The University of Chicago Press Critical Inquiry

Genesis of the Media Concept
Author(s): John Guillory

Source: Critical Inquiry, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Winter 2010), pp. 321-362
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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Genesis of the Media Concept

John Guillory
The medium through which works of art continue to influence later ages is always
different from the one in which they affect their own age.
WALTER BENJAMIN1
1. Mimesis and Medium

The word media hints at a rich philological history extending back to
the Latin medius, best exemplified in the familiar narrative topos of classical epic: in medias res. Yet the path by which this ancient word for middle came to serve as the collective noun for our most advanced
communication technologies is difficult to trace. The philological record
informs us that the substantive noun medium was rarely connected with
matters of communication before the later nineteenth century. The explosive currency of this word in the communicative environment of modernity has relegated the genesis of the media concept to a puzzling obscurity.
This essay is an attempt to give an account of this genesis within the longer
history of reflection on communication.
It is not my purpose, then, to enter into current debates in media theory
but to describe the philosophical preconditions of media discourse. I argue
that the concept of a medium of communication was absent but wanted for
the several centuries prior to its appearance, a lacuna in the philosophical
tradition that exerted a distinctive pressure, as if from the future, on early
efforts to theorize communication. These early efforts necessarily built on
the discourse of the arts, a concept that included not only fine arts such
as poetry and music but also the ancient arts of rhetoric, logic, and dialectic. The emergence of the media concept in the later nineteenth century
was a response to the proliferation of new technical mediasuch as the
telegraph and phonographthat could not be assimilated to the older
system of the arts. While I am only indirectly concerned in this essay with
the history of technical media as such, I set out from the observation that
the development of new technical media perplexed thereafter the relation
I thank Clifford Siskin and William Warner for the occasion to produce an earlier version of
the argument in connection with the conference Mediating Enlightenment. Several
colleagues offered detailed comments on earlier drafts of this paper, for which I am very
grateful: Lisa Gitelman, Maureen McLane, Scott Newstok, and Mary Poovey.
1. Walter Benjamin, The Medium through Which Works of Art Continue to Influence
Later Ages, trans. Rodney Livingstone, Selected Writings, trans. Edmund Jephcott et al., ed.
Marcus Bullock et al., 4 vols. (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), 1:235.
Critical Inquiry 36 (Winter 2010)
2010 by The University of Chicago. 00093-1896/10/3602-0004$10.00. All rights reserved.
321
322
John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept
between the traditional arts and media of any kind. Let it be stipulated that
older works of art can be transposed into later media, as Benjamin notes in
my epigraph, an operation that recent media theorists call remediation.2
The very fact of remediation, however, suggests that premodern arts are
also, in the fully modern sense, media but that for some reason they did not
need to be so called, at least not until the later nineteenth century. The
emergence of new technical media thus seemed to reposition the traditional arts as ambiguously both media and precursors to the mediathe
aggregation of forms indicated by use of the definite article.3
In the whole of their former history, poetry, painting, music, and other
so-called fine arts were not dominated by the concept of communication
but by imitation or mimesis, definedit would seem for all time by
Aristotle in his Poetics. In context a technical term, mimesis inaugurated an
inexhaustible inquiry into the anthropological motives of poiesis or making in general. In mapping the borders of his subject, Aristotle also refers
briefly to an aspect of mimesis his translators consistently render as me2. Nearly all works written before the sixteenth century, we should remember, are
transmitted in the remediated form of print, as well as (usually) translated into modern
languages, arguably a form of remediation as well. For the concept of remediation, see Jay
David Bolter and Richard Grusin, Remediation: Understanding New Media (Cambridge, Mass.,
1999). The notion derives ultimately from Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The
Extensions of Man (1964; Corte Madera, Calif., 2003), p. 19: the content of any medium is
always another medium. For a shrewd analysis of the new-media concept as a floating marker
in relation to older media, see Lisa Gitelman, Always Already New: Media, History, and the Data
of Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 2006).
3. It will be evident that I write as a literary scholar whose primary concern is with
literature, understood as an instance of what was formerly called an art. As a discourse of
writing and of print, works of literature are also indisputably media. Yet literature seems to be
less conspicuously marked by medial identity than other media, such as film, and that fact has
tacitly supported the disciplinary division between literary and media studies (and by extension
between cultural studies and communication studies). The repression of the medial identity of
literature and other fine arts is rightly being questioned today. The aim of this questioning
should be to give a better account of the relation between literature and later technical media
without granting to literature the privilege of cultural seniority or to later media the palm of
victorious successor. Those of us who teach literature will recognize in this formulation a
cluster of problems touching upon everything from the use of media as a supplement to literary
pedagogy (as if literature were not itself a media form) to the claims of the digital humanities
to save literature from the consequences of its status as a low-tech medium.
J O H N G U I L L O R Y is Julius Silver Professor of English at New York University.

He is the author of Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation
(1993) and other works on the history of literary study and on topics in
Renaissance literature. He is currently at work on two books: Literary Study in
the Age of Professionalism and Things of Heaven and Earth: Figures of Philosophy
in English Renaissance Writing.
Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010
dia or medium. No Greek equivalent for this term appears in Aristotles

text; the most literal translation currently available gives us an English
version of Poetics 1447a without any abstract term other than imitation
itself: But imitations differ from one another in three ways, for they differ
either by being imitations in different things, of different things, or differently and not in the same way. The latter two phrases refer somewhat
unproblematically to objects of representation (for Aristotle this means
the types of persons imitated) and to what we would call the literary form
or genre (the examples are epic and tragedy). But the first phrasein
different things [hois]is not an obvious way of saying medium, and
Aristotle is forced to offer an elucidation in the form of a list: colors and
figures (painting), harmony and rhythm (song), rhythm of movement
(dance), and, finally, the telling of stories in metrical or nonmetrical
speech (poetry).4 Only with the help of these examples do the translators
confidently give us medium or media for in different things, as in Butcher:
[Imitations] differ . . . from one another in three respectsthe medium,
the objects, the manner or mode of imitation; Halliwell: mimesis in
different media, of different objects, or in different modes; or Heath:
different media of imitation, or different objects, or a different mode.5 Yet
Aristotle is very far from initiating media theory. After briefly commenting
on the different media of imitation, he devotes the remainder of the Poetics
to the other two subjects: the objects and modes of imitation. He sets the
question of medium aside, where it remained for two millennia.
4. Aristotle, On Poetics, trans. Seth Benardete and Michael Davis (South Bend, Ind., 2002),
p. 3. Richard Janko gives a similar literal translation in his commentary on the Poetics:
Aristotle has no abstract nouns for these terms, but makes do with adverbs and adjectives,
literally by representing either in other things, or other things, or otherwise. Janko pleads that
the abstracts are indispensable in translation (Richard Janko, notes to Aristotle, Poetics: With
the Tractatus Coislinianus, a Hypothetical Reconstruction of Poetics II, and the Fragments of
the On Poets, trans. and ed. Janko [Indianapolis, 1987], p. 68). Gerard Genette remarks on the
nontechnical prose of 1447a, literally, the question in what?which he elaborates as: the
sense of ones expressing oneself in gestures or in words, in Greek or in English, in prose
or in verse, in pentameter or in trimeter, etc. (Gerard Genette, The Architext: An
Introduction, trans. Jane E. Lewin [Berkeley, 1992], p. 12). Genette captures the uncertain
reference of the passage, which might indicate many kinds of difference, though most
translators have opted for the difference of media.
5. Aristotle, The Poetics, in S. H. Butcher, Aristotles Theory of Poetry and Fine Art: With a
Critical Text and Translation of The Poetics, trans. Butcher (New York, 1951), p. 7; Aristotle,
Poetics, trans. and ed. Stephen Halliwell (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), p. 29; and Aristotle, Poetics,
trans. and ed. Malcolm Heath (Harmondsworth, 1996), p. 3. Aristotles theory of mimesis
grounds all later conceptions of representation, despite some important differences. For
Aristotle, mimesis easily covered the instance of music because he understood music as a
representation of human action. If our notion of mimesis as the representation of reality (as in
Erich Auerbach) stumbles over forms such as music, it conversely does not presuppose a
human object, thus opening mimesis onto non-Aristotelian domains.
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The long silence in Western thought on the question of medium was

