2
?
w2H2

w2BW

These two inequalities then imply that (i) and (ii) are necessary. Analogous to the proof
of Lemma 15.6, we will show that given conditions (i) and (ii), supw2BW k;wk2 < 1

15.5. Linear Quadratic Max-Min Problem

401

holds i condition (iii) holds. We will do this by showing, equivalently, that (XY )  1
i supw2BW k;wk2  1. By denition of W , if w 2 W then
;

k;wk22 ; kwk22 = kP+ z k22 ; kP+ w2 k22 + kP; G21 G22 wk22 ; kP;wk22 :
Thus if Y is invertible, then Lemma 15.3 and 15.5 yield



sup k;wk22 ; kwk22  x(0) = x0 = x0 Xx0 ; x0 Y ;1 x0 :
w2W

Now the same arguments as in the proof of Lemma 15.6 give the desired conclusion. 2

15.5 Linear Quadratic Max-Min Problem

Consider the dynamical system

x_ = Ax + B1 w + B2 u
z = C1 x + D12 u
with the following assumptions:
(i) (C1 ; A) is observable;
(ii) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable;
h

(15.11)
(15.12)

 C1 D12 = 0 I .
(iii) D12
In this section, we are interested in answering the following question: when
sup umin
kz k2 < 1?
2L
w2BL2+

2+

Remark 15.3 This max-min problem is a game problem in the sense that u is chosen
to minimize the quadratic norm of z and that w is chosen to maximize the norm. In
other words, inputs u and w act as \opposing players". This linear quadratic max-min
problem can be reformulated in the traditional fashion as in the previous sections:
sup umin
2L

w2L2+

2+ 0

1

kz k2 ; kwk2 dt = sup umin

kz k22 ; kwk22 :
2L2+
w2L2+

A conventional game problem setup would be to consider the min-max problem, i.e.,
switching the order of sup and min. However, it will be seen that they are equivalent
and that a saddle point exists. By saying that, we would like to warn readers that this
may not be true in the general case where z = C1 x + D11 w + D12 u and D11 6= 0. In that
case, it is possible that supw inf u < inf u supw . This will be elaborated in Chapter 17.
It should also be pointed out that the results presented here still hold, subject to
some minor modications, if the assumptions (i) and (iii) on the dynamical system are
relaxed to:

LINEAR QUADRATIC OPTIMIZATION

402
"

(i)'

A ; j!I B2
C1
D12

has full column rank for all ! 2 R, and

(iii)' D12 has full column rank.

It is clear from the assumptions that H2 2 dom(Ric) and X2 = Ric(H2 ) > 0, where
"

A
;B2 B2 :
H2 =
;C1 C1 ;A
Let F2 = ;B2 X2 and D? be such that [D12 D? ] is an orthogonal matrix. Dene
#

"

"

Gc (s) := AF2 I ; U (s) := AF2 B2

C1F2 0
C1F2 D12
and

"

;1 
(15:13)
U? = AF2 ;X2 C1 D?
C1F2
D?
where AF2 = A + B2 F2 and C1F2 = C1 + D12 F2 . The following is easily proven using

Lemma 13.29 by obtaining a state-space realization and by eliminating uncontrollable

states using a little algebra involving the Riccati equation for X2 .
h

Lemma 15.8 [U U?] is square and inner and a realization for Gc U U? is
h

Gc U U?

"

AF2 ;B2 X2;1 C1 D? 2 RH :

=
2
X2 0
0

(15:14)

This implies that U and U? are each inner and that both U?Gc and U Gc are
in RH?2 . To answer our earlier question, dene a Hamiltonian matrix H1 and the
associated Riccati equation as
"

A
B1 B1 ; B2 B2
H1 :=
;C1 C1
;A

A X1 + X1 A + X1 B1 B1 X1 ; X1 B2 B2 X1 + C1 C1 = 0:

Theorem 15.9 sup umin

kz k < 1 if and only if H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 =
2L2+ 2
w2BL2+

Ric(H1 ) > 0. Furthermore, if the condition is satised, then u = F1 x with F1 :=

;B2 X1 is an optimal control.

15.5. Linear Quadratic Max-Min Problem

403

Proof. ()) As in Chapter 14, dene  := u ; F2x to get

z = Gc B1 w + U:
Then the hypothesis implies that
sup min kz k2 < 1:

(15:15)

w2BH2  2H2

Since by Lemma 15.8 [U U? ] is square and inner, kz k2 = k[U U?] z k2, and
h

U U?

i

"

"




z = U Gc B1 w +  = P; (U Gc B1 w)+ P+ (U Gc B1 w +  ) :
U? Gc B1 w
U? Gc B1 w

Thus
sup min kz k2 =

w2BH2  2H2

"


sup min

2H

2
w2BH2

P; (U  Gc B1 w) + P+ (U  Gc B1 w +  )
U? Gc B1 w

and the right hand of the above equation is minimized by  = ;P+ (U  Gc B1 w); we
have

sup min kz k2 =

w2BH2  2H2

=:

where ; : L2+ ! W is dened as

; w =
with

"

"

sup
w2BH2

P; (U  Gc B1 w)
U? Gc B1 w
sup k; wk2 < 1

w2BH2

"

P; (U  Gc B1 w) = P; U  G B w
c 1
U?Gc B1 w
U?

W :=

("

q1
q2

q1 2 H2?; q2 2 L2 :

Note that from equation (15.10) the adjoint operator ; : W ! H2 is given by

"

h
q
; 1 = P+ (B1 Gc (Uq1 + U? q2 )) = P+ B1 Gc U U?
q2

where Gc [U U? ] 2 RH2 has the realization in (15.14). So we have

sup k;qk2 < 1:

q2BW

"

q1
q2

404

LINEAR QUADRATIC OPTIMIZATION

This is just the condition (15.8), so from Lemma 15.6 and equation (15.14) we have
that
"
;1C  C1 X ;1 #
A
X
F
2
2 1
2
HW :=
2 dom(Ric)



;X2B1 B1 X2

;AF2

and W = Ric(HW )  0. Note that the observability of (C1 ; A) implies X2 > 0.

Furthermore, the controllability Gramian for the system (15.14) is X2;1 since
AF2 X2;1 + X2;1 AF2 + B2 B2 + X2;1 C1 C1 X2;1 = 0:
Lemma 15.6 also implies (WX2;1) < 1 or, equivalently,
X2 #> W . Using the Ric"

;I X2;1 provides a similarity

;X2 0

cati equation for X2 , one can verify that T :=

transformation between H1 and HW , i.e., H1 = THW T ;1. Then

"

"

;1
X; (H1 ) = T X; (HW ) = T Im I = Im I ; X2 W ;
W
X2
so H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = X2 (X2 ; W );1 X2 > 0.
(() If H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1 ) > 0, A + B1 B1 X1 ; B2 B2 X1 is

stable. Dene

AF1 := A + B2 F1 ; C1F1 := C1 + D12 F1 :

Then the Riccati equation can be written as

AF1 X1 + X1 AF1 + C1F1 C1F1 + X1 B1 B1 X1 = 0:
We conclude from Lyapunov theory that AF1 is stable since (AF1 ; B1 X1 ) is detectable
and X1 > 0. Now with the given control law u = F1 x, the dynamical system becomes
x_ = AF1 x + B1 w
z = C1F1 x:
So by Corollary 13.24, kTzw k1 < 1, i.e., supw2L2+ kz k2 < 1 for the given control law.

Theorem 15.9 will be used in the next chapter to solve the FI H1 control problem.

15.6 Notes and References

Dierential game is a well-studied topic, see e.g., Bryson and Ho [1975]. The paper
by Mageirou and Ho [1977] is one of the early papers that are relevant to the topics
covered in this chapter. The current setup and proof are taken from Doyle, Glover,
Khargonekar, and Francis [1989]. The application of game theoretic results to H1
problems can be found in Basar and Bernhard [1991], Khargonekar, Petersen, and Zhou
[1990], Limebeer, Anderson, Khargonekar, and Green [1992], and references therein.

16

H1 Control: Simple Case

In this chapter we consider H1 control theory. Specically, we formulate the optimal
and suboptimal H1 control problems in section 16.1. However, we will focus on the
suboptimal case in this book and discuss why we do so. In section 16.2 all suboptimal
controllers are characterized for a class of simplied problems while leaving the more
general problems to the next chapter. Some preliminary analysis is given in section 16.3
for the output feedback results. The analysis suggested the need for solving the Full
Information and Output Estimation problems, which are the topics of sections 16.4-16.7.
Section 16.8 discusses the H1 separation theory and presents the proof of the output
feedback results. The behavior of the H1 controller as a function of performance level
is considered in section 16.9. The optimal controllers are also brie y considered in this
section. Some other interpretations of the H1 controllers are given in section 16.10.
Finally, section 16.11 presents the formulas for an optimal H1 controller.

16.1 Problem Formulation

Consider the system described by the block diagram

z
y

K
405

w


H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

406

where the plant G and controller K are assumed to be real-rational and proper. It will
be assumed that state space models of G and K are available and that their realizations
are assumed to be stabilizable and detectable. Recall again that a controller is said to
be admissible if it internally stabilizes the system. Clearly, stability is the most basic
requirement for a practical system to work. Hence any sensible controller has to be
admissible.

Optimal H1 Control: nd all admissible controllers K (s) such that kTzw k1

is minimized.

It should be noted that the optimal H1 controllers as dened above are generally not
unique for MIMO systems. Furthermore, nding an optimal H1 controller is often both
numerically and theoretically complicated, as shown in Glover and Doyle [1989]. This
is certainly in contrast with the standard H2 theory, in which the optimal controller
is unique and can be obtained by solving two Riccati equations without iterations.
Knowing the achievable optimal (minimum) H1 norm may be useful theoretically since
it sets a limit on what we can achieve. However, in practice it is often not necessary
and sometimes even undesirable to design an optimal controller, and it is usually much
cheaper to obtain controllers that are very close in the norm sense to the optimal ones,
which will be called suboptimal controllers. A suboptimal controller may also have other
nice properties over optimal ones, e.g., lower bandwidth.

Suboptimal H1 Control: Given > 0, nd all admissible controllers

K (s) if there is any such that kTzw k1 < .
For the reasons mentioned above, we focus our attention in this book on suboptimal
control. When appropriate, we brie y discuss what will happen when approaches the
optimal value.

16.2 Output Feedback H1 Control

16.2.1 Internal Stability and Input/output Stability

Now suppose K is a stabilizing controller for the system G. Then the internal stability
guarantees Tzw = F` (G; K ) 2 RH1 , but the latter does not necessarily imply the
internal stability. The following lemma provides the additional (mild) conditions to the
equivalence of Tzw = F`(G; K ) 2 RH1 and internal stability of the closed-loop system.
To state the lemma, we shall assume that G and K have the following stabilizable and
detectable realizations, respectively:
2

A B1 B2
6
G(s) = 4 C1 D11 D12 75 ;
C2 D21 D22

"

^ ^
K (s) = A^ B^ :
C D

16.2. Output Feedback H1 Control

407

Lemma 16.1 Suppose that the realizations for G and K are both stabilizable and detectable. Then the feedback connection Tzw = F` (G; K ) of the realizations for G and K
is

"

A ; I B2
(a) detectable if
C1 D12
"

A ; I B1
(b) stabilizable if
C2 D21

has full column rank for all Re  0;

has full row rank for all Re  0:

Moreover, if (a) and (b) hold, then K is an internally stabilizing controller i Tzw 2
RH1 .

Proof. The state-space equations for the closed-loop are:

^ 1 D21
^ 1 C2
B1 + B2 DL
B2 L2 C^
A + B2 DL
7
6
^ 1 C2
^ 1 D22 C^
^ 1 D21
7
BL
A^ + BL
BL
F` (G; K ) = 64
5
^ 2
^ 1 D21
C1 + D12 L2 DC
D12 L2 C^
D11 + D12 DL
"
#
B
A
c
c
=:
Cc Dc
^ 22 );1 .
where L1 := (I ; D22 D^ );1 , L2 := (I ; DD
Suppose F`(G; K ) has undetectable state (x0 ; y0)0 and mode Re  0; then the PBH
test gives

"

This can be simplied as

"

and
Now if

Ac ; I
Cc

A ; I B2
C1 D12

#"

#"

x = 0:
y
#

x
^
^ =0
DL1 C2 x + L2 Cy

^ 1(C2 x + D22 Cy
^ ) + Ay
^ ; y = 0:
BL
"

A ; I B2
C1 D12
^ = 0. This implies Ay
^ = y. Since (C;
^ A^) is
has full column rank, then x = 0 and Cy
detectable, we get y = 0, which is a contradiction. Hence part (a) is proven, and part
(b) is a dual result.
2
These relations will be used extensively below to simplify our development and to
enable us to focus on input/output stability only.

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

408

16.2.2 Contraction and Stability

One of the keys to the entire development of H1 theory is the fact that the contraction
and internal stability is preserved under an inner linear fractional transformation.

Theorem 16.2 Consider the following feedback system:

z
r

w


"

P = P11 P12 2 RH1

P21 P22

Suppose that P  P = I , P21;1 2 RH1 and that Q is a proper rational matrix. Then
the following are equivalent:
(a) The system is internally stable, well-posed, and kTzw k1 < 1.
(b) Q 2 RH1 and kQk1 < 1.

Proof. (b) ) (a). Note that since P; Q 2 RH1, the system internal stability is guaranteed if (I ; P22 Q);1 2 RH1 . Therefore, internal stability and well-posedness follow
easily from kP22 k1  1, kQk1 < 1, and a small gain argument. (Note that kP22 k1  1
follows from the fact that P22 is a compression of P .)
To show that kTzw k1 < 1, consider the closed-loop system at any frequency s = j!
with the signals xed as complex constant vectors. Let kQk1 =:  < 1 and note that
Twr = P21;1 (I ; P22 Q) 2 RH1 . Also let  := kTwr k1 . Then kwk  krk, and P inner
implies that kz k2 + krk2 = kwk2 + kvk2. Therefore,
kz k2  kwk2 + (2 ; 1)krk2  [1 ; (1 ; 2 );2 ]kwk2
which implies kTzw k1 < 1 .
(a) ) (b). To show that kQk1 < 1, suppose there exist a (real or innite) frequency
! and a constant nonzero vector r such that at s = j! , kQrk  krk. Then setting
w = P21;1 (I ; P22 Q)r, v = Qr gives v = Tvw w. But as above, P inner implies that
kz k2 + krk2 = kwk2 + kvk2 and, hence, that kz k2  kwk2 , which is impossible since
kTzw k1 < 1. It follows that max (Q(j!)) < 1 for all !, i.e., kQk1 < 1 since Q is
rational.
To show Q 2 RH1 , let Q = NM ;1 with N; M 2 RH1 be a right coprime factorization, i.e., there exist X; Y 2 RH1 such that XN + Y M = I . We shall show that
M ;1 2 RH1 . By internal stability we have
Q(I ; P22 Q);1 = N (M ; P22 N );1 2 RH1
and

(I ; P22 Q);1 = M (M ; P22 N );1 2 RH1 :

16.2. Output Feedback H1 Control

409

Thus

XQ(I ; P22 Q);1 + Y (I ; P22 Q);1 = (M ; P22 N );1 2 RH1 :

This implies that the winding number of det(M ; P22 N ), as s traverses the Nyquist
contour, equals zero. Now note the fact that, for all s = j!, det M ;1 6= 0, det(I ;
P22 Q) 6= 0 for all  in [0,1] (this uses the fact that kP22 k1  1 and kQk1 < 1). Also,
det(I ; P22 Q) = det(M ; P22 N ) det M ;1, and we have det(M ; P22 N ) 6= 0 for all
 in [0,1] and all s = j!. We conclude that the winding number of det M also equals
zero. Therefore, Q 2 RH1 , and the proof is complete.
2

16.2.3 Simplifying Assumptions

In this chapter, we discuss a simplied version of H1 theory. The general case will be
considered in the next chapter. The main reason for doing so is that the general case
has its unique features but is much more involved algebraically. Involved algebra may
distract attention from the essential ideas of the theory and therefore lose insight into
the problem. Nevertheless, the problem considered below contains the essential features
of the H1 theory.
The realization of the transfer matrix G is taken to be of the form
2

A B1 B2
6
G(s) = 4 C1 0 D12 75 :
C2 D21 0
The following assumptions are made:
(i) (A; B1 ) is stabilizable and (C1 ; A) is detectable;
(ii) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable;
h

"

 C1 D12 = 0 I ;
(iii) D12
"

(iv)

B1 D = 0 .
D21 21
I

Assumption (i) is made for a technical reason: together with (ii) it guarantees that
the two Hamiltonian matrices (H2 and J2 in Chapter 14) in the H2 problem belong
to dom(Ric). This assumption simplies the theorem statements and proofs, but if
it is relaxed, the theorems and proofs can be modied so that the given formulae are
still correct, as will be seen in the next chapter. An important simplication that is
a consequence of the assumption (i) is that internal stability is essentially equivalent
to input-output stability (Tzw 2 RH1 ). This equivalence enables us to focus only on
input/output stability and is captured in Corollary 16.3 below. Of course, assumption
(ii) is necessary and sucient for G to be internally stabilizable, but is not needed

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

410

to prove the equivalence of internal stability and Tzw 2 RH1 . (Readers should be
clear that this does not mean that the realization for G need not be stabilizable and
detectable. In point of fact, the internal stability and input-output stability can never
be equivalent if either G or K has unstabilizable or undetectable modes.)
Corollary 16.3 Suppose that assumptions (i), (iii), and (iv) hold. Then a controller
K is admissible i Tzw 2 RH1 .

Proof. The realization for plant G is stabilizable and detectable by assumption (i).
We only need to verify that the rank conditions of the two matrices in Lemma 16.1 are
satised.
Nowi suppose assumptions (i) and (iii) are satised and let D? be such that
h
D12 D? is a unitary matrix. Then
"

A ; I B2
rank
C1 D12

rank 64
2

= rank 64
So

"

3
"
# 7
5


D12
D?
A ; I #
"

D? C1

A ; I B2
C1 D12

has full column rank for all Re  0 i

"

"

A ; I
D? C1

A ; I B2
C1 D12

"

B2 #
I 75 :
0

has full column rank. However, the last matrix has full rank for all Re  0 i (D? C1 ; A)
 )C1 = C1 , (D C1 ; A) is detectable i
is detectable. Since D? (D? C1 ) = (I ; D12 D12
?
(C1 ; A) is detectable. The rank condition for the other matrix follows by duality. 2
Two additional assumptions that are implicit in the assumed realization for G(s) are
that D11 = 0 and D22 = 0. As we have mentioned many times, D22 6= 0 does not pose
any problem since it is easy to form an equivalent problem with D22 = 0 by a linear
fractional transformation on the controller K (s). However, relaxing the assumption
D11 = 0 complicates the formulae substantially, as will be seen in the next chapter.

16.2.4 Suboptimal H1 Controllers

In this subsection, we present the necessary and sucient conditions for the existence
of an admissible controller K (s) such that kTzw k1 < for a given , and, furthermore,

16.2. Output Feedback H1 Control

411

if the necessary and sucient conditions are satised, we characterize all admissible
controllers that satisfy the norm condition. The proofs of these results will be given in
the later sections. Let opt := min fkTzw k1 : K (s) admissibleg, i.e., the optimal level.
Then, clearly, must be greater than opt for the existence of suboptimal H1 controllers. In Section 16.9 we will brie y discuss how to nd an admissible K to minimize
kTzw k1 . Optimal H1 controllers are more dicult to characterize than suboptimal
ones, and this is one major dierence between the H1 and H2 results. Recall that
similar dierences arose in the norm computation problem as well.
The H1 solution involves the following two Hamiltonian matrices:
"

A
;2 B1 B1 ; B2 B2 ;
H1 :=

;C1 C1
;A

"

A ;2 C1 C1 ; C2 C2 :
J1 :=
;B1 B1
;A

The important dierence here from the H2 problem is that the (1,2)-blocks are not sign
denite, so we cannot use Theorem 13.7 in Chapter 13 to guarantee that H1 2 dom(Ric)
or Ric(H1 )  0. Indeed, these conditions are intimately related to the existence of
H1 suboptimal controllers. Note that the (1,2)-blocks are a suggestive combination of
expressions from the H1 norm characterization in Chapter 4 (or bounded real ARE
in Chapter 13) and from the H2 synthesis of Chapter 14. It is also clear that if
approaches innity, then these two Hamiltonian matrices become the corresponding H2
control Hamiltonian matrices. The reasons for the form of these expressions should
become clear through the discussions and proofs for the following theorem.

Theorem 16.4 There exists an admissible controller such that kTzw k1 < i the
following three conditions hold:
(i) H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 := Ric(H1)  0;
(ii) J1 2 dom(Ric) and Y1 := Ric(J1 )  0;
(iii) (X1 Y1 ) < 2 .
Moreover, when these conditions hold, one such controller is
"

^
Ksub (s) := A1 ;Z1 L1
F1
0
where

A^1 := A + ;2B1 B1 X1 + B2 F1 + Z1 L1 C2

F1 := ;B2 X1 ; L1 := ;Y1 C2 ; Z1 := (I ; ;2 Y1 X1 );1 :

The H1 controller displayed in Theorem 16.4, which is often called the central
controller or minimum entropy controller, has certain obvious similarities to the H2
controller as well as some important dierences. Although not as apparent as in the
H2 case, the H1 controller also has an interesting separation structure. Furthermore,

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

412

each of the conditions in the theorem can be given a system-theoretic interpretation

in terms of this separation. These interpretations, given in Section 16.8, require the
ltering and full information (i.e., state feedback) results in sections 16.7 and 16.4. The
proof of Theorem 16.4 is constructed out of these results as well. The term central
controller will be obvious from the parameterization of all suboptimal controllers given
below, while the meaning of minimum entropy will be discussed in Section 16.10.1.
The following theorem parameterizes the controllers that achieve a suboptimal H1
norm less than .

Theorem 16.5 If conditions (i) to (iii) in Theorem 16.4 are satised, the set of all
admissible controllers such that kTzw k1 < equals the set of all transfer matrices from
y to u in

u

y
M1 

A^1 ;Z1 L1 Z1 B2
6
M1 (s) = 4 F1
0
I
I
0
;C2

3
7
5

where Q 2 RH1 , kQk1 < .

As in the H2 case, the suboptimal controllers are parameterized by a xed linearfractional transformation with a free parameter Q. With Q = 0 (at the \center" of the
set kQk1 < ), we recover the central controller Ksub (s).

16.3 Motivation for Special Problems

Although the proof for output feedback results will be given later, we shall now try to
give some ideas for approaching the problem. Specically, we try to motivate the study
of the OE (and hence other special problems) and show how this problem arises naturally
in proving the output feedback results. The key is to use the fact that contraction and
internal stability are preserved under an inner linear fractional transformation, which is
Theorem 16.2. Assuming that X1 exists, we will show that the general output feedback
problem boils down to an output estimation problem which can be solved easily if a
state feedback or full information control problem can be solved.
Suppose X1 := Ric(H1 ) exists. Then X1 satises the following Riccati equation:

A X1 + X1 A + C1 C1 + ;2 X1 B1 B1 X1 ; X1 B2 B2 X1 = 0:

(16:1)

Let x denote the state of G with respect to a given input w, and then we can dierentiate
x(t) X1 x(t):
d 


dt (x X1 x) = x_ X1 x + x X1 x_

16.3. Motivation for Special Problems

413

= x (A X1 + X1 A)x + 2hw; B1 X1 xi + 2hu; B2X1 xi:

Using the Riccati equation for X1 to substitute in for A X1 + X1 A gives

d (x X x) = ;kC xk2 ; ;2 kB X xk2 + kB  X xk2 +2hw; B  X xi +2hu; B  X xi:

1
1
1 1
2 1
1 1
2 1
dt
Finally, completion of the squares along with orthogonality of C1 x and D12 u gives the
key equation

d 
2
2
2
2
;2 
2

2
dt (x X1 x) = ;kz k + kwk ; kw ; B1 X1 xk + ku + B2 X1 xk : (16:2)
Assume x(0) = x(1) = 0, w 2 L2+ , and integrate (16.2) from t = 0 to t = 1:
kz k22 ; 2 kwk22 = ku + B2 X1 xk22 ; 2 kw ; ;2B1 X1 xk22 = kvk22 ; 2 krk22 (16:3)

where

v := u + B2 X1 x;

r := w ; ;2 B1 X1 x:

(16:4)
With these new dened variables, the closed-loop system can be expressed as two interconnected subsystems below:
2
6
4

and

x_
z
r

A F1
;1 B1 B2
7 6
C1F1
0
D12
5=4
;
1

; B1 X1 I
0

32

x
r
u

6
4

x_
Atmp B1 B2
7 6
=
v 5 4 ;F1 0 I
y
C2 D21 0

32
76
54

76
54

x
w
v

AF1 := A + B2 F1
C1F1 := C1 + D12 F1

7
5

Atmp := A + ;2 B1 B1 X1

7
5

where F1 is dened as in Section 16.2.4. This is shown in the following diagram:

z
r

 w
P 
XXXXX v
XX
 r
Gtmp 
-

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

414
where

"

P := P11 P12
P21 P22

and

AF1
;1B1 B2
6
= 4 C1F1
0
D12
; ;1B1 X1 I
0
2

3
7
5

(16:5)

Atmp B1 B2
6
Gtmp = 4 ;F1 0 I 75 :
(16:6)
C2 D21 0
The equality (16.3) motivates the change of variables to r and v as in (16.4), and these
variables provide the connection between Tzw and Tvr . Note that Tz( w) = ;1 Tzw and
Tv( r) = ;1Tvr . It is immediate from equality (16.3) that kTzw k1  i kTvr k1  .

While this is the basic idea behind the proof of Lemma 16.8 below, the details needed
for strict inequality and internal stability require a bit more work.
Note that wworst := ;2 B1 X1 x is the worst disturbance input in the sense that
it maximizes the quantity kz k22 ; 2 kwk22 in (16.3) for the minimizing value of u =
;B2 X1 x; that is, the u making v = 0 and the w making r = 0 are values satisfying a
saddle point condition. (See Section 17.8 for more interpretations.) It is also interesting
to note that wworst is the optimal strategy for w in the corresponding LQ game problem
(see the dierential game problem in the last chapter). Equation (16.3) also suggests
that u = ;B2 X1 x is a suboptimal control for a full information (FI) problem if the
state x is available. This will be shown later. In terms of the OE problem for Gtmp , the
output being estimated is the optimal FI control input F1 x and the new disturbance r
is oset by the \worst case" FI disturbance input wworst .
Notice the structure of Gtmp : it is an OE problem. We will show below that the
output feedback can indeed be transformed into the OE problem. To show this we rst
need to prove some preliminary facts.
Lemma 16.6 Suppose H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1). Then AF1 = A + B2F1
is stable i X1  0.

Proof. Re-arrange the Riccati equation for X1 and use the denition of F1 and
C1F1 to get

"

# "

C1F1
C1F1
= 0:
(16:7)
; ;1 B1 X1
; ;1B1 X1
Since H1 2 dom(Ric), (AF1 + ;2 B1 B1 X1 ) is stable and hence (B1 X1 ; AF1 ) is
detectable. Then from standard results on Lyapunov equations (see Lemma 3.19), AF1
is stable i X1  0.
2
AF1 X1 + X1 AF1 +

Equation (16.3) can be written as

kz k22 + k rk22 = k wk22 + kvk22 :

16.3. Motivation for Special Problems

415

This suggests that P might be inner when X1  0, which is veried by the following
lemma.

Lemma 16.7 If H1 2;dom

(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1 )  0, then P in (16.5) is in
RH1 and inner, and P211 2 RH1 .
Proof. By Lemma 16.6, AF1 is stable. So P 2 RH1 . That P is inner (P P = I )

follows from Lemma 13.29 upon noting that the observability Gramian of P is X1 (see
(16.7)) and
"
#"
# "
#
;1 B1
C1F1

0 I
+
X1 = 0:
 0
D12
; ;1B1 X1
B2
Finally, the state matrix for P21;1 is (AF1 + ;2 B1 B1 X1 ), which is stable by denition.
Thus, P21;1 2 RH1 .
2
The following lemma connects these two systems Tzw and Tvr , which is the central
part of the separation argument in Section 16.8.2. Recall that internal and inputoutput stability are equivalent for admissibility of K in the output feedback problem
by Corollary 16.3 .

Lemma 16.8 Assume H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1)  0. Then K is admissible for G and kTzw k1 < i K is admissible for Gtmp and kTvr k1 < .
Proof. We may assume without loss of generality that the realization of K is stabilizable and detectable. Recall from Corollary 16.3 that internal stability for Tzw is
equivalent to Tzw 2 RH1 . Similarly since
"
# "
#"
#
Atmp ; I B1 = A ; I B1
I
0
C2

D21

C2

D21

;2 B1 X1 I

has full row rank for all Re()  0 and since

"

A ; I B2 = det(A + B F ; I ) 6= 0
det tmp
tmp
2 1
;F1
I
for all Re()  0 by the stability of Atmp + B2 F1 , we have that
"

Atmp ; I B2
;F1
I

has full column rank. Hence by Lemma 16.1 the internal stability of Tvr , i.e., the internal
stability of the subsystem consisting of Gtmp and controller K , is also equivalent to
Tvr 2 RH1 . Thus internal stability is equivalent to input-output stability for both

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

416

G and Gtmp . This shows that K is an admissible controller for G if and only if it
is admissible for Gtmp . Now it follows
from

Theorem
16.2 and Lemma 16.7 along
with the above block diagram that Tz( w) 1 < 1 i Tv( r) 1 < 1 or, equivalently,
kTzw k1 < i kTvr k1 < .
2
From the previous analysis, it is clear that to solve the output feedback problem we
need to show
(a) H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1 )  0;
(b) kTvr k1 < .
To show (a), we need to solve a FI problem. The problem (b) is an OE problem which
can be solved by using the relationship between FC and OE problems in Chapter 12,
while the FC problem can be solved by using the FI solution through duality. So in the
sections to follow, we will focus on these special problems.

16.4 Full Information Control

Our system diagram in this section is standard as before

z
y

with

w


A
6
6
G(s) = 66 " C1 #
I
4

B1
"

0
0

B2
7
D 7
" 12# 7 :
7

0 5
0
I
0
The H1 problem corresponding to this setup again is not, strictly speaking, a special
case of the output feedback problem because it does not satisfy all of the assumptions.
In particular, it should be noted that for the FI (and FC in the next section) problem,
internal stability is not equivalent to Tzw 2 RH1 since
2
6
4

A" ; I#
I
0

B
" 1#
0

3
7
5

16.4. Full Information Control

417

can never have full row rank, although this presents no diculties in solving this problem. We simply must remember that in the FI case, K admissible means internally
stabilizing, not just Tzw 2 RH1 .
We have seen that in the H2 FI case, the optimal controller uses just the state x even
though the controller is provided with full information. We will show below that, in the
H1 case, a suboptimal controller exists which also uses just x. This case could have
been restricted to state feedback, which is more traditional, but we believe that, once
one gets outside the pure H2 setting, the full information problem is more fundamental
and more natural than the state feedback problem.
One setting in which the full information case is more natural occurs when the
parameterization of all suboptimal controllers is considered. It is also appropriate when
studying the general case when D11 6= 0 in the next chapter or when H1 optimal
(not just suboptimal) controllers are desired. Even though the optimal problem is not
studied in detail in this book, we want the methods to extend to the optimal case in a
natural and straightforward way.
The assumptions relevant to the FI problem which are inherited from the output
feedback problem are
(i) (C1 ; A) is detectable;
(ii) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable;
h

 C1 D12 = 0 I .
(iii) D12

Assumptions (iv) and the second part of (ii) for the general output feedback case have
been eectively strengthened because of the assumed structure for C2 and D21 .

Theorem 16.9 There exists an admissible controller K (s) for the FI problem such that
kTzw k1 < if and only if H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1 )  0. Furthermore,
if these conditions are satised, then the equivalence class of all admissible controllers
satisfying kTzw k1 < can be parameterized as
h
i
 F1 ; ;2 Q(s)B1 X1 Q(s)
K (s) =
(16:8)
where Q 2 RH1 , kQk1 < .

It is easy to see by comparing the H1 solution with the corresponding H2 solution

that a fundamental dierence between H2 and H1 controllers is that the H1 controller
depends on the disturbance through B1 whereas the H2 controller does not. This dierence is essentially captured by the necessary and sucient conditions for the existence of
a controller given in Theorem 16.9. Note that these conditions are the same as condition
(i) in Theorem 16.4.
The two individual conditions in Theorem 16.9 may each be given their own interpretations. The condition that H1 2 dom(Ric) implies that X1 := Ric(H1 ) exists

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

418
h

and K (s) = F1 0 gives Tzw as

"

Tzw = AF1 B1
C1F1 0

AF1 = A + B2 F1
C1F1 = C1 + D12 F1 :

(16:9)

Furthermore, since Tzw = P11 and P11 P11 = I ; P21 P21 by P  P = I , we have
kP11 k1 < 1 and kTzw k1 = kP11 k1 < . The further condition that X1  0 is
equivalent, by Lemma 16.6, to this K stabilizing Tzw .

Remark 16.1 Given that H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1)  0, there is an

intuitive way to see why all the equivalence classes of controllers can be parameterized
in the form of (16.8). Recall the following equality from equation (16.3):

kz k22 ; 2 kwk22 = ku + B2 X1 xk22 ; 2 kw ; ;2 B1 X1 xk22 = kvk22 ; 2 krk22 :

kTzw k1 < means that kz k22 ; 2 kwk22 < 0 for w 6= 0. This implies that r 6= 0 and
kvk22 ; 2 krk22 < 0. Now all v satisfying this inequality can be written as v = Qr
for Q 2 RH1 and kQk1 < or as u + B2 X1 x = Q(w ; ;2 B1 X1 x). This gives
equation (16.8).
~
We shall now prove the theorem.