broken in the early modern period for a reason that in retrospect begins to
explain the silence itself.6 It is much easier to see what a medium doesthe
possibilities inherent in the material form of an artwhen the same expressive or communicative contents are transposed from one medium
into another. Remediation makes the medium as such visible. The early
modern period saw the first truly major practice of remediation with the
invention of printing, which reproduced the content of manuscript writing at the same time that it opened up new possibilities for writing in the
print medium. Still, the transposition of writing into print did not elicit at
first a theoretical recognition of media as much as a reflection on the
latency of print in the technology of writing itself. It was as though print
were there, already, in the medium of writing. This is how Bacon understands print in the New Organon: the technique of printing certainly contains nothing which is not open and almost obvious. Bacon explains that
men went without this magnificent invention (which does so much for
the spread of learning) for so many centuries because they somehow
failed to notice that letters and ink might be used for inscription with a
different instrument than the pen, namely letter types inked and pressed
on paper, an ingenious form of endlessly reproducible writing.7
As we shall see, this peculiar latency is characteristic of discourse about
media from the sixteenth to the later nineteenth centuries. Even if Bacon
does not yet give the technical innovation of print the name of medium,
something has become visible that before could not be seen. At the very
least, the remediation of writing by print makes for a vastly more effective
writing. Elsewhere in The New Organon Bacon argues that print, along
with gunpowder and the compass, changed the face and condition of
things all over the globe.8 That change proved to be crucial in bringing the
6. Absence of comment on the concept of medium does not retard speculation on the
individual arts during the later classical and medieval eras. Treatises on the individual arts
abound, but it should be remembered that the ancient conception of techne does not
correspond to the later conception of fine art. In educational treatises such as Martianus
Capellas The Marriage of Philology and Mercury, the seven liberal arts are canonically identified
as the famous trivium of grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric and the quadrivium of geometry,
arithmetic, astronomy, and harmony. Painting and other visual arts fell below the status mark
of liberal and were often derogated to the level of mechanical arts, such as carpentry or
masonry. The persistence of this distinction within the general field of arts or technai perhaps
accounts for the latency of the media concept because technical media emerged from later
versions of mechanical arts.
7. Francis Bacon, The New Organon, ed. Lisa Jardine and Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge,
2000), pp. 86 87.
8. Ibid., p. 100.
understanding of print closer to the idea of a medium, to the threshold of

concept formation.
2. Persuasion and Communication

Condorcet. Nearly two centuries after The New Organon, in 1795, Condorcet reflected on what Bacon saw as the global changes wrought by print
in his LEsquisse dun tableau historique des progre`s de lesprit humain. In a
document suffused with enthusiasm for enlightened thought, he celebrates printing above all other inventions of the modern world because it
is destined to unmask and dethrone the tyranny of priests and kings:
Men found themselves possessed of the means of communicating
with people all over the world. A new sort of tribunal had come into
existence in which less lively but deeper impressions were communicated; which no longer allowed the same tyrannical empire to be exercised over mens passions but ensured a more certain and more
durable power over their minds; a situation in which the advantages
are all on the side of truth, since what the art of communication loses
in the power to seduce it gains in the power to enlighten.9
Condorcet implicitly contrasts printing with another art of communication based on face-to-face exchange: rhetoric. He sees print as undermining rhetorics exploitation of fear and ignorance and thus its power to
seduce. The art of printing, on the other hand, spreads the light of knowledge all over the world, magnifying its subversive effects. Condorcet
goes on to praise these triumphs of print media in the multiplicity of their
forms: elementary books, dictionaries, works of reference containing a
host of facts, observations and experiments in which all proofs are developed and all doubts discussed.10
The absence of the word medium in Condorcets framing account of the
revolutionary effects of printing scarcely limits the scope of the claims he
makes. But, like Bacon, Condorcet still relies on the term art to describe
these effects: the art of communication. If printing is an art of communication, however, it is very unlike the ancient art of rhetoric. Printing was,
to be sure, still an art in Condorcets time, in the special sense of being a
highly skilled craft or what was called a mechanical art. Printing transmits
what has already been composed by means of other liberal arts, such as
logic and rhetoric. Printing constitutes an art of communication in that
9. Antoine-Nicolas de Condorcet, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the
Human Mind, trans. June Barraclough (1795; London, 1955), p. 100.
10. Ibid., p. 101.
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326
higher sense only if we assert with Condorcet that precisely the technology
of print makes the art of the orator unnecessary, presumably because writers who compose for the medium of print will be compelled to argue or
writedifferently. The medium of print publication, in part creating a new
public sphere for its productions, ensures that all proofs are developed
and all doubts discussed and hence that no tyrannical cause prevails
through the old techniques of verbal seduction. Or so goes the story Condorcet tells, a familiar story for the age: ceci tuera cela! The decline of formal
rhetoric that followed hard upon the triumph of print is an event to which
Condorcet is a witness and a prophet; the high-water mark of that dominant art of Western education was already visible to him.
It will be helpful to recall that rhetoric in antiquity assumed the primacy
of speech, as the substance upon which this art was first and longest practiced. Even though rhetoric early on incorporated writing into its practice,
the concept of speech retained preeminence in the definition of the art
until the demise of formal rhetoric in the curricular reformations of the
later nineteenth century.11 The disappearance of rhetoric from the schools
was the final result of an evolutionary change in norms of language-use
proceeding too slowly at first to be noticed for its epochal significance; this
change was nothing less than a reordering of the relations between speech
and writing, a reordering in which writingin the remediated form of
printwould come increasingly to dominate the most important social
venues of communication. This outcome was unquestionably influenced
by the pressure of the print medium on the conceptualization of writing.
But I do not argue in this paper for an outcome simply determined by the
new technology. Rather, I propose to chart the reorientation of language
toward the goal of communication by offering a series of philological annotations on a linked set of evolving terms: persuasion, communication,
means, medium, media, mediation, representation. The method of annotation is intended to bring out the fact that the documents in my suppositional prehistory of media theory employ a philosophical lexicon
inadequate to the development that presses on thought from its outside,
from a history of technical instruments. The citations I have chosen to
analyze are necessarily partial, but they are by no means arbitrary. They
constitute exemplary moments in the history of an absent conceptthe
concept of a medium of communication.12
11. I have given an account of classical rhetorics expulsion from the modern curriculum in
a work in progress, Literary Study in the Age of Professionalism.
12. On the methodology of the present essay, I suggest that my philological annotations are
analogous to what we like to call now data points, a series of exempla in lieu of a hypothetically
exhaustive history of media and mediation. My account aims rather for as much economy as
The first term in the sequence I annotatepersuasion has an inaugural role to play by dropping out of the subsequent networks and their
permutations. We might suppose today that the concept of communication is implied by the concept of persuasion, just as conversely our neorhetoricians believe that the motive of persuasion is hidden in every act of
communication. But it would be more accurate to say with regard to the
first hypothesis that the communication concept exists in the art of persuasion only as a possibility. As to the latter hypothesis, I will assume
(without arguing this point further here) that rhetorical hermeneutics is
inadequate to support a history of communication, despite its credit in
much cultural studies.13 In fact the communication concept emerged
in early modernity as an explicit challenge to the system of rhetoric.14 In
antiquity language theory needed no concept of communication at all, and
speech was regarded principally as a means to the end of persuasion, what
Condorcet tendentiously named seduction. Rhetoric assumed that the
speaker occupied a forensic position, in which his own thoughts and feelings were best kept to himself. Communication by contrast posited the
transfer of the speakers thoughts and feelings accurately to the mind of the
auditor. The aim of communication could only be seen at all when reflected in the mirror of rhetorics detractors, for whom every rhetorical
utterance possibly concealed a lie. The contrary desire for a pure transfer of
thought was voiced early in the history of rhetoric, most famously in Platos
Gorgias and intermittently down to the recession of formal rhetoric in the
nineteenth century.15 But the beginning of that end must be located in the
seventeenth century, when discontent with rhetoric produced the first attempts to advance a different concept for the goal of speech, a concept we
now know as communication.
the subject permits, admitting always the possibility of other examples than the ones I have
chosen.
13. For a discussion, see Alan G. Gross and William M. Keith, Rhetorical Hermeneutics:
Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science (Albany, N.Y., 1996).
14. See the invaluable account of Wilbur Samuel Howell, Eighteenth-Century British Logic
and Rhetoric (Princeton, N.J., 1971). Writing of Adam Smiths Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles
Lettres, first delivered at Glasgow in 1762 63, Howell observes that Smiths system of rhetoric
takes the position that persuasive discourse is the species, and communicative discourse the
genus, in the classification of the functions of literature (ibid., p. 549). Smith inaugurates a
major shift in the conception of language-use toward the explicit acknowledgement of
communication.
15. For the antirhetorical tradition, the construction of rhetorical speech is irremediably
tainted by the possibility of lying. The field of semiotics can also be located in this eccentric
relation to rhetoric, as Umberto Eco affirms when he calls semiotics a theory of the lie in A
Theory of Semiotics (Bloomington, Ind., 1979), p. 6.
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3. Means and Medium