Proof. ()) For simplicity, in the proof to follow we assume that the system is normalized such that = 1. Further, we will show that we can, without loss of generality,
strengthen the assumption on (C1 "; A) from detectable
to observable. Suppose there ex#
^ B^1 B^2
A
ists an admissible controller K^ = ^ ^ ^ such that kTzw k1 < 1. If (C1 ; A) is
C D1 D2
"

x
detectable but not observable, then change coordinates for the state of G to 1 with
x2
x2 unobservable, (C11 ; A11 ) observable, and A22 stable, giving the following closed-loop
state equations:

2
6
6
6
6
6
6
4

x_ 1
x_ 2
x^_
z
u

A11
7 6
7 6 A21
7 6
7=6 B
^
7 6 11
7 6
5 4 C11
D^ 11

A22
B^12

0
^
D12

0
0
A^
0
C^

B11 B21
B12 B22
B^2 0
0 D12
^
D2 0

32
76
76
76
76
76
76
54

x1
x2 777
x^ 77 :
w 75
u

16.4. Full Information Control

419

If we take a new plant Gobs with state x1 and output z and group the rest of the
equations as a new controller Kobs with the state made up of x2 and x^, then
2

A11
6
6
Gobs (s) = 66 "C11#
I
4

B11
"

0
0

B21
D
" 12#
0
0

3
7
7
7
7
5

still satises the assumptions of the FI problem and is stabilized by Kobs with the
closed-loop H1 norm kTzw k1 < 1 where
2

A22 + B22 D^ 12 B22 C^ A21 + B22 D^ 11 B12 + B22 D^ 2

6
7
Kobs = 4
B^12
A^
B^11
B^2
5:
^
^
^
^
D12
C
D11
D2
If we now show that there exists X^1 > 0 solving the H1 Riccati equation for Gobs , i.e.,

X^1 = Ric
then

"

 ; B21 B21

A11
B11 B11
;
;C11 C11
;A11
"

^
Ric(H1 ) = X1 = X1 0  0
0

exists for G. We can therefore assume without loss of generality that (C1 ; A) is observable.
We shall suppose that there exists an admissible controller such that kTzw k1 <
1. But note that the existence of an admissible controller such that kTzw k1 < 1 is
equivalent to that the admissible controller makes sup kz k2 < 1; hence, it is necessary
w2BL2+
that
kz k2 < 1
sup umin
2L
w2BL2+

2+

since the latter is always no greater than the former by the fact that the set of signals
u generated from admissible controllers is a subset of L2+ . But from Theorem 15.9,
the latter is true if and only if H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1 ) > 0. Hence the
necessity is proven.
(() Suppose H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1 )  0 and suppose K (s) is an
admissible controller such that kTzw k1 < 1. Again change variables to v := u ; F1 x

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

420

and r := w ; B1 X1 x, so that the closed-loop system is as shown below:

z
r

w


"

P = P11 P12
P21 P22

- Tvr

AF1 B1 B2
= 64 C1F1
0 D12
;B1 X1 I 0

3
7
5

By Lemma 16.7, P is inner and P21;1 2 RH1 . By Theorem 16.2 the system is internally
stable and kTzw k1 < 1 i Tvr 2 RH1 and kTvr k1 < 1. Now denote Q := Tvr , then
v = Qr and
"

x
v = u ; F1 x = K ; F1 0
w
"
#
h
i x
r = w ; B1 X1 x = ;B1 X1 I
:
w


Hence we have


K ; F1 0

or

i

"

i

x = Qh 
;B1 X1 I
w
i

"

x
w

K ; F1 0 
= Q ;B1 X1 I :

Thus

K (s) 
= F1 ; Q(s)B1 X1 Q(s) ; Q 2 RH1 ; kQk1 < 1:

Hence all suboptimal controllers are in the stated equivalence class.

Remark 16.2 It should be emphasized that the set of controllers given above does

not parameterize all controllers although it is sucient for the purpose of deriving the
output feedback results, and that is why
class" is used. It is clear that
h \equivalence
i
there is a suboptimal controller K1 = F1 0 with F1 6= F1 ; however, there is no
choice of Q such that K1 belongs to the set. Nevertheless, this problem will not occur
in output feedback case.
~
The following theorem gives all full information controllers.

Theorem 16.10 Suppose the condition in Theorem 16.9 is satised; then all admissible
controllers satisfying kTzw k1 < can be parameterized as K = F` (MFI ; Q):

16.4. Full Information Control

u

y
MFI 
-

421
2

MFI (s) =

6
6
6
6
6
4

A + B2 F1
"

;I

h
"

0 B1
F1 0

i
i

I
0
;
2

; B1 X1 I

B2
I
0

3
7
7
7
7
7
5

where Q = Q1 Q2 2 RH1 and kQ2k1 < .

Remark 16.3 It is simple to verify that for Q1 = 0, we have
h
i
K = F1 ; ;2Q2 B1 X1 Q2 ;
which is the parameterization given in Theorem 16.9. The parameterization of all
suboptimal FC controllers follows by duality and, therefore, are omitted.
~

Proof. We only need to show that F`(MFI ; Q) with kQ2k1 < parameterizes all
FI H1 suboptimal controllers. To show that, we shall make a change of variables as
before:
v = u + B2 X1 x;
r = w ; ;2 B1 X1 x:
Then the system equations can be written as follows:
2
3 2
32
3
x_
AF1
;1 B1 B2
x
6
7 6
C1F1
0
D12 75 64 w 75
4 z 5=4
r
; ;1B1 X1 I
0
v
and
2
3
2
3
Atmp
B1 B2 2 3
x_
6
7 x
;
F
0 # I 77 6 7
1
6
7 6
6
"
#
"
4 v 5=6
74 r 5
I
0
4
0 5 u
y
;2 

B1 X1

where Atmp := A + ;2 B1 B1 X1 .

This is shown pictorially in the following diagram:

z
r

 w

XXXXX v
 X r

G^ FI 
u
- K
P

w

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

422
where P is as given in equation (16.5) and
2
6

6
G^ FI = 66
4

"

Atmp
;F1
I
;
2
B1 X1

B1
#

"

0
0

B2
7
I 77 :
7

So from Theorem 16.2 and Lemma 16.8, we conclude that K is an admissible controller
for G and kTzw k1 < i K is an admissible" controller for# G^ FI and kTvr k1 < .
h

Now let L = B2 F1 ;B1 ; then Atmp + L ;2 

= A + B2 F1 is stable.
B1 X1
Also note that Atmp + B2 F1 is stable.h Then all icontrollers that stabilize G^ FI can be
parameterized as K = F` (M; );  = 1 2 2 RH1 where
"

I
6 Atmp + B2 F1 + L
;
2
B1 X1
6
6
M = 66
F1
"
#
6
I
4
; ;2 
B1 X1

;L B2
0

3
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

With this parameterization of all controllers, the transfer matrix from r to v is Tvr =

F` (G^ FI ; F` (M; )) =: F` (N; ). It is easy to show that

2

N = 64

"

0
0

I
0

3
7
5

and Tvr = F` (N; ) = 2 . Hence kTvr k1 < if and only if k2 k1 < . This
implies
thati all FI H1 controllers can be parameterized as K = F`(M; ) with  =
h
1 2 2 RH1 ; k2 k1 < and
h

A + 2B2 F1
6
6
M = 66 " F1
4
; ;2 I
B1 X1
Now let

; B2 F1 ;B1
#

1 = F1 ; ;2 Q2 B1 X1 + Q1;
Then it is easy to show that F` (M; ) = F`(MFI ; Q).

B2
7
I 77 :
7
0

2 = Q2 :

16.5. Full Control

423

16.5 Full Control

2

A B1
6
6
G(s) = 64 C1 0
C2 D21

h
h
h

I 0
0 I
0 0

i 3
i 7
7
7
i 5

This problem is dual to the Full Information problem. The assumptions that the FC
problem inherits from the output feedback problem are just the dual of those in the FI
problem:
(i) (A; B1 ) is stabilizable;
(ii) (C2 ; A) is detectable;
"

(iv)

"

B1 D = 0 .
I
D21 21

Theorem 16.11 There exists an admissible controller K (s) for the FC problem such
that kTzw k1 < if and only if J1 2 dom(Ric) and Y1 = Ric(J1 )  0. Moreover,
if these conditions are satised then an equivalence class of all admissible controllers
satisfying kTzw k1 < can be parameterized as
"

L ; ;2Y1 C1 Q(s)

K (s) 
= 1
Q(s)

where Q 2 RH1 , kQk1 < .

As expected, the condition in Theorem 16.11 is the same as that in (ii) of Theorem 16.4.

16.6 Disturbance Feedforward

2

A B1 B2
G(s) = 64 C1 0 D12
C2 I 0

3
7
5

This problem inherits the same assumptions (i)-(iii) as in the FI problem, but for internal
stability we shall add that A ; B1 C2 is stable. With this assumption, it is easy to check
that the condition in Lemma 16.1 is satised so that the internal stability is again
equivalent to Tzw 2 RH1 , as in the output feedback case.

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

424

Theorem 16.12 There exists an admissible controller for the DF problem such that
kTzw k1 < if and only if H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1 )  0. Moreover, if
these conditions are satised then all admissible controllers satisfying kTzw k1 < can
be parameterized as the set of all transfer matrices from y to u in

u

y
M1 
-

A + B2 F1 ; B1 C2 B1 B2
6
M1 (s) = 4
F1
0 I
;
2

;C2 ; B1 X1 I 0

3
7
5

with Q 2 RH1 , kQk1 <

Proof. Suppose there is a controller KDF solving the habove problem,

i.e., with kTzw k1 <
i
. Then by Theorem 12.4, the controller KFI = KDF C2 I solves the corresponding H1 FI problem. Hence the conditions H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1)  0
are necessarily satised. On the other hand, if these conditions are satised then
FI is solvable. It is easy to verify
that F`(M1 ; Q) = F`(PDF ; KFI ) with KFI =
h
i
;
2

F1 ; Q(s)B1 X1 Q(s) where PDF is as dened in section 12.2 of Chapter 12.
So again by Theorem 12.4, the controller F`(M1 ; Q) solves the DF problem.
To show that F` (M1 ; Q) with kQk1 < parameterizes all DF H1 suboptimal
controllers, we shall make a change of variables as in equation (16.4):

v = u + B2 X1 x;

r = w ; ;2 B1 X1 x:

Then the system equations can be written as follows:

2
6
4

and

x_
z
r

2
6
4

AF1
;1 B1 B2
7 6
C1F1
0
D12
5=4
;
1

; B1 X1 I
0
3

x_
Atmp
B1 B2
v 75 = 64
;F1
0 I
;
2

y
C2 + B1 X1 I 0

This is shown pictorially in the following diagram:

32
76
54

32
76
54

x
w
v
3

3
7
5

x
r 75 :
u

16.7. Output Estimation

z
r

425

 w
P 
XXXX  v
X
XX
r

G^ DF 
-

where

and

AF1
;1B1 B2
P = 64 C1F1
0
D12
;
1

0
; B1 X1 I
2

3
7
5

B1 B2
Atmp
6
^
GDF = 4
;F1
0 I 75 :
C2 + ;2 B1 X1 I 0
Since Atmp ; B1 (C2 + ;2 B1 X1 ) = A ; B1 C2 and Atmp + B2 F1 are stable, the rank
conditions of Lemma 16.1 for system G^ DF are satised. So from Theorem 16.2 and
Lemma 16.7, we conclude that K is an admissible controller for G and kTzw k1 < i K
is an admissible controller for G^ DF and kTvr k1 < . Now it is easy to see by comparing
this formula with the controller parameterization in Theorem 12.8 that F` (M1 ; Q)
with Q 2 RH1 (no norm constraint) parameterizes all stabilizing controllers for G^ DF ;
however, simple algebra shows that Tvr = F` (G^ DF ; F`(M1 ; Q)) = Q. So kTvr k1 <
i kQk1 < , and F` (M1 ; Q) with Q 2 RH1 and kQk1 < parameterizes all
suboptimal controllers for G.
2

16.7 Output Estimation

2

A B1 B2
6
G(s) = 4 C1 0 I
C2 D21 0

3
7
5

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

426

This problem is dual to DF, just as FC was to FI. Thus the discussion of the DF problem
is relevant here, when appropriately dualized. The OE assumptions are
(i) (A; B1 ) is stabilizable and A ; B2 C1 is stable;
(ii) (C2 ; A) is detectable;
"

(iv)

"

B1 D = 0 .
D21 21
I

Assumption (i), together with (iv), imply that internal stability is again equivalent to
Tzw 2 RH1 , as in the output feedback case.

Theorem 16.13 There exists an admissible controller for the OE problem such that
kTzw k1 < if and only if J1 2 dom(Ric) and Ric(J1 )  0. Moreover, if these
conditions are satised then all admissible controllers satisfying kTzw k1 < can be
parameterized as the set of all transfer matrices from y to u in

u

y
M1 
-

A + L1 C2 ; B2 C1 L1 ;B2 ; ;2Y1 C1

6
M1 (s) = 4
C1
0
I
C2
I
0

3
7
5

with Q 2 RH1 , kQk1 < .

It is interesting to compare H1 and H2 in the context of the OE problem, even

though, by duality, the essence of these remarks was made before. Both optimal estimators are observers with the observer gain determined by Ric(J1 ) and Ric(J2 ).
Optimal H2 output estimation consists of multiplying the optimal state estimate by the
output map C1 . Thus optimal H2 estimation depends only trivially on the output z that
is being estimated, and state estimation is the fundamental problem. In contrast, the
H1 estimation problem depends very explicitly and importantly on the output being
estimated. This will have implications for the separation properties of the H1 output
feedback controller.

16.8 Separation Theory

If we assume the results of the special problems, which are proven in the previous
sections, we can now prove Theorems 16.4 and 16.5 using separation arguments. This
essentially involves reducing the output feedback problem to a combination of the Full
Information and the Output Estimation problems. The separation properties of the
H1 controller are more complicated than the H2 controller, although they are no less
interesting. The notation and assumptions for this section are as in Section 16.2.

16.8. Separation Theory

427

16.8.1 H1 Controller Structure

The H1 controller formulae from Theorem 16.4 are

"
#
^1 ;Z1 L1
A
Ksub (s) :=
F1
0
A^1 := A + ;2B1 B1 X1 + B2 F1 + Z1 L1 C2
F1 := ;B2 X1 ; L1 := ;Y1 C2 ; Z1 := (I ; ;2 Y1 X1 );1
where X1 := Ric(H1 ) and Y1 := Ric(J1 ). The necessary and sucient conditions
for the existence of an admissible controller such that kTzw k1 < are
(i) H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 := Ric(H1 )  0;
(ii) J1 2 dom(Ric) and Y1 := Ric(J1  0;
(iii) (X1 Y1 ) < 2 .
We have seen that condition (i) corresponds to the Full Information condition and
that (ii) corresponds to the Full Control condition. It is easily shown that, given the FI
and FC results, these conditions are necessary for the output feedback case as well.
Lemma 16.14 Suppose there exists an admissible controller making kTzw k1 < .
Then conditions (i) and (ii) hold.

Proof. Let K be an admissible controller for which kTzw k1 < . The controller
K [C2 D21 ] solves the FI problem; hence from Theorem 16.9, H1 2 dom(Ric) and
X1 := Ric(H1 )  0. Condition (ii) follows by the dual argument.
2
We would also expect some condition beyond these two, and that is provided by
(iii), which is an elegant combination of elements from FI and FC. Note that all the
conditions of Theorem 16.4 are symmetric in H1 , J1 , X1 , and Y1 , but the formula
for the controller is not. Needless to say, there is a dual form that can be obtained by
inspection from the above formula. For a symmetric formula, the state equations above
;1 and put in descriptor form. A simple substitution
can be multiplied through by Z1
from the Riccati equation for X1 will then yield a symmetric, though more complicated,
formula:
(I ; ;2 Y1 X1 )x^_ = As x^ ; L1 y
(16.10)
u = F1 x^
(16.11)
where As := A + B2 F1 + L1 C2 + ;2Y1 A X1 + ;2 B1 B1 X1 + ;2Y1 C1 C1 .
To emphasize its relationship to the H2 controller formulae, the H1 controller can
be written as
x^_ = Ax^ + B1 w^worst + B2 u + Z1 L1 (C2 x^ ; y)

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

428

u = F1 x^;

w^worst = ;2 B1 X1 x^:

These equations have the structure of an observer-based compensator. The obvious

questions that arise when these formulae are compared with the H2 formulae are
1) Where does the term B1 w^worst come from?
2) Why Z1 L1 instead of L1 ?
3) Is there a separation interpretation of these formulae analogous to that for H2 ?
The proof of Theorem 16.4 reveals that there is a very well-dened separation interpretation of these formulae and that wworst := ;2 B1 X1 x is, in some sense, a
worst-case input for the Full Information problem. Furthermore, Z1 L1 is actually the
optimal lter gain for estimating F1 x, which is the optimal Full Information control
input, in the presence of this worst-case input. It is therefore not surprising that Z1 L1
should enter in the controller equations instead of L1 . The term w^worst may be thought
of loosely as an estimate for wworst .

16.8.2 Proof of Theorem 16.4

It has been shown from Lemma 16.14 that conditions (i) and (ii) are necessary for
kTzw k1 < . Hence we only need to show that if conditions (i) and (ii) are satised,
condition (iii) is necessary and sucient for kTzw k1 < . As in section 16.3, we dene
new disturbance and control variables

r := w ; ;2 B1 X1 x;
Then
"

B B
A
v = 6 tmp 1 2
0 I
4 ;F1
y
C2 D21 0
#

z
y

3
7
5

"

w


v := u + B2 X1 x:
"

r =G
r
tmp
u
u

Atmp := A + ;2 B1 B1 X1 :

v
y

r
Gtmp 
-

Recall from Lemma 16.8 that K is admissible for G and kTzw k1 < i K is admissible
for Gtmp and kTvr k1 < .
While Gtmp has the form required for the OE problem, to actually use the OE
results, we will need to verify that Gtmp satises the following assumptions for the OE
problem:

16.8. Separation Theory

429

(i) (Atmp ; B1 ) is stabilizable and Atmp + B2 F1 is stable;

(ii) (C2 ; Atmp ) is detectable;
"

"

B1 D = 0 .
(iv)
D21 21
I
Assumption (iv) and that (Atmp ; B1 ) is stabilizable follow immediately from the corresponding assumptions for Theorem 16.4. The stability of Atmp + B2 F1 follows from
the denition of H1 2 dom(Ric). The following lemma gives conditions for assumption
(ii) to hold. Of course, the existence of an admissible controller for Gtmp immediately
implies that assumption (ii) holds. Note that the OE Hamiltonian matrix for Gtmp is
"


;2 

Jtmp := Atmp  F1 F1 ; C2 C2 :
;B1 B1
;Atmp

Lemma 16.15 If Jtmp 2 dom(Ric) and Ytmp := Ric(Jtmp)  0, then (C2 ; Atmp) is
detectable.

Proof. The lemma follows from the dual to Lemma 16.6, which gives that (Atmp ;
Ytmp C2 C2 ) is stable.

Proof of Theorem 16.4 (Suciency) Assume the conditions (i) through (iii) in the

theorem
" statement hold.
# Using the Riccati equation for X1 , one can easily verify that
;2X1
I
;

T :=
provides a similarity transformation between Jtmp and J1 , i.e.,
0
I
T ;1Jtmp T = J1 . So
"

"

;2
X; (Jtmp ) = T X; (J1 ) = T Im I = Im I ; X1 Y1
Y1
Y1

and (X1 Y1 ) < 2 implies that Jtmp 2 dom(Ric) and Ytmp := Ric(Jtmp ) = Y1 (I ;
;2 X1 Y1 );1 = Z1 Y1  0. Thus by Lemma 16.15 the OE assumptions hold for Gtmp ,
and by Theorem 16.13 the OE problem is solvable. From Theorem 16.13 with Q = 0,
one solution is
"

A + ;2 B1 B1 X1 ; Ytmp C2 C2 + B2 F1 Ytmp C2

F1
0

but this is precisely Ksub dened in Theorem 16.4. We conclude that Ksub stabilizes
Gtmp and that kTvr k1 < . Then by Lemma 16.8, Ksub stabilizes G and that kTzw k1 <
.

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

430

(Necessity) Let K be an admissible controller for which kTzw k1 < . By Lemma 16.14,
H1 2 dom(Ric), X1 := Ric(H1 )  0, J1 2 dom(Ric), and Y1 := Ric(J1)  0.
From Lemma 16.8, K is admissible for Gtmp and kTvr k1 < . This implies that the OE
assumptions hold for Gtmp and that the OE problem is solvable. Therefore, from Theorem 16.13 applied to Gtmp , we have that Jtmp 2 dom(Ric) and Ytmp = Ric(Jtmp)  0.
Using the same similarity transformation formula as in the suciency part, we get that
Ytmp = (I ; ;2 Y1 X1 );1 Y1  0. We shall now show that Ytmp  0 implies that
(X1 Y1 ) < 2 . We shall consider two cases:
 Y1 is nonsingular: in this case Ytmp  0 implies that I ; ;2 Y11=2 X1 Y11=2 > 0.
So (Y11=2 X1 Y11=2 ) < 2 or (X1 Y1 ) < 2 .
 Y1 is singular: there is a unitary matrix U such that
#
"
Y
11 0

U
Y =U
1

0 0
with Y11 > 0. Let UX1 U  be partitioned accordingly,

UX1 U  =

"

X11 X12 :
X21 X22

Then by the same argument as in the Y1 nonsingular case,

Ytmp = U 

"

(I ; ;2Y11 X11 );1 Y11 0

U 0
0
I

implies that 2 > (X11 Y11 ) (= (X1 Y1 )).

We now see exactly why the term involving w^worst appears and why the \observer"
gain is Z1 L1. Both terms are consequences of estimating the optimal Full Information
(i.e., state feedback) control gain. While an analogous output estimation problem arises
in the H2 output feedback problem, the resulting equations are much simpler. This is
because there is no \worst-case" disturbance for the H2 Full Information problem and
because the problem of estimating any output, including the optimal state feedback, is
equivalent to state estimation.
We now present a separation interpretation for H1 suboptimal controllers. It will
be stated in terms of the central controller, but similar interpretations could be made
for the parameterization of all suboptimal controllers (see the proofs of Theorems 16.4
and 16.5).
The H1 output feedback controller is the output estimator of the full information control law in the presence of the \worst-case" disturbance wworst .
Note that the same statement holds for the H2 optimal controller, except that
wworst = 0.

16.9. Optimality and Limiting Behavior

431

16.8.3 Proof of Theorem 16.5

From Lemma 16.8, the set of all admissible controllers for G such that kTzw k1 <
equals the set of all admissible controllers for Gtmp such that kTvr k1 < . Apply
Theorem 16.13.
2

16.9 Optimality and Limiting Behavior

In this section, we will discuss, without proof, the behavior of the H1 suboptimal
solution as varies, especially as approaches the inmal achievable norm, denoted by
opt . Since Theorem 16.4 gives necessary and sucient conditions for the existence of
an admissible controller such that kTzw k1 < , opt is the inmum over all such that
conditions (i)-(iii) are satised. Theorem 16.4 does not give an explicit formula for opt ,
but, just as for the H1 norm calculation, it can be computed as closely as desired by a
search technique.
Although we have not focused on the problem of H1 optimal controllers, the assumptions in this book make them relatively easy to obtain in most cases. In addition to
describing the qualitative behavior of suboptimal solutions as varies, we will indicate
why the descriptor version of the controller formulae from Section 16.8.1 can usually
provide formulae for the optimal controller when = opt . Most of these results can be
obtained relatively easily using the machinery that is developed in the previous sections.
The reader interested in lling in the details is encouraged to begin by strengthening
;1
assumption (i) to controllable and observable and considering the Hamiltonians for X1
;
1
and Y1 .
As ! 1, H1 ! H2 , X1 ! X2 , etc., and Ksub ! K2 . This fact is the result of
the particular choice for the central controller (Q = 0) that was made here. While it
could be argued that Ksub is a natural choice, this connection with H2 actually hints at
deeper interpretations. In fact, Ksub is the minimum entropy solution (see next section)
as well as the minimax controller for kz k22 ; 2kwk22 .
If 2  1 > opt , then X1 ( 1 )  X1 ( 2 ) and Y1 ( 1 )  Y1 ( 2 ). Thus X1 and
Y1 are decreasing functions of , as is (X1 Y1 ). At = opt , anyone of the three
conditions in Theorem 16.4 can fail. If only condition (iii) fails, then it is relatively
straightforward to show that the descriptor formulae for = opt are optimal, i.e., the
optimal controller is given by
;2 Y1 X1 )x^_ = As x^ ; L1 y
(I ; opt
(16.12)
u = F1 x^
(16.13)
;2 Y1 A X1 + ;2 B1 B  X1 + ;2 Y1 C  C1 . See
where As := A + B2 F1 + L1 C2 + opt
opt
1
opt
1
the example below.
The formulae in Theorem 16.4 are not well-dened in the optimal case because the
;2 X1 Y1 ) is not invertible. It is possible but far less likely that conditions
term (I ; opt
(i) or (ii) would fail before (iii). To see this, consider (i) and let 1 be the largest

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

432

for which H1 fails to be in dom(Ric) because the H1 matrix fails to have either the
stability property or the complementarity property. The same remarks will apply to (ii)
by duality.
If complementarity fails at = 1 , then (X1 ) ! 1 as ! 1 . For < 1 ,
H1 may again be in dom(Ric), but X1 will be indenite. For such , the controller
u = ;B2 X1 x would make kTzw k1 < but would not be stabilizing. See part 1) of
the example below. If the stability property fails at = 1 , then H1 62 dom(Ric) but
Ric can be extended to obtain X1 and the controller u = ;B2 X1 x is stabilizing and
makes kTzw k1 = 1 . The stability property will also not hold for any  1 , and
no controller whatsoever exists which makes kTzw k1 < 1 . In other words, if stability
breaks down rst, then the inmum over stabilizing controllers equals the inmum over
all controllers, stabilizing or otherwise. See part 2) of the example below. In view of
this, we would typically expect that complementarity would fail rst.
Complementarity failing at = 1 means (X1 ) ! 1 as ! 1 , so condition (iii)
would fail at even larger values of , unless the eigenvectors associated with (X1 ) as
! 1 are in the null space of Y1 . Thus condition (iii) is the most likely of all to fail
rst. If condition (i) or (ii) fails rst because the stability property fails, the formulae
in Theorem 16.4 as well as their descriptor versions are optimal at = opt . This
is illustrated in the example below for the output feedback. If the complementarity
condition fails rst, (but (iii) does not fail), then obtaining formulae for the optimal
controllers is a more subtle problem.
Example 16.1 Let an interconnected dynamical system realization be given by
2

G(s) =

6 "
6
6
6
6
4

a
1
0

#
h

c2

1 0
0

0 1

b2 #
"
0
1
0

3
7
7
7
7
7
5

with jc2 j  jb2 j > 0. Then all assumptions for the output feedback problem are satised
and
"
"
1;b22 2 #
1;c22 2 #
a
a
2

2
H1 =
; J1 =
:
;1 ;a
;1 ;a
The eigenvalues of H1 and J1 are given, respectively, by
( p
)
( p
)
2 + b2 ) 2 ; 1
2 + c2 ) 2 ; 1
(
a
(
a
2
2
(H ) = 
;  (J ) = 
:
1

If 2 > a2 +1 b2  a2 +1 c2 , then X; (H1 ) and X; (J1 ) exist and

2
2

X; (H1 ) = Im

"

p(a2 +b2 ) 2 ;1;a

2

16.9. Optimality and Limiting Behavior

" p 2 2 2
(a +c2 ) ;1;a #

:
X; (J1 ) = Im

433

We shall consider two cases:

1) a > 0: In this case, the complementary property of dom(Ric) will fail before the
stability property fails since
q

(a2 + b22 ) 2 ; 1 ; a = 0

when 2 =

> a2 +1 b2 .
2

b22

Nevertheless, if 2 > a2 +1 b2 and 2 6= b12 , then H1 2 dom(Ric) and

2

=
X1 = p 2 2 2
(a + b2 ) ; 1 ; a

> 0; if 2 > b122

< 0; if a2 +1 b22 < 2 < b122 :

Let F1 = ;B2 X1 ; then

p

2
2 2
2
A+B2 F1 = ; a + b2 b2( a2 ;+ 1b2 ) ; 1 =
2

< 0 (stable); if 2 > b122

> 0 (unstable); if a2 +1 b22 < 2 < b122 :

{ Suppose full information (or states) are available for feedback and let
u = F1 x:
Then the closed-loop transfer matrix is given by
2

Tzw =

"

A + B2 F1 B1 = 66
6
4
C1 + D12 F1 0

p
a+b22 (a2 +b22 ) 2 ;1
;
b22 2 ;1
3
2
4

;b2

p(a2 +b2 ) 2 ;1;a

1 0

i 3
7
7
7
5

and Tzw is stable for all 2 > b12 and is not stable for a2 +1 b2 < 2 < b12 . Fur2
2
2
1 and 2 6= 1 .
thermore, it can be shown that kTzw k < for all 2 > a2 +
b22
b22
It is clear that the optimal H1 norm is b122 but is not achievable.

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

434

{ Suppose the states are not available; then output feedback must be considered. Note that if 2 > b12 , then H1 2 dom(Ric), J1 2 dom(Ric), and
2

X1 = p

(a2 + b22 ) 2 ; 1 ; a

>0

> 0:
(a2 + c22 ) 2 ; 1 ; a
Hence conditions (i) and (ii) in Theorem 16.4 are satised, and need to check
condition (iii). Since
Y1 = p

(X1 Y1 ) =

2p
;
( (a2 + b22 ) 2 ; 1 ; a )( (a2 + c22 ) 2 ; 1 ; a )
p

it is clear that (X1 Y1 ) ! 1 when 2 ! b12 . So condition (iii) will fail

2
before condition (i) or (ii) fails.
2) a < 0: In this case, complementary property is always satised, and, furthermore,
H1 2 dom(Ric), J1 2 dom(Ric), and

X1 = p

>0

Y1 = p

>0

(a2 + b22) 2 ; 1 ; a

1 .
for 2 > a2 +
b2

(a2 + c22 ) 2 ; 1 ; a

1 , H 62 dom(Ric) since stability property fails. NeverHowever, for 2  a2 +

b22 1
1 , we can extend the dom(Ric) to include those
theless, in this case, if 02 = a2 +
b22
matrices H1 with imaginary axis eigenvalues as
"

X; (H1 ) = Im ;a

such that X1 = ; a1 is a solution to the Riccati equation

A X1 + X1 A + C1 C1 + 0;2X1 B1 B1 X1 ; X1 B2 B2 X1 = 0

and A + 0;2B1 B1 X1 ; B2 B2 X1 = 0.

16.9. Optimality and Limiting Behavior

435
2

{ For = 0 and F1 = ;B2X1, then A + B2 F1 = a + ba2 < 0. So if states

are available for feedback and u = F1 x, we have
2

a + ba2

6 "

Tzw = 64

1 0
0

b2
a

i 3
7
7
5

2 RH1

= . Hence the optimum is achieved.

and kTzw k1 = p 21
a + b2 0
{ If states are not available, the output feedback is considered, and jb2j = jc2j,
then it can be shown that

(X1 Y1 ) =

2
< 2
( (a2 + b22 ) 2 ; 1 ; a )2
p

is satised if and only if

!

2
2
> a +b22b2 + a > p 21 2 :
a + b2
2

So condition (iii) of Theorem 16.4 will fail before either (i) or (ii) fails.
In both a > 0 and a < 0 cases, the optimal for the output feedback is given by
p

2
2
opt = a +b22b2 + a
2

if jb2 j = jc2 j; and the optimal controller given by the descriptor formula in equations (16.12) and (16.13) is a constant. In fact,

uopt = ; q

opt

2 ; 1 ; a opt
(a2 + b22 ) opt

y:

For instance, let a = ;1 and b2 = 1 = c2 . Then opt = 3 ; 1 = 0:7321 and uopt =

;0:7321 y. Further,
3
2
;1:7321 1 ;0:7321
Tzw = 64 1
0
0 75 :
;0:7321 0 ;0:7321
It is easy to check that kTzw k1 = 0:7321.

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

436

16.10 Controller Interpretations

This section considers some additional connections with the minimum entropy solution
and the work of Whittle and will be of interest primarily to readers already familiar
with them. The connection with the Q-parameterization approach will be considered
in the next chapter for the general case.
Section 16.10.2 gives another separation interpretation of the central H1 controller
of Theorem 16.4 in the spirit of Whittle (1981). It has been shown in Glover and Doyle
[1988] that the central controller corresponds exactly to the steady state version of the
optimal risk sensitive controller derived by [Whittle, 1981], who also derives a separation
result and a certainty equivalence principle (see also [Whittle, 1986]).

16.10.1 Minimum Entropy Controller

Let T be a transfer matrix with kT k1 < . Then the entropy of T (s) is dened by
2Z 1  ;


ln det I ; ;2T (j!)T (j!)  d!:
I (T; ) = ; 2 

;1

It is easy to see that

2Z 1X 

ln 1 ; ;2 i2 (T (j!)) d!
I (T; ) = ; 2 

;1 i

and I (T; )  0, where i (T (j!)) is the ith singular value of T (j!). It is also easy to
show that
1 Z 1 X 2 (T (j!)) d! = kT k2 :
lim
I
(
T;

)
=
i
2
!1
2
;1 i

Thus the entropy I (T; ) is in fact a performance index measuring the tradeo between
the H1 optimality ( ! kT k1 ) and the H2 optimality ( ! 1).
It has been shown in Glover and Mustafa [1989] that the central controller given in
Theorem 16.4 is actually the controller that satises the norm condition kTzw k1 <
and minimizes the following entropy:
2Z 1

; 2 

;1

 (j!)Tzw (j!)  d!:

ln det I ; ;2 Tzw

Therefore, the central controller is also called the minimum entropy controller (maximum entropy controller if the entropy is dened as I~(T; ) = ;I (T; )).

16.10.2 Relations with Separation in Risk Sensitive Control

Although [Whittle, 1981] treats a nite horizon, discrete time, stochastic control problem, his separation result has a clear interpretation for the present innite horizon,

16.10. Controller Interpretations

437

continuous time, deterministic control problem, as given below; and it is an interesting

exercise to compare the two separation statements. This discussion will be entirely in
the time-domain.
We will consider the system at time, t = 0, and evaluate the past stress, S; , and
future stress, S+ , as functions of the current state, x. First dene the future stress as
S+ (x) := sup infu (kP+ z k22 ; 2kP+ wk22 );
w

then by the completion of the squares and by the saddle point argument of Section 16.3,
where u is not constrained to be a function of the measurements (FI case), we obtain
S+ (x) = x X1 x:
The past stress, S; (x), is a function of the past inputs and observations, u(t); y(t) for
;1 < t < 0, and of the present state, x, and is produced by the worst case disturbance,
w, that is consistent with the given data:
S; (x) := sup(kP; z k22 ; 2kP; wk22 ):
In order to evaluate S; we see that w can be divided into two components, D21 w
? w , with x dependent only on D21
? w (since B1 D21 = 0) and D21 w = y ; C2 x.
and D21
The past stress is then calculated by a completion of the square and in terms of a lter
output. In particular, let x be given by the stable dierential equation
x_ = Ax + B2 u + L1 (C2 x ; y) + Y1 C1 C1 x with x(;1) = 0:
Then it can be shown that the worst case w is given by
? w = D? B  Y ;1 (x(t) ; x(t)) for t < 0
D21
21 1 1
and that this gives, with e := x ; x,
S; (x) = ; 2e(0) Y1;1 e(0) ; 2 kP; (y ; C2 x)k22 + kP;(C1 x)k22 + kP; uk22:
The worst case disturbance will now reach the value of x to maximize the total
stress, S; (x) + S+ (x) , and this is easily shown to be achieved at the current state of
x^ = Z1 x(0):
The denitions of X1 and Y1 can be used to show that the state equations for
the central controller can be rewritten with the state x := Z1 x^ and with x as dened
above. The control signal is then
u = F1 x^ = F1 Z1 x:
The separation is between the evaluation of future stress, which is a control problem
with an unconstrained input, and the past stress, which is a ltering problem with
known control input. The central controller then combines these evaluations to give a
worst case estimate, x^, and the control law acts as if this were the perfectly observed
state.