Bacon and Hobbes. In order to understand early attempts to conceptualize communication (and subsequently the media concept), I return to
Bacon, who struggles to find a new way of describing the technical means
of communication. In a passage from The Advancement of Learning, in
which Bacon considers the art of expressing or transferring our knowledge to others, he skirts very near to the continent of communication,
without quite deciding whether he has come upon an Indies or an America:
For the organ of tradition, it is either Speech or Writing: for Aristotle
saith well, Words are the images of cogitations, and letters are the
images of words; but yet it is not of necessity that cogitations be expressed by the medium of words. For whatsoever is capable of sufficient differences, and those perceptible by the sense, is in nature
competent to express cogitations. And therefore we see in the commerce of barbarous people that understand not one anothers language, and in the practice of divers that are dumb and deaf, that
mens minds are expressed in gestures, though not exactly, yet to
serve the turn. And we understand further that it is the use of China
and the kingdoms of the high Levant to write in Characters Real,
which express neither letters nor words in gross, but Things or Notions; insomuch as countries and provinces, which understand not
one anothers language, can nevertheless read one anothers writings,
because the characters are accepted more generally than the languages
do extend; and therefore they have a vast multitude of characters; as
many, I suppose, as radical words.16
The phrase organ of tradition can be translated roughly into modern
English as instrument of transmission. Bacon is still thinking within the
framework of arts (like Condorcet after him) and specifically of the subjects that constituted the curriculum of the Renaissance university. The
organ of tradition does not refer here to an ordinary speech situation but
to the school as transmitter of the arts. Yet the subject provokes Bacon into
a wider reflection on the relation between language and thought (cogitation) than is warranted by the scholastic context of transmitting knowledge. He may appear to have crossed a certain threshold of conceptual
innovation by offering the medium of words as an equivalent for the
organ of tradition, but the word medium here falls just short of that
16. Bacon, The Advancement of Learning, in Francis Bacon, ed. Brian Vickers (Oxford,
1996), p. 230.
crossing; it should properly be understood in Bacons sentence as an instrument or means (a hammer is an instrument or means for building, but
it is not, in the sense we are inquiring after, a medium). The antecedent
term image points away from our concept of medium to another semantic
complex, wherein the submerged conceptual cognate for image would be
imitation rather than communication (the sense here is also close to representation). The word medium circulates in Bacons day as a common
variant of means. But the context of transferring thoughts also hints at a
difference between means and medium. Medium hesitates at the threshold
of that other sense so familiar to us, this by virtue of Bacons assertion of a
common function shared by words and gestures, two different means of
expressing thoughts. This difference is analogous to the difference between
poetry and painting, two arts in Bacons time but not yet two media.
The further invocation of Chinese characters suggests that if Bacon is
moving toward a conceptualization of the communicative function, it is
precisely by moving away from speech in order to affirm the greater utility
of writing for transferring thoughts, writing as a means of communicationthe quotation marks here indicate anachronismthat seems to
transcend (spoken) words. The Characters Real break free of speech
while remaining a form of writing. Because these ideograms are intended
to connect directly with thoughts, transcending differences between languages, they suggest that the communicative function of writing is perhaps
best accomplished in nonalphabetic script. Because such writing does not
represent a natural language, it might be said to constitute a wholly different (and possibly more effective) medium for transferring thoughts. But
Bacon is not there yet; the concept of medium remains latent.
In Leviathan, Bacons disciple takes a very different approach to theorizing speech, arising from his intention to elaborate an a priori psychology of human passions. Hobbes does not, like Bacon, generalize the
purpose of speech on the basis of its practice in the art of rhetoric. Nor does
he, like Bacon, celebrate the technical medium of print. On the contrary,
he opens his discussion of speech in chapter 4 of Leviathan with an abrupt
demotion of printing, which, though ingenious, compared with the invention of Letters, is no great matter. Neither is Hobbes so impressed by
letters; he goes on to declare that it is rather speech that is the most noble
and profitable invention of all other. This double derogation of print and
letters sets up a remarkable repression of what Bacon so nearly uncovered:
The generall use of Speech, is to transferre our Mentall Discourse,
into Verbal; or the Trayne of our Thoughts, into a Trayne of Words;
and that for two commodities; whereof one is, the Registring of the
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Consequences of our Thoughts; which being apt to slip out of our

memory, and put us to a new labour, may again be recalled, by such
words as they were marked by. So that the first use of names, is to
serve for Markes, or Notes of remembrance. Another is, when many
use the same words, to signifie (by their connexion and order,) one to
another, what they conceive, or think of each matter; and also what
they desire, feare, or have any other passion for.17
For Hobbes, the primary use of language is for remembrance and for
reasoning upon those observations we call to mind by means of words.
What we recognize as the communicative function of speech is allowed,
but almost as an afterthought. Hobbes is determined to bend speech to the
service of his geometric method of argument, which proceeds by establishing fixed definitions and requires immense control over the chaos of language, with its inherited ambiguities and plural significations. The
fantasized scene of Hobbesian definition takes place at a site withdrawn
from social discourse, for the purpose of preserving cogitation from any
admixture of desire and feare. And yet the result of this withdrawal
from the social scene of communication is oddly that writing reappears as
the trope of speech; the names that serve as Markes and Notes gesture
toward the diary or the commonplace book, even the ledger but in the
artificially asocial world of the single human speaking to himself.
When writing returns as literal fact, as it does in part 3, Of a Christian
Commonwealth, it returns as the problem of interpreting the Bible, the
infinitely contested and mischievous book that Hobbes delivers wholly to
the custody of the sovereign. So it will be in the Hobbesian commonwealth
with all books, with all print. Writing and print are instruments (mediums) too dangerous to rest in private hands. Hobbes imagines a monopolization of writing correspondent to the state monopoly of violence. The
control that Hobbes exercises over speech in theory, mastering words in
Humpty-Dumpty fashion, can be figured in the commonwealth of letters
by the sovereigns control over those letters; in this way Hobbes pays a
powerful backhanded tribute to print. But he does not name his adversary
as the very thing the reader holds in her hands.
If Bacon moves briskly in his text from speech to writing, Hobbes moves
just as hurriedly in the opposite direction, narrowing his focus to speech
only. And yet both Bacon and Hobbes are pressed into theorizing by the
same unnamed idea looming over their conceptual struggles. This idea is
not speech or even language, but something else: the idea of communica17. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Richard Tuck (1651; Cambridge, 1991), p. 25.
tion. Hobbes acknowledges communication, but implicitly, by relegating

the transfer of ideas to a secondary purpose of speech, conceived primarily (and defensively) as rational discourse with oneself. In the later
seventeenth century, however, the term communication began to appear
more frequently in philosophical discourse, as the name for the main purpose or end of speech. Unfortunately there is no way to capture this transition as a moment; we can only observe that the words range of meaning
changed during this period. On the evidence of the OED, its former most
common senses invoked at base a scene of physical contact, the scenario in
which one person hands over to another some object such as a gift or a
parcel, a usage that survives in our notion of a communicable disease
(the root derives from the Latin munus, exchange, and is the radical for
remuneration).18 The sense of physical contact is reinforced by the assumption of presence, which survives in certain exceptional current uses,
as when we say that one room communicates with another. Speech, discourse, or face-to-face conversation was only one example of this close mode
of presence or exchange, but by the later seventeenth century the sense of
communication as speech or discourse was selected out as the primary sense,
which ceased thereafter to imply the scene of immediate contact or presence and came contrarily to be associated with an action often involving
distance in time and space.19
Locke and Wilkins. The OED records the first use of the term communication in the primary sense of the imparting, conveying, or exchange of
ideas, knowledge, information, etc. (whether by speech, writing, or signs)
as 1690. The plural noun communications is defined as the science or
process of conveying information, esp. by means of electronic or mechanical techniques, but this is obviously later.20 The plural evokes what we call
mediathis word does not appear in the OED citation by virtue of imputing distance to the scene of communication. The first example of the
singular noun is cited from Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, one of many instances in that work. Although his is not in fact the
first such use, Locke registers in his monumental text an important new
qualifier of the term communication, its inherent link to sociability. He
does not, like Hobbes, imagine speech as kind of private discourse for
18. Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., s.v. medium.
19. The word conversation moves in a similar direction to communication, losing its more
intimate range of meanings (including sexual intercourse) and specializing eventually within
the field of communication.
20. Asa Briggs and Peter Burke, A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the
Internet (Cambridge, 2005), p. 216, point out that the 1955 OED does not yet mention
electronic or mechanical techniques.
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reasoning upon things; the Comfort, and Advantage of Society, he

writes, is not to be had without Communication of Thoughts.21 Yet, like
Hobbes, Locke emphasizes language as the means of communication, to
the exclusion of technical media.
Located in a social rather than a physical matrix, communication for
Locke defines the end of speech but also the precise instrumentality of
words: they [words] being immediately the Signs of Mens Ideas; and, by
that means, the Instruments whereby Men communicate their Conceptions, and express to one another those Thoughts and Imaginations, they
have within their Breasts (E, p. 407). This definition labors to connect
words on the one hand immediately with ideas and on the other hand
mediately (as means) with the aim of communication. Locke carefully
maneuvers around the problem of the relation between speech and words
by simply conflating speech with words (a questionable assumption for
later linguistics). Everywhere in his discussion of words, Locke insists
upon the immediate signifying relation between words and ideas, even
as he allows the intermediacy of words as means to communicative ends.
The Essay up to this point has been concerned wholly with ideas; when
Locke turns to words in book 3 (from which I have been quoting), he does
so only because he feels that he has established his principles of human
understanding on the basis of ideas and not words.
We need not venture further into debate on the Lockean idea to advance the present argument. Suffice it to say that just as ideas for Locke are
nothing but bare Appearances or Perceptions in our Minds (E, p. 384)
and so absolutely distinct from things, in the same way words are further
still from things. Lockes conventionalist semiotics (the term he invents in
book 4, chapter 21; see E, p. 720), suggests that the chief mistake people
make about words is to take them as signifying things.22 Words are related
21. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. Peter H. Nidditch (1689;
Oxford, 1990), p. 405; hereafter abbreviated E.
22. Lockes semiotics is distinct from the science of signs to be found in premodern
sciences, such as astrology, meteorology, and most importantly medicine, with its elaborate
symptomatology. His linguistic conventionalism is in a line that can be traced to Aristotle,
specifically to the opening of De interpretatione (also referenced by Bacon in the passage quoted
above), trans. J. L. Ackrill, The Complete Works of Aristotle, trans. W. A. Pickard et al., ed.
Jonathan Barnes, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1984), 1:25: Now spoken sounds are symbols of
affections in the soul, and written marks symbols of spoken sounds. And just as written marks
are not the same for all men, neither are spoken sounds. This passage is often loosely cited as
offering a theory of communication, which in my view it does not. In addition to the fact that
Aristotle asserts a naturally corresponding relation between affections and things (which is
the relation that Locke attempts to clarify rather than assume), he is most interested in De
interpretatione in how propositions can be true or false statements about the world. This is
the concern he begins to address immediately after the famous paragraph quoted and in the
remainder of this text: Just as some thoughts in the soul are neither true nor false while some
not to things but to ideas; these ideas are plunged in books 1 and 2 into a
kind of acid bath of analysis, a thoroughgoing clarification. For words
there is no such hygienic recourse, and Lockes analysis of them is consequently oriented to explaining their irremediable defects and the historical
consequences of those defects: the greatest part of Disputes were more
about the signification of Words, than a real difference in the Conception
of Things (E, pp. 484 85). Notoriously, Locke concedes that he would
have preferred to omit consideration of words altogether from the Essay,
but such a demurral would have reduced his book to an idealizing fragment. In the same paragraph in which he offers this confession, Locke also
advances a conception of words that exposes the fundamental reason for
their imperfection and vulnerability to abuse:
I must confess then, that when I first began this Discourse of the Understanding, and a good while after, I had not the least Thought, that
any Consideration of Words was at all necessary to it. But when having passed over the Original and Composition of our Ideas, I began to
examine the Extent and Certainty of our Knowledge, I found it had so
near a connexion with Words, that unless their force and manner of
Signification were first well observed, there could be very little said
clearly and pertinently concerning Knowledge: which being conversant about Truth, had constantly to do with Propositions, And
though it terminated in Things, yet it was for the most part so much
by the intervention of Words, that they seemd scarce separable from
our general Knowledge. At least they interpose themselves so much
between our Understandings, and the Truth, which it would contemplate and apprehend, that like the Medium through which visible Objects pass, their Obscurity and Disorder does not seldom cast a mist
before our Eyes, and impose upon our Understandings. . . . But I am
apt to imagine, that were the imperfections of Language, as the Instrument of Knowledge, more thoroughly weighed, a great many of
are necessarily one or the other, so also with spoken sounds (ibid.). As usual in antiquity, the
interest is in the adequacy of language to the world, or the truth, rather than the success or
failure of communication. The one conspicuous exception (that proves the rule) is Augustine,
who, as Tzvetan Todorov notes, Theories of the Symbol, trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, N.Y.,
1977), p. 36, exhibits an insistence on the communicative dimension of language that is new
in late antiquity. Augustines conception of communication is stated most explicitly in On
Christian Doctrine, quoted by Todorov: Nor is there any other reason for signifying, or for
giving signs, except for bringing forth and transferring to another mind the action of the mind
in the person who makes the sign (ibid., p. 41). One has to jump forward to the eighteenth
century and the decline of rhetoric in order to see the development of this conception.
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the Controversies that make such a noise in the World, would of