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

438

16.11 An Optimal Controller

To oer a general idea about the appearance of an optimal controller, we shall give in
the following without proof the conditions under which an optimal controller exists and
an explicit formula for an optimal controller.
Theorem 16.16 There exists an admissible controller such that kTzw k1  i the
following three conditions hold:
(i) there exists a full column rank matrix
"

such that
and

"

X11 2 R2nn
X12
#

"

H1 X11 = X11 TX ; Re i (TX )  0 8i

X12
X12
X1 1 X12 = X1 2 X11 ;

(ii) there exists a full column rank matrix

"

such that
and
(iii)

"

"

Y11 2 R2nn
Y12
#

J1 Y11 = Y11 TY ; Re i (TY )  0 8i

Y12
Y12
Y1 1 Y12 = Y1 2 Y11 ;
"

X1 2 X11 ;1X1 2 Y12  0:

;1 Y1 2 X12 Y1 2 Y11

Moreover, when these conditions hold, one such controller is

Kopt (s) := CK (sEK ; AK )+ BK
where
EK := Y1 1 X11 ; ;2Y1 2 X12
BK := Y1 2 C2
CK := ;B2 X12
AK := EK TX ; BK C2 X11 = TY EK + Y1 1 B2 CK :

16.12. Notes and References

439

Remark
16.4 It is simple to show that if X11 and Y11 are nonsingular and if X1 =
X12 X1;11 and Y1 = Y12 Y1;11 , then condition (iii) in the above theorem is equivalent to
X1  0, Y1  0, and (Y1 X1 )  2 . So in this case, the conditions for the existence

of an optimal controller can be obtained from \taking the limit" of the corresponding
conditions in Theorem 16.4. Moreover, the controller given above is reduced to the
descriptor form given in equations (16.12) and (16.13).
~

16.12 Notes and References

This chapter is based on Doyle, Glover, Khargonekar, Francis [1989], and Zhou [1992].
The minimum entropy controller is studied in detail in Glover and Mustafa [1989] and
Mustafa and Glover [1990]. The risk sensitivity problem is treated in Whittle [1981,
1986]. The connections between the risk sensitivity controller and the central H1
controller are explored in Doyle and Glover [1988]. The complete characterization of
optimal controllers for the general setup can be found in Glover, Limebeer, Doyle,
Kasenally, and Safonov [1991].

440

H1 CONTROL: SIMPLE CASE

17

H1 Control: General Case

In this chapter we will consider again the standard H1 control problem but with some
assumptions in the last chapter relaxed. Since the proof techniques in the last chapter
can be applied to this general case except with some more involved algebra, the detailed
proof for the general case will not be given; only the formulas are presented. However,
some procedures to carry out the proof will be outlined together with some alternative
approaches to solve the standard H1 problem and some interpretations of the solutions.
We will also indicate how the assumptions in the general case can be relaxed further to
accommodate other more complicated problems. More specically, Section 17.1 presents
the solutions to the general H1 problem. Section 17.2 discusses the techniques to
transform a general problem to a standard problem which satises the assumptions
in the last chapter. The problems associated with relaxing the assumptions for the
general standard problems and techniques for dealing with them will be considered in
Section 17.3. Section 17.4 considers the integral control in the H2 and H1 theory
and Section 17.5 considers how the general H1 solution can be used to solve the H1
ltering problem. Section 17.6 considers an alternative approach to the standard H2
and H1 problems using Youla controller parameterizations, and Section 17.7 gives an
2  2 Hankel-Toeplitz operator interpretations of the H1 solutions presented here and
in the last chapter. Finally, the general state feedback H1 control problem and its
relations with full information control and dierential game problems are discussed in
section 17.8 and 17.9.
441

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

442

17.1 General H1 Solutions

Consider the system described by the block diagram

z
y

w


where, as usual, G and K are assumed to be real rational and proper with K constrained
to provide internal stability. The controller is said to be admissible if it is real-rational,
proper, and stabilizing. Although we are taking everything to be real, the results
presented here are still true for the complex case with some obvious modications. We
will again only be interested in characterizing all suboptimal H1 controllers.
The realization of the transfer matrix G is taken to be of the form
2

A B1 B2
G(s) = 64 C1 D11 D12
C2 D21 0

3
7
5

"

A B
=
C D

which is compatible with the dimensions z (t) 2 Rp1 , y(t) 2 Rp2 , w(t) 2 Rm1 , u(t) 2
Rm2 , and the state x(t) 2 Rn . The following assumptions are made:
(A1) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable;
(A2) D12 =

and D21 = 0 I ;

"

A ; j!I B2
C1
D12

"

A ; j!I B1
C2
D21

(A3)
(A4)

"

has full column rank for all !;

has full row rank for all !.

Assumption (A1) is necessary for the existence of stabilizing controllers. The assumptions in (A2) mean that the penalty on z = C1 x + D12 u includes a nonsingular,
normalized penalty on the control u, that the exogenous signal w includes both plant
disturbance and sensor noise, and that the sensor noise weighting is normalized and
nonsingular. Relaxation of (A2) leads to singular control problems; see Stroorvogel
[1990]. For those problems that have D12 full column rank and D21 full row rank but
do not satisfy assumption (A2), a normalizing procedure is given in the next section so
that an equivalent new system will satisfy this assumption.

17.1. General H1 Solutions

443

Assumptions (A3) and (A4) are made for a technical reason: together with (A1)
they guarantee that the two Hamiltonian matrices in the corresponding H2 problem
belong to dom(Ric), as we have seen in Chapter 14. It is tempting to suggest that
(A3) and (A4) can be dropped, but they are, in some sense, necessary for the methods
presented in the last chapter to be applicable. A further discussion of the assumptions
and their possible relaxation will be discussed in Section 17.3.
The main result is now stated in terms of the solutions of the X1 and Y1 Riccati
equations together with the \state feedback" and \output injection" matrices F and L.

R := D1 D1 ;

"
"

2Im1 0 ; where D := [D D ]
1
11 12
0 0
#

"

2
R~ := D1 D1 ; Ip1 0 ; where D1 := D11
D21
0 0
"
# "
#
h
i
A
0
B
;1 D C1 B 
H1 :=
;
R
1
;C1 C1 ;A
;C1 D1
"
# "
#
h
i
A
0
C
;1 D1 B  C
~
J1 :=
;
R
1
;B1 B1 ;A
;B1D1

X1 := Ric(H1)
F :=
L :=

"
h

F11 := ;R;1 [D C + B  X ]

1
1 1
F21
i
L11 L21 := ;[B1 D1 + Y1 C  ]R~ ;1

Partition D, F11 , and L11 are as follows:

2

"

Y1 := Ric(J1 )

F11 1 F12 1 F21

# 6
F 0 = 66 L111 D1111 D1112 0 777 :
6 
L0 D
I 75
4 L121 D1121 D1122
0
I
0
L21

Remark 17.1 In the above matrix partitioning, some matrices may not exist depending on whether D12 or D21 is square. This issue will be discussed further later. For the
time being, we shall assume all matrices in the partition exist.
~
Theorem 17.1 Suppose G satises the assumptions (A1){(A4).
(a) There exists an admissible controller K (s) such that jjF` (G; K )jj1 < (i.e.
kTzw k1 < ) if and only if

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

444

 ; D1121
 ]);
(i) > max( [D1111 ; D1112 ; ]; 1111
(ii) H1 2 dom(Ric) with X1 = Ric(H1 )  0;
(iii) J1 2 dom(Ric) with Y1 = Ric(J1 )  0;
(iv) (X1 Y1 ) < 2 .
(b) Given that the conditions of part (a) are satised, then all rational internally
stabilizing controllers K (s) satisfying jjF` (G; K )jj1 < are given by

where

K = F`(M1 ; Q)

for arbitrary Q 2 RH1

2

such that kQk1 <

3

A^ B^1 B^2 7
6
M1 = 64 C^1 D^ 11 D^ 12 75
C^2 D^ 21 0
 ( 2 I ; D1111 D );1 D1112 ; D1122 ;
D^ 11 = ;D1121 D1111
1111
D^ 12 2 Rm2 m2 and D^ 21 2 Rp2 p2 are any matrices (e.g. Cholesky factors) satisfying
 = I ; D1121 ( 2 I ; D D1111 );1 D ;
D^ 12 D^ 12
1111
1121


2

;
1
^
^
D21 D21 = I ; D1112 ( I ; D1111 D1111 ) D1112 ;
and

where

B^2 = Z1 (B2 + L121 )D^ 12 ;

C^2 = ;D^ 21 (C2 + F121 );
;1 D^ 11 ;
B^1 = ;Z1L21 + B^2 D^ 12
;1 C^2 ;
C^1 = F21 + D^ 11 D^ 21
;1 C^2 ;
A^ = A + BF + B^1 D^ 21
Z1 = (I ; ;2 Y1 X1 );1 :

(Note that if D11 = 0 then the formulae are considerably simplied.)

Some Special Cases:

Case 1: D12 = I

In this case
1. in part (a), (i) becomes >  (D1121 ).
2. in part (b)
D^ 11 = ;D1122
 = I ; ;2 D1121 D
D^ 12 D^ 12
1121
 D^ 21 = I:
D^ 21

17.2. Loop Shifting

445

Case 2: D21 = I

In this case
1. in part (a), (i) becomes >  (D1112 ).
2. in part (b)
D^ 11 = ;D1122
 =I
D^ 12 D^ 12
 D^ 21 = I ; ;2 D D1112 :
D^ 21
1112

Case 3: D12 = I & D21 = I

In this case
1. in part (a), (i) drops out.
2. in part (b)

D^ 11 = ;D1122
 =I
D^ 12 D^ 12
 D^ 21 = I:
D^ 21

17.2 Loop Shifting

Let a given problem have the following diagram where zp (t) 2 Rp1 , yp (t) 2 Rp2 , wp (t) 2
Rm1 , and up (t) 2 Rm2 :

zp
yp

- Kp

wp


up

The plant P has the following state space realization with Dp12 full column rank and
Dp21 full row rank:
2
3

Ap Bp1 Bp2
P (s) = Cp1 Dp11 Dp12
Cp2 Dp21 Dp22
6
4

7
5

The objective is to nd all rational proper controllers Kp(s) which stabilize P and

jjF` (P; Kp )jj1 < . To solve this problem we rst transfer it to the standard one

treated in the last section. Note that the following procedure can also be applied to the
H2 problem (except the procedure for the case D11 6= 0).

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

446

Normalize D12 and D21

Perform singular value decompositions to obtain the matrix factorizations

Dp12 = Up

"

R ; Dp21 = R~p 0 I U~p

I p

such that Up and U~p are square and unitary. Now let
zp = Up z; wp = U~p w; yp = R~p y; up = Rp u
and

K (s) = Rp Kp (s)R~p
G(s) =

"
2

6
6
4
2

=:
Then

6
4

"

0
U~p 0
P
(
s
)
0 R~p;1
0 Rp;1
Bp1 U~p
Bp2 Rp;1
Ap
Up Cp1 Up Dp11 U~p Up Dp12 Rp;1
R~p;1 Cp2 R~p;1Dp21 U~p R~p;1Dp22 Rp;1

Up

A B1 B2
C1 D11 D12
C2 D21 D22

D12 =

"

"

A B :
=
C D
h

7
5

7
7
5

D21 = 0 I ;

and the new system is shown below:

z

w


Furthermore, jjF` (P; Kp )jj = jjUp F` (G; K )U~p jj = kF`(G; K )k for  = 2 or 1

since Up and U~p are unitary.

Remove the Assumption D22 = 0

Suppose K (s) is a controller for G with D22 set to zero. Then the controller for D22 6= 0
is K (I + D22 K );1 . Hence there is no loss of generality in assuming D22 = 0.

17.2. Loop Shifting

447

Remove the Assumption D11 = 0

We can even assume that D11 = 0. In fact, Theorem 17.1 can be shown by rst
transforming the general problem to the standard problem considered in the last chapter
using Theorem 16.2. This transformation is called loop-shifting. Before we go into the
detailed description of the transformation, let us rst consider a simple unitary matrix
dilation problem.
Lemma 17.2 Suppose D is a constant matrix such that kDk < 1; then

N=

"

;D

(I ; DD )1=2

(I ; D D)1=2
D
is a unitary matrix, i.e., N  N = I .
This result can be easily veried, and the matrix N is called a unitary dilation of D
(of course, there are many other ways to dilate a matrix to a unitary matrix).
Consider again the feedback system shown at the beginning of this chapter; without
loss of generality, we shall assume that the system G has the following realization:
2
6
6
6
6
4

G = C1
with

"

C2

D12 =

"

B1
D1111 D1112
D1121
D1122
h
i
0 I
0

"

B2 #
0

3
7
7
7
7
5

; D21 = 0 I :

Suppose there is a stabilizing controller K such that kF` (G; K )k1 < 1. (Suppose we
have normalized to 1). In the following, we will show how to construct a new system
transfer matrix M (s) and a new controller K~ such that
the D11 matrix for M (s) is zero,
and, furthermore, kF` (G; K )k1 < 1 if and only if F`(M; K~ ) < 1. To begin with,
1
note that kF` (G; K )(1)k < 1 by the assumption

kF`(G; K )(1)k
Let

D1111
D1112

:
D1121 D1122 + K (1)

D1 2 X : D1111 D1112 < 1 :
D1121 D1122 + X
 D1111 );1 D1111
 D1112 and dene
For example, let D1 = ;D1122 ; D1121 (I ; D1111
"
#
D
D
1111
1112
~
D11 :=
;
D1121 D1122 + D1

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

448

then D~ 11 < 1. Let

to get

~ K~ )
F`(G; K ) = F` (G; K~ + D1 ) = F` (G;

where

G~ =

6
6
6
6
4
2

=:
Let

K (s) = K~ (s) + D1

6
6
4

A + B2 D1 C2

"

C1 + D12 D1 C2
A~
C~1
C~2

C2
B~1
D~ 11
D~ 21
"

B1 + B2 D1 D21
D1111
D1112
D1121h D1122i+ D1
0 I

"

B2 #
0

3
7
7
7
7
5

B~2 7
D~ 12 75 :
0

;D~ 11

 )1=2
(I ; D~ 11 D~ 11
N=
 D~ 11 )1=2

(I ; D~ 11
D~ 11
and then N N = I . Furthermore, by Theorem 16.2, we have that K stabilizes G and
that kF` (G; K )k1 < 1 if and only if F`(G; K ) internally stabilizes N and
kF`(N; F` (G; K ))k1 < 1:
Note that
F`(N; F` (G; K )) = F`(M; K~ )
with
2
 D~ 12 3
 C~1 B~1 R1;1=2 B~2 + B~1 R1;1D~ 11
A~ + B~1 R1;1D~ 11
7
6
7
M (s) = 64
R~1;1=2 C~1
0
R~1;1=2 D~ 12
5
 D~ 12
 C~1 D~ 21 R1;1=2
D~ 21 R1;1 D~ 11
C~2 + D~ 21 R1;1 D~ 11
 D~ 11 and R~1 = I ; D~ 11 D~ 11
 . In summary, we have the following
where R1 = I ; D~ 11
lemma.
Lemma 17.3 There is a controller K that internally
stabilizes
G and kF` (G; K )k1 < 1

~
~
if and only if there is a K that stabilizes M and F`(M; K ) < 1.
"

Corollary 17.4 Let G(s) = A B 2 RH1 . Then kG(s)k1 < 1 if and only if
C D
kDk < 1,
#
"
A
+ B (I ; D D);1 D C B (I ; D D);1=2
2 RH1 ;
M (s) =
(I ; DD );1=2 C
0

17.3. Relaxing Assumptions

449

and kM (s)k1 < 1.

17.3 Relaxing Assumptions

In this section, we indicate how the results of section 17.1 can be extended to more
general cases.

Relaxing A3 and A4
Suppose that

G = 64

0 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0

3
7
5

which violates both A3 and A4 and corresponds to the robust stabilization of an integrator. If the controller u = ;x where  > 0 is used, then

Tzw = s;+s ; with kTzw k1 = :

Hence the norm can be made arbitrarily small as  ! 0, but  = 0 is not admissible
since it is not stabilizing. This may be thought of as a case where the H1 -optimum is
not achieved on the set of admissible controllers. Of course, for this system, H1 optimal
control is a silly problem, although the suboptimal case is not obviously so.
If one simply drops the requirement that controllers be admissible and removes
assumptions A3 and A4, then the formulae presented above will yield u = 0 for both
the optimal controller and the suboptimal controller with  = 0. This illustrates that
assumptions A3 and A4 are necessary for the techniques used in the last chapter to
be directly applicable. An alternative is to develop a theory which maintains the same
notion of admissibility but relaxes A3 and A4. The easiest way to do this would be to
pursue the suboptimal case introducing  perturbations so that A3 and A4 are satised.

Relaxing A1
If assumption A1 is violated, then it is obvious that no admissible controllers exist.
Suppose A1 is relaxed to allow unstabilizable and/or undetectable modes on the j!
axis and internal stability is also relaxed to also allow closed-loop j! axis poles, but
A2-A4 is still satised. It can be easily shown that under these conditions the closedloop H1 norm cannot be made nite and, in particular, that the unstabilizable and/or
undetectable modes on the j! axis must show up as poles in the closed-loop system,
see Lemma 16.1.

450

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

Violating A1 and either or both of A3 and A4

Sensible control problems can be posed which violate A1 and either or both of A3 and
A4. For example, cases when A has modes at s = 0 which are unstabilizable through B2
and/or undetectable through C2 arise when an integrator is included in a weight on a
disturbance input or an error term. In these cases, either A3 or A4 are also violated, or
the closed-loop H1 norm cannot be made nite. In many applications, such problems
can be reformulated so that the integrator occurs inside the loop (essentially using the
internal model principle) and is hence detectable and stabilizable. We will show this
process in the next section.
An alternative approach to such problems which could potentially avoid the problem
reformulation would be to pursue the techniques in the last chapter but to relax internal
stability to the requirement that all closed-loop modes be in the closed left half plane.
Clearly, to have nite H1 norms, these closed-loop modes could not appear as poles
in Tzw . The formulae given in this chapter will often yield controllers compatible with
these assumptions. The user would then have to decide whether closed-loop poles on
the imaginary axis were due to weights and hence acceptable or due to the problem
being poorly posed, as in the above example.
A third alternative is to again introduce  perturbations so that A1, A3, and A4 are
satised. Roughly speaking, this would produce sensible answers for sensible problems,
but the behavior as  ! 0 could be problematic.

Relaxing A2

In the cases that either D12 is not full column rank or that D21 is not full row rank,
improper controllers can give a bounded H1 -norm for Tzw , although the controllers will
not be admissible by our denition. Such singular ltering and control problems have
been well-studied in H2 theory and many of the same techniques go over to the H1 -case
(e.g. Willems [1981], Willems, Kitapci, and Silverman [1986], and Hautus and Silverman
[1983]). In particular, the structure algorithm of Silverman [1969] could be used to make
the terms D12 and D21 full rank by the introduction of suitable dierentiators in the
controller. A complete solution to the singular problem can be found in [Stroorvogel,
1990].

17.4 H2 and H1 Integral Control

It is interesting to note that the H2 and H1 design frameworks do not in general

produce integral control. In this section we show how to introduce integral control into
the H2 and H1 design framework through a simple disturbance rejection problem. We
consider a feedback system shown in Figure 17.1. We shall assume that the frequency
contents of the disturbance w are eectively modeled by the weighting Wd 2 RH1 and
the constraints on control signal are limited by an appropriate choice of Wu 2 RH1 . In
order to let the output y track the reference signal r, we require K contain an integral,

17.4. H2 and H1 Integral Control

451

i.e., K (s) has a pole at s = 0. (In general, K is required to have poles on the imaginary
axis.)

6z2

Wu
r

-g ;6

Wd

- g? y- We -z1

Figure 17.1: A Simple Disturbance Rejection Problem

There are several ways to achieve the integral design. One approach is to introduce
an integral in the performance weight We . Then the transfer function between w and
z1 is given by
z1 = We (I + PK );1 Wd w:
Now if the resulting controller K stabilizes the plant P and makes the norm (2-norm or
1-norm) between w and z1 nite, then K must have a pole at s = 0 which is the zero
of the sensitivity function (Assuming Wd has no zeros at s = 0). (This follows from the
well-known internal model principle.) The problem with this approach is that the H2
(or H1 ) control theory presented in this chapter and in the previous chapters can not
be applied to this problem formulation directly because the pole s = 0 of We becomes
an uncontrollable pole of the feedback system and the very rst assumption for the H2
(or H1 ) theory is violated.
However, the obstacles can be overcome by appropriately reformulating the problem.
Suppose We can be factorized as follows

We = W~ e (s)M (s)
where M (s) is proper, containing all the imaginary axis poles of We , and M ;1 (s) 2
RH1 , W~ e (s) is stable and minimum phase. Now suppose there exists a controller K (s)
which contains the same imaginary axis poles that achieves the performance. Then
without loss of generality, K can be factorized as

K (s) = ;K^ (s)M (s)

where there is no unstable pole/zero cancelation in forming the product K^ (s)M (s).
Now the problem can be reformulated as in Figure 17.2. Figure 17.2 can be put in the
general LFT framework as in Figure 17.3.
Let W~ e ; Wu ; Wd ; M , and P have the following stabilizable and detectable state space

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

452

6z2

Wu

K^

Wd

- ?g -

y1- ~
We

-z1

Figure 17.2: Disturbance Rejection with Imaginary Axis Poles

z1 

W~ e

z2 

Wu

Wd




 ?g P 

y1

K^

Figure 17.3: LFT Framework for the Disturbance Rejection Problem

realizations:
#

"

"

"

W~ e = Ae Be ; Wu = Au Bu ; Wd = Ad Bd
Ce De

Cu Du

"

Cd Dd

"

M = Am Bm ; P = Ap Bp :
Cm Dm
Cp Dp
Then a realization for the generalized system is given by
2 "

G(s) = 64

W~ e MWd
0

MWd

"

W~ e MP
Wu
MP

# 3
7
5

17.4. H2 and H1 Integral Control

453
3

Ae 0 Be Cm Be DmCd Be Dm Cp Be Dm Dd Be Dm Dp
6
6 0 Au
0
Bu 777
0
0
0
6
6 0
0 Am
Bm Cd
Bm Cp
Bm Dd
Bm Dp 77
6
7
6
7
6 0
Bd
0
0
0
Ad
0
7:
= 66
0
0
0
Ap
0
Bp 77
6 0
7
6
6 Ce
0 De Cm De Dm Cd De DmCp De DmDd De Dm Dp 77
6
6
0
0
0
0
Du 75
4 0 Cu
0 0 Cm
Dm Cd
Dm Cp
Dm Dd
Dm Dp

We shall illustrate the above design through a simple numerical example. Let
2
3
0 1 0
; 2 = 64 3 2 1 75 ; W = 1;
P = (s +s1)(
d
s ; 3)
;2 1 0
"

10 = ;100 ;90 ; W = 1 :
Wu = ss++100
e s
1
1

Then we can choose without loss of generality that

M = s +s  ; W~ e = s +1  ;  > 0:
This gives the following generalized system
2
3
;
 0 1 ;2 1 1 0
6
6 0
;100 0 0 0 0 ;90 777
6
6 0
0 0 ;2   0 77
6
6
7
6
0 0 0 1 0 0 77
G(s) = 66 0
0 0 3 2 0 1 77
6 0
6
7
6 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 77
6
6
1 0 0 0 0 1 75
4 0
0
0 1 ;2 1 1 0
and suboptimal H1 controller K^ 1 for each  can be computed easily as
:4(s + 1)(s + )(s + 100)(s ; 0:1557)
K^ 1 = ;2060381
2
(s + ) (s + 32:17)(s + 262343)(s ; 19:89)
which gives the closed-loop 1 norm 7:854. Hence the controller K1 = ;K^ 1(s)M (s)
is given by
:4(s + 1)(s + 100)(s ; 0:1557) 7:85(s + 1)(s + 100)(s ; 0:1557)
K1 (s) = 2060381
s(s + 32:17)(s + 262343)(s ; 19:89) 
s(s + 32:17)(s ; 19:89)

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

454

which is independent of  as expected. Similarly, we can solve an optimal H2 controller

s + 1)(s + )(s + 100)(s ; 0:069)
K^ 2 = ;(s43+:487(
)2 (s2 + 30:94s + 411:81)(s ; 7:964)
and
:487(s + 1)(s + 100)(s ; 0:069)
K2 (s) = ;K^ 2(s)M (s) = s43
(s2 + 30:94s + 411:81)(s ; 7:964) :
An approximate integral control can also be achieved without going through the
above process by letting
We = W~ e = s +1  ; M (s) = 1
for a suciently small  > 0. For example, a controller for  = 0:001 is given by
s + 1)(s + 100)(s ; 0:1545)  7:85(s + 1)(s + 100)(s ; 0:1545)
K1 = (s316880(
+ 0:001)(s + 32)(s + 40370)(s ; 20)
s(s + 32)(s ; 20)
which gives the closed-loop H1 norm of 7:85. Similarly, an approximate H2 integral
controller is obtained as
:47(s + 1)(s + 100)(s ; 0:0679)
K2 = (s + 043
:001)(s2 + 30:93s + 411:7)(s ; 7:9718) :

17.5 H1 Filtering

In this section we show how the ltering problem can be solved using the H1 theory
developed early. Suppose a dynamic system is described by the following equations
x_ = Ax + B1 w(t); x(0) = 0
(17.1)
y = C2 x + D21 w(t)
(17.2)
z = C1 x + D11 w(t)
(17.3)
The ltering problem is to nd an estimate z^ of z in some sense using the measurement
of y. The restriction on the ltering problem is that the lter has to be causal so
that it can be realized, i.e., z^ has to be generated by a causal system acting on the
measurements. We will further restrict our lter to be unbiased, i.e., given T > 0 the
estimate z^(t) = 0 8t 2 [0; T ] if y(t) = 0; 8t 2 [0; T ]. Now we can state our H1 ltering
problem.
H1 Filtering: Given a > 0, nd a causal lter F (s) 2 RH1 if it exists
such that
2
J := sup kz ; z^2k2 < 2
with z^ = F (s)y.

w2L2 [0;1)

kwk2

17.5. H1 Filtering

455

?
j

z

z^

F (s)

6
4

A B1
C1 D11
C2 D21

3
7
5

Figure 17.4: Filtering Problem Formulation

A diagram for the ltering problem is shown in Figure 17.4.
The above ltering problem can also be formulated in an LFT framework: given a
system shown below

z

y

w
G(s) 

A B1 0
G(s) = 64 C1 D11 ;I
C2 D21 0

z^

- F (s)

nd a lter F (s) 2 RH1 such that

2
sup kz
k22 < 2 :

w2L2

3
7
5

(17:4)

kwk2

Hence the ltering problem can be regarded as a special H1 problem. However, comparing with control problems there is no internal stability requirement in the ltering
problem. Hence the solution to the above ltering problem can be obtained from the H1
solution in the previous sections by setting B2 = 0 and dropping the internal stability
requirement.
Theorem 17.5 Suppose (C2 ; A) is detectable and
"

A ; j!I B1
C2
D21

has full row rank for all !. Let D21 be normalized and D11 partitioned conformably as
"

"

D11 = D111 D112 :

D21
0
I
Then there exists a causal lter F (s) 2 RH1 such that J < 2 if and only if (D111 ) <
and J1 2 dom(Ric) with Y1 = Ric(J1)  0 where
R~ :=

"

D11
D21

#"

D11
D21

#

"

2
; I 0

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

456

J1 :=

"

"

"


A
0
C1
C2
;1 D11 B1 C1 :
~
;
R
;B1 B1 ;A
;B1D11 ;B1D21
D21 B1 C2

Moreover, if the above conditions are satised, then a rational causal lter F (s) satisfying J < 2 is given by
"

A + L21 C2 + L11 D112 C2 ;L21 ; L11 D112

z^ = F (s)y =
y
C1 ; D112 C2
D112
where

 + Y1 C1 B1 D21
 + Y1 C2 R~ ;1 :
L11 L21 := ; B1 D11

 = 0 the lter becomes much simpler:

In the case where D11 = 0 and B1 D21
#

"



z^ = A ; Y1 C2 C2 Y1 C2 y
C1
0

where Y1 is the stabilizing solution to

Y1 A + AY1 + Y1 ( ;2 C1 C1 ; C2 C2 )Y1 + B1 B1 = 0:

17.6 Youla Parameterization Approach*

In this section, we shall brie y outline an alternative approach to solving the standard
H2 and H1 control problems using the Q parameterization (Youla parameterization)
approach. This approach was the main focus in the early 1980's and is still very useful
in solving many interesting problems. We will see that this approach may suggest
additional interpretations for the results presented in the last chapter and applies to
both H2 and H1 problems. The H2 problem is very simple and involves a projection.
While the H1 problem is much more dicult, it bears some similarities to the constant
matrix dilation problem but with the restriction of internal stability. Nevertheless, we
have built enough tools to give a fairly complete solution using this Q parameterization
approach.
Assume again that the G has the realization
2

A B1 B2
G = 64 C1 D11 D12
C2 D21 D22

3
7
5

with the same assumptions as before. But for convenience, we will allow the assumption
(A2) to be relaxed to the following

17.6. Youla Parameterization Approach*

h

457

(A20 ) D12 is full column rank with D12 D? unitary, and D21 is full row rank with
"
#

D21
D~ ?

unitary.

Next, we will outline the steps required to solve the H2 and H1 control problems.
Because of the similarity between the H2 and H1 problems, they are developed in
parallel below.
Parameterization: Recall that all controllers stabilizing the plant G can be expressed
as
K = F` (M2 ; Q); I + D22 Q(1) invertible
with Q 2 RH1 and
2

A + B2 F2 + L2 C2 + L2 D22 F2 ;L2 B2 + L2 D22

M2 = 64
F2
0
I
;(C2 + D22 F2 )
I
;D22

3
7
5

where

 C1 )
F2 = ;(B2 X2 + D12
)
L2 = ;(Y"2 C2 + B1 D21
#
 C1
A
;
B
;
B
2 D12
2 B2
X2 = Ric
0
;C1 D? D? C1 ;(A ; B2 D12 C1 )
"
#
 C2 )
 C2
(A ; B1 D21
;
C
2
Y2 = Ric
 0:
;B1 D~ ? D~ ? B1 ;(A ; B1 D21 C2 )
Then the closed-loop transfer matrix from w to z can be written as
F`(G; K ) = To + UQV; I + D22 Q(1) invertible

where

and

AF2

;B2 F2

B1
To = 64 0
AL2 B1L2 75 2 RH1
C1F2 ;D12F2 D11
#
"
#
"
A
A
B
B
L
F
2
1L2
2
2
;V=
U=
C1F2 D12
C2 D21

AF2 := A + B2 F2 ; AL2 := A + L2 C2
C1F2 = C1 + D12 F2 ; B1L2 = B1 + L2 D21 :
It is easy to show that U is an inner, U  U = I , and V is a co-inner, V V  = I .

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

458

"

Unitary Invariant: There exist U? and V? such that U U? and VV

?
h

square and inner:

"

+ 
U? = AF2 ;X2 C1 D? ; V? =
C1F2
D?

"

are

AL2
B1L2
:
; D~ ?B1 Y2+ D~ ?

Since the multiplication of square inner matrices do not change H2 and H1 norms,
we have for  = 2 or 1
kF` (P; K )k = kTo + UQV k
=
=
where

h



"




"

"

V
U U? (To + UQV )
V?
#
R11 + Q R12

R21 R22 
i

h

R = U  To V  V?
U?

#

with the obvious partitioning. It can be shown through some long and tedious
algebra that R is antistable and has the following representation:
2
3
;AF2
EB1L2
;ED21
;E D~ ?
6
6
C2
;Y2+ B1 D~ ? 777
0
;AL2
6
R=6
 D11 B 



~ ? 75
B2
F2 Y2 ; D12
4
1L2 D12 D11 D21 D12 D11 D
 D D11 D~ 
;D? C1 X2+
;D? D11 B1L2
D? D11 D21
?
?

where E := X2 B1 + C1F2 D11 .

Projection/Dilation: At this point the  = 2 and  = 1 cases have to be treated
separately.
H2 case: In this case, we will assume D? D11 = 0 and D11 D~ ? = 0; otherwise,
the 2-norm of the closed loop transfer matrix will be unbounded since
"
#
 D11 D21
 D12
 D11 D~ 
D
12
?
R(1) =
 D D11 D~  :
D? D11 D21
?
?
Now from the denition of 2-norm, the problem can be rewritten as

kF`(G; K )k22

"

R11 + Q R12
R21 R22

# 2

17.6. Youla Parameterization Approach*

459
"

kR11 + Qk22 +

R21

R12
R22

# 2

Furthermore,

kR11 + Qk22 = kR11 ; D12 D11 D21 k22 + kQ + D12 D11 D21 k22
 D11 D21
 ) 2 H2? and (Q + D12
 D11 D21
 ) 2 H1 . In fact,
since (R11 ; D12


(Q + D12 D11 D21 ) has to be in H2 to guarantee that the 2-norm be nite.
Hence the unique optimal solution is given by a projection to H1 :
 D11 D :
Qopt = [;R11 ]+ = ;D12
21
The optimal controller is given by
Kopt = F` (M2 ; Qopt):
In particular, if D11 = 0 then Kopt = F` (M2 ; 0).

H1 case: Recall the denition of the 1-norm:

"

"

#!

R11 + Q R12 (j!):

= sup 
R21 R22
!
1
Consider the minimization problem with respect to Q frequency by frequency;
R11 + Q R12
R21 R22

it becomes a constant matrix dilation problem if no causality restrictions are

imposed on Q. The H1 optimal control follows this idea. However, it should
be noted that since Q is restricted to be an RH1 matrix, the term R11 + Q
cannot be made into an arbitrary matrix. Therefore, the problem will be
signicantly dierent from the constant matrix case, and, generically,
"


min
Q2H1

where

0 := max

R11 + Q R12
R21 R22
R21 R22

"

> 0
R12
R22

# )

It is convenient to use the characterization in Corollary 2.23. Recall that

"

R11 + Q R12
R21 R22

 (< ); for > 0

 Z )(I ; Z  Z );1=2  (< )

I ; WW  );1=2 (Q + R11 + WR22
1

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

460
where

 R22 );1=2
W = R12 ( 2 I ; R22
 );1=2 R21 :
Z = ( 2 I ; R22 R22
The key here is to nd the spectral factors (I ; WW  )1=2 and (I ; Z  Z )1=2
with stable inverses such that if M = (I ; WW  )1=2 and N = (I ; Z  Z )1=2 ,
then M; M ;1 ; N; N ;1 2 H1 ; MM  = I ; WW , and N  N = (I ; Z  Z ).

Now let

 Z )N ;1 ;
Q^ := M ;1QN ;1 ; G := M ;1 (R11 + WR22
then the problem is reduced to nding Q^ 2 H1 such that

G + Q^ 1  (< ):

(17:5)

^ 2 H1 i Q^ 2 H1 .
Note that Q = M QN
The nal step in the H1 problem involves solving (17.5) for Q^ 2 H1 . This is
a standard Nehari problem and is solved in Chapter 8. The optimal control
law will be given by
Kopt = F` (J; Qopt ):

17.7 Connections
This section considers the connections between the Youla parameterization approach
and the current state space approach discussed in the last chapter. The key is Lemma 15.7
and its connection with the formulae given in the last section.
To see how Lemma 15.7 might be used in the last section to prove Theorems 16.4
and 16.5 or Theorem 17.1, we begin with G having state dimension n. For simplicity,
we assume further that D11 = 0. Then from the last section, we have

"


+

0
"


11 +


21

"


+

Q 0

kTzw k1 = R
=
=

1#

Q R12

R
R22 1
#
 0
Q
R

where R has state dimension 2n. Now dene

"

N11 N12 := R :
N21 N22

17.7. Connections
Then

461
2

"

N11 N12
N21 N22

AF2
0
B2 ;X2+C1 D?
6
6 ;B
BX
AL2
Y2 F2
0
= 66 1L2  1 2
;C2
0
0
4 D21 B1 X2
+


~
~
0
0
D? B1 X2 D? B1 Y2

3
7
7
7
7
5

2 RH1 ;
(17:6)

and the H1 problem becomes to nd an antistable Q such that

"

"

w
Let w = 1
w2
"

N11 + Q N12
N21
N22

< :

and note that

N11 + Q N12
N21
N22

"

sup
w2BL2

# 2

#"

# 2

N11 + Q N12
w1
:=

N21
N22
w2 2
1
"
#"
N + Q N
w1

11
12
=
sup

N21
N22
w2
fw2BL2 g\fw1 2H?2 g

# 2

The right hand side of the above equation can be written as

8 "
<

sup

:
fw2BL2 g\fw1 2H? g

P+ 0
0 I

#"

N11 N12
N21 N22

#"

# 2

w1
w2

+ kQ w1 + P; (N11 w1 + N12 w2 )k22 :

It is clear that the last term can be made zero for an appropriate choice of an antistable
Q . Hence the H1 problem has a solution if and only if
"


sup

?
fw2BL2 g\fw1 2H g

P+ 0
0 I

#"

N11 N12
N21 N22

#"

w1
w2

< :

But this is exactly the same operator as the one in Lemma 15.7. Lemma 15.7 may be
applied to derive the solvability conditions and some additional arguments to construct
a Q 2 RH1 from X and Y such that kTzw (Q)k1 < . In fact, it turns out that X in
Lemma 15.7 for N is exactly W in the FI proof or in the dierential game problem.
The nal step is to obtain the controller from M2 and Q. Since M2 has state
dimension n and Q has 2n, the apparent state dimension of K is 3n, but some tedious
state space manipulations produce cancelations resulting in the n dimensional controller

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

462

formulae in Theorems 16.4 and 16.5. This approach is exactly the procedure used in
Doyle [1984] and Francis [1987] with Lemma 15.7 used to solve the general distance
problem. Although this approach is conceptually straightforward and was, in fact, used
to obtain the rst proof of the current state space results in this chapter, it seems
unnecessarily cumbersome and indirect.

17.8 State Feedback and Dierential Game

It has been shown in Chapters 15 and 16 that a (central) suboptimal full information
H1 control law is actually a pure state feedback if D11 = 0. However, this is not true
in general if D11 6= 0, as will be shown below. Nevertheless, the state feedback H1
control is itself a very interesting problem and deserves special treatment. This section
and the section to follow are devoted to the study of this state feedback H1 control
problem and its connections with full information control and dierential game.
Consider a dynamical system

x_ = Ax + B1 w + B2 u
z = C1 x + D11 w + D12 u

(17.7)
(17.8)

where z (t) 2 Rp1 , y(t) 2 Rp2 , w(t) 2 Rm1 , u(t) 2 Rm2 , and x(t) 2 Rn . The following
assumptions are made:
(AS1) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable;
h

(AS2) There is a matrix D? such that D12 D? is unitary;

"

(AS3)

A ; j!I B2
C1
D12

has full column rank for all !.

We are interested in the following two related quadratic min-max problems: given > 0,
check if
sup
min kz k2 <
and

w2B L2 [0;1) u2L2 [0;1)

min

sup

u2L2 [0;1) w2B L2 [0;1)

kz k2 < :

The rst problem can be regarded as a full information control problem since the control
signal u can be a function of the disturbance w and the system state x. On the other
hand, the optimal control signal in the second problem cannot depend on the disturbance
w (the worst disturbance w can be a function of u and x). In fact, it will be shown that
the control signal in the latter problem depends only on the system state; hence, it is
equivalent to a state feedback control.

17.8. State Feedback and Dierential Game

463

Theorem 17.6 Let > 0 be given and dene

"

2
R := D1 D1 ; Im1 0 ; where D1 := [D11 D12 ]

"

"

h
A
0
B
;1 D C1 B 
H1 :=
;
R
1
;C1 C1 ;A
;C1 D1
h

where B := B1 B2 .
(a)

sup

min kz k2 < if and only if

w2B L2 [0;1) u2L2 [0;1)

 (D? D11 ) < ; H1 2 dom(Ric); X1 = Ric(H1 )  0:

Moreover, an optimal u is given by

 D11 w + D D11 I Fx;

u = ;D12
12

and a worst wworst is given by

wworst = F11 x
where
(b)

min

"

F := F11 := ;R;1 [D1 C1 + B  X1 ] :

F21
sup

u2L2 [0;1) w2B L2 [0;1)

kz k2 < if and only if

(D11 ) < ; H1 2 dom(Ric); X1 = Ric(H1  0:

Moreover, an optimal u is given by

 D11 wworst + D D11 I Fx;

u = F21 x = ;D12
12

and the worst wsfworst is given by

 D11 );1 f(D C1 + B  X1 )x + D D12 ug :
wsfworst = ( 2 I ; D11
11
1
11

Proof. The condition for part (a) can be shown in the same way as in Chapter 15
and is, in fact, the solution to the FI problem for the general case. We now prove the
condition for part (b). It is not hard to see that (D11 ) < is necessary since control
u cannot feed back w directly, so the D11 term cannot be (partially) eliminated as in

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

464

the FI problem. The conditions H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1  0 can be easily

seen as necessary since
min kz k2  u2Lmin
[0;1)

sup

w2B L2 [0;1) u2L2 [0;1)

sup

w2B L2 [0;1)

kz k2:

It is easy to verify directly that the optimal control and the worst disturbance can be
chosen in the given form.
2
Dene
 D? D D11 = 2
R0 = I ; D11
?
 D11 ( 2 I ; D D11 );1 D D12
R~0 = I + D12
11
11

2
^
R0 = I ; D11 D11 = :

Then it is easy to show that

kz k2 ; 2 kwk2 + dtd (x Xx) = u + D12 D11 w ; D12 D11 I Fx

; 2 R01=2 (w ; F11 x)

if conditions in (a) are satised. On the other hand, we have

kz k2 ; 2 kwk2 + dtd (x Xx) = R~01=2 (u ; F21 x) ; 2 R^01=2 (w ; wsfworst )

if conditions in (b) are satised. Integrating both equations from t = 0 to 1 with
x(0) = x(1) = 0 gives

kz k22 ; 2 kwk22 = u + D12 D11 w ; D12 D11 I Fx 2 ; 2 R01=2 (w ; F11 x) 2

if conditions in (a) are satised, and

kz k22 ; 2 kwk22 = R~01=2 (u ; F21 x) 2 ; 2 R^01=2 (w ; wsfworst ) 2

if conditions in (b) are satised. These relations suggest that an optimal control law
and a worst disturbance for problem (a) are
h

 D11 w + D D11 I Fx; w = F11 x

u = ;D12
12

and that an optimal control law and a worst disturbance for problem (b) are

u = F21 x w = wsfworst :

17.9. Parameterization of State Feedback H1 Controllers

465

Moreover, if problem (b) has a solution for a given , then the corresponding dierential
game problem

2 ; 2 kwk2
min
sup
k
z
k
2
2
u2L [0;1)
2

w2L2 [0;1)

has a saddle point, i.e,


2 ; 2 kwk2 = min
sup u2Lmin
k
z
k
2
2
[0;1)
u2L [0;1)
w2L2 [0;1)

sup

w2L2 [0;1)

kz k22 ; 2 kwk22

since the solvability of problem (b) implies the solvability of problem (a). However,
the converse may not be true. In fact, it is easy to construct an example so that the
problem (a) has a solution for a given and problem (b) does not. On the other hand,
the problems (a) and (b) are equivalent if D11 = 0.

17.9 Parameterization of State Feedback H1 Controllers

In this section, we shall consider the parameterization of all state feedback control laws.
We shall rst assume for simplicity that D11 = 0 and show later how to reduce the
general D11 6= 0 case to an equivalent problem with D11 = 0. We shall assume
2

A B1 B2
G = 64 C1 0 D12 75 :
I 0 0

Note that the state feedback H1 problem is not a special case of the output feedback
problem since D21 = 0. Hence the parameterization cannot be obtained from the output
feedback.
Theorem 17.7 Suppose that the assumptions (AS 1) ; (AS 3) are satised and that B1
has the following SVD:
"
#
 0 
B1 = U
V ; UU  = In ; V  V = Im1 ; 0 <  2 Rrr :
0 0
There exists an admissible controller K (s) for the SF problem such that kTzw k1 < if
and only if H1 2 dom(Ric) and X1 = Ric(H1)  0. Furthermore, if these conditions
are satised, then all admissible controllers satisfying kTzw k1 < can be parameterized
as
(
"
#
);1 "
#
;1
0
;1
0
;
1
K = F1 + Im2 + Q
U B2 Q
U ;1 (sI ; A^)
0 Im1 ;r
0 Im1 ;r
h
i
 C1 +B2 X1 ), A^ = A+ ;2B1 B1 X1 +B2 F1 , and Q = Q1 Q2 2
where F1 = ;(D12
RH2 with kQ1 k1 < . The dimensions of Q1 and Q2 are m2  r and m2  (m1 ; r),
respectively.

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

466

Proof. The conditions for the existence of the state feedback control law have been
shown in the last section and in Chapter 15. We only need to show that the above
parameterization indeed satises the H1 norm condition and gives all possible state
feedback H1 control laws. As in the proof of the FI problem in Chapter 16, we make
the same change of variables to get G^ SF instead of G^ FI :

z
r

 w
 v
XXXXX
 X r

G^ SF 
u
- K
P

w

Atmp B1 B2
6
^
GSF = 4 ;F1 0 I 75 :
I
0 0
So again from Theorem 16.2 and Lemma 16.8, we conclude that K is an admissible
controller for G and kTzw k1 < i K is an admissible controller for G^ SF and kTvr k1 <
. Now let L = B2 F1 , and then Atmp + L = Atmp + B2 F1 is stable. All controllers
that stabilize G^ SF can be parameterized as K = F`(Mtmp ; );  2 RH1 where
2

Atmp + B2 F1 + L ;L B2
Mtmp = 64
F1
0 I 75 :
;I
I 0
Then Tvr = F` (G^ SF ; F` (Mtmp ; )) =: F` (Ntmp ; ). It is easy to show that
3

Atmp + B2 F1 B1 0
6
Ntmp = 4
;F1
0 I 75 :
0 0
I
Now let  = F1 + ^ , and we have

"

F`(Ntmp ; ) = ^ Atmp + B2 F1 B1 :
I
0

17.9. Parameterization of State Feedback H1 Controllers

Let

^ = Q1 Q2

"

467

;1 0 ;1
U (sI ; A^):
0 I
i

Then the mapping from Q = Q1 Q2 2 RH2 to ^ 2 RH1 is one-to-one. Hence

we have
h
i
F`(Ntmp ; ) = Q1 0 V 
and kF`(Ntmp ; )k1 = kQ1 k1 , which in turn implies that kTvr k1 = kF`(Ntmp ; )k1 <
if and only if kQ1 k1 < . Finally, substituting  = F1 + ^ into K = F` (Mtmp ; ),
we get the desired controller parameterization.
2
The controller parameterization for the general case can also be obtained:
2

A B1 B2
6
Gg (s) = 4 C1 D11 D12 75 :
I 0 0
Let

N=

"

;D11

 )1=2
(I ; D11 D11

 D11 )1=2

(I ; D11
D11
and then N  N = I . Furthermore, by Theorem 16.2, we have that K stabilizes Gg and
kF`(Gg ; K )k1 < 1 if and only if F`(Gg ; K ) internally stabilizes N and

kF` (N; F` (Gg ; K ))k1 < 1:

Note that
with

F`(N; F` (Gg ; K )) = F` (M; K~ )

2

 R;1 C1 B1 (I ; D11
 D11 );1=2 B2 + B1 D11
 R;1D12
A + B1 D11
1
1
6
;
1
=
2
;
1
=
2
6
M (s) = 4
R1 C1
0
R1 D12
I
0
0

3
7
7
5

 . In summary, we have the following lemma.

where R1 := I ; D11 D11

Lemma 17.8 There is a K that internally stabilizes Gg and

; K )k1 < 1 if and
kF` (Gg


~
~
only if kD11 k < 1 and there is a K that stabilizes M and F` (M; K ) < 1.
1
Now Theorem 17.7 can be applied to the new system M (s) to obtain the controller
parameterization for the general problem with D11 6= 0.

468

H1 CONTROL: GENERAL CASE

17.10 Notes and References

The detailed derivation of the H1 solution for the general case is treated in Glover
and Doyle [1988, 1989]. The loop-shifting procedures are given in Safonov, Limebeer,
and Chiang [1989]. The idea is also used in Zhou and Khargonekar [1988] for state
feedback problems. A fairly complete solution to the singular H1 problem is obtained
in Stoorvogel [1992]. The H1 ltering and smoothing problems are considered in detail
in Nagpal and Khargonekar [1991]. The Youla parameterization approach is treated
very extensively in Doyle [1984] and Francis [1987] and in the references therein. The
presentation of the state feedback H1 control in this chapter is based on Zhou [1992].

18

H1 Loop Shaping
This chapter introduces a design technique which incorporates loop shaping methods
to obtain performance/robust stability tradeos, and a particular H1 optimization
problem to guarantee closed-loop stability and a level of robust stability at all frequencies. The proposed technique uses only the basic concept of loop shaping methods and
then a robust stabilization controller for the normalized coprime factor perturbed system is used to construct the nal controller. This chapter is arranged as follows: The
H1 theory is applied to solve the stabilization problem of a normalized coprime factor
perturbed system in Section 18.1. The loop shaping design procedure is described in
Section 18.2. The theoretical justication for the loop shaping design procedure is given
in Section 18.3.

18.1 Robust Stabilization of Coprime Factors

In this section, we use the H1 control theory developed in the previous chapters to
solve the robust stabilization of a left coprime factor perturbed plant given by

P
= (M~ +
~ M );1 (N~ +
~ N )

h

~ N;
~
~ M ;
~ N 2 RH1 and
~ N
~ M < . The transfer matrices (M;
~ N~ )
with M;
1
are assumed to be a left coprime factorization of P (i.e., P = M~ ;1N~ ), and K internally
stabilizes the nominal system.
469

H1 LOOP SHAPING

470

z1
r

-f ;6

-
~ N

- f;

- ?f - M~ ;1

N~

z2

~ M

Figure 18.1: Left Coprime Factor Perturbed Systems

It has been shown in Chapter 9 that the system is robustly stable i
"

K (I + PK );1 M~ ;1  1=:


I
1

Finding a controller such that the above norm condition holds is an H1 norm minimization problem which can be solved using H1 theory developed in the previous
chapters.
Suppose P has a stabilizable and detectable state space realization given by
"

P= A B
C D
and let L be a matrix such that A + LC is stable then a left coprime factorization of
P = M~ ;1N~ is given by
#
"
h
i
B
+
LD
L
A
+
LC
:
N~ M~ =
C
D
I
Denote

K^ = ;K

then the system diagram can be put in an LFT form as in Figure 18.2 with the generalized plant
2 "

G(s) =

6
4

0
~
M ;1
M~ ;1

"

I
P
P

# 3
7
5

6 "
6
6
6
4
2

=:

6
4

A
0

C
C

A B1
C1 D11
C2 D21

;L #
"
0

"

I
I
3
B2
D12 75 :
D22

B
I
D
D

# 7
7
7
7
5

18.1. Robust Stabilization of Coprime Factors

z1
z2

471



M~ ;1 

?i

N~

K^

Figure 18.2: LFT Diagram for Coprime Factor Stabilization

To apply the H1 control formulae in Chapter 17, we need to normalize the \D12"
matrix rst. Note that
"
"
#
"
#
#
I = U 0 (I + D D) 21 ; where U = D (I + DD ); 12 I + D D); 21
D
I
;(I + DD ); 12 D(I + D D); 12
and U is a unitary matrix. Let
"

; 12 K~
K^# = (I "+ D D
)
#
z1 = U z^1 :
z2
z^2

Then kTzw k1 = kU  Tzw k1 = kTz^w k1 and the problem becomes of nding a controller
K~ so that kTz^w k1 < with the following generalized plant
"

"


0
G^ = U 0 G I
0 I
0 (I + D D); 21
2
6 "
6
6
6
4

A
;(I + DD ); 12 C
(I + D D); 12 D C
C

"

;L

;(I + DD ); 12

B#
"
0

3
7
7
7
7
5

:
I
I
D(I + D D); 12
Now the formulae in Chapter 17 can be applied to1 G^ to obtain a controller K~ and then
the K can be obtained from K = ;(I + D D); 2 K~ . We shall leave the detail to the
=

(I + D D); 12 D

H1 LOOP SHAPING

472

reader. In the sequel, we shall consider the case D = 0. In this case, we have > 1 and

LC ) X ; X (BB  ; LL )X + 2 C  C = 0
)
+
(
A
;
X1 (A ; 2LC
2
;1
;1 1 1
2 ; 1 1 2 ; 1
Y1 (A + LC ) + (A + LC )Y1 ; Y1 C  CY1 = 0:

It is clear that Y1 = 0 is the stabilizing solution. Hence by the formulae in Chapter 17

we have
h
i h
i
L11 L21 = 0 L
and

2
Z1 = I; D^ 11 = 0; D^ 12 = I; D^ 21 = ; 1 I:

The results are summarized in the following theorem.

Theorem 18.1 Let D = 0 and let L be such that A + LC is stable then there exists a
controller K such that

"

K (I + PK );1 M~ ;1 <


I
1

i > 1 and there exists a stabilizing solution X1  0 solving

LC ) X ; X (BB  ; LL )X + 2 C  C = 0:
)
+
(
A
;
X1 (A ; 2LC
;1
2 ; 1 1 1
2 ; 1 1 2 ; 1
Moreover, if the above conditions hold a central controller is given by
"

A ; BB  X1 + LC L
K=
:
; B  X1
0
It is clear that the existence of a robust stabilizing controller depends upon the choice
of the stabilizing matrix L, i.e., the choice of the coprime factorization. Now let Y  0
be the stabilizing solution to

AY + Y A ; Y C  CY + BB  = 0
~ N~ ) given by
and let L = ;Y C  . Then the left coprime factorization (M;
h

"

A ; Y C  C B ;Y C 
N~ M~ =
C
0
I
i

is a normalized left coprime factorization (see Chapter 13).

18.1. Robust Stabilization of Coprime Factors

473

Corollary 18.2 Let D = 0 and L = ;Y C  where Y  0 is the stabilizing solution to

AY + Y A ; Y C  CY + BB  = 0:

Then P = M~ ;1 N~ is a normalized left coprime factorization and

K

"


inf

stabilizing

K (I + PK );1 M~ ;1 =


I
1

p


1 ; max (Y Q)
h

1 ; N~ M~

i 2 ;1=2

=: min

where Q is the solution to the following Lyapunov equation

Q(A ; Y C  C ) + (A ; Y C  C ) Q + C  C = 0:
Moreover, if the above conditions hold then for any > min a controller achieving
"

is given by
where

K (I + PK );1 M~ ;1 <


I
1
#

"

A ; BB  X1 ; Y C  C ;Y C 
K (s) =
; B  X1
0


X1 = 2 ; 1 Q I ; 2 ; 1 Y Q

;1

Proof. Note that the Hamiltonian matrix associated with X1 is given by

"
#
A + 21;1 Y C  C ;BB  + 21;1 Y C  CY
H1 =
:
;(A + 21;1 Y C  C )
; 2 ;2 1 C  C
Straightforward calculation shows that
"

where

I ; 2 ;1 Y
H1 =
2
0 2 ;1 I
"

"

#;1

I ; 2 ;1 Y
Hq
2
0 2 ;1 I
#


0
Hq = A ; YC C
:
;C C ;(A ; Y C  C )
It is clear that the stable invariant subspace of Hq is given by
"
#
I
X; (Hq ) = Im
Q

H1 LOOP SHAPING

474
and the stable invariant subspace of H1 is given by
"

X; (H1 ) = I ; 22;1 Y
0 2 ;1 I

"

X; (Hq ) = Im I ; 22;1 Y Q :
2 ;1 Q

Hence there is a nonnegative denite stabilizing solution to the algebraic Riccati equation of X1 if and only if
2
I ; 2 ; 1 Y Q > 0
or

1
1 ; max (Y Q)
and the solution, if it exists, is given by

>p


;1
2
2


X1 = 2 ; 1 Q I ; 2 ; 1 Y Q :

Note
that iY and Q are the controllability Gramian and the observability Gramian
ofi
h
h
~
~
~
~
respectively.
Therefore,
we
also
have
that
the
Hankel
norm
of
N M
N M
p
is max (Y Q).
2

Corollary 18.3 Let P = M~ ;1N~ be a normalized left coprime factorization and

P
= (M~ +
~ M );1 (N~ +
~ N )
with

~ N
~ M 1 < :
Then there is a robustly stabilizing controller for P
if and only if
r

  1 ; max (Y Q) = 1 ; N~ M~

i 2

The solutions to the normalized left coprime factorization stabilization problem are
also solutions to a related H1 problem which is shown in the following lemma.

Lemma 18.4 Let P = M~ ;1N~ be a normalized left coprime factorization. Then

"

"

K (I + PK );1M~ ;1 = K (I + PK );1 h


I P

I
I
1

18.1. Robust Stabilization of Coprime Factors

475

~ N~ ) is a normalized left coprime factorization of P , we have

Proof. Since (M;
h

and

M~ N~

M~ N~

Using these equations, we have

"


=


=
This implies

"

"




"




"




"




"

K
I
K
I
K
I
K
I
K
I

#
#
#
#
#

ih

i

M~ N~

= M~ N~
1

=I

i

K (I + PK );1M~ ;1


I
1
h

(I + PK );1 M~ ;1 M~ N~
h

(I + PK );1 M~ ;1 M~ N~
h

(I + PK );1 I P

ih

(I + PK );1 M

1
i
M~ N~ 1

M N~

(I + PK );1 M

i

M~ N~

1

h
~ ;1 ~

1

~ ;1

= 1:

"

K (I + PK );1M~ ;1 = K (I + PK );1 h


I P

I
I
1

Corollary 18.5 A controller solves the normalized left coprime factor robust stabilization problem if and only if it solves the following H1 control problem
"

and
K

"


inf

stabilizing

I (I + PK );1 h
I P
K

I (I + PK );1 h
I P
K

=
=

p


<
1

1 ; max (Y Q)

1;

N~ M~

i 2 ;1=2

H1 LOOP SHAPING

476

The solution Q can also be obtained in other ways. Let X  0 be the stabilizing
solution to
XA + A X ; XBB  X + C  C = 0
then it is easy to verify that
Q = (I + XY );1 X:
Hence

min = p

1 ; max (Y Q)

= 1;

N~ M~

i 2 ;1=2

= 1 + max (XY ):

Similar results can be obtained if one starts with a normalized right coprime factorization. In fact, a rather strong relation between the normalized left and right coprime
factorization problems can be established using the following matrix fact.

Lemma 18.6 Let M and N be any compatibly dimensioned complex matrices such
that MM = M , NN = N , and M + N = I . Then i (M ) = i (N ) for all i such that
0 < i (M ) =
6 1.
Proof. We rst show that the eigenvalues of M and N are either 0 or 1 and M and N
are diagonalizable. In fact, assume that  is an eigenvalue of M and x is a corresponding
eigenvector, then x = Mx = MMx = M (Mx) = Mx = 2 x, i.e., (1 ; )x = 0.
This implies that either  = 0 or  = 1. To show that M is diagonalizable, assume
M = TJT ;1 where J is a Jordan canonical form, it follows immediately that J must
be diagonal by the condition M = MM . The proof for N is similar.
Next, assume that M is diagonalized by a nonsingular matrix T such that
"

M = T I 0 T ;1:
0 0

Then

"

N = I ; M = T 0 0 T ;1:
0 I

Dene

"

A B := T  T
B D

and assume 0 <  6= 1. Then A > 0 and

 M ; I ) = 0
det(M
"
#
"
#
I
0  I 0
det(
T T
; T T ) = 0
0 0
0 0

18.1. Robust Stabilization of Coprime Factors

"

(1 ; )A ;B

477

det

det(;D ; 1 ;  B  A;1 B ) = 0
det( 1 ;  D + B  A;1 B ) = 0

,
,
,

;B 

"

;D

=0

;A ;B = 0
det
;B  (1 ; )D
det(N  N ; I ) = 0:

This implies that all nonzero eigenvalues of M  M and N N that are not equal to 1 are
equal, i.e., i (M ) = i (N ) for all i such that 0 < i (M ) 6= 1.
2
Using this matrix fact, we have the following corollary.

Corollary 18.7 Let K and P be any compatibly dimensioned complex matrices. Then
"

I (I + PK );1 h
I P
K

Proof. Dene
"

"

I (I + KP );1 h
I K
P
"

h
i
h
i
M = I (I + PK );1 I P ; N = ;P (I + KP );1 ;K I :
K
I

Then it is easy to verify that MM = M , NN = N and M + N = I . By Lemma 18.6,

we have kM k = kN k. The corollary follows by noting that
"

"

"

i
I (I + KP );1 h
0 I
N 0 ;I :
I K =
P
;I 0
I 0

Corollary 18.8 Let P = M~ ;1N~ = NM ;1 be respectively the normalized left and right
coprime factorizations. Then
"

K (I + PK );1M~ ;1 = M ;1 (I + KP );1 h


I K

I
1

H1 LOOP SHAPING

478

Proof. This follows from Corollary 18.7 and the fact that

M ;1 (I + KP );1 I K

"

I (I + KP );1 h
I K
P

This corollary says that any H1 controller for the normalized left coprime factorization is also an H1 controller for the normalized right coprime factorization. Hence
one can work with either factorization.

18.2 Loop Shaping Using Normalized Coprime Stabilization

This section considers the H1 loop shaping design. The objective of this approach is to
incorporate the simple performance/robustness tradeo obtained in the loop shaping,
with the guaranteed stability properties of H1 design methods. Recall from Section 5.5
of Chapter 5 that good performance controller design requires that
;

 (I + PK );1 ;  (I + PK );1 P ;  (I + KP );1 ;  K (I + PK );1 (18:1)

be made small, particularly in some low frequency range. And good robustness requires
that
;


;


 PK (I + PK );1 ;  KP (I + KP );1
(18:2)
be made small, particularly in some high frequency range. These requirements in turn
imply that good controller design boils down to achieving the desired loop (and controller) gains in the appropriate frequency range:

(PK )  1; (KP )  1;  (K )  1
in some low frequency range and

(PK )  1;  (KP )  1;  (K )  M
in some high frequency range where M is not too large.
The design procedure is stated below.

Loop Shaping Design Procedure

(1) Loop Shaping: Using a precompensator W1 and/or a postcompensator W2 , the

singular values of the nominal plant are shaped to give a desired open-loop shape.
The nominal plant G and the shaping functions W1 ; W2 are combined to form the
shaped plant, Gs where Gs = W2 GW1 . We assume that W1 and W2 are such that
Gs contains no hidden modes.

18.2. Loop Shaping Using Normalized Coprime Stabilization

r-e

;6

di

- ?e

479

- ?e y?en

Figure 18.3: Standard Feedback Conguration

(2) Robust Stabilization: a) Calculate max , where

max =
=

"


inf

stabilizing
h

!;1

I (I + G K );1 M~ ;1
s
s
K
1

1 ; N~s M~ s

i 2

<1

and M~ s ; N~s dene the normalized coprime factors of Gs such that Gs = M~ s;1 N~s
and
M~ s M~ s + N~s N~s = I:
If max  1 return to (1) and adjust W1 and W2 .
b) Select   max, then synthesize a stabilizing controller K1 , which satises
"

I (I + G K );1 M~ ;1  ;1 :
s 1
s
K1
1

(3) The nal feedback controller K is then constructed by combining the H1 controller K1 with the shaping functions W1 and W2 such that

K = W1 K1 W2 :
A typical design works as follows: the designer inspects the open-loop singular values
of the nominal plant, and shapes these by pre- and/or postcompensation until nominal
performance (and possibly robust stability) specications are met. (Recall that the
open-loop shape is related to closed-loop objectives.) A feedback controller K1 with
associated stability margin (for the shaped plant)   max, is then synthesized. If max
is small, then the specied loop shape is incompatible with robust stability requirements,
and should be adjusted accordingly, then K1 is reevaluated.
In the above design procedure we have specied the desired loop shape by W2 GW1 .
But, after Stage (2) of the design procedure, the actual loop shape achieved is in fact

H1 LOOP SHAPING

480

;6

- K1

- W1 -

- W2 -

- W1 -

- W2

Gs

;6

- W2 - K1 - W1

K
Figure 18.4: The Loop Shaping Design Procedure
given by W1 K1W2 G at plant input and GW1 K1 W2 at plant output. It is therefore
possible that the inclusion of K1 in the open-loop transfer function will cause deterioration in the open-loop shape specied by Gs . In the next section, we will show
that the degradation in the loop shape caused by the H1 controller K1 is limited at
frequencies where the specied loop shape is suciently large or suciently small. In
particular, we show in the next section that  can be interpreted as an indicator of the
success of the loop shaping in addition to providing a robust stability guarantee for the
closed-loop systems. A small value of max (max  1) in Stage (2) always indicates
incompatibility between the specied loop shape, the nominal plant phase, and robust
closed-loop stability.

Remark 18.1 Note that, in contrast to the classical loop shaping approach, the loop

shaping here is done without explicit regard for the nominal plant phase information.
That is, closed-loop stability requirements are disregarded at this stage. Also, in contrast with conventional H1 design, the robust stabilization is done without frequency
weighting. The design procedure described here is both simple and systematic, and only
assumes knowledge of elementary loop shaping principles on the part of the designer.

Remark 18.2 The above robust stabilization objective can also be interpreted as the
more standard H1 problem formulation of minimizing the H1 norm of the frequency
weighted gain from disturbances on the plant input and output to the controller input

18.3. Theoretical Justication for H1 Loop Shaping

and output as follows.

"

#
I (I + Gs K1);1M~ s;1
K1
1

=
=
=
=

481

"

#
I (I + GsK1);1 h I Gs i
K1
1
"

#
W2 (I + GK );1 h W2;1 GW1 i
W1;1K
1
" #

I (I + K1Gs );1 h I K1 i
Gs
1
" ;1 #

W1 (I + KG);1 h W1 GW2;1 i
W2 G
1

This shows how all the closed-loop objectives in (18.1) and (18.2) are incorporated. ~

18.3 Theoretical Justication for H1 Loop Shaping

The objective of this section is to provide justication for the use of parameter  as a
design indicator. We will show that  is a measure of both closed-loop robust stability
and the success of the design in meeting the loop shaping specications.
We rst examine the possibility of loop shape deterioration at frequencies of high
loop gain (typically low frequency). At low frequency (in particular, ! 2 (0; !l )), the deterioration in loop shape at plant output can be obtained by comparing (GW1 K1 W2 )
to  (Gs ) = (W2 GW1 ). Note that
 (GK ) = (GW1 K1 W2 ) = (W2;1 W2 GW1 K1 W2 )  (W2 GW1 ) (K1 )=(W2 )
(18:3)
where (
) denotes condition number. Similarly, for loop shape deterioration at plant
input, we have
(KG) =  (W1 K1W2 G) =  (W1 K1 W2 GW1 W1;1 )   (W2 GW1 ) (K1 )=(W1 ):
(18:4)
In each case,  (K1 ) is required to obtain a bound on the deterioration in the loop shape
at low frequency. Note that the condition numbers (W1 ) and (W2 ) are selected by
the designer.
Next, recalling that Gs denotes the shaped plant, and that K1 robustly stabilizes
the normalized coprime factorization of Gs with stability margin , then we have

"

#
I (I + Gs K1);1M~ s;1  ;1 :=
K1
1

(18:5)

where (N~s ; M~ s ) is a normalized left coprime factorization of Gs , and the parameter

is dened to simplify the notation to follow. The following result shows that  (K1 )

H1 LOOP SHAPING

482

is explicitly bounded by functions of  and  (Gs ), the minimum singular value of the
shaped plant, and hence by (18.3) and (18.4) K1 will only have a limited eect on the
specied loop shape at low frequency.

Theorem 18.9 Any controller K1 satisfying (18.5), where Gs is assumed square, also

satises

 (Gs (j!)) ; 2 ; 1
(K1 (j!))  p
2 ; 1 (Gs (j!)) + 1

for all ! such that

(Gs (j!)) > 2 ; 1:

p
p
Furthermore, if  (Gs )  2 ; 1, then (K1 (j!)) ' 1= 2 ; 1, where ' denotes
asymptotically greater than or equal to as (Gs ) ! 1.