themselves cease; and the way to Knowledge, and, perhaps, Peace too,
lie a great deal opener than it does. [E, p. 489]
Lockes desire to omit consideration of words altogether from the Essay
betrays a powerfully idealizing will to remove the imperfections of Language that prevent us from achieving a world in which knowledge and
peace prevail. Today we are long past crediting the realism of that wish,
however impressive this resounding chord of Enlightenment remains. But
the wish fathers an interesting thought: the medium makes communication possible and also possible to fail. The convergence of means and medium resolves an ambiguity of early modern thought and partially
detaches the concept of medium from the older concept of artthough at
this point the term medium is still more a figure of speech than a term in
the philosophical lexicon. In any case, by means of the figure language can
be distanced from the art of rhetoric. Or, rather, Locke establishes here a
hypothetical distance; elsewhere he expresses a more radical antipathy toward language, the cheat of words.
The desire for an immediate transfer of thoughts and feelings, inasmuch as it is counterfactual, is the evidence of a recurrent anxiety that
troubles the development of communication theory; we shall see it again.
For Locke, signs exist at all only by reason of a default condition of communication: For since the Things, the Mind contemplates, are none of
them, besides it self, present to the Understanding tis necessary that something else, as a Sign or Representation of the thing it considers, should be
present to it: And these are Ideas. And because the Scene of Ideas that
makes one Mans Thoughts, cannot be laid open to the immediate view of
another, nor laid up any where but in the Memory, a no very sure Repository: Therefore to communicate our Thoughts to one another, as well as
record them for our own use, Signs of our Ideas are also necessary (E, pp.
720 21). Communication by signs compensates for the absolute distance
between one mind and another. That distance, which is not exactly physical, is nonetheless conflated in the history of thinking about communication with the physical distance between bodies in space and the exigency of
transferring thought. Every communication is in that sense a telecommunication; conversely, long distance communication can stand as a figure for the inherent difficulty of communication.
In the assertion that words function like a Medium, Locke rationalizes
his meliorist view of language; he offers no more than a modest set of
remedies for the abuse of words, based on the principle that we should
adhere as closely as possible to common significations. The recourse to the
standard of common usage is like an anchor holding signification to the

smallest range of drift, but at the cost of conceding the inaccessible depth at
which the anchor contacts its ground.23 Lockes resignation to these limits
explains why he rejected the attempts of the universal language theorists to
fix signification permanently by orienting it to the axis of words and
things, so many words for so many things.24 I propose now temporarily to
reverse the chronology of my exposition in order to consider several moments in the work of John Wilkins, the most notable of the universal
language theorists in England. Looking back from the less innocent perspective of Locke, we can see that Wilkinss work belongs very much to a
Baconian milieu of speculative optimism. Yet it is also, I suggest, prescient,
more forward looking than Locke, and it needs to be situated on a different
historical timeline than the monumental philosophical texts touched
upon thus far. That other timeline charts the history of technology or,
more precisely, communications technology. These two timelines are noncoincident.
Decades before Lockes Essay, Wilkins employed the communication
concept in a recognizably modern sense, most famously in An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language, published in 1668.
To say this is not so much to credit Wilkins with originary distinction but
rather to acknowledge that the universal language projects were nothing
other than attempts to grasp the idea of communication; these projects
already approached language as a medium of communication, while falling short of formulating a coherent conceptual object. In Essay towards a
Real Character, Wilkins takes as his point of departure the perception that
distinctions between the kinds of communication are based in distinctions
between the sensory organs: The External Expression of these Mental notions, whereby men communicate their thoughts to one another, is either
to the Ear, or to the Eye.25 The real character, though it can be spoken, is
chiefly a written language for the eye. The conspicuous visual appearance
of the ideographic script effectively foregrounds writing as a material me23. George Berkeley sees this weakness in Lockes theory and worries it in his A Treatise
Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, in which he mounts a frontal assault on Lockes
distinction between ideas and words, and on the primacy of communication as the end of
speech. See George Berkeley, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, ed.
Jonathan Dancy (1710; New York, 1998).
24. On this point, see Hans Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of
Language and Intellectual History (Minneapolis, 1982), p. 72. I allude here also to Thomas Sprat,
History of the Royal Society, ed. Jackson C. Cope and Harold Whitmore Jones (1667; St. Louis,
1958), which leans implicitly on universal language theory.
25. John Wilkins, An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language (1668;
Bristol, 2002), p. 20.
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dium. If spoken words can also be said to constitute such a medium, recognition of this fact does not have quite the same effect of foregrounding
the material. The visibility of writing and its technical paraphernalia account for the perception of its materiality, its translation of speech into
visible signs, ink, and paper. This difference is what we mean by technology. Writing is a technology, but speech is not. This difference is muddled,
as linguists tell us, by alphabetic script, which permits us sometimes to
forget that writing is a technology. But Wilkinss real character famously
bypasses alphabetic script; his ideographic writing was intended to free
writing from the purpose only of representing spoken words and so enable
the real character to establish an unambiguous and permanently fixed
relation between symbols and ideas, on the one side, and things, on the
other. Locke saw that this was an error, but it is worth specifying what kind
of error. Today we would say that Wilkins hoped to correct the communicative deficiency of language by means of a technological fix. This recourse, which has the same sort of charm as much science fiction, also has
something of that genres capacity to leap beyond conceptual safe ground
for something new and strange.
Granting Essay towards a Real Character its moment of fame and conceding also its philosophical failureits logical failings and inconsistencies are legionI pursue further the link between medium and technology
by annotating an earlier fabulation of Wilkins, entitled Mercury: Or the
Secret and Swift Messenger (1641). This work is even closer than Essay towards a Real Character to Bacon in its investment in technology and in its
science-fictional resonance. The subject of Mercury is announced in the
subtitle: Shewing, How a man may with Privacy and Speed communicate his
Thoughts to a Friend at any distance; the subject, in other words, is communications technology.26 Wilkins of course did not have this compound
term at hand; instead, he gives his subject the name of the messenger god,
Mercury, who will be remembered thereafter in just this connection, as a
logo of communications technology. The treatise purports to describe
current and possible means of secret and speedy communications at a
distance, with the first half of the book devoted to secrecy, the latter half to
speed. The question of the connection between secrecy and speed is puzzling, but partially illumined by the third term, distance. The purpose of
secret communication is to transmit a message that will be unreadable to a
third party in the event of interception along the way. The context here is
26. See Wilkins, Mercury: Or the Secret and Swift Messenger (1641; London, 1694); hereafter
abbreviated M.
manifestly political, and the aims of espionage are invoked throughout the
treatise.
The requisite of speed also responds to the problem of communication
at a distance, which again can have urgent political contexts, but not exclusively. Wilkins remarks that the invention of Letters allows us to
discourse with them that are remote from us, not only by the distance of
many miles, but also of many Ages. He understands writing as a technology for overcoming distance, both spatial and temporal, but a technology
that might be improved in the former instance especially. It remains for us
to explain why such improvement is premised in all circumstances, political or otherwise, on the fusion of secrecy and speed, which Wilkins insists
throughout his treatise may be joyned together in the conveyance of any
message (M, pp. 4, 131).
Interest in the art of secret information or code among Renaissance
writers is commonBacon gave this subject an important moment in The
Advancement of Learning but Wilkins sees a much wider use for code in
the context of communication. Inasmuch as coded writing sets out to
frustrate legibility, it produces intentionally the very effect that for Locke
inheres in the cheat of words, their imperfection. Lockes theory reveals
a defect in language itself, whether spoken or written; but Wilkins is in a
way not interested in words at all. He is interested rather in what technical
devices exist or might be invented to frustrate immediate legibility without
failing ultimately to communicate to a select addressee. The strategy of his
technologism is to isolate the material medium itselfpen, ink, and paperfrom the message. The most basic coding effect is thus one in which
the words disappear and only the medium appears: A man may likewise
write secretly with a raw Egg, the letters of which being thoroughly dried,
let the whole paper be blacked over with Ink, that it may appear without
any inscription, and when this Ink is also well dried, if you do afterwards
gently scrape it over with a Knife, it will fall off from those places, where
before the words were written (M, p. 42). Now Locke is surely the more
sophisticated theorist in suggesting that all language is in a way blacked
over by reason of its inherent inadequacy to the minds ideas. But does
this more sophisticated conception of language as medium not gain its
insight by reducing the medium to a metaphor of communicative deficiency? Wilkins sees the medium rather as a material technology. The
difference between these two conceptions of medium persists, as we shall
see, well into our own time.
As with secrecy, the objective of speed brackets the content of the message and asks only that we consider the medium. In the chapters on speed,
Wilkins considers some improbable technologiesthe communication of
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sound through pipes, for example but settles on two more plausible
technical possibilities: the first is the transmission of very loud sounds over
long distances; the second is the transmission of messages by the use of
bright light. Unfortunately, in both cases the material means is ill-suited
for the transmission of natural language, as also for the transmission of
alphabetic script. Wilkins proposes, however, that the success of transmission can be ensured by the use of coding, which relies on the most minimal
differences between sounds or between flashes of light to produce the
effect of articulation; finally only two marks of difference are necessary to
send any message. Wilkins devises here something like a precursor to
Morse code or what we would call binarization: It is more convenient
indeed, that these differences should be of as great variety as the letters of
the Alphabet; but it is sufficient if they be but twofold, because two alone
may, with somewhat more labour and time, be well enough contrived to
express all the rest (M, p. 132). With two different sounds or light flashes,
every letter can be assigned a binary code, and communication at great
distance and speed can be accomplished.
The point to note here is not so much the anticipation of binary code
but that Wilkinss communication at a great distance is possible only by
recourse to the same device codethat is otherwise the means to frustrate communication. Putting Locke and Wilkins together, we see that
whether communication fails (Locke) or is deliberately frustrated
(Wilkins), the effect is to bring the medium into greater visibility. The
difference between Locke and Wilkins, however, is reinstated at another
theoretical level because it makes a difference precisely where one locates
the operation of the medium. For Locke, it would be correct to say that
words are the medium of thought, whereas for Wilkins, one must say that
writing is the medium of speech. Wilkins locates the operation of the medium in the technical means, making us see that we might even write with
sound or with light. The difference between language as medium (of
thought) and writing as medium (of speech) produces a certain philosophical confusion, an unstable or mutually blind relation between mediation as an abstract, even logical process and medium as material
technology. This confusion, as we shall see, recurs in the later history of
communication theory.
Campbell, Mill, Mallarme. A version of the confusion is evident in the
two competing theories of communication circulating in the eighteenth
century and after. The Lockean versionwords as medium of thought
provides a philosophical basis for a new canon of language use, a stylistic
norm applicable indifferently to speech and writing. This is the familiar
notion of clarity, that language should always be transparent to meaning.27

The stylistic norm is the nervous tribute of communication theory to the
medium concept, still hovering between a metaphor and a literal nomination. Here is an exemplary passage from George Campbells The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776), which claims to recycle the classical ideal of
perspicuity drawn from Quintilian but is really concerned to establish a
post-Lockean stylistic norm:
Perspicuity originally and properly implies transparency, such as may
be ascribed to air, glass, water, or any other medium, through which
material objects are viewed. From this original and proper sense it
hath been metaphorically applied to language, this being, as it were,
the medium, through which we perceive the notions and sentiments
of a speaker. Now, in corporeal things, if the medium through which
we look at any object be perfectly transparent, our whole attention is
fixed on the object; we are scarcely sensible that there is a medium
which intervenes, and can hardly be said to perceive it. But if there be
any flaw in the medium, if we see through it but dimly, if the object
be imperfectly represented, or if we know it to be misrepresented, our
attention is immediately taken off the object, to the medium.28
Perspicuity as the chief rule of style is everywhere asserted in the rhetorical
and belletristic handbooks of the period. The norm of clarity is extraordinarily important as a literary historical event and leaves virtually nothing
in the realm of literary culture untouched. Because Campbells presentation of perspicuity brings in a little more theory than is requisite for the
purpose of recycling Quintilian, it permits us to appreciate the real complexity of the concept. By insisting once again on the metaphoric status of
the medium, Campbell rehearses Lockes desire for words that are transparent to ideas. The failure of communication brings the medium into an
unwanted visibility or, in Campbells terms, draws our attention to it.
But let us imagine, for the sake of argument, a hypothetically converse (or
perverse) desire, the desire not to communicate. We know that this desire
is what motivates code, as in Wilkinss account of communication; can it
also motivate literary composition or writing? The fact that we already
know the answer to this question will allow me to accelerate my account at
this point and to allow two rather unlike figures, John Stuart Mill and
Stephane Mallarme, to annotate the counterprinciple to clarity, also descending from these early struggles with the notion of communication.
27. For an account of the norm of clarity, see my The Memo and Modernity, Critical
Inquiry 31 (Autumn 2004): 108 32.
28. George Campbell, The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776; Delmar, N.Y., 1841), p. 217.
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Mills attempt to define poetry in Thoughts on Poetry and Its Varieties, first published in the Monthly Repository of 1833, is famous for a
certain aphorism loosely identified with the period concept of romanticism. Mill sets out to define poetry initially by comparing it with oratory
on the basis of their common identity as forms of expression operating
through an impassioned medium, that is, language marked by a colouring of joy, or grief, or pity, or affection, or admiration, among other
strong emotions. But this assertion demands a more strenuous effort to
distinguish between poetry and eloquence:
Poetry and eloquence are both alike the expression or utterance of
feeling. But if we may be excused the antithesis, we should say that
eloquence is heard, poetry is overheard. Eloquence supposes an
audience; the peculiarity of poetry appears to us to lie in the poets
utter unconsciousness of a listener. Poetry is feeling confessing itself
to itself, in moments of solitude. . . . All poetry is of the nature of
soliloquy.29
These familiar words have since floated free of their context and circulate
as a topos of literary culture, a notion of poetry that can scarcely be found
much before Mills time but dominates criticism after it. The poet here is
granted the license to ignore the injunction to communicate, a freedom
that has major consequences for the stylistic norms governing the poetic
mode of discourse, and brings that mode into sharp distinction from the
philosophical and, later, scientific. If Mills statement has any cogency, the
rule of clarity is abrogated for poetry. We might regard the language of
poetry after Mill (or romanticism) as like a code, a technique of writing
that deliberately confounds the reader, that retards comprehension by
provoking a hermeneutic exercise of no small complexity or duration. But
it would be premature to impute anything more than this, if even this, to
Mill, who wants only to establish the principle that true poetry must be
written in a state of mind in which communication is disregarded.
Disregard for communication results in a thickening of the medium, a
darkening of its substance even as attention is drawn to it. This counterprinciple to Locke is familiar in many versionsincluding those of critical
hermeneutics and communications theoryand scarcely needs defense. It
has been canonized repeatedly, but I will cite here as a representative anecdote Mallarmes famous exchange with Degas on poetic composition.
The painter took up poetry late in life and complained to his friend that
29. John Stuart Mill, Thoughts on Poetry and Its Varieties, Dissertations and Discussions,
Political, Philosophical, and Historical, 2 vols. (1859; New York, 1973), 1:71.
although he had many ideas for poems, he had difficulty putting these
ideas into words. To which Mallarme replied that you cant make a poem
with ideas . . . you make it with words.30 Taking the point of this remark,
which entails a modern conception of literary language instanced by
Mallarmes own poetry, we might still want to say that it is Locke who
establishes the philosophical basis of communication theory, upon which
the counterprinciple of medium depends asymmetrically. Lockes specification of the medium as a figure for the function or dysfunction of language (the use or abuse of words) posits as the ordinary condition of
communication the possibility of its failure, that is, of having to try again
with other words. It would be difficult to imagine speaking without being
able to revise ones speech, to try to put ones thoughts into more accurate
or better language. The difference between what one means and what one
says defines the mediation of words and sustains the enabling fiction that
ideas exist. Or, to put this another way, the statement no, that is not what
I meant is the necessary warrant for credibility in communication, even
allowing that once spoken or once written, words acquire the darkness of
the medium, which properly draws attention to its opacity.31
4. Medium and Mediation