Proof. First note that (Gs ) > 2 ; 1 implies that

I + Gs Gs > 2 I:

Further since (N~s ; M~ s ) is a normalized left coprime factorization of Gs , we have

M~ s M~ s = I ; N~s N~s = I ; M~ s Gs Gs M~ s :
Then

M~ s M~ s = (I + Gs Gs );1 < ;2 I:

Now
can be rewritten as

"

#
I (I + Gs K1);1 M~ s;1 
K1
1

 K1 )  2(I ; K  G )(M~  M~ s )(I ; Gs K1 ):

(I + K1
1 s s

(18:6)

We will next show that K1 is invertible. Suppose that there exists an x such that
K1 x = 0, then x  (18:6)  x gives
;2 x x  x M~ s M~ s x

which implies that x = 0 since M~ sM~ s < ;2I , and hence K1 is invertible. Equation (18.6) can now be written as
; K ;1 + I )  2 (K ; ; G )M~  M~ s (K ;1 ; Gs ):
(K1
(18:7)
1
1
s s
1
Dene W such that

(WW  );1 = I ; 2 M~ s M~ s = I ; 2 (I + Gs Gs );1

18.3. Theoretical Justication for H1 Loop Shaping

483

;1 yields
and completing the square in (18.7) with respect to K1
; + N  )(WW  );1 (K ;1 + N )  ( 2 ; 1)RR
(K1
1

where

N = 2Gs ((1 ; 2 )I + Gs Gs );1

R R = (I + Gs Gs )((1 ; 2 )I + Gs Gs );1 :
Hence we have

R; (K1; + N  )(WW  );1 (K1;1 + N )R;1  ( 2 ; 1)I

and

p

 W ;1 (K1;1 + N )R;1  2 ; 1:
;
;1 + N )R;1
 (W ;1 )(K1
;1 + N )(R;1 ) to get
Use  W ;1 (K1

(K1;1 + N )  2 ; 1(W ) (R)

;1 + N )   (K1 ) ; (N ) to get

and use (K1

 (K1 )  ( 2 ; 1)1=2 (W ) (R) + (N )

o;1

(18:8)

Next, note that the eigenvalues of WW  ; N  N , and R R can be computed as follows


(WW  ) = 1 ;1 +2 +(G(sGGsG)  )
s s

4
s )
(N  N ) = (1 ; 2+(Gs(G
G G ))2
s s

(R R) = 1 ;1 +2 +(G(sGGsG)  )
s s

therefore


  1 + 2 (Gs ) 1=2
p
(Gs Gs ) 1=2 =
 (W ) = max (WW  ) = 1 ;1 +2 +min
min (Gs Gs )
1 ; 2 +  2 (Gs )
 (N ) =
 (R) =

max (N  N ) =

max (R R) =

2 min (Gs Gs ) = 2  (Gs )

1 ; 2 + min (Gs Gs ) 1 ; 2 + 2 (Gs )

  1 + 2(G ) 1=2
1 + min (Gs Gs ) 1=2 =
s
:
1 ; 2 + min (Gs Gs )
1 ; 2 +  2 (Gs )

H1 LOOP SHAPING

484

Substituting these formulas into (18.8), we have

 ( 2 ; 1)1=2(1 + 2(G )) + 2(G ) ;1 (G )) ; p 2 ; 1
s
s
= p 2s
(K1 ) 
:
2 (Gs ) ; ( 2 ; 1)
; 1(Gs ) + 1

The main implication of Theorem 18.9 is that the bound on  (K1 ) depends only
on the selected loop shape, and the stability margin of the shaped plant. The value of
(= ;1) directly determines the frequency range over which this result is valid{a small
(large ) is desirable, as we would expect. Further, Gs has a suciently large loop
gain, then so also will Gs K1 provided (= ;1) is suciently small.
In an analogous manner, we now examine the possibility of deterioration in the loop
shape at high frequency due to the inclusion of K1 . Note that at high frequency (in
particular, ! 2 (!h ; 1)) the deterioration in plant output loop shape can be obtained
by comparing (GW1 K1W2 ) to (Gs ) =  (W2 GW1 ). Note that, analogously to (18.3)
and (18.4) we have

 (GK ) = (GW1 K1W2 )  (W2 GW1 ) (K1 )(W2 ):

Similarly, the corresponding deterioration in plant input loop shape is obtained by
comparing  (W1 K1 W2 G) to (W2 GW1 ) where

 (KG) = (W1 K1 W2 G)  (W2 GW1 ) (K1 )(W1 ):

Hence, in each case,  (K1 ) is required to obtain a bound on the deterioration in the

loop shape at high frequency. In an identical manner to Theorem 18.9, we now show
that  (K1 ) is explicitly bounded by functions of , and (Gs ), the maximum singular
value of the shaped plant.

Theorem 18.10 Any controller K1 satisfying (18.5) also satises

p2
(K1 (j!))  p;21 + (Gs (j!))
1 ; ; 1 (Gs (j!))
for all ! such that

(Gs (j!)) < p 21 :

;1
p
p
Furthermore, if  (Gs )  1= 2 ; 1, then (K1 (j!)) / 2 ; 1, where / denotes
asymptotically less than or equal to as (Gs ) ! 0.

Proof. The proof of Theorem 18.10 is similar to that of Theorem 18.9, and is only

sketched here: As in the proof of Theorem 18.9, we have M~ s M~ s = (I + Gs Gs );1 and
 K1 )  2(I ; K  G )(M~  M~ s )(I ; Gs K1 ):
(I + K1
(18:9)
1 s s

18.3. Theoretical Justication for H1 Loop Shaping

Since (Gs ) < p 12 ;1 ,

485

I ; 2 Gs (I + Gs Gs );1 Gs > 0

and there exists a spectral factorization

V  V = I ; 2 Gs (I + Gs Gs );1 Gs :
Now completing the square in (18.9) with respect to K1 yields
 + M  )V  V (K1 + M )  ( 2 ; 1)Y  Y
(K1
where

M = 2 Gs (I + (1 ; 2)Gs Gs );1

Y  Y = ( 2 ; 1)(I + Gs Gs )(I + (1 ; 2 )Gs Gs );1 :
Hence we have
which implies

p

 V (K1 + M )Y ;1  2 ; 1

2
(K1 )   (V )  (;Y ;11 ) +  (M ):

(18:10)

As in the proof of Theorem 18.9, it is easy to show that

 1 ; ( 2 ; 1)2 (Gs ) 1=2
;
1
(V ) =  (Y ) =
1 + 2 (Gs )
2 (Gs )
(M ) = 1 ; ( 2 ;
:
1)2 (Gs )
Substituting these formulas into (18.10), we have
2 ; 1)1=2 (1 + 2 (Gs )) + 2 (Gs ) p 2 ; 1 + (Gs )
(

p
 (K1 ) 
=
:
1 ; ( 2 ; 1)2 (Gs )
1 ; 2 ; 1(Gs )

The results in Theorem 18.9 and 18.10 conrm that (alternatively ) indicates the
compatibility between the specied loop shape and closed-loop stability requirements.

Theorem 18.11 Let G be the nominal plant and let K = W1K1W2 be the associated
controller obtained from loop shaping design procedure in the last section. Then if

"

#
I (I + Gs K1);1 M~ s;1 
K1
1

H1 LOOP SHAPING

486
we have

 K (I + GK );1  (M~ s )(W1 ) (W2 )

n ~
o (18.11)
;


;
1
 (I + GK )
 min (Ms )(W2 ); 1 + (Ns )(W2 ) (18.12)

 min n (N~ )(W ); 1 + (M )(W )o

s
1
s
1
;


(N~s )
 (I + GK );1 G   (W
1 )(W2 )
n
o
;


 (I + KG);1  min 1 + (N~s )(W1 ); (Ms )(W1 )
n
o
;


 G(I + KG);1 K  min 1 + (M~ s )(W2 ); (Ns )(W2 )
 2(W2 GW1 ) 1=2
;

 K (I + GK );1 G

where

(18.13)
(18.14)
(18.15)
(18.16)

(N~s ) = (Ns ) =

(18:17)
1 + 2 (W2 GW1 )
1=2

1
(18:18)
 (M~ s ) = (Ms ) = 1 + 2 (W
2 GW1 )
and (N~s ; M~ s ), respectively, (Ns ; Ms ), is a normalized left coprime factorization, respectively, right coprime factorization, of Gs = W2 GW1 .

Proof. Note that

and
Then

M~ sM~ s = (I + Gs Gs );1

M~ s M~ s = I ; N~s N~s :

2 (M~ s ) = max (M~ s M~ s ) = 1 +  1 (G G ) = 1 + 12 (G )

max s s
s
2
s)
2 (N~s ) = 1 ;  2 (Ms ) = 1 + (G
2 (Gs ) :

The proof for the normalized right coprime factorization is similar. All other inequalities
follow from noting
"

#
I (I + Gs K1);1 M~ s;1 


and

K1

"

#
I (I + Gs K1);1M~ s;1
K1
1

=
=

"

#
W2 (I + GK );1 h W2;1 GW1 i
W1;1K
1
" ;1 #

W1 (I + KG);1 h W1 GW2;1 i
W2 G
1

18.4. Notes and References

487

2
This theorem shows that all closed-loop objectives are guaranteed to have bounded
magnitude and the bounds depend only on , W1 ; W2 , and G.

18.4 Notes and References

The H1 loop shaping using normalized coprime factorization was developed by McFarlane and Glover [1990, 1992]. In the same references, some design examples were
also shown. The method has been applied to the design of scheduled controllers for
a VSTOL aircraft in Hyde and Glover [1993]. The robust stabilization of normalized
coprime factors is closely related to the robustness in the gap metric and graph topology, see El-Sakkary [1985], Georgiou and Smith [1990], Glover and McFarlane [1989],
McFarlane, Glover, and Vidyasagar [1990], Qiu and Davison [1992a, 1992b] Vinnicombe
[1993], Vidyasagar [1984, 1985], Zhu [1989], and references therein.

488

H1 LOOP SHAPING

19

Controller Order Reduction

We have shown in the previous chapters that the H1 control theory and  synthesis can
be used to design robust performance controllers for highly complex uncertain systems.
However, since a great many physical plants are modeled as high order dynamical systems, the controllers designed with these methodologies typically have orders comparable to those of the plants. Simple linear controllers are normally preferred over complex
linear controllers in control system designs for some obvious reasons: they are easier to
understand and computationally less demanding; they are also easier to implement and
have higher reliability since there are fewer things to go wrong in the hardware or bugs
to x in the software. Therefore, a lower order controller should be sought whenever the
resulting performance degradation is kept within an acceptable magnitude. There are
usually three ways in arriving at a lower order controller. A seemingly obvious approach
is to design lower order controllers directly based on the high order models. However,
this is still largely an open research problem. The Lagrange multiplier method developed in the next chapter is potentially useful for some problems. Another approach is to
rst reduce the order of a high order plant, and then based on the reduced plant model
a lower order controller may be designed accordingly. A potential problem associated
with this approach is that such a lower order controller may not even stabilize the full
order plant since the error information between the full order model and the reduced
order model is not considered in the design of the controller. On the other hand, one
may seek to design rst a high order, high performance controller and subsequently
proceed with a reduction of the designed controller. This approach is usually referred
to as controller reduction. A crucial consideration in controller order reduction is to
take into account the closed-loop so that the closed-loop stability is guaranteed and the
489

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

490

performance degradation is minimized with the reduced order controllers. The purpose
of this chapter is to introduce several controller reduction methods that can guarantee
the closed-loop stability and possibly the closed-loop performance as well.

19.1 Controller Reduction with Stability Criteria

We consider a closed-loop system shown in Figure 19.1 where the n-th order generalized
plant G is given by

# 2 A B1 B2 3
G12 = 6
4 C1 D11 D12 75
G22

"

G = G11
G21

"

A B2
C2 D22

C2 D21 D22

is a p  q transfer matrix. Suppose K is an m-th order

and G22 =
controller which stabilizes the closed-loop system. We are interested in investigating
controller reduction methods that can preserve the closed-loop stability and minimize
the performance degradation of the closed-loop systems with reduced order controllers.

z
y

G(s)

- K (s)

w


Figure 19.1: Closed-loop System Diagram

Let K^ be a reduced order controller and assume for the sake of argument that K^ has
the same number of right half plane poles. Then it is obvious that the closed-loop
stabil
ity is guaranteed and the closed-loop performance degradation is limited if K ; K^
1
is suciently small. Hence a trivial controller reduction approach is to apply the model
reduction procedure to the full order controller K . Unfortunately, this approach has
only limited applications. One simple reason is that a reduced order controller that stabilizes the closed-loop system and gives satisfactory performance does not necessarily
make the error  (K ;K^ )(j!) suciently small uniformly over all frequencies. Therefore,
the approximation error only has to be made small over those critical frequency ranges
that aect the closed-loop stability and performance. Since stability is the most basic
requirement for a feedback system, we shall rst derive controller reduction methods
that guarantee this property.

19.1. Controller Reduction with Stability Criteria

491

19.1.1 Additive Reduction

The following lemma follows from small gain theorem.

Lemma 19.1 Let K be a stabilizing controller and K^ be a reduced order controller.
Suppose K^ and K have the same number of right half plane poles and dene

:= K^ ; K; Wa := (I ; G22 K );1 G22 :
Then the closed-loop system with K^ is stable if either
or

kWa
k1 < 1

(19:1)

k
Wa k1 < 1:

(19:2)

Proof. Since
I ; G22 K^ = I ; G22 K ; G22
= (I ; G22 K )(I ; (I ; G22 K );1 G22
)
by small gain theorem, the system is stable if kWa
k1 < 1. On the other hand,
^ 22 = I ; KG22 ;
G22 = (I ;
(I ; G22 K );1 G22 )(I ; KG22 )
I ; KG
so the system is stable if k
Wa k1 < 1.

Now suppose K has the following state space realization

"

K = Ak Bk :
Ck Dk
Then

Wa =
=

3"
75 ; A B2
S 0 Ip ; G22
Iq K
C2 D22
Ck Iq Dk
2
3
;1 C2
~ ;1 Ck
~ ;1
A
+
B
D
R
B
R
B
R
2
k
2
2
66 B R;1C
7
Ak + Bk D22 R~ ;1 Ck Bk D22 R~ ;1 75
k
2
4
"

02 A
k
=SB
@64 0

R;1 C2

0 Bk
0 Ip

R;1 D22 Ck

#1
CA

D22 R~ ;1

where R := I ; D22 Dk and R~ := I ; Dk D22 . Hence in general the order of Wa is equal

to the sum of the orders of G and K .
In view of the above lemma, the controller
K should be reduced in such a way so
that the weighted error Wa (K ; K^ ) or (K ; K^ )Wa is small and K^ and K have
1

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

492

the same number of unstable poles. Suppose K is unstable, then in order to make sure
that K^ and K have the same number of right half plane poles, K is usually separated
into stable and unstable parts as

K = K+ + K;
where K+ is stable and a reduction is done on K+ to obtain a reduced K^ + , the nal
reduced order controller is given by K^ = K^ + + K; .
We shall illustrate the above procedure through a simple example.

Example 19.1 Consider a system with

2 ;1 0 4 3
A = 64 0 2 0

0 0 ;3

20
75 ; B1 = C1 = 64 1

 =
D11 = 0; D12 = D21

A controller minimizing kTzw k2 is given by

2 3
75

0
1
7
6

0 5 ; B2 = C2 = 4 1
0 0
1

" #

0
; D22 = 0:
1

148:79(s + 1)(s + 3)
K = ; (s + 31
:74)(s + 3:85)(s ; 9:19)

with kTzw k2 = 55:09. Since K is unstable, we need to separate K into stable part and
antistable part K = K+ + K; with

:15(s + 3:61)
;34:64
K+ = ; (s 114
+ 31:74)(s + 3:85) ; K; = s ; 9:19 :

Next apply the frequency weighted balanced model reduction in Chapter 7 to

Wa (K+ ; K^ +) 1 ;

we have
and

:085
K^ + = ; s 117
+ 34:526
:72(s + 0:788)
K^ := K^ + + K; = ; (s 151
+ 34:526)(s ; 9:19) :

The kTzw k2 with the reduced order controller K^ is 61:69. On the other hand, if K+
is reduced directly by balanced truncation without stability weighting Wa , then the
reduced order controller does not stabilize the closed-loop system. The results are
summarized in Table 19.1 where both weighted and unweighted errors are listed.

19.1. Controller Reduction with Stability Criteria

Methods
BT
WBT

493

K ; K^ 1 Wa (K ; K^ ) 1 kTzw k2
0.1622
0.1461

2.5295
0.471

unstable
61.69

Table 19.1: BT: Balance and Truncate, WBT: Weighted Balance and Truncate

It may seem somewhat strange that the unweighted error K ; K^ resulted from
1
weighted balanced reduction is actually smaller than that from unweighted balanced
reduction. This happens because the balanced model reduction
is not optimal
in L1
^
norm. We should also point out that the stability criterion Wa (K ; K ) < 1 (or



1
(K ; K^ )Wa 1 < 1) is only sucient. Hence having Wa (K ; K^ ) 1  1 does not
necessarily imply that K^ is not a stabilizing controller.
3

19.1.2 Coprime Factor Reduction

It is clear that the additive controller reduction method in the last section is somewhat
restrictive, in particular, this method can not be used to reduce the controller order
if the controller is totally unstable, i.e., K has all poles in the right half plane. This
motivates the following coprime factorization reduction approach.
Let G22 and K have the following left and right coprime factorizations, respectively
G22 = M~ ;1 N~ = NM ;1 ; K = V~ ;1 U~ = UV ;1
and dene

and

~ ; NU
~ );1 N~ M~ = V ;1 (I ; G22 K );1 G22 I
N~n M~ n := (MV

"

# "

"

Nn := N (V~ M ; UN
~ );1 = G22 (I ; KG22 );1 V~ ;1 :
Mn
M
I

Note that M~ n ; N~n; Mn ; Nn do not depend upon the specic coprime factorizations of
G22 .
^ V^ 2 RH1 be the reduced right coprime factors of U and V . Then
Lemma 19.2 Let U;

K^ := U^ V^ ;1 stabilizes the system if

h
" # " #!
;N~n M~ n i U ; U^ < 1:

V
V^ 1

(19:3)

494

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

^~ V^~ 2 RH1 be the reduced left coprime factors of U~ and V~ . Then

Similarly, let U;
;
1
K^ := V^~ U^~ stabilizes the system if

h
"
U~ V~ i ; h U^~ V^~ i ;Nn

Mn

#
< 1:
1

(19:4)

Proof. We shall only show the results for the right coprime controller reduction. The
case for the left coprime factorization is analogous. It is well known that K^ := U^ V^ ;1
stabilizes the system if and only if (M~ V^ ; N~ U^ );1 2 RH1 . Since
" h
i " U ; U^ ##
~
^
~
^
~
~
~
~
M V ; N U = (MV ; NU ) I ; ;Nn Mn
V ; V^
the stability of the closed-loop system is guaranteed if
h
"
#
;N~n M~ n i U ; U^ < 1:

V ; V^
1

Now suppose U^ and V^ have the following state space realizations

" ^ # 2 A^ B^ 3
U =6 ^ ^ 7
4 C1 D1 5
V^
C^2 D^ 2
and suppose D^ 2 is nonsingular. Then the reduced order controller is given by
" ^ ^ ^ ;1 ^ ^ ^ ;1 #
^
K = ^A ; B^ D^2 ;1C^2 ^B D^2;1 :
C1 ; D1 D2 C2 D1 D2
Similarly, suppose U^~ and V^~ have the following state space realizations
h ^ ^ i " A^ B^1 B^2 #
U~ V~ = C^ D^ D^
1 2
and suppose D^ 2 is nonsingular. Then the reduced order controller is given by
" ^ ^ ^ ;1 ^ ^ ^ ^ ;1 ^ #
K^ = A ; ^B;21D^2 C B1 ;^B;21D^2 D1 :
D2 C
D2 D1

(19:5)

(19:6)

(19:7)

(19:8)

It is clear from this lemma that the coprime factors of the controller should be reduced so
that the weighted errors in (19.3) and (19.4) are small. Note that there is no restriction

19.1. Controller Reduction with Stability Criteria

495

on the right half plane poles of the controller. In particular, K and K^ may have dierent
number of right half plane poles. It is also not hard to see that the additive reduction
method in the last subsection may be regarded as a special case of the coprime factor
reduction if the controller K is stable by taking V = I or V~ = I .
Let L; F; Lk and Fk be any matrices such that A + LC2 ; A + B2 F; Ak + Lk Ck and
Ak + Bk Fk are stable. Dene

3
2
i " A + LC2 B2 + LD22 L # " N # 6 A + B2 F B2 7
;
= 4 C2 + D22 F D22 5 ;
N~ M~ =
M
C2
D22
I
F
I
" # 2 Ak + Bk Fk Bk 3 h
i " Ak + Lk Ck Bk + Lk Dk Lk #
U =6
7
:
4 Ck + Dk Fk Dk 5 ; U~ V~ =
V
Ck
Dk
I
F
I
h

Then K = UV ;1 = V~ ;1 U~ and G22 = NM ;1 = M~ ;1 N~ are right and left coprime

factorizations over RH1 , respectively. Moreover,
3
2
B2 R~ ;1
;B2 Dk R;1
;B2 R~ ;1 Ck
h
i 6 A + B2 Dk;R1 ;1C2
Ak + Bk R;1 D22 Ck ;Bk R;1 D22 Bk R;1 75
;N~n M~ n = 4 ;Bk R C2
;R;1 C2
R;1 D22 Ck ; Fk
;R;1 D22
R;1
2
;1 C2
~ ;1 Ck
~ ;1 3
A
+
B
D
R
;
B
R
;
L
+
B
D
R
k
k
22
k
k
k
22
"
#
77
;B2 R~ ;1
A + B2 R~ ;1 Dk C2
;Nn = 666 ;B2R~ ;1 Ck
77
64 ; D22R~;1Ck
Mn
R;1C2
;D22 R~ ;1
5
R~ ;1
R~ ;1 Ck
;R~ ;1 Dk C2
~ := I ; D D . Note that the orders of the weighting
where R := I ; D22 Dk and R
h
i " ;Nn # k 22
matrices ;N~n M~ n and
are in general equal to the sum of the orders of
Mn
G and K . However, if K is an observer-based controller, i.e.,

"

K = A + B2 F + LC2 + LD22 F ;L ;
F
0
letting Fk = ;(C2 + D22 F ) and Lk = ;(B2 + LD22), we get

"

# 2 A + B2 F ;L 3 h
i " A + LC2 ;L ;(B2 + LD22) #
U =6
7
;
0 5 ; U~ V~ =
4 F
V
F
0
I
C2 + D22 F

~ ; NU
~ = I; V~ M ; UN
~ = I:
MV

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

496

"

"

i h
i
;Nn = ;N
Therefore, we can chose ;N~n M~ n = ;N~ M~ and
Mn
M
which have the same orders as that of the plant G.
We shall also illustrate the above procedure through a simple example.
Example 19.2 Consider a system with
2 ;1 0 4 3
20 03
213
A = 64 0 ;2 0 75 ; B1 = C1 = 64 1 0 75 ; B2 = C2 = 64 1 75
0 0 ;3
0 0
1
 =
D11 = 0; D12 = D21

A controller minimizing kTzw k2 is given by

" #

0
; D22 = 0:
1

3
2
;
1
;
8:198
4
0
66 ;8:198 ;18:396 ;8:198 8:198 77
67:2078(s + 1)(s + 3)
77 = ;
K = 66
(s + 23:969)(s + 3:7685)(s ; 5:3414)
0 5
4 0 ;8:198 ;3
0

;8:198

0
0
with kTzw k2 = 37:02. Since the controller is an observer-based controller, a natural
coprime factorization of K is given by
2 ;1 ;8:198 4 0 3
" # 666 0 ;10:198 0 8:198 777
U =6
66 0 ;8:198 ;3 0 777 :
V
4 0 ;8:198 0 0 5
1
1
1
1
Furthermore, we have
3
2
;
1
0
4
;
1
0
h
i 666 ;8:198 ;10:198 ;8:198 ;1 ;8:198 777
~
~
:
;N M = 6 0
0
;3 ;1 0 75
4
1
1
1
0
0
Applying the frequency weighted balanced model reduction in Chapter 7 to the weighted
coprime factors, we obtain a rst order approximation
" ^ # 2 ;0:1814 1:0202 3
U =6
4 1:2244 0 75
V^
1
6:504

19.2. H1 Controller Reductions

which gives

497

h
" # " #!
;N~n M~ n i U ; U^ = 2:0928 > 1;

V
V^ 1
K^ = s +1:2491
6:8165 ; kTzw k2 = 52:29

and a second order approximation

2
3
1
:
0202
;
0
:
1814
14
:
5511
" ^ # 66
7
U = 6 ;0:5288 ;4:1434 ;1:2642 77
64 1:2244 29:5182 0 75
V^
6:504

which gives

;1:3084

h
" # " #!
;N~n M~ n i U ; U^ = 0:024 < 1;

V
V^ 1
s + 1:1102) ; kT k = 39:14:
K^ = ; (s +3617:069(
zw 2
:3741)(s ; 4:7601)

Note that the rst order reduced controller does not have the same number of right
half plane poles as that of the full order controller. Moreover, the sucient stability
condition is not satised nevertheless the controller is a stabilizing controller. It is also
interesting to note that the unstable pole of the second order reduced controller is not
at the same location as that of the full order controller.
3

19.2 H1 Controller Reductions

In this section, we consider H1 performance preserving controller order reduction problem. Again we consider the feedback system shown in Figure 19.1 with a generalized
plant realization given by

2 A B B 3
1
2
G(s) = 64 C1 D11 D12 75 :
C2 D21 D22

The following assumptions are made:

(A1) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable;
(A2) D12 has full column rank and D21 has full row rank;
(A3)

"

A ; j!I B2
C1
D12

has full column rank for all !;

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

498
(A4)

"

A ; j!I B1
C2
D21

has full row rank for all !.

It is shown in Chapter 17 that all stabilizing controllers satisfying kTzw k1 < can be
parameterized as
K = F`(M1 ; Q); Q 2 RH1 ; kQk1 <
(19:9)
where M1 is of the form

M1 =

"

# 2 A^ B^1 B^2 3
M11 (s) M12 (s) = 6 ^ ^ ^ 7
4 C1 D11 D12 5
M21 (s) M22 (s)
C^ D^ D^
2

21

22

;1 C^1 and A^ ; B^1 D^ ;1 C^2 are both

such that D^ 12 and D^ 21 are invertible and A^ ; B^2 D^ 12
21
;
1
;
1
stable, i.e., M12 and M21 are both stable.
The problem to be considered here is to nd a controller
K^ with a minimal possible

order such that the H1 performance requirement F`(G; K^ ) < is satised. This
1
is clearly equivalent to nding a Q so that it satises the above constraint and the order
of K^ is minimized. Instead of choosing Q directly, we shall approach this problem from
a dierent perspective. The following lemma is useful in the subsequent development
and can be regarded as a special case of Theorem 11.7 (main loop theorem).

Lemma 19.3 Consider a feedback system shown below

z
y

w


where N is a suitably partitioned transfer matrix

"

N (s) = N11 N12 :

N21 N22
Then, the closed-loop transfer matrix from w to z is given by

Tzw = F` (N; Q) = N11 + N12 Q(I ; N22 Q);1 N21 :

Assume that the feedback loop is well-posed, i.e., det(I ; N22 (1)Q(1)) 6= 0, and either
N21 (j!) has full row rank for all ! 2 R [ 1 or N12 (j!) has full column rank for all
! 2 R [ 1 and kN k1  1 then kF` (N; Q)k1 < 1 if kQk1 < 1.

19.2. H1 Controller Reductions

499

Proof. We shall assume N21 has full row rank. The case when N12 has full column
rank can be shown in the same way.
To show that kTzw k1 < 1, consider the closed-loop system at any frequency s = j!
with the signals xed as complex constant vectors. Let kQk1 =:  < 1 and note that
Twy = N21+ (I ; N22 Q) where N21+ is a right inverse of N21 . Also let  := kTwy k1 . Then
kwk2  kyk2, and kN k1  1 implies that kz k22 + kyk22  kwk22 + kuk22. Therefore,
kz k22  kwk22 + (2 ; 1)kyk22  [1 ; (1 ; 2 );2 ]kwk22
which implies kTzw k1 < 1 .
2

19.2.1 Additive Reduction

Consider the class of (reduced order) controllers that can be represented in the form
K^ = K0 + W2
W1 ;
where K0 may be interpreted as a nominal, higher order controller,
is a stable perturbation, with stable, minimum phase, and invertible weighting functions W1 and W2 .
Suppose that kF` (G; K0 )k1 < . A natural question is whether it is possible to obtain
a reduced order controller K^ in this class such that the H1 performance bound remains
valid when K^ is in place of K0 . Note that this is somewhat a special case of the above
general problem; the specic form of K^ restricts that K^ and K0 must possess the same
right half plane poles, thus to a certain degree limiting the set of attainable reduced
order controllers.
Suppose K^ is a suboptimal H1 controller, i.e., there is a Q 2 RH1 with kQk1 <
such that K^ = F` (M1 ; Q). It follows from simple algebra that
Q = F`(K a;1 ; K^ )
where

"

"

0 I
M1;1 0 I :
a
I 0
I 0
Furthermore, it follows from straightforward manipulations that


kQk1 < () F` (K a;1 ; K^ ) 1 <


() F` (K a;1 ; K0 + W2
W1 ) 1 <


~
) < 1
() F` (R;
where

K ;1 :=

"

;1=2
R~ = I 0
0
W1

#"

R11 R12
R21 R22

#"

;1=2 I
0

0
W2

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

500
and R is given by the star product

"

"

R11 R12 = S (K ;1 ; Ko I ):

a
R21 R22
I 0

It is easy to see that R~12 and R~21 are both minimum phase and invertible, and
hence have full column and full row rank, respectively for all ! 2 R [ 1. Consequently,
by
invoking Lemma 19.3, we conclude that if R~ is a contraction and k
k1 < 1 then
of a Q such that kQk1 < , or
F`(R;~
) 1 < 1. This guarantees the existence


equivalently, the existence of a K^ such that F` (G; K^ ) < . This observation leads
1
to the following theorem.
Theorem 19.4 Suppose W1 and W2 are stable, minimum phase and invertible transfer
matrices such that R~ is a contraction. Let K0 be a stabilizing controller
such

that
^
^
kF`(G; K0 )k1 < . Then K is also a stabilizing controller such that F` (G; K ) 1 <
if


k
k1 = W2;1 (K^ ; K0 )W1;1 1 < 1:
Since R~ can always be made contractive for suciently small W1 and W2 , there are
innite many
;1W1 and W2 that
satisfy the conditions in the theorem. It is obvious that
;
1
^
to make W2 (K ; K0 )W1 < 1 for some K^ , one would like to select the \largest"
1
W1 and W2 .
Lemma 19.5 Assume kR22 k1 < and dene

2
R12
0 ;R11 0
"
#
6


6
R21
0
L = L1 L2 = F`(66 ;R11 0
L2 L3
4 0 R21 0 ;R22

R12

;R22

Then R~ is a contraction if W1 and W2 satisfy

"  ;1
(W1 W1 )
0
0
(W2 W2 );1

# "

3
77
77 ; ;1I ):
5

 L1 L2 :
L2 L 3

Proof. See Goddard and Glover [1993].

An algorithm that maximizes det(W1 W1 ) det(W2 W2 ) has been developed by Goddard and Glover [1993]. The procedure below, devised directly from the above theorem,
can be used to generate a required reduced order
controller which will preserve the
closed-loop H1 performance bound F`(G; K^ ) < .
1

19.2. H1 Controller Reductions

501

1. Let K0 be a full order controller such that kF`(G; K0 )k1 < ;

2. Compute W1 and W2 so that R~ is a contraction;

3. Using model reduction method to nd a K^ so that W2;1 (K^ ; K0 )W1;1 < 1.

1

19.2.2 Coprime Factor Reduction

The H1 controller reduction problem can also be considered in the coprime factor
framework. For that purpose, we need the following alternative representation of all
admissible H1 controllers.

Lemma 19.6 The family of all admissible controllers such that kTzw k1 < can also

be written as

K (s) = F` (M1 ; Q) = (11 Q + 12 )(21 Q + 22 );1 := UV ;1

= (Q~ 12 + ~ 22 );1 (Q~ 11 + ~ 21) := V~ ;1 U~
where Q 2 RH1 , kQk1 < , and UV ;1 and V~ ;1 U~ are respectively right and left
coprime factorizations over RH1 , and
"
# 2 A^ ; B^1D^ 21;1C^2 B^2 ; B^1D^ 21;1D^ 22 B^1D^ 21;1 3
11 12
;1 C^2 D^ 12 ; D^ 11 D^ ;1 D^ 22 D^ 11 D^ ;1 7
=
= 64 C^1 ; D^ 11 D^ 21
21
21 5
21 22
;1
;D^ 21;1C^2
;D^ 21;1 D^ 22
D^ 21

"

~ ~
~ = ~ 11 ~ 12
21 22

# 2 A^ ; B^2 D^ 12;1C^1 B^1 ; B^2 D^ 12;1D^ 11 ;B^2D^ 12;1 3

;1 C^1 D^ 21 ; D^ 22 D^ ;1 D^ 11 ;D^ 22D^ ;1 7
= 64 C^2 ; D^ 22 D^ 12
12
12 5
;1 C^1
D^ 12

;1 D^ 11
D^ 12

;1
D^ 12

2 A^ ; B^ D^ ;1C^ B^ D^ ;1 B^ ; B^ D^ ;1D^ 3
2 12
1
2 12 11
2 12 1
75
;1
;1 = 64
;D^ 12;1 C^1
D^ 12
;D^ 12;1 D^ 11
;1 C^1 D^ 22 D^ ;1 D^ 21 ; D^ 22 D^ ;1 D^ 11
C^2 ; D^ 22 D^ 12
12
12

2 A^ ; B^ D^ ;1C^ ;B^ D^ ;1 B^ ; B^ D^ ;1D^ 3

1 21
2
1 21 22
1 21 2
75 :
;1 C^2
;1
;1 D^ 22
~ ;1 = 64
D^ 21
D^ 21
D^ 21
;1 C^2 ;D^ 11 D^ ;1 D^ 12 ; D^ 11 D^ ;1 D^ 22
C^1 ; D^ 11 D^ 21
21
21

Proof. Note that all admissible H1 controllers are given by

K (s) = F`(M1 ; Q)

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

502

"

M11 M12
M21 M22

where M1 =
Lemma 10.2, we have

"

11 12
=
21 22

"

is given in the last subsection. Next note that from

# "

# "

M12 ; M11 M21;1 M22 M11 M21;1

=
;M21;1M22
M21;1

M21 ; M22 M12;1M11 ;M22 M12;1

=
M12;1 M11
M12;1
" ;1
#
;1 M11
M
;
M
12
12
;
1
 =
M22 M12;1 M21 ; M22 M12;1 M11
"
#
M21;1
M21;1M22
~;1 =
:
;M11M21;1 M12 ; M11 M21;1 M22

~
~ = ~ 11
21

~ 12
~ 22

Then the results follow from some algebra.

Theorem 19.7 Let K0 = 12;221 be a central H1 controller such that kF`(G; K0)k1 <
^ V^ 2 RH1 be such that
and let U;
" ;1 #
" # " #!
I 0 ;1 12 ; U^ < 1=p2:
(19:10)
0 I

V^
22

Then K^ = U^ V^ ;1 is also a stabilizing controller such that kF`(G; K^ )k1 < .

Proof. Note that by Lemma 19.6, K is an admissible controller such that kTzw k1 <
if and only if there exists a Q 2 RH1 with kQk1 < such that

"

U
V

# "

11 Q + 12
:=
21 Q + 22

"

Q
=
I

and

(19:11)

K = UV ;1 :
Hence, to show that K^ = U^ V^ ;1 with U^ and V^ satisfying equation (19.10) is also
a stabilizing controller such that kF`(G; K^ )k1 < , we need to show that there is
another coprime factorization for K^ = UV ;1 and a Q 2 RH1 with kQk1 < such
that equation (19.11) is satised.
Dene
" ;1 #
I 0 ;1

:=
0 I

"

# "

^
12
; U^
22
V

#!

19.2. H1 Controller Reductions

"

and partition
as
Then
and

"

503

U^
V^

# "

"

U

:=
:

V

"

"

12
=
;  I 0
=  ;
U
22
0 I
I ;
V

"

U^ (I ;
V );1 =  ;
U (I ;
V );1 :
V^ (I ;
V );1
I
Dene U := U^ (I ;
V );1 , V := V^ (I ;
V );1 and Q := ;
U (I ;
V );1 . Then UV ;1
is another coprime factorization for K^ . To show that K^ = UV ; 1 = U^ V^ ;1 is a stabilizing

controller such that
kF`(G; K^ )k1 < , we need to show that
U (I ;
V );1 1 < ,

or equivalently
U (I ;
V );1 1 < 1. Now

U (I ;
V );1 =

i  h

i ;1

I 0
I; 0 I

1
02
h
i 3
0
p
I
0
= F` @4 p h
p i 5 ; 2
A
I= 2 0 I= 2

and by Lemma 19.3
U (I ;
V );1 1 < 1 since

h
i 3
2
0
I
0
4 p h
p i5
I= 2 0 I= 2

is a contraction and 2
1 < 1.

2
Similarly, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 19.8 Let K0 = ~ ;221~ 21 be a central H1 controller such that kF`(G; K0)k1 <
^~ V^~ 2 RH1 be such that
and let U;
" ~ # " ^~ #! " ;1 #
21 ; U ~ ;1 I 0 < 1=p2:
~ 22
0 I 1
V^~
;1
Then K^ = V^~ U^~ is also a stabilizing controller such that kF`(G; K^ )k1 < .
The above two theorems show that the H1 controller reduction problem is equivalent
to a frequency weighted H1 model reduction problem.

H1 Controller Reduction Procedures

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

504

(i) Let K0 = 12;221(= ~ ;221~ 21) be a suboptimal H1 central controller (Q = 0) such

that kTzw k1 < .

;1
(ii) Find a reduced order controller K^ = U^ V^ ;1 (or V^~ U^~ ) such that the following
frequency weighted H1 error
" ;1 #
" # " #!
I 0 ;1 12 ; U^ < 1=p2
0 I

V^

22

or

" ~ # " ^~ #! " ;1 #

21 ; U ~ ;1 I 0 < 1=p2:
~ 22
0 I 1
V^~

(iii) The closed-loop system with the reduced order controller K^ is stable and the
performance is maintained with the reduced order controller, i.e.,

kTzw k1 = F`(G; K^ ) 1 < :

19.3 Frequency-Weighted L1 Norm Approximations

We have shown in the previous sections that controller reduction problems are equivalent
to frequency weighted model reduction problems. To that end, the frequency weighted
balanced model reduction approach in Chapter 7 can be applied. In this section, we
propose another method based on the frequency weighted Hankel norm approximation
method.

Theorem 19.9 Let W1(s) 2 RH;1 and W2(s) 2 RH;1 with minimal state space realizations

"

"

W1 (s) = A1w B1w ; W2 (s) = A2w B2w

C1w D1w
C2w D2w

"

A^ B^
and let G(s) 2 RH1 . Suppose that G^ 1 (s) = ^1 ^ 1 2 RH1 is an r-th order
C1 D1
optimal Hankel norm approximation of [W1 GW2 ]+ , i.e.,
[W GW ] ; Q
G^ 1 = arg deginf
1 2+
H
Qr
and assume

"

# "

A1w ; I B1w ;
C1w
D1w

A2w ; I B2w
C2w
D2w

19.3. Frequency-Weighted L1 Norm Approximations

505

have respectively full row rank and full column rank for all  = i (A^1 ); i = 1; : : : ; r.
Then there exist matrices X; Y; Q, and Z such that
A1w X ; X A^1 + B1w Y = 0
(19.12)
^
C1w X + D1w Y = C1
(19.13)
^
QA2w ; A1 Q + ZC2w = 0
(19.14)
QB2w + ZD2w = B^1 :
(19.15)
#
" ^
A1 Z is the frequency weighted optimal Hankel norm approxFurthermore, Gr :=
Y 0
imation, i.e.,


inf^ W1 (G ; G^ )W2 = kW1 (G ; Gr )W2 kH = r+1 ([W1 GW2 ]+ ) :
H
degGr

Proof. We shall assume W2 = I for simplicity. The general case can be proven
similarly. Assume without loss of generality that A^1 has a diagonal form
A^1 = diag[1 ; 2 ; : : : ; r ]:
(The proof can be easily modied if A^1 has a general Jordan canonical form). Partition
X , Y , and C^1 as
X = [X1 ; X2 ; : : : ; Xr ]; Y = [Y1 ; Y2 ; : : : ; Yr ]; C^1 = [C^11 ; C^12 ; : : : ; C^1r ]:
Then the equations (19.12) and (19.13) can be rewritten as

"

A1w ; i I B1w
C1w
D1w

By the assumption, the matrix

"

#"

# "

Xi = 0 ; i = 1; 2; : : :; r:
Yi
C^1i

A1w ; i I B1w
C1w
D1w

has full row rank for all i and thus the existence of X and Y is guaranteed. Let
"
#
^1
;
X
B
A
1
w
W^ 1 =
2 RH;1 :
C1w ;D^ 1
Then using equations (19.12) and (19.13), we get
2 A B Y 0 3 2 A A X ; X A^ + B Y ;X B^
1w 1w
1
1w
1
1w 1w
W1 Gr = 64 0
A^1 B^1 75 = 64 0
A^1
B^1
C1w D1w Y 0
C1w
C1w X + D1w Y
0

3
75

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

506
=

2 A 0 ;X B^ 3
64 01w A^1 B^1 1 75 = W^ 1 + G^1:
C1w C^1

Using this expression, we have

kW1 (G ; Gr )kH = [W1 G]+ + [W1 G]; ; W^ 1 ; G^ 1 H = [W1 G]+ ; G^ 1 H


= r+1 ([W1 G]+ )  inf^ W1 (G ; G^ )  kW1 (G ; Gr )kH :
H
degGr

Note that Y = C^1 if W1 = I , Z = B^1 if W2 = I , and the rank conditions in the

above theorem are actually equivalent to the statements that the poles of G^ 1 are not
zeros of W1 and W2 . These conditions will of course be satised automatically if W1 (s)
and W2 (s) have all zeros in the right half plane. Numerical experience shows that if
the weighted Hankel approximation is used to obtain a L1 norm approximation, then
choosing W1 (s) and W2 (s) to have all poles and zeros in the right half plane may reduce
the L1 norm approximation error signicantly.
Corollary 19.10 Let W1 (s) 2 RH;1; W2 (s) 2 RH;1 and G(s) 2 RH1. Then




inf^ W1 (G ; G^ )W2  inf^ W1 (G ; G^ )W2 = r+1 ([W1 GW2 ]+ ) :
1 degGr
H
degGr
The lower bound in the above corollary is not necessarily achievable. To make the 1norm approximation
a suitable constant matrix Dr should
error as small as possible,

^
be chosen so that W1 (G ; G ; Dr )W2 is made as small as possible. This Dr can
1
usually be obtained using any standard convex optimization algorithm. To further
reduce the approximation error, the following optimization is suggested.

Weighted L1 Model Reduction Procedures

Let W1 and W2 be any antistable transfer matrices with all zeros in the right half
plane.
(i) Let
#
" ^
Z
A
1
G^ 1 =
Y 0
be a weighted optimal Hankel norm approximation of G.
(ii) Let the reduced order model G^ be parameterized as
" ^
#
" ^
#
A
B
A
Z
1

1
^
^
G() =
; or G() =
:

Y D

C D

19.3. Frequency-Weighted L1 Norm Approximations

507

(iii) Find C (or B ) and D from the following convex optimization:

^ ())W2 :
min
W
(
G
;
G

1
2Rm
1
It is noted that the weighted Hankel singular values can be used to predict the
approximation error and hence to determine the order of the reduced model as in the
unweighted Hankel approximation problem although we do not have an explicit L1
norm error bound in the weighted case.
If the given W1 and W2 do not have all poles and zeros in the right half plane,
factorizations must be performed rst to obtain the equivalent W 1 (s) and W 2 (s) so that
W 1 (s) and W 2 (s) have all poles and zeros in the right half plane and

W1 (s)W1 (s) = W 1 (s)W 1 (s); W2 (s)W2 (s) = W 2 (s)W 2 (s)

Then we have

W1(G ; G^ )W2 1 = W 1 (G ; G^)W 2 1 :

These factorizations can be easily done using Corollary 13.28 if W1 and W2 are stable and
W1 (1) and W"2 (1) have# respectively full column rank and full row rank. For example,

A B 2 RH with D full row rank and W (j!)W  (j!) > 0 for all
1
2
2
C D
"
#
BW
2 RH1 such that M ;1 (s) 2 RH1
!. Then there is a M (s) = A
CW (DD )1=2
assume W2 =

and

where
and

W2 (s)W2 (s) = M (s)M (s)

BW = PC  + BD ; CW = (DD );1=2 (C ; BW X )

PA + AP + BB  = 0
XA + A X + (C ; BW X ) (DD );1 (C ; BW X ) = 0:
Finally, take W 2 (s) = M  (s). Then W 2 (s) has all the poles and zeros in the right half
plane and

W1(G ; G^ )W2 1 = W1 (G ; G^)W 2 1 :

In the case where W1 and W2 are not necessarily stable, the following procedures can
be applied to accomplish this task.

Spectral Factorization Procedures

Let W1 2 L1 and W2 2 L1 .
(i) Let W1n := W1 (;s) and W2n := W2n(;s).

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

508

(ii) Let W1n = M1;1N1 and W2n = N2M2;1 be respectively the left and right coprime

factorizations such that M1 and M2 are inners. (This step can be done using
Theorem 13.34.)
(iii) Perform the following spectral factorizations

N1 N1 = V1 V1 ; N2 N2 = V2 V2

so that V1 and V2 have all zeros in the left half plane. (Corollary 13.23 may be
used here if N1 (1) has full column rank and N2 (1) has full row rank. Otherwise,
the factorization in Section 6.1 may be used to factor out the undesirable poles
and zeros in the weights.)
(iv) Let W 1 (s) = V1 (;s) and W 2 (s) = V2 (;s).
We shall summarize the state space formulas for the above factorizations as a lemma.

"

Lemma 19.11 Let W (s) = A B 2 L1 be a controllable and observable realizaC D

tion.

"

A ; j! B has full column rank for

(a) Suppose W  (j!)W (j!) > 0 for all ! or
C
D
all !. Let
"   #
Y = Ric ;A ;C C  0
0
A

"

;1  C )
;BR;1B 
X = Ric ;(A ; BR ;D
0
;C (I ; DR 1 D )C (A ; BR;1 D C )

with R := D D > 0. Then we have the following spectral factorization

W W = W  W

 W ;1 2 RH;1 and
where W;

W =

"

A + Y CC
B + Y CD :
R;1=2 (D C ; B  X )(I + Y X );1
R1=2

(b) Suppose W (j!)W  (j!) > 0 for all ! or

!. Let

"

"

A ; j! B has full row rank for all

C
D


X = Ric ;A ;BB
0


19.4. An Example

509

"

 ~ ;1 
;C  R~ ;1 C
Y = Ric ;(A ; BD ~R;1 C ) 
0
;B (I ; D R D)B (A ; BD R~ ;1 C )

with R~ := DD > 0. Then we have the following spectral factorization

WW  = W W 

 W ;1 2 RH;1 and
where W;

"


;1
 ; Y C  )R~;1=2
:
W = A + BB X (I + Y X ) (BD
R~ 1=2
C + DB X

19.4 An Example
We consider a four-disk control system studied by Enns [1984]. We shall set up the
dynamical system in the standard linear fractional transformation form

x_ = Ax
" p+ B1w#+ B2"u #
q1 H x + 0 u
z =
0
I
h
i
y = C2 x + 0 I w
where q1 = 1  10;6; q2 = 1 and

2 ;0:161 ;6:004 ;0:58215 ;9:9835 ;0:40727 ;3:982

66 1
0
0
0
0
0
66 0
1
0
0
0
0
66
0
1
0
0
0
A = 66 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
66
0
0
0
1
0
66 0
4 0
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

3
77
77
77
77
77
77
5

0
0
0
0
0
h
i
h
B1 = pq2 B2 0 ; H = 0 0 0 0 0:55 11 1:32 18

213
66 0 77
66 0 77
66 77
B2 = 66 0 77
66 0 77
66 0 77
405
i

C2 = 0 0 6:4432  10;3 2:3196  10;3 7:1252  10;2 1:0002 0:10455 0:99551 :

The optimal H1 norm for Tzw is opt = 1:1272. We choose = 1:2 to compute an
8th order suboptimal controller Ko . The coprime factorizations of Ko are obtained
using Lemma 19.6 as Ko = 12 ;221 = ~ ;221 ~ 21 . The controller is reduced using several
methods and the results are listed in Table 19.2 where the following abbreviations are
made:

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

510
UWA

Unweighted additive reduction:

Ko ; K^ 1

UWRCF Unweighted right coprime factor reduction:

" # " ^
12 ; U
22
V^

#

1

UWLCF Unweighted left coprime factor reduction:

h
~ 21

SWA

i h

~ 22 ; U^~ V^~

i
1

Stability weighted additive reduction:

Wa (Ko ; K^ ) 1

19.4. An Example

511

SWRCF Stability weighted right coprime factor reduction:

h
" # " #!
;N~n M~ n i 12 ; U^

22
V^ 1

SWLCF

PWA

Stability weighted left coprime factor reduction:

h
~ 12

i h

~ 22 ; U^~ V^~

i " ;Nn #

Mn 1

Performance weighted additive reduction:

;1

W2 (Ko ; K^ )W1;1 1

PWRCF Performance weighted right coprime factor reduction:

" ;1 #
" # " #!
I 0 ;1 12 ; U^
0 I
22
V^ 1

PWLCF Performance weighted left coprime factor reduction:

h
~ 12

B
H/O

i h

~ 22 ; U^~ V^~

i ~ ;1 " ;1I


#

I 1
0

Balance reduction with or without weighting

Hankel/convex optimization reduction with or without weighting

Table 19.3 lists the performance weighted right coprime factor reduction errors and
their lower bounds obtained using Corollary 19.10. The  in Table 19.3 is dened as
" ;1 #
" # " ^ #!

I
0 ;1
12

 :=

; U^ :
0 I
22
V
1

"

U^
By Corollary 19.10,   r+1 if the McMillan degree of ^
V

is no greater than r.
Similarly, Table 19.4 lists the stability weighted right coprime factor reduction errors

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

512
Order of K^
PWA
PWRCF
PWLCF
UWA
UWRCF
UWLCF
SWA
SWRCF
SWLCF

B
H/O
B
H/O
B
H/O
B
H/O
B
H/O
B
H/O
B
H/O
B
H/O
B
H/O

7
1.196
1.196
1.2
1.196
1.197
1.197
U
23.15
1.198
1.197
1.985
5.273
1.327
1.375
1.236
2.401
1.417
1.267

6
1.196
1.197
1.196
1.198
1.196
1.197
1.321
U
1.196
1.197
1.258
U
1.199
2.503
1.197
1.893
1.217
1.485

5
1.199
1.195
1.207
1.196
U
1.198
U
U
1.199
1.282
27.04
U
2.27
2.802
1.251
1.612
48.04
2.259

4
1.197
1.199
1.195
1.199
1.197
1.198
U
U
1.196
1.218
5.059
U
1.47
4.341
1.201
1.388
3.031
1.849

3
2
1
0
U
4.99
U U
2.73 1.94
U U
2.98 1.674
U U
2.036 1.981
U U
U
U
U U
1.586 2.975 3.501 U
U
U
U U
U
U
U U
U
U
U U
U
U
U U
U
U
U U
U
U
U U
23.5
U
U U
1.488 15.12 2.467 U
13.91 1.415
U U
2.622 3.527
U U
U
U
U U
4.184 27.965 3.251 U

Table 19.2: F`(G; K^ ) with reduced order controller: U{closed-loop system is unstable
and their lower bounds obtained using Corollary 19.10. The s and u in Table 19.3 are
dened as
h
i " 12 # " U^ #!

s := ;N~n M~ n
; ^
22
V
1
" # " ^ #
u := 12 ; U^
22
V 1
where u is obtained by taking the same U^ and V^ as in s , not from the unweighted
model reduction.
Table 19.2 shows that performance weighted controller reduction methods work very
well. In particular, the PWRCF and PWLCF are easy to use and eective and there
is in general no preference of using either the right coprime method or left coprime
method. Although some unweighted reduction methods and some stability weighted
reduction methods do give reasonable results in some cases, their performances are
very hard to predict. What is the worst is that the small approximation error for the

19.5. Notes and References

513

reduction criterion may have little relevance to the closed-loop H1 performance. For
example, Table 19.4 shows that the 7-th order weighted approximation error s using
the Hankel/Optimization method is very small, however, the H1 performance is very
far away from the desired level.
Although the unweighted right coprime factor reduction method gives very good
results for this example, one should not be led to conclude that the unweighted right
coprime factor method will work well in general. If this is true, then one can easily
conclude that the unweighted left coprime factor method will do equally well by considering a dual problem. Of course, Table 19.2 shows that this is not true because the
unweighted left coprime factor method does not give good results. The only reason for
the good performance of the right coprime factor method for this example is the special
data structure of this example, i.e., the relationship between the B1 matrix and B2
matrix:
h
i
B1 = pq2 B2 0 :
The interested reader may want to explore this special structure further.
Order of K^
r
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Lower bounds r+1 0.295 0.303 0.385 0.405 0.635 0.668 0.687 0.702

B 1.009 0.626 4.645 0.750 71.8 6.59 127.2 2.029
H/O 0.295 0.323 0.389 0.658 0.960 1
1
1
Table 19.3: PWRCF:  and lower bounds

19.5 Notes and References

The stability oriented controller reduction criterion is rst proposed by Enns [1984]. The
weighted and unweighted coprime factor controller reduction methods are proposed by
Liu and Anderson [1986, 1990], Liu, Anderson, and Ly [1990], Anderson and Liu [1989],
and Anderson [1993]. For normalized H1 controller, Mustafa and Glover [1991] have
proposed a controller reduction method with a prior performance bounds. Normalized
coprime factors have been used in McFarlane and Glover [1990] for controller order
reductions. Lenz, Khargonekar and Doyle [1987] have also proposed another H1 controller reduction method with guaranteed performance for a class of H1 problems. The
main results presented in this chapter are based on the work of Goddard and Glover
[1993,1994].
We should note that a satisfactory solution to the general frequency weighted L1
norm model reduction problem remains unavailable and this problem has a crucial
implication toward controller reduction with preserving closed-loop H1 performance
as its objective. The frequency weighted Hankel norm approximation is considered in
Latham and Anderson [1986], Hung and Glover [1986], and Zhou [1993]. The L1 model
reduction procedures discussed in this chapter are due to Zhou [1993].

514

CONTROLLER ORDER REDUCTION

Order of K^
r
7
6
5
4
;
6
;
6
;
6
Lower bounds of s r+1 1:1  10
1:2  10
1:9  10
1:9  10;6
s
B
0.8421
0.5048
2.5439
0.5473
H/O
0.0001
0.2092
0.3182
0.3755
u
B
254.28
9.7018
910.01
21.444
H/O
185.9
30.85
305.3
15.38
Order of K^
r
3
2
1
0
Lower bounds of s r+1 9  10;6 6:23  10;5 1:66  10;4 2:145  10;4
s
B
11.791
1.3164
9.1461
1.5341
H/O
0.5403
0.7642
1
1
u
B
2600.2
365.45
3000.6
383.277
H/O
397.9
288.1
384.3
384.3
Table 19.4: SWRCF: s and the corresponding u

20

Structure Fixed Controllers

In this chapter we focus on the problem of designing optimal controllers with controller
structures restricted; for instance, the controller may be limited to be a state feedback or
a constant output feedback or a xed order dynamic controller. We shall be interested
in deriving some explicit necessary conditions that an optimal xed structure controller
ought to satisfy. The fundamental idea is to formulate our optimal control problems
as some constrained minimization problems. Then the rst-order Lagrange multiplier
necessary conditions for optimality are applied to derive our optimal controller formulae.
Readers should keep in mind that our purpose here is to introduce the method, not to
try to solve as many problems as possible. Hence, we will try to be concise but clear.
In section 20.1, we will review some Lagrange multiplier optimization methods. Then
these tools will be used in section 20.2 to solve a xed order H2 optimal controller
problem.

20.1 Lagrange Multiplier Method

In this section, we consider the constrained minimization problem. The results quoted
below are standard and can be found in any references given at the end of the chapter.
Let f (x) := f (x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn ) 2 R be a real valued function dened on a set S  Rn .
A point x0 2 Rn in S is said to be a (global) minimum point of f on S if
f (x)  f (x0 )
for all points x 2 S . A point x0 2 S is said to be a local minimum point of f on S if
there is a neighborhood N of x0 such that f (x)  f (x0 ) for all points x 2 N .
515

STRUCTURE FIXED CONTROLLERS

516

We will be particularly interested in the case where the set S is described by a set
of functions, hi (x) = 0; i = 1; 2; : : : ; m and m < n or equivalently

H (x) := h1 (x) h2 (x) : : : hm (x) = 0:

Hence we will focus on the local necessary (and sucient) conditions for the following
problem:
(
minimize f (x)
(20:1)
subject to H (x) = 0:
We shall assume that f (x) and hi (x) are dierentiable and denote

2
66
rf (x) := 66
4

@f
@x1
@f
@x2

..
.

@f
@xn

3
77
77
5

2
h
i 666
rH (x) := rh1 (x) rh2 (x)


rhm (x) = 6
4

@h1
@x1
@h1
@x2

@h2
@x1
@h2
@x2

@hm
@x1
@hm
@x2

@h1
@xn

@h2
@xn

@hm
@xn

..
.

..
.

..
.

3
77
77 :
5

Denition 20.1 A point x0 2 Rn satisfying the constraints H (x0 ) = 0 is said to be

a regular point of the constraints if rH (x0 ) has full column rank (m); equivalently, let
(x) := H (x)z for z 2 Rm , and then r(x0 ) = rH (x0 )z = 0 has the unique solution
z = 0.

Theorem 20.1 Suppose that x0 2 Rn is a local minimum of the f (x) subject to the
constraints H (x) = 0 and suppose further that x0 is a regular point of the constraints.
Then there exists a unique multiplier

2 3
66 12 77
 = 66 .. 77 2 Rm
4 . 5
m

such that, if we set F (x) = f (x) + H (x), then rF (x0 ) = 0, i.e.,

rF (x0 ) = rf (x0 ) + rH (x0 ) = 0:

In the case where the regular point conditions are either not satised or hard to
verify, we have the following alternative.

20.1. Lagrange Multiplier Method

517

Theorem 20.2 Suppose that x0 2 Rn is a local minimum of f (x) subject to the constraints H (x) = 0. Then there exists

"

0

2 Rm+1

such that 0 rf (x0 ) + rH (x0 ) = 0.

Remark 20.1 Although some second order necessary and sucient conditions for local
minimality can be given, they are usually not very useful in our applications for the
reason that they are very hard to verify except in some very special cases. Furthermore,
even if some sucient conditions can be veried, it is still not clear whether the minima
is global. It is a common practice in many applications that the rst-order necessary
conditions are used to derive some necessary conditions for the existence of a minima.
Then nd a solution (or solutions) from these necessary conditions and check if the
solution(s) satises our objectives regardless of the solution(s) being a global minima
or not.
~
In most of the control applications, constraints are given by a symmetric matrix
function, and in this case, we have the following lemma.
Lemma 20.3 Let T (x) = T (x) 2 Rll be a symmetric matrix function and let x0 2 Rn
be such that T (x0 ) = 0. Then x0 is a regular point of the constraints T (x) = T (x) = 0
if, for P = P  2 Rll , r Trace(T (x0 )P ) = 0 has the unique solution P = 0.

Proof. Since T (x) = [tij (x)] is a symmetric matrix, tij = tji and the eective constraints for T (x) = 0 are given by the l(l + 1)=2 equations, tij (x) = 0 for i = 1; 2; : : : ; l
and i  j  l. By denition, x0 is a regular point for the eective constraints (tij (x) = 0
for i = 1; 2; : : : ; l and i  j  l) if the following equation has the unique solution pij = 0
for i = 1; 2; : : : ; l and i  j  l:
(x0 ) :=

Xl
i=1

rtii pii +

Xl Xl

i=1 j =i+1

2rtij pji = 0:

Now the result follows by dening pij := pji and by noting that (x0 ) can be written
as
0
1

Xl Xl

(x0 ) = r @

with P = P  .

i=1 j =1

tij pji A = r Trace(T (x0 )P )

Corollary 20.4 Suppose that x0 2 Rn is a local minimum of f (x) subject to the constraints T (x) = 0 where T (x) = T (x) 2 Rll and suppose further that x0 is a regular

STRUCTURE FIXED CONTROLLERS

518

point of the constraints. Then there exists a unique multiplier P = P  2 Rll such that
if we set F (x) = f (x) + Trace(T (x)P ), then rF (x0 ) = 0, i.e.,
rF (x0 ) = rf (x0 ) + r Trace(T (x0 )P ) = 0:
In general, in the case where a local minimal point x0 is not necessarily a regular
point, we have the following corollary.
Corollary 20.5 Suppose that x0 2 Rn is a local minimum of f (x) subject to the constraints T (x) = 0 where T (x) = T (x) 2 Rll . Then there exist 0 6= (0 ; P ) 2 R  Rll
with P = P  such that
0 rf (x0 ) + r Trace(T (x0 )P ) = 0:
Remark 20.2 We shall also note that the variable x 2 Rn may be more conveniently
given in terms of a matrix X 2 Rkq , i.e., we have

2
66 x11..
66 .
66 xk1
66 x12
x = VecX := 66 ..
66 .
66 xk2
66 ..
4 .

Then

is equivalent to

2
6
rF (x) := 64
2
6
@F (x) := 66
66
@X
4

@F (x)
@x11
@F (x)
@x21

xkq

@F (x)
@x11

..
.
@F (x)
@xkq

@F (x)
@x12
@F (x)
@x22

3
77
77
77
77
77 :
77
77
77
5

3
77 = 0
5

@F (x)
@x1q
@F (x)
@x2q

3
77
77 = 0:
75

..
..
..
.
.
.
@F (x) @F (x)


@F (x)
@xk1 @xk2
@xkq
This later expression will be used throughout in the sequel.
~
As an example, let us consider the following H2 norm minimization with constant
state feedback: the dynamic system is given by
x_ = Ax + B1 w + B2 u
z = C1 x + D12 u;

20.1. Lagrange Multiplier Method

519

and the feedback u = Fx is chosen so that A + B2 F is stable and

J0 = kTzw k22
 D12 = I and D12
 C1 = 0. It is
is minimized. For simplicity, we shall assume that D12


routine to verify that J0 = Trace(B1 B1 X ) where X = X  0 satises
T (X; F ) := X (A + B2 F ) + (A + B2 F ) X + (C1 + D12 F ) (C1 + D12 F ) = 0:
Hence the optimal control problem becomes a constrained minimization problem, and
we can use the Lagrange multipliers
" method# outlined above. (Note that in this case,
VecX
the variable x takes the form x =
). Let
VecF
J (X; F ) := J0 + Trace(T (X; F )P )
with P = P  . We rst verify the regularity conditions: the equation
r Trace(T (X; F )P ) = 0
or, equivalently,
#
" @ Trace(T (X;F )P ) # "
 + (A + B2 F )P
P
(
A
+
B
F
)
2
@X
=0
@ Trace(T (X;F )P ) =
2(B2 X + F )P
@F
has a unique solution P = 0 since A + B2 F is assumed to be stable at the minimum
point. Hence regularity conditions are satised. Now the necessary condition for local
optimum can be applied:
@J (X; F ) = B B  + P (A + B F ) + (A + B F )P = 0
(20.2)
1 1
2
2
@X
@J (X; F ) = 2(B  X + F )P = 0
(20.3)
2
@F
@J (X; F ) = X (A + B F ) + (A + B F ) X + (C + D F ) (C + D F ) = 0: (20.4)
2
2
1
12
1
12
@P
It should be pointed out that, in general, we cannot conclude from equation (20.3) that
B2 X + F = 0. Care must be exercised to arrive at such a conclusion. For example,
if we assume that B1 is square and nonsingular, then we know that if F is such that
A + B2 F is stable, then P > 0. Hence we have
F = ;B2 X;
and we substitute this relation into equation (20.4) and get the familiar Riccati equation:
XA + A X ; XB2B2 X + C1 C1 = 0:
This Riccati equation has a stabilizing solution if (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and if (C1 ; A)
has no unobservable modes on the imaginary axis. Indeed, in this case, the controller
thus obtained is a global optimal control law.

STRUCTURE FIXED CONTROLLERS

520

20.2 Fixed Order Controllers

In this section, we shall use the Lagrange multiplier method to derive some necessary
conditions for a xed-order controller that minimizes an H2 performance. We shall
again consider a standard system setup

z
y

w


where the system G is n-th order with a realization given by

2 A B B 3
1
2
6
G(s) = 4 C1 0 D12 75 :
C2 D21

For simplicity, we shall assume that

(i) (A; B1 ) is stabilizable and (C1 ; A) is detectable;
(ii) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable;

i h

 C1 D12 = 0 I ;
(iii) D12

(iv)

"

" #

B1 D = 0 .
D21 21
I

We shall be interested in the following xed order H2 optimal controller problem:

given an integer nc  n, nd an nc-th order controller

"

K = Ac Bc
Cc 0

that internally stabilizes the system G and minimizes the H2 norm of the transfer matrix
Tzw . For technical reasons, we will further assume that the realization of the controller
is minimal, i.e., (Ac ; Bc) is controllable and (Cc ; Ac ) is observable.
Suppose a such controller exists, and then the closed loop transfer matrix Tzw can

be written as

2 A BC B 3 "
#
2 c
1
A~ B~
7
6
Tzw = 4 Bc C2 Ac Bc D21 5 =: ~
C 0
C1

D12 Cc

20.2. Fixed Order Controllers

with A~ stable. Moreover,

521

kTzw k22 = Trace(B~ B~  X~ )

(20:5)

where X~ is the observability Gramian of Tzw :

X~ A~ + A~ X~ + C~  C~ = 0:

(20:6)
Theorem
20.6
# Suppose (Ac ; Bc; Cc) is a controllable and observable triple and K =
"

Ac Bc
Cc 0

internally stabilizes the system G and minimizes the norm Tzw . Then
there exist n  n nonnegative denite matrices X , Y , X^ , and Y^ such that Ac , Bc, and
Cc are given by

Ac = ;(A ; B2 B2 X ; Y C2 C2 )

Bc = ;Y C2
Cc = ;B2 X 

(20.7)
(20.8)
(20.9)

for some factorization

Y^ X^ =  M ;; ; = Inc
with M positive-semisimple1 and such that with  :=  ; and ? := In ;  the following
conditions are satised:

0
0
0
0

=
=
=
=

A X + XA ; XB2 B2 X + ? XB2 B2 X? + C1 C1

AY + Y A ; Y C2 C2 Y + ? Y C2 C2 Y ? + B1 B1
(A ; Y C2 C2 ) X^ + X^ (A ; Y C2 C2 ) + XB2B2 X ; ? XB2B2 X?
(A ; B2 B2 X )Y^ + Y^ (A ; B2 B2 X ) + Y C2 C2 Y ; ? Y C2 C2 Y ?
rank X^ = rank Y^ = rank Y^ X^ = nc :

(20.10)
(20.11)
(20.12)
(20.13)

Proof. The problem can be viewed as a constrained minimization problem with the objective function given by equation (20.5) and with constraints given by equation (20.6).
Let Y~ = Y~  2 R(n+nc )(n+nc ) and denote

J1 = Trace (X~ A~ + A~ X~ + C~  C~ )Y~ :

Then

@J1 = Y~ A~ + A~Y~ = 0

@ X~
has the unique solution Y~ = 0 since A~ is assumed to be stable. Hence the regularity
conditions are satised and the Lagrange multiplier method can be applied. Form the
Lagrange function J as
J := Trace(B~ B~  X~ ) + J1
1

A matrix M is called positive semisimple if it is similar to a positive denite matrix.

STRUCTURE FIXED CONTROLLERS

522
and partition X~ and Y~ as

"

"

X~ = X11 X12 ; Y~ = Y11 Y12 :

X12 X22
Y12 Y22
The necessary conditions for (Ac ; Bc ; Cc ) to be a local minima are
@J

(20.14)
@Ac = 2(X12 Y12 + X22 Y22 ) = 0
@J = 2(X B + X  Y C  + X Y  C  ) = 0
(20.15)
22 c
22 12 2
12 11 2
@Bc
@J


(20.16)
@Cc = 2(B2 X11 Y12 + B2 X12 Y22 + Cc Y22 ) = 0
@J = X~ A~ + A~ X~ + C~  C~ = 0
(20.17)
@ Y~
@J = Y~ A~ + A~Y~ + B~  B~ = 0:
(20.18)
@ X~
It is clear that X~  0 and Y~  0 since A~ is stable. Equations (20.17) and (20.18) can
be written as

0
0
0
0
0
0

=
=
=
=
=
=

X11 A + A X11 + X12 Bc C2 + C2 Bc X12 + C1 C1

X12 Ac + A X12 + X11 B2 Cc + C2 Bc X22
X22 Ac + Ac X22 + X12 B2 Cc + Cc B2 X12 + Cc Cc
AY11 + Y11 A + B2 Cc Y12 + Y12 Cc B2 + B1 B1
AY12 + Y12 Ac + B2 Cc Y22 + Y11 C2 Bc
Ac Y22 + Y22 Ac + Bc C2 Y12 + Y12 C2 Bc + Bc Bc :

(20.19)
(20.20)
(20.21)
(20.22)
(20.23)
(20.24)

For clarity, we shall present the proof in three steps:

1. X22 > 0 and Y22 > 0: We show rst that X22 > 0. Since X~  0, we have X22  0
+ X  = X  by Lemma 2.16. Hence equation (20.21) can be written as
and X22 X22
12
12
+ X  B2 Cc ) + (Ac + X + X  B2 Cc ) X22 + C  Cc :
0 = X22 (Ac + X22
12
c
22 12
+
 B2 Cc ) is also obSince (Cc ; Ac ) is observable by assumption, (Cc ; Ac + X22 X12
servable. Now it follows from the Lyapunov theorem (Lemma 3.18) that X22 > 0.
Y22 > 0 follows by a similar argument.
2. formula for Ac , Bc , Cc , ;, and : given X22 > 0 and Y22 > 0, we dene
;1X 
; := ;X22
(20.25)
12
 := Y22;1 Y12
(20.26)

 :=  ;
(20.27)

20.2. Fixed Order Controllers

X^
Y^
X
Y

523
:=
:=
:=
:=

X12 X22;1X12  0
Y12 Y22;1 Y12  0
X11 ; X12 X22;1 X12
Y11 ; Y12 Y22;1 Y12 :

(20.28)
(20.29)
(20.30)
(20.31)

Then it follows from equation (20.14) that

; = I
and  2 =  ; ; =  ; =  . It also follows from X~  0 and Y~  0 that X  0
and Y  0. Moreover, from equation (20.14), we have

nc = rank X22  rank X12  nc :

This implies that rank X12 = nc = rank Y12 and
^
rank X^ = rank X12 = nc = rank Y^ = rank Y^ X:
The product of Y^ X^ can be factored as
Y^ X^ =  (;Y12 X12 ); =  Y22 X22 ;;
and

M := Y22 X22 = Y221=2 (Y221=2 X22 Y221=2 )Y22;1=2

is a positive semisimple matrix.