Looking back over these glosses on the term medium, the reader will have
noted that the concept of mediation has only just been acknowledged. The
process of mediation would seem to be everywhere implied by the operation
of a technical medium, and yet there are few instances before the twentieth
century in which a process of mediation is extrapolated from the medium.
On the evidence of the OED, the word mediation was for the most part used
with reference to agents or actions involving intercession between alienated parties, as inthe grandest examplethe mediation of Christ as
Redeemer.32 The most common use of the term mediation today is not
unrelated to this theological sense, referring largely to the area of conflict
resolution (a keyword search on mediation with any search engine confirms this point). This most common use of the term gives us an important
clue about the social investment underlying the abstract sense we find in
30. Quoted in Paul Valery, Degas Manet Morisot, trans. David Paul (New York, 1972), p. 62.
31. If I insist here on Lockes crucial role in the history of communication theory, I must
also issue a caution with regard to the Lockean idea, which Locke surely did not intend to
orient toward the scene of communication. Nor does he intend to reduce the idea to thinking
in advance of speaking. But the descent of the idea into common usage converges upon the
sense of premonitory inarticulation, of being about to speak, that warrants the self-revision of
speech, and without which communication is, so to speak, unthinkable.
32. For the locus classicus, see Augustine, The City of God, trans. Marcus Dods (New York,
1950), 9.15, pp. 29394.
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communication theory. If we think of mediation as a process whereby two

different realms, persons, objects, or terms are brought into relation, the
necessity for mediation implies that these realms, persons, objects, or
terms resist a direct relation and perhaps have come into conflict.
The sense of mediation as an abstract process is given in the OED,
definition 2.a: Agency or action as an intermediary; the state or fact of
serving as an intermediate agent, a means of action, or a medium of transmission; instrumentality. The basis for abstraction in this definition is the
shift of focus from agent to agency, that is, to an impersonal process.
This allows for any number of objects or actions to occupy the third
position of mediation. Two of the examples cited by the editors give the
range of possibilities: Chaucers Treatise on the Astrolabe (1391): By mediacioun of this litel tretys, I purpose to teche a certain nombre of conclusions; Henry Lawrence, Of Communion & Warre with Angels (1646): The
understanding receives things by the mediation, first of externall sences,
then of the fancy.33 It might seem evident from our current media perspective that the use of the word mediation in the example from Chaucer
must have been the more seminal; but that was not the case. (This would
confirm, however, my earlier observation that the idea of communication
is very late.) The sentence from the work by Lawrence reflects the more
common usage until well into the twentieth century, suggesting that the
mediation concept was most useful in constructing a picture of the mind in
its relation to the world. This range of meaning points to psychology, to
which the editors of the dictionary devote a subsection, b.: The interposition of stages or process between stimulus and result, or intention and
realization. The philological evidence thus turns up an anomaly: the idea
of a medium seems to require a process of mediation; yet this process was
rarely associated with the sort of medium instanced by Chaucers litel
tretys.
Hegel and Peirce. The concept of mediation names a process rather than
an object, a distinction that partially illuminates the mutual nonrecognition of mediation and media. In the philosophy of Hegel, mediation debuts as a concept of the first order of importance, but without privileged
reference to communication. The term mediation and the problem of
communication do not seem to have been brought together in any system33. Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (Oxford, 1976), p.
170, also picks out these two quotations from the OEDs list. It would be difficult to say, without
considerable further research, just how common these uses are. My own experience reading in
the early modern period suggests that the use of mediation in theological or political contexts is
most common, and that the use of mediation in connection with books, either manuscript or
print, is rare.
atic way until the later nineteenth century, with the work of Charles Sanders Peirce, and then only intermittently thereafter. Communications
theory is eager now to extrapolate a general process of mediation from the
operation of technical media, but the philosophical tradition put the term
for process in every way first; if the medium of communication appears at
all in this tradition, it appears as one instance of a more universal process
of mediation supposed to govern relations among different terms of
thought or domains of reality. This formulation would describe the use of
mediation in Hegel.
The English word mediation has a near equivalent in the German Vermittlung, a key term for Hegel. In his corpus, mediation belongs to a dialectic of relations, by which concepts such as subject and object, or mind
and world, are assigned roles in a system. In the most general sense, the
principle of mediation denies the possibility of an immediate (unmittelbar) relation between subject and object, or the immediacy of any knowledge whatsoever.34 Within the limits of this essay, it will be possible to
improve only slightly upon this description by acknowledging that Hegels
use of Vermittlung is subtly inclusive of the other senses noted above,
theological and disputational, belonging both to the English term and its
German cousin. Hegels insistence on mediated relations thus points toward reconciliatory moments along the trajectory of his peculiar selfgenerating dialectic.35 At this point we may set aside the larger agenda of
Hegels idealist system in order to aim at another target. The concept of
mediation expresses an evolving understanding of the world (or human
society) as too complex to be grasped or perceived whole (that is immediately), even if such a totality is theoretically conceivable. It becomes possible then to present mediatory agencies as necessarily characteristic of
societya generative thought that enables later social theory to develop
the idea of mediated relations by contrast to simpler notions of causality.
The question of totality troubles Raymond Williamss discussion of
mediation in Keywords and in Marxism and Literature, to date the most
synthetic accounts available (if also very brief). I will return to his reservations about the concept of mediation at the end of my essay, but for the
34. See the famous assertion in G. W. F. Hegel, Science of Logic, trans. A. V. Miller (1812;
New York, 1969), p. 68: There is nothing, nothing in heaven or in nature or mind or anywhere
else which does not equally contain both immediacy and mediation. The universal scope of
mediation in Hegels theory ensures the importance of the notion of mediation in later versions
of Hegelianism, however diluted the dialectic becomes. Hegels insistence on mediation is
perhaps equaled only in Rene Girards theory of mimetic desire, which grounds a notion of
desire in a scenario of mediation.
35. Hegels dialectic of mediation is of course distinguished by the fact that it does not start
with two terms but only one, as in his unfolding of being in the terms nothing and becoming.
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present it will be necessary to press further with a consideration of the