Using these formulae in equations (20.15) and (20.16), we get
Bc = ;(X22;1X12 Y11 + Y12 )C2 = (;Y11 ; (; )Y12 )C2
= ;(Y11 ;  Y12 )C2
= ;Y C2
and
Cc = ;B2 (X11 Y12 Y22;1 + X12 ) = ;B2 (X11 + X12 ;)
= ;B2 X :

The formula for Ac follows from (20.24)-;(20.23) and some algebra.

3. Equations for X , Y , X^ , and Y^ : Equations (20.12) and (20.13) follow by substituting Ac , Bc, and Cc into (20.20); and (20.23) and by using the fact
that X^ =  X^ and Y^ =  Y^ . Finally, equations (20.10) and (20.11) follow from
equations (20.19) and (20.22) with some tedious algebra.

STRUCTURE FIXED CONTROLLERS

524

Remark 20.3 It is interesting to note that if the full order controller nc = n is considered, then we have  = I and ? = 0. In that case, equations (20.10) and (20.11)
become standard H2 Riccati equations:
0 = A X + XA ; XB2 B2 X + C1 C1
0 = AY + Y A ; Y C2 C2 Y + B1 B1
Moreover, there exist unique stabilizing solutions X  0 and Y  0 to these two Riccati
equations such that A ; B2 B2 X and A ; Y C2 C2 are stable. Using these facts, we get
that equations (20.12) and (20.13) have unique solutions:
Z1
X^ =
e(A;Y C2 C2 )t XB2B2 Xe(A;Y C2 C2 )t dt  0
Z01
Y^ =
e(A;B2 B2 X )t Y C2 C2 Y e(A;B2 B2X ) t dt  0:
0

It is a fact that X^ is nonsingular i (B2 X; A ; Y C2 C2 ) is observable and that Y^ is

nonsingular i (A ; B2 B2 X; Y C2 ) is controllable, or equivalently i

"




Ko := A ; B2 B2 X ; Y C2 C2 Y C2
;B2 X
0
is controllable and observable. (Note that Ko is known to be the optimal H2 controller
from Chapter 14). Furthermore, if X^ and Y^ are nonsingular, we can indeed nd ; and
 such that ; = In . In fact, in this case, ; and  are both square and ; = ( );1 .

Hence, we have

"

# "



;1

K = Ac Bc = ;(A ; B2 B2 X ; Y;1C2 C2 ); ;Y C2
C 0
;B2 X ;
0
" c
#
A ; B2 B2 X ; Y C2 C2 Y C2 = K
=
o
;B2X
0
i.e., if X^ and Y^ are nonsingular or, equivalently, if optimal controller Ko is controllable

and observable as we assumed, then Theorem 20.6 generates the optimal controller.
However, in general, Ko is not necessarily minimal; hence Theorem 20.6 will not be
applicable.
It is possible to derive some similar results to Theorem 20.6 without assuming the
minimality of the optimal controller by using pseudo-inverse in the derivations, but that,
in general, is much more complicated. An alternative solution to this dilemma would be
simply by direct testing: if a given nc does not generate a controllable and observable
controller, then lower nc and try again.
~
Remark 20.4 We should also note that although we have the necessary conditions for
a reduced order optimal controller, it is generally hard to solve these coupled equations
although some ad hoc homotopy algorithm might be used to nd a local minima. ~

20.3. Notes and References

525

Remark 20.5 This method can also be used to derive the H1 results presented in the

previous chapters. The interested reader should consult the references for details. It
should be pointed out that this method suers a severe deciency: global results are
hard to nd. This is due to (a) only rst order necessary conditions can be relatively
easily derived; (b) the controller order must be xed; hence even if a xed-order optimal
controller can be found, it may not be optimal over all stabilizing controllers.
~

20.3 Notes and References

Optimization using the Lagrange multiplier can be found in any standard optimization
textbook. In particular, the book by Hestenes [1975] contains the nite dimensional
case, and the one by Luenberger [1969] contains both nite and innite dimensional
cases. The Lagrange multiplier method has been used extensively by Hyland and Bernstein [1984], Bernstein and Haddard [1989], and Skelton [1988] in control applications.
Theorem 20.6 was originally shown in Hyland and Bernstein [1984].

526

STRUCTURE FIXED CONTROLLERS

21

Discrete Time Control

In this chapter we discuss discrete time Riccati equations and some of their applications
in discrete time control. A simpler form of a Riccati equation is the so-called Lyapunov
equation. Hence we will start from the solutions of a discrete Lyapunov equation which
are given in section 21.1. Section 21.2 presents the basic property of a Riccati equation
solution as well as the necessary and sucient conditions for the existence of a solution
to the LQR problem related Riccati equation. Various dierent characterizations of a
bounded real transfer matrix are presented in section 21.3. The key is the relationship
between the existence of a solution to a Riccati equation and the norm bound of a
stable transfer matrix. Section 21.4 collects some useful matrix function factorizations
and characterizations. In particular, state space criteria are stated (mostly without
proof) for a transfer matrix to be inner, for the existence of coprime factorizations, innerouter factorizations, normalized coprime factorizations, and spectral factorizations. The
discrete time H2 optimal control will be considered brie y in Section 21.5. Finally, the
discrete time balanced model reduction is considered in section 21.6 and 21.7.

21.1 Discrete Lyapunov Equations

Let A; B , and Q be real matrices with appropriate dimensions, and consider the following
linear equation:
AXB ; X + Q = 0:
(21:1)

Lemma 21.1 The equation (21.1) has a unique solution if and only if i (A)j (B) 6= 1
for all i; j .

527

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

528

Proof. Analogous to the continuous case.

Remark 21.1 If i (A)j (B) = 1 for some i; j , then the equation (21.1) has either no
solution or more than one solution depending on the specic data given. If B = A and
Q = Q , then the equation is called the discrete Lyapunov equation.
~
The following results are analogous to the corresponding continuous time cases, so they
will be stated without proof.
Lemma 21.2 Let Q be a symmetric matrix and consider the following Lyapunov equation:
AXA ; X + Q = 0
1. Suppose that A is stable, and then the following statements hold:
P Ai Q(A )i and X  0 if Q  0.
(a) X = 1
i=0
(b) if Q  0, then (Q; A) is observable i X > 0.
2. Suppose that X is the solution of the Lyapunov equation; then
(a) ji (A)j  1 if X > 0 and Q  0.
(b) A is stable if X  0, Q  0 and (Q; A) is detectable.

21.2 Discrete Riccati Equations

This section collects some basic results on the discrete Riccati equations. So the presentation of this section and the sections to follow will be very much like the corresponding
sections in Chapter 13. Just as the continuous time Riccati equations play the essential
roles in continuous H2 and H1 theories, the discrete time Riccati equations play the
essential roles in discrete time H2 and H1 theories.
Let a matrix S 2 R2n2n be partitioned into four n  n blocks as

"

"

S := S11 S12 ;
S21 S22

0 ;I
and let J =
2 R2n2n ; then S is called simplectic if J ;1 S  J = S ;1 . A
I 0
simplectic matrix has no eigenvalues at the origin, and, furthermore, it is easy to see that
if  is an eigenvalue of a simplectic matrix S , then ; 1=, and 1= are also eigenvalues
of S .
Let A, Q, and G be real n  n matrices with Q and G symmetric and A nonsingular.
Dene a 2n  2n matrix:
"
#
A
+ G(A );1 Q ;G(A );1
S :=
:
;(A );1 Q
(A );1

21.2. Discrete Riccati Equations

529

Then S is a simplectic matrix. Assume that S has no eigenvalues on the unit circle.
Then it must have n eigenvalues in jz j < 1 and n in jz j > 1. Consider the two ndimensional spectral subspaces X; (S ) and X+ (S ): the former is the invariant subspace
corresponding to eigenvalues in jz j < 1, and the latter corresponds to eigenvalues in
jz j > 1. After nding a basis for X; (S ), stacking the basis vectors up to form a matrix,
and partitioning the matrix, we get

"

X; (S ) = Im T1
T2

where T1 ; T2 2 Rnn . If T1 is nonsingular or, equivalently, if the two subspaces

" #

X; (S ); Im 0
I

are complementary, we can set X := T2T1;1 . Then X is uniquely determined by S , i.e.,

S 7! X is a function which will be denoted Ric; thus, X = Ric(S ). As in the continuous
time case, we make the following denition.
Denition 21.1 The domain of Ric, denoted by dom(Ric), consists of all (2n  2n)
simplectic matrices S such" that
# S has no eigenvalues on the unit circle and the two
0
subspaces X; (S ) and Im
are complementary.

Theorem 21.3 Suppose S 2 dom(Ric) and X = Ric(S ). Then

(a) X is unique and symmetric;

(b) I + XG is invertible and X satises the algebraic Riccati equation
A XA ; X ; A XG(I + XG);1 XA + Q = 0;

(21:2)

(c) A ; G(I + XG);1 XA = (I + GX );1 A is stable.

Note that the discrete Riccati equation in (21.2) can also be written as
A (I + XG);1 XA ; X + Q = 0:
Remark 21.2 In the case that A is singular, all results presented in this chapter will
still be true if the eigenvalue problem of S is replaced by the following generalized
eigenvalue problem:
"
# "
#
I
G
A
0

;
0 A
;Q I
and X; (S ) is taken to be the subspace spanned by the generalized principal vectors
corresponding to those generalized eigenvalues in jz j < 1. Here the generalized principal

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

530

vectors corresponding to a generalized eigenvalue  are referred to the set of vectors

fx1 ; : : : ; xk g satisfying

"

"

"

A 0 x =  I G x
;Q I 1
0 A 1
# "
#!
"
#
A 0 ; I G
I
G
xi =
x ; i = 2; : : : ; k:
;Q I
0 A
0 A i;1

See Dooren [1981] and Arnold and Laub [1984] for details.

"

Proof. (a): Since S 2 dom(Ric), 9 T = TT1

2

such that

"

X; (S ) = Im T1
T2
and T1 is invertible. Let X := T2 T1;1, then

"

"

"

X; (S ) = Im T1 = Im I T1 = Im I :
T2
X
X
Obviously, X is unique since

"

"

I = Im I
Im
X1
X2

i X1 = X2 . Now let us show that X is symmetric. Since

XT1 = T2;
pre-multiply by T1 to get

T1XT1 = T1 T2:

(21:3)

We only need to show that T1T2 is symmetric.

Since X; (S ) is a stable invariant subspace, there is a stable n  n matrix S; such
that
ST = TS;:
(21:4)
Pre-multiply by S; T J and note that S  JS = J ; we get
(S; T J )TS; = (S; T  J )ST = (S; T )JST = T S  JST = T JT

S; (T  JT )S; ; T  JT = 0:

21.2. Discrete Riccati Equations

531

This is a Lyapunov equation and S; is stable. Hence there is a unique solution

T JT = 0
i.e.,

T2T1 = T1T2 :

Thus we have X = X  since T1 is nonsingular.

(b): To show that X is the solution of the Riccati equation, we note that equation (21.4) can be written as

"

# "

I = I
X
X

Pre-multiply (21.5) by ;X I

T1S; T1;1:

(21:5)

to get

i "I #
;X I S X = 0:

Equivalently, we get

; XA + (I + XG)(A );1 (X ; Q) = 0:

(21:6)

We now show that I + XG is invertible. Suppose I + XG is not invertible, then 9 v 2 Rn

such that
v (I + XG) = 0:
(21:7)
Pre-multiply (21.6) by v , and we get v XA = 0. Since A is assumed to be invertible, it
follows that v X = 0. This, in turn, implies v = 0 by (21.7). Hence I + XG is invertible
and the equation (21.6) can be written as
A (I + XG);1 XA ; X + Q = 0:
This is the Riccati equation (21.2).
h
i
(c): To show that X is the stabilizing solution, pre-multiply (21.5) by I 0 to
get
A + G(A );1 Q ; G(A );1 X = T1 S; T1;1:
The above equation can be simplied by using Riccati equation to get
(I + GX );1 A = T1 S; T1;1
which is stable.
2

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

532

"

~
Remark 21.3 Let X+(S ) = Im TT~1 and suppose that T~1 is nonsingular. Then the
2
Riccati equation has an anti-stabilizing solution X~ = T~2 T~1;1 such that (I + GX~ );1 A is

antistable.

Lemma 21.4 Suppose that G and Q are" positive

# semi-denite and that S has no eigenT
1
values on unit circle. Let X; (S ) = Im
; then T1 T2  0.
T
2

"

Proof. Let T = TT1

2

and S; be such that

ST = TS;;

(21:8)

and S; has all eigenvalues inside of the unit disc. Let

Uk = TS;k ; k = 0; 1; : : ::
Then Uk+1 = SUk with U0 = T . Dening V =
Further dene

"

0 I
, we get T1T2 = U0 V U0 .
0 0

Yk := ;UkV Uk + U0 V U0
= ;
= ;
Now

"

I ;Q
0 I

kX
;1
i=0
kX
;1
i=0

#"

(Ui+1 V Ui+1 ; Ui V Ui )

Ui (S  V S ; V )Ui :

;Q

#"

0
I 0 0
;
1

;
1
0 ;A G(A )
Q I
since G and Q are assumed to be positive semi-denite. So Yk  0 for all k  0. Note
that Uk ! 0 as k ! 1 since S; has all eigenvalues inside the unit disc. Therefore
T1T2 = limk!1 Yk  0.
2

SV S ; V =

Lemma 21.5 Suppose that G and Q are positive semi-denite. Then S 2 dom(Ric) i
(A; G) is stabilizable and S has no eigenvalues on the unit circle.

21.2. Discrete Riccati Equations

533

Proof. The necessary part is obvious. We now show that the stabilizability of (A; G)

and S having no eigenvalues on the unit circle are, in fact, sucient. To show this, we
only need to show that T1 is nonsingular, i.e. Ker T1 = 0. First, it is claimed that
KerT1 is S; -invariant. To prove this, let x 2 Ker T1 . Rewrite (21.8) as
(A + G(A );1 Q)T1 ; G(A );1 T2 = T1 S;
(21.9)

;
1

;
1
;(A ) QT1 + (A ) T2 = T2 S; :
(21.10)
Substitute (21.10) into (21.9) to get

AT1 ; GT2 S; = T1 S; ;

(21:11)

and pre-multiply the above equation by x S; T2 and post-multiply x to get

;x S; T2 GT2 S; x = x S; T2 T1S; x:

According to Lemma 21.4 T2T1  0, we have
GT2 S; x = 0:

This in turn implies that T1 S; x = 0 from (21.11). Hence Ker T1 is invariant under S; .
Now to prove that T1 is nonsingular, suppose on the contrary that Ker T1 6= 0. Then
S; jKer T1 has an eigenvalue, , and a corresponding eigenvector, x:

S;x = x

(21:12)

jj < 1; 0 6= x 2 Ker T1:

Post-multiply (21.10) by x to get

(A );1 T2 x = T2 S; x = T2 x:

Now if T2 x 6= 0, then 1= is an eigenvalue of A and, furthermore, 0 = GT2 S; x = GT2 x,
so GT2 x = 0, which is contradictory to the stabilizability
" # assumption of (A; G). Hence
T
we must have T2 x = 0. But this would imply 1 x = 0, which is impossible. 2
T2

Lemma 21.6 Let G and Q be positive semi-denite matrices and

"
#
A
+ G(A );1 Q ;G(A );1
S=
:
;(A );1 Q
(A );1
Then S has no eigenvalues on the unit circle i (A; G) has no uncontrollable modes and
(Q; A) has no unobservable modes on the unit circle.

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

534

Proof. (() Suppose, on the contrary, that S has an eigenvalue ej . Then

" #

for some

" #

" #

S x = ej x
y
y

x 6= 0, i.e.,
y
(A + G(A );1 Q)x ; G(A );1 y = ej x
;(A );1 Qx + (A );1 y = ej y:

Multiplying the second equation by G and adding it to the rst one give
Ax ; ej Gy = ej x
(21.13)
j

;Qx + y = e A y:
(21.14)
Pre-multiplying equation (21.13) by e;j y and equation (21.14) by x yield

e;j y Ax = yGy + y x
;x Qx + x y = ej x A y:

Thus
It follows that

;yGy ; x Qx = 0:
y G = 0
Qx = 0:

Substitute these relationships into (21.13) and (21.14) to get

Ax = ej x
ej A y = y:
Since x and y cannot be zero simultaneously, ej is either an unobservable mode of
(Q; A) or an uncontrollable mode of (A; G), a contradiction.
()): Suppose that S has no eigenvalue on the unit circle but ej is an unobservable
mode of (Q; A) and x is a corresponding eigenvector. Then it is easy to verify that

" #

" #

S x = ej x ;
so ej is an eigenvalue of S , again a contradiction. The case for (A; G) having uncontrollable mode on the unit circle can be proven similarly.
2

21.2. Discrete Riccati Equations

535

Theorem 21.7 Let G and Q be positive semi-denite matrices and

"
#
A
+ G(A );1 Q ;G(A );1
S=
:
;(A );1 Q
(A );1
Then S 2 dom(Ric) i (A; G) is stabilizable and (Q; A) has no unobservable modes on
the unit circle. Furthermore, X = Ric(S )  0 if S 2 dom(Ric) and X > 0 if and only
if (Q; A) has no unobservable stable modes.

Proof. Let Q = C  C for some matrix C . The rst half of the theorem follows from

Lemmas 21.5 and 21.6. Now rewrite the discrete Riccati equation as
A (I + XG);1 X (I + GX );1 A ; X + A X (I + GX );2 GXA + C  C = 0 (21:15)
and note that by denition (I + GX );1 A is stable and A X (I + GX );2 GXA + C  C  0.
Thus X  0 by Lyapunov theorem. To show that the kernel of X has the refereed
property, suppose x 2 KerX , pre-multiply (21.15) by x , and post-multiply by x to get
XAx = 0; Cx = 0:
(21:16)
This implies that KerX is an A-invariant subspace. If KerX 6= 0, then there is an
0 6= x 2 KerX , so Cx = 0, such that Ax = x. But for x 2 KerX , (I + GX );1 Ax =
(I + GX );1 x = x, so jj < 1 since (I + GX );1A is stable. Thus  is an unobservable
stable mode of (Q; A).
On the other hand, suppose that jj < 1 is a stable unobservable mode of (Q; A).
Then there exists a x 2 C n such that Ax = x and Cx = 0; do the same pre- and postmultiplications on (21.15) as before to get
jj2 x (XG + I );1 Xx ; x Xx = 0:
This can be rewritten as
x X 1=2 [jj2 (I + X 1=2 GX 1=2 );1 ; I ]X 1=2 x = 0:
Now X  0; G  0, and jj < 1 imply that jj2 (I + X 1=2GX 1=2 );1 ; I < 0. Hence
Xx = 0, i.e., X is singular.
2

Lemma 21.8 Suppose that D has full column rank and let R = DD > 0; then the
following statements are equivalent:

"

A ; ej I B has full column rank for all  2 [0; 2].

(i)
C
D
;


(ii) (I ; DR;1 D )C; A ; BR;1 D C has no unobservable modes on the unit circle,
or, equivalently, (D? C; A ; BR;1 D C ) has no unobservable modes on the unit
circle.

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

536

Proof. Suppose that ej is an unobservable mode of (I ; DR;1D)C; A ; BR;1DC ;

then there is an x =
6 0 such that
(A ; BR;1 D C )x = ej x; (I ; DR;1 D )Cx = 0
i.e.,

"

But this implies that

A ; ej I B
C
D

#"

"

#" #

x = 0:

;R;1D C I
A ; ej I B
C
D

(21:17)

does not have full column rank. Conversely,

that (21.17) does not have full
" suppose
#
column rank for some ; then there exists

"

A ; ej I B
C
D

Now let

" # "

Then

" # "

and

u 6= 0 such that
v

#" #

u = 0:
v

u =
I
0
;
1

v
;R D C I

x =
I
0
;
1

y
R DC I

#" #

x :
y

#" #

u 6= 0
v

(A ; BR;1 D C ; ej I )x + By = 0
(I ; DR;1D )Cx + Dy = 0:
Pre-multiply (21.19) by D to get y = 0. Then we have
(A ; BR;1 D C )x = ej x; (I ; DR;1 D )Cx = 0
;


i.e., ej is an unobservable mode of (I ; DR;1 D )C; A ; BR;1 D C .

(21:18)
(21:19)

Corollary 21.9 Suppose that D has full column rank and denote R = DD > 0. Let
S have the form

"

 ;1
 ;1
S = E + G(E;)1 Q ;G(E ;)1
;(E ) Q
(E )
where E = A ; BR;1 D C , G = BR;1 B  , Q = C  (I ; DR;1D )"C , and E is assumed
#
j I B
A
;
e
to be invertible. Then S 2 dom(Ric) i (A; B ) is stabilizable and
has
C
D
full column rank for all  2 [0; 2]. Furthermore, X = Ric(S )  0.

21.3. Bounded Real Functions

537

Note that the Riccati equation corresponding to the simplectic matrix in Corollary 21.9 is
E  XE ; X ; E  XG(I + XG);1 XE + Q = 0:
This equation can also be written as
A XA ; X ; (B  XA + D C ) (D D + B  XB );1 (B  XA + D C ) + C  C = 0:

21.3 Bounded Real Functions

Let a real rational transfer matrix be given by

"

M (z ) = A B
C D

where again A is assumed to be nonsingular and the realization is assumed to have

no uncontrollable and no unobservable modes on the unit circle. Note again that all
results hold for A singular case with the same modication as in the last section. Dene
M  (z ) := M T (z ;1 ). Then

M  (z ) =

"

"

#
(A );1
;(A );1 C 
:
B  (A );1 D ; B  (A );1 C 
#

Lemma 21.10 Let M (z) = A B 2 RL1 and let S be a simplectic matrix dened
C 0
by

"

  ;1 
  ;1
S := A ; BB (;A1 )  C C BB (A;1)
:
;(A ) C C
(A )

Then the following statements are equivalent:

(i) kM (z )k1 < 1;
(ii) S has no eigenvalues on the unit circle and kC (I ; A);1 B k < 1.

Proof. It is easy to compute that

2 A ; BB(A );1C  C ;BB(A );1 B 3
[I ; M (z )M (z )];1 = 64
(A );1 C  C
(A );1
0 75 :
I
;B  (A );1 C  C ;B  (A );1
It is claimed that [I ; M  (z )M (z )];1 has no uncontrollable and/or unobservable modes
on the unit circle.

538

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

To show "that, #suppose that  = ej is an uncontrollable mode of [I ; M (z )M (z )];1 .

q
Then 9 q = 1 2 C 2n such that
q2
"
#
" #
 (A );1 C  C ;BB  (A );1
A
;
BB
B = 0:

j


q
=e q ; q
(A );1 C  C
(A );1
0
Hence q1 B = 0 and
h    ;1    ;1 i j h   i
= e q1 q2 :
q1 A + q2 (A ) C C q2 (A )

There are two possibilities:

1. q2 6= 0. Then we have q2 (A );1 = ej q2 , i.e., Aq2 = e;j q2 . This implies e;j is
an eigenvalue of A. This is a contradiction since M (z ) 2 RL1 .
2. q2 = 0. Then q1 A = ej q1 , which again implies that M (z ) has a mode on the unit
circle if q1 6= 0, again a contradiction.
Similar proof can be done for observability, hence the claim is true.
Now note that
"
#"
#"
#
 (A );1 C  C ;BB  (A );1
;
I
A
;
BB
;
I
S=
:
I
(A );1 C  C
(A );1
I
Hence S does not have eigenvalues on the unit circle. It is clear that we have already
proven that S has no eigenvalues on the unit circle i (I ; M M );1 2 RL1 . So it is
sucient to show that
kM (z )k1 < 1 , (I ; M  M );1 2 RL1 andkM (1)k < 1:
It is obvious that the right hand side is necessary. To show that it is also sucient, suppose kM (z )k1  1, then max (M (ej )) = 1 for some  2 [0; 2], since max (M (1)) < 1
and M (ej ) is continuous in . This implies that 1 is an eigenvalue of M  (e;j )M (ej ),
so I ; M  (e;j )M (ej ) is singular. This contradicts to (I ; M M );1 2 RL1 .
2
In the above Lemma, we have assumed that the transfer matrix is strictly proper.
We shall now see how to handle non-strictly proper case. For that purpose we shall
focus our attention on the stable system, and we shall give an example below to show
why this restriction is sometimes necessary for the technique to work.
We rst note that H1 -norm of a stable system is dened as
kM (z )k1 = sup  (M (z )) :
jzj1
Then it is clear that kM (z )k1   (M (1)) = kDk. Thus in particular if kM (z )k1 < 1
then I ; D D > 0.
On the other hand, if a function is only known to be in RL1 , the above condition
may not be true if the system is not stable.

21.3. Bounded Real Functions

539

Example 21.1 Let 0 <  < 1=2 and let

"

M1 (z ) = z ; 1= = 1=  2 RL1 :
1 1
z

Then kM1(z )k1 = 1; < 1, but 1 ; D D = 0. In general, if M 2 RL1 and kM k1 < 1,

then I ; D D can be indenite.
3

"

A B
C D

Lemma 21.11 Let M (z) =

2 RH1 . Then kM (z )k1 < 1 if and only if
N (z ) 2 RH1 and kN (z )k1 < 1 where
"
# " ^#
A
+ B (I ; D D);1 D C B (I ; D D);1=2
E B :
N (z ) =
=: ^

;
1
=
2
C 0
(I ; DD ) C
0
Proof. This is exactly the analogy of Corollary 17.4.

"

Theorem 21.12 Let M (z) = A B 2 RH1 and dene

C D
E := A + B (I ; D D);1 D C
G := ;B (I ; D D);1 B 
Q := C  (I ; DD );1 C:
Suppose that E is nonsingular and dene a simplectic matrix as
"
#
E
+ G(E  );1 Q ;G(E  );1
S :=
:
;(E  );1 Q
(E  );1
Then the following statements are equivalent:
(a) kM (z )k1 < 1;
(b) S has no eigenvalues on the unit circle and kC (I ; A);1 B + Dk < 1;
(c) 9 X  0 such that I ; D D ; B  XB > 0 and
E  XE ; X ; E  XG(I + XG);1 XE + Q = 0
and (I + GX );1 E is stable. Moreover, X > 0 if (C; A) is observable.
(d) 9 X > 0 such that I ; D D ; B  XB > 0 and
E  XE ; X ; E  XG(I + XG);1 XE + Q < 0;

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

540
(e) 9 X > 0 such that

"

A B
C D

# "

(f) 9 T nonsingular such that


(g) 

"

"

TAT ;1 TB
CT ;1 D

A B
C D

#!

:=

X 0
0 I

#"

# "

A B ; X 0 < 0;
C D
0 I

#! "
#"
#"
#;1
T
0
A
B
T
0
< 1;
=
0 I C D 0 I

< 1 with
2
and

("

1 In 0
0

2

: 1 2 C ;
2 2 C mp

 C (n+m)(n+p)

(assuming that M (s) is a p  m matrix and A is an n  n matrix).

Note that the Riccati equation in (c) can also be written as

A XA ; X + (B  XA + D C ) (I ; D D ; B  XB );1 (B  XA + D C ) + C  C = 0:

Proof. (a),(b) follows by Lemma 21.10

(a))(g) follows from Theorem 11.7.
(g))(f) follows from Theorem 11.5.
(f))(e) follows by letting X = T T .
(e))(d) follows by Schur complementary formula.
(d))(c) can be shown in the same way as in the proof of Theorem 13.11.
(c))(a) We shall only give the proof for D = 0 case, the case D =
6 0 can be
transformed to the zero case by Lemma 21.11. Hence in the following we have E = A,
G = ;BB  , and Q = C  C .
Assuming (c) is satised by some X  0 and considering the obvious relation with
z := ej

(z ;1 I ; A )X (zI ; A) + (z ;1 I ; A )XA + A X (zI ; A) = X ; A XA

= C  C + A XB (I ; B  XB );1 B  XA:

21.3. Bounded Real Functions

541

The last equality is obtained from substituting in Riccati equation. Now pre-multiply
the above equation by B  (z ;1 I ; A);1 and post-multiply by (zI ; A);1 B to get
I ; M  (z ;1 )M (z ) = W  (z ;1 )W (z )
where

"

A
B
:
W (z ) =

;
1
=
2

(I ; B XB ) B XA ;(I ; B  XB )1=2

Suppose W (ej )v = 0 for some  and v; then ej is a zero of W (z ) if v 6= 0. However,

all the zeros of W (z ) are given by the eigenvalues of
A + B (I ; B  XB );1 B  XA = (I ; BB  X );1 A
that are all inside of the unit circle. Hence ej cannot be a zero of W .
Therefore, we get I ; M  (e;j )M (ej ) > 0 for all  2 [0; 2], i.e., kM k1 < 1. 2
The following more general results can be proven easily following the same procedure
as in the proof of (c))(a).

"

Corollary 21.13 Let M (z) = A B 2 RL1 and suppose 9 X = X  such that

C 0
A XA ; X + A XB (I ; B  XB );1B  XA + C  C = 0:
Then
where

I ; M  (z ;1)M (z ) = W  (z ;1 )(I ; B  XB )W (z )

"

A
B :
W (z ) =

;
1

(I ; B XB ) B XA ;I

Moreover, the following statements hold:

(1) if I ; B  XB > 0 (< 0), then kM (z )k1  1 ( 1) ;
(2) if I ; B  XB > 0 (< 0) and ji f(I ; BB  X );1 Agj 6= 1, then kM (z )k1 < 1 (> 1).

Remark 21.4 As in the continuous time case, the equivalence between (a) and (b) in
Theorem 21.12 can be used to compute the H1 norm of a discrete time transfer matrix.
~

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

542

21.4 Matrix Factorizations

21.4.1 Inner Functions

A transfer matrix N (z ) is called inner if N (z ) is stable and N (z )N (z ) = I for all

z = ej . Note that if N has no poles at the origin, then N  (ej ) = N  (ej ). A transfer
matrix is called outer if all its transmission zeros are stable (i.e., inside of the unit disc).

"

Lemma 21.14 Let N = A B and suppose that X = X  satises

C D
A XA ; X + C  C = 0:
Then
(a) D C + B  XA = 0 implies N N = (D ; CA;1 B ) D;
(b) X  0, (A; B ) controllable, and N  N = (D ; CA;1 B ) D implies D C + B  XA =
0.

Proof. The results follow by noting the following equality:

N  (z )N (z ) =
=

3
2
A
0
B
64 (A );1 C C
(A );1
(A );1 C  D 75
(D ; CA;1 B ) C ;B  (A );1 (D ; CA;1 B ) D
2
3
A
0
B
66
XB + (A );1 C  D 775 :
0
(A );1
4
DT C + B  XA ;B  (A );1 (D ; CA;1 B ) D

2
The following corollary is a special case of this lemma which gives the necessary and
sucient conditions of a discrete inner transfer matrix with the state-space representation.

Corollary 21.15 Suppose that N (z) =

"

A B
C D

2 RH1 is a controllable realization; then N (z ) is inner if and only if there exists a matrix X = X   0 such that
(a) A XA ; X + C  C = 0
(b) D C + B  XA = 0
(c) (D ; CA;1 B ) D = D D + B  XB = I .

21.4. Matrix Factorizations

543

The following alternative characterization of the inner transfer matrix is often useful
and insightful.

Corollary 21.16 Let N (s) =

nonsingular such that

"

A B
C D

2 RH1 and assume that there exists a T

"

;1
P = TAT;1 TB
CT
D

and P  P = I:

Then N (z ) is an inner. Furthermore, if the realization of N is minimal, then such T

exists.

Proof. Rewrite P P = I as

"

A C 
B  D

#"

T T

#"
I

# "

Let X = T T , and then

"

A B = T T
:
C D
I

A XA ; X + C  C A XB + C  D
= 0:
B  XA + D C B  XB + D D ; I

This is the desired equation, so N is inner. On the other hand, if the realization is
minimal, then X > 0. This implies that T exists.

In a similar manner, Corollary 21.15 can be used to derive the state-space representation of the complementary inner factor (CIF).

Lemma 21.17 Suppose that a p  m (p > m) transfer matrix N (z) (minimal)

h is inner;
i
then there exists a p  (p ; m) CIF N? 2 RH1 such that the matrix N N? is
square and inner. A particular realization is

"

N? (z ) = A Y
C Z
where Y and Z satisfy

A XY + C  Z = 0
B  XY + D Z = 0
Z  Z + Y  XY = I:

(21:20)
(21:21)
(21:22)

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

544

Proof. Note that

i "A B Y #
is inner.
N N? =
C D Z

Now it is easy to prove

the results by using the formula in Corollary 21.15.

21.4.2 Coprime Factorizations

"Recall#that two transfer matrices M (z); N (z) 2 RH1 are said to be right coprime if
M
N

is left invertible in RH1 i.e., 9 U; V 2 RH1 such that

U (z )N (z ) + V (z )M (z ) = I:
The left coprime is dened analogously. A plant G(z ) 2 RL1 is said to have double
coprime factorization if 9 a right coprime factorization G = NM ;1 , a left coprime
~ V~ 2 RH1 such that
factorization G = M~ ;1 N~ , and U; V; U;
"
#"
#
V U
M ;U~ = I:
(21:23)
;N~ M~
N V~
The state space formulae for discrete time transfer matrix coprime factorization are the
same as for the continuous time. They are given by the following theorem.

Theorem 21.18 Let G(z) =

"

A B
C D

2 RL1 be a stabilizable and detectable re-

alization. Choose F and L such that A + BF and A + LC are both stable. Let
~ V~ ; N; M; N~ , and M~ be given as follows
U; V; U;

"

# 2 A + BF
M := 6
4 F
N

C + DF

BZr
Zr
DZr

" ~ # 2 A + BF LZl;1
U := 6
F
0
4
V~
;(C + DF ) Zl;1
" ~# "

3
75

3
75
#

M := A + LC L B + LD
N~
Zl C
Zl Zl D
" # "
#
U := A + LC L ;(B + LD)
V
Zl;1 F
0 Zl;1
where Zr and Zl are any nonsingular matrices. Then G = NM ;1 = M~ ;1N~ are rcf and
lcf, respectively, and (21.23) is satised.

21.4. Matrix Factorizations

545

Some coprime factorizations are particularly interesting, for example, the coprime
factorization with inner numerator. This factorization in the case of G(z ) 2 RH1
yields an inner-outer factorization.

"

j
Theorem 21.19 Assume that (A; B) is stabilizable, A ;Ce I DB has full column
rank for all  2 [0; 2], and D has full column rank. Then there exists a right coprime
factorization G = NM ;1 such that N is inner. Furthermore, a particular realization is

given by

"

# 2 A + BF
M := 6
4 F
N

C + DF

where

BR;1=2
R;1=2
DR;1=2

3
75

R = D D + B  XB
F = ;R;1 (B  XA + D C )

and X = X   0 is the unique stabilizing solution

AD X (I + B (D D);1 B  X );1AD ; X + C  D? D? C = 0
where AD := A ; B (D D);1 D C .

Using Lemma 21.17, the complementary inner factor of N in Theorem 21.19 can be
obtained as follows
"
#
A
+ BF Y
N? =
C + DF Z
where Y and Z satisfy
A XY + C  Z = 0

B  XY + D Z = 0
Z  Z + Y  XY = I:
Note that Y and Z are only related to F implicitly through X .

Remark 21.5 If G(z) 2 RH1 , then the denominator matrix M in Theorem 21.19 is
an outer. Hence, the factorization G = N (M ;1) is an inner-outer factorization.
~
Suppose that the system G(z ) is not stable; then a coprime factorization with inner
denominator can also be obtained by solving a special Riccati equation.

546

"

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

Theorem 21.20 Assume that G(z) := A B 2 RL1 and that (A; B) is stabilizC D
able. Then there exists a right coprime factorization G = NM ;1 such that M is inner
if and only if G has no poles on the unit circle. A particular realization is
" # 2 A + BF BR;1=2 3
M := 6
R;1=2 75
4 F
N
C + DF DR;1=2
where

R = I + B  XB
F = ;R;1B  XA

and X = X   0 is the unique stabilizing solution to

A X (I + BB  X );1 A ; X = 0:

Another special coprime factorization is called normalized coprime factorization

which has found applications in many control problems such as model reduction controller design and gap metric characterization.
Recall that a right coprime factorization of G = NM ;1 with N; M 2 RH1 is called
a normalized right coprime factorization if
M M + N N = I

"

M
i.e., if
N

is an inner.

Similarly,
i an lcf G = M~ ;1N~ is called a normalized left coprime factorization if
~
~
M N is a co-inner. Then the following results follow in the same way as for the
continuous time case.
Theorem 21.21 Let a realization of G be given by

"

G= A B
C D

and dene

R = I + D D > 0; R~ = I + DD > 0:

(a) Suppose that (A; B ) is stabilizable and that (C; A) has no unobservable modes
on the imaginary axis. Then there is a normalized right coprime factorization
G = NM ;1
" # 2 A + BF BZ ;1=2 3
M := 6
Z ;1=2 75 2 RH1
4 F
N
C + DF DZ ;1=2

21.4. Matrix Factorizations

where

547

Z = R + B  XB
F = ;Z ;1(B  XA + D C )

and X = X   0 is the unique stabilizing solution

An X (I + BR;1 B  X );1 An ; X + C  R~ ;1 C = 0
where An := A ; BR;1 D C .
(b) Suppose that (C; A) is detectable and that (A; B ) has no uncontrollable modes on
the imaginary axis. Then there is a normalized left coprime factorization G =
M~ ;1N~
h
i " A + LC L B + LD #
M~ N~ := ~ ;1=2 ~ ;1=2 ~ ;1=2
Z C Z
Z D
where

Z~ = R~ + CY C 
L = ;(BD + AY C  )Z~;1

and Y = Y   0 is the unique stabilizing solution

A~n Y (I + C  R~ ;1CY );1 A~n ; Y + BR;1 B  = 0
where A~n := A ; BD R~ ;1 C .

"

M
(c) The controllability Gramian P and observability Gramian Q of
N
by

are given

P = (I + Y X );1Y; Q = X
h
while the controllability Gramian P~ and observability Gramian Q~ of M~ N~
are given by

P~ = Y; Q~ = (I + XY );1 X:

21.4.3 Spectral Factorizations

The following theorem gives a solution to a special class of spectral factorization problems.

"

Theorem 21.22 Assume G(z) := A B 2 RH1 and > kG(z)k1. Then, there
C D
exists a transfer matrix M 2 RH1 such that M  M = 2I ; G G and M ;1 2 RH1 .
A particular realization of M is
"
#
A
B
M (z ) =
;R1=2 F R1=2

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

548
where

RD = 2 I ; D D
R = RD ; B  XB
F = (RD ; B  XB );1 (B  XA + D C )

and X = X   0 is the stabilizing solution of

As X (I ; BR;1 B  X );1 As ; X + C  (I + DR;1 D )C = 0
D

where As := A + BRD;1 D C .

Similar to the continuous time, we have the following theorem.

"

Theorem 21.23 Let G(z) := A B 2 RH1 with D full row rank and G(ej )G (ej ) >
C D
0 for all . Then, there exists a transfer matrix M 2 RH1 such that M  M = GG . A
particular realization of M is

"

M (z ) = A BW
CW DW

where

BW = APC  + BD
DW DW = DD
CW = DW (DD );1 (C ; BW XA)
and

APA ; P + BB  = 0
A XA ; X + (C ; BW XA) (DD );1 (C ; BW XA) = 0:

21.5 Discrete Time H2 Control

Consider the system described by the block diagram

z
y

w


21.5. Discrete Time H2 Control

549

The realization of the transfer matrix G is taken to be of the form

2 A B B 3 "
#
1
2
A
B
7
6
:
G(z ) = 4 C1 D11 D12 5 =:
C D
C2 D21

The following assumptions are made:

(A1) (A; B2 ) is stabilizable and (C2 ; A) is detectable;

(A2) D12 is full column rank with D12 D? unitary and D21 is full row rank with
"
#
D21 unitary;
D~ ?
(A3)
(A4)

"

"

A ; ej I B2
C1
D12
A ; ej I B1
C2
D21

has full column rank for all  2 [0; 2];

has full row rank for all  2 [0; 2].

The problem in this section is to nd an admissible controller K which minimizes

kTzw k2 .

Denote

 C1 ; Ay := A ; B1 D C2 :
Ax := A ; B2 D12
21

Let X2  0 and Y2  0 be the stabilizing solutions to the following Riccati equations:

Ax (I + X2 B2 B2 );1 X2 Ax ; X2 + C1 D? D? C1 = 0
and

Ay (I + Y2 C2 C2 );1 Y2 Ay ; Y2 + B1 D~ ? D~ ? B1 = 0:

Note that the stabilizing solutions exist by the assumptions (A3) and (A4). Note also
that if Ax and Ay are nonsingular, the solutions can be obtained through the following
two simplectic matrices:

"

  ;1 

 x );1
H2 := Ax + B2 B2 ;(A1 x ) C1 D ?D? C1 ;B2 B2 (A
;(Ax ) C1 D? D? C1
(Ax );1

"



;1 1 D~  D~ ?B1 ;C2 C2 A;
1
y
?
J2 := Ay + C2;C12 Ay ~ B
:
;Ay B1 D? D~ ? B1
A;y 1

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

550
Dene

Rb
F2
F0
L2
L0
and

I + B2 X2 B2
;(I + B2 X2 B2 );1 (B2 X2 A + D12 C1 )
;(I + B2 X2 B2 );1 (B2 X2 B1 + D12 D11 )
;(AY2 C2 + B1 D21 )(I + C2 Y2 C2 );1
 )(I + C2 Y2 C  );1
(F2 Y2 C2 + F0 D21
2

:=
:=
:=
:=
:=

AF2 := A + B2 F2 ; C1F2 := C1 + D12 F2

AL2 := A + L2C2 ; B1L2 := B1 + L2 D21
A^2 := A + B2 F2 + L2C2
"
#
B
+ B2 F0
A
1
F
2
Gc (z ) :=
C1F2 D11 + D12 F0

"

B1L2
:
Gf (z ) := 1=2 AL2
1
=
2
Rb (L0 C2 ; F2 ) Rb (L0 D21 ; F0 )

Theorem 21.24 The unique optimal controller is

" ^
#
A
;
B
L
C
;
(L2 ; B2 L0)
2
2
0
2
Kopt(z ) :=
:
F2 ; L0 C2
L0
Moreover, min kTzw k22 = kGc k22 + kGf k22 .

"

Remark 21.6 Note that for a discrete time transfer matrix G(z) = A B 2 RH2,
C D
its H2 norm can be computed as
kG(z )k22 = TracefD D + B  LoB g = TracefDD + CLc C  g
where Lc and Lo are the controllability and observability Gramians

ALcA ; Lc + BB  = 0
A Lo A ; Lo + C  C = 0:
Using the above formula, we can compute min kTzw k22 by noting that X2 and Y2 satisfy
the equations

AF2 X2 AF2 ; X2 + C1F2 C1F2 = 0

AL2 Y2 AL2 ; Y2 + B1L2 B1L2 = 0:

21.5. Discrete Time H2 Control

551

For example,
kGc k22 = Trace f(D11 + D12 F0 ) (D11 + D12 F0 ) + (B1 + D2 F0 )X2 (B1 + D2 F0 )g
and
kGf k22 = Trace Rb f(L0 D21 ; F0 )(L0 D21 ; F0 ) + (L0 C2 ; F2 )Y2 (L0 C2 ; F2 ) g :

Proof. Let x denote the states of the system G. Then the system can be written as
x_ = Ax + B1 w + B2 u
z = C1 x + D11 w + D12 u
y = C2 x + D21 w:

(21.24)
(21.25)
(21.26)

Dene  := u ; F2 x ; F0 w; then the transfer function from w;  to z becomes

"

z = AF2 B1 + B2 F0 B2
C1F2 D11 + D12 F0 D12

#" #

w = G w + UR1=2 
c
b


"

where

;1=2
A
B
R
F
2
2
b
U (s) :=
:
C1F2 D12 Rb;1=2
It is easy to shown that U is an inner and that U  Gc 2 RH?2 . Now denote the transfer
function from w to  by Tw . Then

Tzw = Gc + URb1=2 Tw

and

kTzw k22 = kGc k22 + Rb1=2 Tw 2  kGc k22

for any given stabilizing controller K . Hence if the states (x) and the disturbance (w)
are both available for feedback (i.e., full information control) and u = F2 x + F0 w, then
Tw = 0 and kTzw k2 = kGc k2 . Therefore, u = F2 x + F0 w is an optimal full information
control law. Note that
 = Tw w; Tw = F` (G ; K )


y

G

w


2 A B B 3
1
2
G = 64 ;F2 ;F0 I 75
C2

D21

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

552

Since A ; B2 (;F2 ) = A + B2 F2 is stable, from the relationship between an output

estimation (OE) problem and a full control (FC) problem, all admissible controllers for
G (hence for the output feedback problem) can be written as

2
66 A + B2F2
K = F` (Mt ; KFC ); Mt = 64 ;F2
C2

0
0

hI ;B2i
h0 Ii
0 0

i3
77
75

where KFC is an internally stabilizing controller for the following system:

h
i3
2
A
B
I
0
1
6
h
i7
G^  = 664 ;F2 ;F0 h 0 I i 775 :
C2

D21

0 0

Furthermore, Tw = F`(G ; F` (Mt ; KFC )) = F` (G^  ; KFC ). Hence

min
kTzw k22 = kGc B1 k22 + Kmin
kR1=2F` (G^  ; KFC )k22 :
K
FC b
Next dene

G~  :=
=

"
2
66
64

#
I 0 0
Rb1=2 0 G^ 6
0 75
4
 0 I
0 I
0 0 Rb;1=2
h
i3
A
B1
I
0
h
i7
;Rb1=2 F2 ;Rb1=2F0 h 0 I i 775
D21
C2
0 0

and

K~ FC :=

"

0
KFC :
0 Rb1=2

Then it is easy to see that

Rb1=2 F`(G^  ; KFC ) = F` (G~  ; K~ FC )

and

~ ~
min kRb1=2F` (G^  ; KFC )k2 = min
~ kF`(G ; KFC )k2 :

KFC

KFC

21.6. Discrete Balanced Model Reduction

A controller minimizing kF`(G~  ; K~ FC )k2 is K~ FC =

553

"

L2
since the transpose (or
1
Rb =2 L0

dual) of F` (G~  ; K~ FC ) is a full information feedback problem considered at the beginning

of the proof. Hence we get

F`(G~ ;
and

"

L2 ) = G
f
1
Rb =2 L0

min
kTzw k22 = kGck22 + kGf k22 :
K

Finally, the optimal output feedback controller is given by

"

# "

K = F` (Mt ; L2 ) = A + B2 F2 + L2 C2 ; B2 L0 C2 L2 ; B2 L0 :
L0
;F2 + L0 C2
L0
The proof of uniqueness is similar to the continuous time case, and hence omitted. 2
It should be noted that in contrast with the continuous time the full information
optimal control problem in the discrete time is not a state feedback even when D11 = 0.
The discrete time H1 control problem is much more involved and it is probably
more eective to obtain the discrete solution by using a bilinear transformation.

21.6 Discrete Balanced Model Reduction

In this section, we will show another application of the LFT machinery in discrete
balanced model reduction. We will show an elegant proof of the balanced truncation
error bound.
Consider a stable discrete time system G(z ) and assume that the transfer matrix
has the following realization:

"

G(s) = A B 2 RH1 :
C D
Let P and Q be two positive semi-denite symmetric matrices such that

APA ; P + BB   0
A QA ; Q + C  C  0:

Without loss of generality, we shall assume that

"

P = Q = 1 0
0 2

(21:27)
(21:28)

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

554
with

1 = diag(1 Is1 ; 2 Is2 ; : : : ; r Isr )  0

2 = diag(r+1 Isr+1 ; r+2 Isr+2 ; : : : ; n Isn )  0
where si denotes the multiplicity of i . (Note that the singular values are not necessarily
ordered.) Moreover, the realization for G(z ) is partitioned conformably with P and Q:

2A A B 3
11 12 1
6
G(s) = 4 A21 A22 B2 75 :
C1

C2 D

Theorem 21.25 Suppose 1 > 0. Then A11 is stable.

Proof. We shall rst assume 2 > 0. From equation (21.28), we have
A11 1 A11 ; 1 + A21 2 A21 + C1 C1  0:
Assume that  is an eigenvalue of A11 ; then there is an x =
6 0 such that
A11 x = x:

(21:29)
(21:30)

Now pre-multiply x and post-multiply x to equation (21.29) to get

(jj2 ; 1)x 1 x + x A21 2 A21 x + x C1 C1 x  0:
It is clear that jj  1. However, if jj = 1, say  = ej for some , we have

A21 x = 0;

C1 x = 0:

These equations together with equation (21.30) imply that

"

A11 A12
A21 A22

#" #

" #

x = ej x

i.e., ej is an eigenvalue of A. This contradicts the stability assumption of A, so A11 is

stable.
Now assume that 2 is singular, and we will show that we can remove all those
states corresponding to the zero singular values without changing the system stability.
For that purpose, we assume 2 = 0. Then the inequality (21.27) can be written as

"

A11 1 A11 ; 1 + B1 B1 A11 1 A21 + B1 B2  0:

A21 1 A11 + B2 B1
A21 1 A21 + B2 B2

21.6. Discrete Balanced Model Reduction

This implies that
and

555

A11 1 A11 ; 1 + B1 B1  0

(21:31)

A21 1 A21 + B2 B2  0:

(21:32)

But inequality (21.32) implies that

A21 = 0;
Hence we have

"

B2 = 0:

A = A11 A12 ;
0 A22

and the stability of A11 and A22 are ensured.

Substitute this A matrix into the inequality (21.28), and we obtain

A11 1 A11 ; 1 + C1 C1  0:

The subsystem with A11 still satises inequalities (21.27) and (21.28) with 1 > 0. This
proves that we can assume without loss of generality that 2 > 0.
2

Remark 21.7 It is important to note that the realization for the truncated subsystem

"

Gr = A11 B1
C1 D

is still balanced in some sense1 since the system parameters satisfy the following equations:
A11 1 A11 ; 1 + A12 2 A12 + B1 B1  0
A11 1 A11 ; 1 + A21 2 A21 + C1 C1  0:
But these equations imply that

hold.

A11 1 A11 ; 1 + B1 B1  0

A11 1 A11 ; 1 + C1 C1  0

"

n
X
Theorem 21.26 Suppose Gr = A11 B1 . Then kG ; Gr k1  2
i .

C1 D

In particular, kGk1  kDk + 2

n
X

i=r+1

i .
i=1
1 Balanced in the sense that the same inequalities as (21.27) and (21.28) are satised.

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

556

Without loss of generality, we shall assume n = 1. We will prove that for 2 =

n I = I , we have

kG ; Gr k1  2; r = n ; 1:

Then the theorem follows immediately by scaling and recursively applying this result
since the reduced system Gr is still balanced.
It will be seen that it is more convenient to set  = 11=2 . The proof of the theorem
will follow from the following two lemmas and the bounded real lemma which establishes
the relationship between the H1 norm of a transfer matrix and its realizations. (Note
that in the following, a constant matrix X is said to be contractive or a contraction if
kX k  1 and strictly contractive if kX k < 1).
The lemma below shows that for any stable system there is a realization such
" that#
h
i
A
A B is a contraction, and, similarly, there is another realization such that
C
is a contraction.
Lemma 21.27 Suppose that a realization of the transfer matrix G satises P = Q =
diagf2 ; I g; then
" ;1
#
 A12 ;1A11  ;1 B1
A22 
A21
B2
and
2 A ;1 A 3
64 A2111;1 A2212 75
C1 ;1 C2
are contractive.

"

2
Proof. Since P = 0 I0

satises the inequality (21.27),

A B

i" P

0 I

#"

A  P
B

i.e, P ;1=2 AP 1=2 P ;1=2 B is a contraction. But

h
Hence

i " ;1A12

P ;1=2 AP 1=2 P ;1=2 B =

"

A22 

;1 A11  ;1 B1

A21
B2

;1 A12 ;1A11  ;1 B1

A22 
A21
B2

#2 0 I
64 I 0

0
0 75 :

0 0 I

21.6. Discrete Balanced Model Reduction

557

is also a contraction. The other part follows by a similar argument.

"

12
Lemma 21.28 Suppose that X = XZ11 X
X22

tive (strictly contractive). Then

2
6
M =
64

"

Y Z
and Y = 11
Y21 Y22

p12 X11 X12

0
p12 Y11
p12 X22
Z
0
Y21 p12 Y22
is also contractive (strictly contractive).

Proof. Dilate M to the following matrix:

2 0
66 p1 Y11


Md = 66 2
4 Y21
p12 Y11

p12 X11

p12 Y22

X12
p12 X22
0

; p12 X22

2
are contrac-

3
77
5

3
0 777
:
; p12 Y22 75
p12 X11

0
;Z
Considering X and Y are contractive, we can easily verify that Md Md  I , i.e, Md is a
contraction.
2
We can now prove the theorem.
Proof of Theorem 21.26. Note that
"
# 2 A11 0 B1 3
Gr = A11 B1 = 64 0 0 0 75 :
C1 D
C1 0 D
Hence
3
2
p12 B1
A11 0 0
0
7
66 0 0 0
0
0 77
6
1 (G ; G ) = 6 0
0 A11 A12 p12 B1 77 :
6
r
6
2
64 0 0 A21 A22 p12 B2 775
; p12 C1 0 p12 C1 p12 C2 0
Now apply the similarity transformation
2
3
;
 0  0
66
77
T = 66 0;1 ;I 0;1 I 77
4 0  05
0 I
0 I

558

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

to the realization of 12 (G ; Gr ) to get

3
2 A ;1 1 A
1 A12
0
0
11
12
2
2
66 1 A21;1 1 A22 1 A21 1 A22 1 B2 77
2
2
2
2
1 (G ; G ) = 66 2
1 ;1 A12 ;1 A11  1 ;1 A12 ;1 B1 7
7:
0
r
6
2
2
2
64 1 A21;1 1 A22 1 A21 1 A22 1 B2 775
2
2
2
2
2
1 C2
1 C2
C1 ;1
0
0
2
2
It is easy to verify that as a constant matrix the right hand side of the above realization
for 21 (G ; Gr ) can be written as
20 0 I 03 2
3
66 0 p1 I 0 0 77 6 I 0 0 0 0 7
2
66
77 M^ 66 0 p12 I 0 p12 I 0 77
(21:33)
I
0
0
0
66 1
77 d 64 0 0 I 0 0 75
4 0 p2 I 0 0 5
0 0 0 0 I
0 0 0 I
where
3
2 0
p12 ;1A12 ;1 A11  ;1 B1
66 p1 A ;1 A
p12 A21  p12 B2 7
77 :
(21:34)
M^ d =
66 2 21 ;1 p1 22
75

A
0
0
12
4 A11
2
p12 C2
0
0
C1 ;1
According to Theorem 21.12 (a) and (g), the theorem follows if we can show that
the realization for 21 (G ; Gr ) as a constant matrix is a contraction. However, this is
guaranteed if M^ d is a contraction since both the right and left hand matrices in (21.33)
are contractive.
Finally, the contractiveness of M^ d follows from Lemmas 21.27 and 21.28 by identifying
Z = A22 ; X11 = p1 ;1 A12 ; Y11 = p1 A21 ;1
2
2
and
# h
"
# "
i " A11 ;1 p12 A12 #
X12 = ;1 A11  ;1B1
:
Y21 Y22 =
p12 A21  p12 B2
p12 C2
X22
C1 ;1

21.7 Model Reduction Using Coprime Factors

In this section, we consider lower order controller design using coprime factor reduction.
We shall only consider the special case where the normalized right coprime factors are
used.

21.7. Model Reduction Using Coprime Factors

Suppose that a dynamic system is given by

"

G= A B
C D

559

and assume that the realization is stabilizable and detectable. Recall from Theorem 21.21
" that
# there exists a normalized right coprime factorization G = NM ;1 such
M is inner.
that

p
Lemma 21.29 Let i = i (Y X ).
given by

Then the Hankel singular values of

"

M
N

are

i = p i 2 < 1:
1 + i

Proof. This is obvious since

)
i2 = i (PQ) = 1 +i(Y(X
Y X)
i

and i (Y X )  0.

It is known that there exists a transformation such that X and Y are balanced:
"
#
1 0
X =Y ==
0 2
with 1 = diag[1 Is1 ; : : : ; r Isr ] > 0.
Now partitioning the system G and matrix F accordingly,

2A A B 3
11 12 1
h
i
6
G = 4 A21 A22 B2 75 F = F1 F2 :
C1

C2 D

Then the reduced coprime factors

"

2 A + B F B Z ;1=2 3
#
1
M^ := 6 11 1 1
;1=2 7
F
Z
4
5 2 RH1
1
N^
C1 + DF1

DZ ;1=2

satisfy the following error bound.

" # " ^ #
X
X i
p 2:
Lemma 21.30 M
; M^  2
i = 2
N
N 1 ir+1
ir+1 1 + i

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

560

Proof. Analogous to the continuous time case.

Remark 21.8 It should be understood that the reduced model can be obtained by
directly computing X and P and by obtaining a balanced model without solving the
Riccati equation for Y .
~
This reduced coprime factors combined with the robust or H1 controller design

methods can be used to design lower order controllers so that the system is robustly
stable and some specied performance criteria are satised. We will leave the readers
to explore the utility of this model reduction method. However, we would like to point
out that unlike the continuous time case, the reduced coprime factors in discrete time
may not be normalized. In fact, we can prove a more general result.

Lemma 21.31 Let a realization for N (z) 2 RH1 be given by

"

N (z ) = A B
C D

with A stable. Suppose that there exists an X = X   0 such that

"

A XA ; X + C  C A XB + C  D
= 0:
B  XA + D C B  XB + D D ; I

Then N is an inner, i.e., N N = I . Moreover, if the realization for

N=
is also balanced with
and

"

# 2 A11 A12 B1 3
A B =6
A21 A22 B2 75
4
C D
C1

C2 D

"

X =  = 1 0
0 2

AA ;  + BB  = 0

with 1 > 0, then the truncated system

"

Nr = A11 B1
C1 D
is stable and contractive, i.e., Nr Nr  I .

(21:35)

21.8. Notes and References

561

Proof. Pre-multiply equation (21.35) by

U=

"h

I 0

and post-multiply equation (21.35) by U  to get

"

or

"

A11 1 A11 ; 1 + C1 C1 + A21 2 A21 A11 1 B1 + C1 D + A21 2 B2 = 0

B1 1 A11 + D C1 + B2 2 A21
B1 1 B1 + D D ; I + B2 2 B2

"

# "

A11 1 A11 ; 1 + C1 C1 A11 1 B1 + C1 D = ; A21  A21

B1 1 A11 + D C1
B1 1 B1 + D D ; I
B2 2 B2

This gives

"

A11 B1
C1 D

# "

Now let T = 11=2 , and then

1 0
0 I

#"

A11 B1
C1 D

# "

#

; 1 0  0:
0 I

"
#
TA11T ;1 TB1  1
C1 T ;1 D
"  #

i.e., kNr k1  1. It is clear that Nr is inner if

may not be true).

A21  = 0 (although the converse

B2 2
2

21.8 Notes and References

The results for the discrete Riccati equation are based mostly on the work of Kucera
[1972] and Molinari [1975]. Numerical algorithms for solving discrete ARE with singular A matrix can be found in Arnold and Laub [1984], Dooren [1981], and references
therein. The matrix factorizations are obtained by Chu [1988]. The normalized coprime
factorizations are obtained by Meyer [1990] and Walker[1990]. The detailed treatment
of discrete time H1 control can be found in Stoorvogel [1990], Limebeer, Green, and
Walker [1989], and Iglesias and Glover [1991].

562

DISCRETE TIME CONTROL

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Index
Bode's gain and phase relation, 155
bounded real function, 353
discrete time, 532
bounded real lemma, 353
discrete time, 532

additive approximation, 157

additive uncertainty, 213, 219
adjoint operator, 94
admissible controller, 294
algebraic duality, 297
algebraic Riccati equation (ARE), 11,
168, 321
all solutions, 322
complementarity property, 327
discrete time, 523
maximal solution, 335
minimal solution, 335
solutions, 27
stability property, 327
stabilizing solution, 327
all-pass, 179, 357
dilation, 179
analytic function, 94
anticausal, 97
antistable, 97

Cauchy sequence, 90
Cauchy-Schwartz inequality, 92
causal function, 175
causality, 175
Cayley-Hamilton theorem, 21, 48, 51,
54
central solution
H1 control, 411
matrix dilation problem, 41
classical control, 232
co-inner function, 357
compact operator, 178
complementary inner function, 358
complementary sensitivity, 128, 142
conjugate system, 66
contraction, 408
controllability, 45
Gramian, 71
matrix, 47
operator, 175
controllable canonical form, 60
controller parameterization, 293
controller reduction, 485
additive, 486
coprime factors, 489
H1 performance, 493
coprime factor uncertainty, 222, 467
coprime factorization, 123, 316, 358, 467

balanced model reduction

additive, 157
discrete time, 548
error bounds, 161, 195
frequency-weighted, 164
multiplicative, 157
relative, 157
stability, 158
balanced realization, 69, 71, 157
Banach space, 90
basis, 17
Bezout identity, 123
Bode integral, 141
581

582
discrete time, 539
normalized, 470
cyclic matrix, 21, 61
design limitation, 153
design model, 211
design tradeo, 141
destabilizing perturbation, 268
detectability, 45, 51
dierential game, 459
direct sum, 94
discrete algebraic Riccati equation, 523
discrete time, 523
coprime factorization, 539
H1 control, 548
H2 control, 543
inner-outer factorization, 540
Lyapunov equation, 523
model reduction, 553
normalized coprime factorization, 541
disturbance feedforward (DF), 10, 294,
298
H1 control, 423
H2 control, 386
D ; K iteration, 289
dom(Ric), 327
double coprime factorization, 123
dual system, 66
duality, 297
eigenvalue, 20
eigenvector, 20, 324
generalized, 21
lower rank generalized eigenvector,
21
entropy, 435
equivalence class, 305
equivalence relation, 305
equivalent control, 305

F` , 242
Fu , 242

INDEX
feedback, 116
ltering
H1 performance, 452
xed order controller, 516
Fourier transform, 96
frequency weighting, 135
frequency-weighted balanced realization,
164
Frobenius norm, 29
full control (FC), 10, 294, 298
H1 control, 422
H2 control, 387, 546
full information (FI), 10, 294, 297
H1 control, 416
H2 control, 385, 546
full rank, 18
column, 18
row, 18
gain, 155
gain margin, 232
gap metric, 484
generalized eigenvector, 26, 27, 324
generalized inverse, 35
generalized principal vector, 525
Gilbert's realization, 69
Gramian
controllability, 71, 74
observability, 71, 74
graph metric, 484
graph topology, 484
Hamiltonian matrix, 321
Hankel norm, 173
Hankel norm approximation, 173, 188
Hankel operator, 173, 393
mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operator, 397
Hankel singular value, 75, 162, 173
Hardy spaces, 95
harmonic function, 142
Hermitian matrix, 21
H1 control, 405

INDEX
discrete time, 548
loop shaping, 467
singular problem, 448
state feedback, 459
H1 ltering, 452
H1 optimal controller, 430, 437
H1 performance, 135, 138
H1 space, 89, 97
H1; space, 97
hidden modes, 77
Hilbert space, 91
homotopy algorithm, 520
H2 optimal control 365
discrete time, 543
H2 performance, 135
H2 space, 89, 95
H2 stability margin, 389
H2? space, 96
H2 (@ D ) space, 199
H2? (@ D ) space, 199
Hurwitz, 49
image, 18
induced norm, 28, 101
inertia, 179
inner function, 357
discrete time, 537
inner product, 92
inner-outer factorization, 143, 358
input sensitivity, 128
input-output stability, 406
integral control, 448
H1 control, 448
H2 control, 448
internal model principle, 448
internal stability, 119, 406
invariant subspace, 26, 322
invariant zero, 84, 333
inverse
of a transfer function, 66
isometric isomorphism, 91, 174
Jordan canonical form, 20

583
Kalman canonical decomposition, 52
kernel, 18
Kronecker product, 25
Kronecker sum, 25
Lagrange multiplier, 511
left coprime factorization, 123
linear combination, 17
linear fractional transformation (LFT),
241
linear operator, 91
L1 space, 96
loop gain, 130
loop shaping, 132
H1 approach, 467
normalized coprime factorization, 475
loop transfer matrix (function), 128
LQG stability margin, 389
LQR problem, 367
LQR stability margin, 373
l2 (;1; 1) space, 93
L2 space, 95
L2 (;1; 1) space, 93
L2 (@ D ) space, 199
Lyapunov equation, 26, 70
discrete time, 523
main loop theorem, 275
matrix
compression, 38
dilation, 38, 445
factorization, 343, 537
Hermitian, 21
inequality, 335
inertia, 179
inversion formulas, 22
norm, 27
square root of a, 36
maximum modulus theorem, 94
max-min problem, 400
McMillan degree, 81
McMillan form, 80

INDEX

584
minimal realization, 67, 73
minimax problem, 400
minimum entropy controller, 435
mixed Hankel-Toeplitz operator, 397
modal controllability, 51
modal observability, 51
model reduction
additive, 157
multiplicative, 157
relative, 157
model uncertainty, 116, 211
, 263
lower bound, 273
 synthesis, 288
upper bound, 273
multidimensional system, 249
multiplication operator, 98
multiplicative approximation, 157, 165
multiplicative uncertainty, 213, 220
Nehari's Theorem, 203
nominal performance (NP), 215
nominal stability (NS), 215
non-minimum phase zero, 141
norm, 27
Frobenius, 29
induced, 28
semi-norm, 28
normal rank, 79
normalized coprime factorization, 362
loop shaping, 475
null space, 18
Nyquist stability theorem, 123
observability, 45
Gramian, 71
operator, 175
observable canonical form, 61
observable mode, 51
observer, 62
observer-based controller, 62
operator

extension, 91
restriction, 91
optimal Hankel norm approximation, 188
optimality of H1 controller, 430
optimization method, 511
orthogonal complement, 18, 94
orthogonal direct sum, 94
orthogonal matrix, 18
orthogonal projection theorem, 94
outer function, 358
output estimation (OE), 10, 294, 298
H1 control, 425
H2 control, 387
output injection, 298
H2 control, 386
output sensitivity, 128
Parrott's theorem, 40
Parseval's relations, 96
PBH (Popov-Belevitch-Hautus) tests, 51
performance limitation, 141
phase, 155
phase margin, 232
Plancherel theorem, 96
plant condition number, 230
Poisson integral, 141
pole, 77, 79
pole direction, 143
pole placement, 57
pole-zero cancelation, 77
positive real, 354
positive (semi-)denite matrix, 36
power signal, 100
pseudo-inverse, 35
quadratic control, 365
quadratic performance, 365, 393

Rp (s) , 80

range, 18
realization, 67
balanced, 75

INDEX
input normal, 77
minimal, 67
output normal, 77
Redheer star-product, 259
regular point, 512
regulator problem, 365
relative approximation, 157, 165
return dierence, 128
RH1
space, 97
RH;1 space, 97
RH2 space, 95
RH?2 space, 96
Riccati equation, 321
Riccati operator, 327
right coprime factorization, 123
risk sensitive, 436
robust performance (RP), 215
H1 performance, 226, 275
H2 performance, 226
structured uncertainty, 279
robust stability (RS), 215
structured uncertainty, 278
robust stabilization, 467
roll-o rate, 144
Schmidt pair, 178
Schur complement, 23
self-adjoint operator, 94, 178
sensitivity function, 128, 142
bounds, 153
integral, 144
separation theory, 310
H1 control, 426
H2 control, 388
simplectic matrix, 525
singular H1 problem, 448
singular value, 32
singular value decomposition (SVD), 31
singular vector, 32
skewed performance specication, 230
small gain theorem, 215
Smith form, 79
span, 17

585
spectral factorization, 343
spectral radius, 20
spectral signal, 100
stability, 45, 49
internal, 119
stability margin
LQG, H2 , 389
stabilizability, 45, 49
stabilization, 293
stabilizing controller, 293
stable invariant subspace, 27, 327, 525
star-product, 259
state feedback, 298
H1 control, 459
H2 control, 382
state space realization, 60
strictly positive real, 354
structured singular value, 263
lower bound, 273
upper bound, 273
structured uncertainty, 263
subharmonic function, 142
supremum norm, 89
Sylvester equation, 26
Sylvester's inequality, 19, 68
Toeplitz operator, 197, 395
trace, 19
tradeo, 141
transition matrix, 46
transmission zero, 81
uncertainty, 116, 211
state space, 252
unimodular matrix, 79
unitary matrix, 18
unstructured uncertainty, 211
weighted model reduction, 164, 500
weighting, 135
well-posedness, 117, 243
winding number, 409

586
Youla parameterization, 303, 316, 454
zero, 77, 79
blocking, 81
direction, 142
invariant, 84
transmission, 81

INDEX