anomaly noted above, the apparent lack of relation between medium and
mediation in the philological record. This problem, in my view, is crucial to
our understanding of the way in which the concept of mediation as a
process seems to come in and out of philosophical and social theory without
establishing until very late a special relation to the field of communication.36
The philological evidence suggests that concern with communication continues to be expressed, often still metaphorically, by use of the term medium.
On the other hand, the concept of mediation as it appears in Hegel and is
taken up in the tradition of Marxist and sociological theory posits this
concept in connection with more universal contexts than those of communication. For Hegel, mediation concerns nothing less than the question
of being; for Marx, the question of labor (the mediation of mankind and
nature). The communicative relation seems to lie below the radar of thinking about mediation until later. As we shall see, the extrapolation of a
process of mediation from the fact of a particular communicative medium
(speech, writing, print) depended not on the incorporation of the concept
of medium into a more general conceptual framework but the reverse, a
reduction of the social totality to communication as its representative instance.
A version of that reduction characterizes the work of Charles Sanders
Peirce, who elaborates the first full-scale theory of a specifically semiotic
mediation. Peirces typology of signs is notoriously complex, but I will
emphasize only one small feature of that typology, setting out from a standard definition of the sign in Peirce: A sign, or representamen, is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or
capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person
an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign. That sign which it
creates I call the interpretant of the first sign. The sign stands for something, its object. It stands for that object, not in all respects, but in reference
to a sort of idea.37 What Peirce calls the interpretant is actually another
sign (not a signified), the function of which is to interpret the first sign; the
interpretant then becomes a representamen for another interpretant. Um36. A significant exception is Friedrich Schleiermacher, Hermeneutics and Criticism, trans.
and ed. Andrew Bowie (Cambridge, 1998), p. 7, in which he defines speech as the mediation
[Vermittlung] of the communal nature of thought, and also mediation of thought for the
individual. Schleiermacher consistently sets hermeneutics in the larger context of
communication, but does not pursue further elaboration of the mediation concept. For a later
moment in this hermeneutic tradition, see Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, trans. Joel
Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall, 2d ed. (London, 1989), pp. 383 405.
37. Charles Sanders Peirce, Elements of Logic, in Collected Papers, ed. Charles Hartshorne
and Paul Weiss, 8 vols. (Cambridge, Mass., 1960 66), 2:135.
berto Eco observes in his discussion of Peirce that this formulation inaugurates an endless series or unlimited semiosis.38 The infinite replication
of the sign permits the model to incorporate virtually all other discourses
of knowledge by way of translation into semiotic terms: All this universe
is perfused with signs, if it is not composed exclusively of signs.39 Peirces
ambitious claim for a concept with formerly so narrow a role to play in
philosophical reflection interrupts the conversation in philosophy by violently displacing traditional philosophical questions into the domain of
the semiotic (a displacement that is without precursor but is perhaps paralleled in the work of Gottlob Frege). Peirces implicit reduction of philosophical system or notions of totalitythe world or human societyto
the instance of symbolic exchange is a strategic gambit of considerable
symptomatic importance and quite outweighs the actual influence of
Peirce in the twentieth century.40 The desire to generalize social theory
from the instance of communication, language, or writing is recurrently a
feature of twentieth-century thought, propelling the development of
structuralism (Jakobson, Claude Levi-Strauss, and others), poststructuralism (Derrida), systems theory (Gregory Bateson, Niklas Luhmann, and
Jurgen Habermas), communication studies (Harold Innis, Marshall
McLuhan, Walter Ong), and information theory (Norbert Weiner, Dietmar Wolfram, and others).
The use of the term representamen for the manifestation of the sign
confirms that Peirce is thinking of the sign primarily as a certain kind of
representation. But it is not sufficient merely to say that an object is represented by the representamen. Peirce speaks of the object in two senses. In
a formulation that sounds reminiscent of Locke, he posits first an immediate object as what is given in the sign, in much the same way that ideas are
immediately present to the mind in Lockes system. In the second place,
however, when he speaks of the object as a thing in the world, he describes
it as mediate (we would say mediated).41 To say that representation is a
means by which objects in the world are mediated indicates that the con38. Eco, A Theory of Semiotics, p. 68.
39. Peirce, Pragmatism and Pragmaticism, in Collected Papers, 5:302.
40. For a discussion of Peirces theory in its more global implications, see Richard J.
Parmentier, Signs Place in Medias Res: Peirces Concept of Semiotic Mediation, in Semiotic
Mediation: Sociocultural and Psychological Perspectives, ed. Elizabeth Mertz and Parmentier
(Orlando, Fla., 1985), pp. 23 48. Parmentier notes that Peirce was relatively uninterested in the
physical medium of communication, a point of significant difference with most twentiethcentury communications theory; see ibid., p. 33.
41. See Peirce, letter to Victoria Lady Welby, 23 Dec. 1908, Semiotic and Significs: The
Correspondence between Charles S. Peirce and Victoria Lady Welby, ed. C. S. Hardwick and James
Cook (Bloomington, Ind., 1977), p. 73.
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cept of representation is inadequate in itself to describe the effect of its own

operation. When Peirce brings the process of semiotic mediation forward
in his work, he complicates the concept of representation, including his
own use of it. The emergence of this complication has the potential to
deflect philosophical reflection on works of art from its immemorial fixation on representation or mimesis, an orientation shared with the theory
of signification.
If it has always seemed intuitively correct to say that the sign represents
thought, the sense in which a work such as the Iliad analogously represents
heroic action discovers the inadequacy of that notion from a Peircean
perspective. Mediation points to a hidden complexity of the representational process, which often goes quite beyond the announced object of
representation. This is why whatever is mediated by Homers epics need
not be restricted to heroic action but can include many other aspects of
Greek culture, a potentiality scholars have attempted to grasp by invoking
the cultic or encyclopedic aspects of the Homeric epics. Further, these
poems mediate aspects of Greek culture differently for the Greeks and for
us. If cultural mediation operates in this case as in so many others through
the strategy of representation, that concept fails to capture the complexity
of the very process for which its name stood for so long.
5. Mediation and Representation

The difference between a poem and a painting was formerly understood
within the system of the fine arts.42 But the distinction between poetry and
painting looks very different when reconceived as the distinction between
media (print and plastic art). The status of representation too is altered in
relation to the category of medium, which directs our attention first to the
material and formal qualities of different kinds of cultural expression and
only second to the object of representation. The full significance of the
medium as such is always difficult to see in advance of remediation, as with
the remediation of writing by print or painting by photography. The pro42. For an account, see Lawrence Lipking, The Ordering of the Arts in Eighteenth-Century
England (Princeton, N.J., 1970). This system is itself modern, replacing the older scheme of the
mechanical and liberal arts based on the concept of techne with the scheme of the fine arts based
on an aesthetic conception of art that henceforth excluded all mechanical arts as well as former
liberal arts such as logic and rhetoric. From the perspective of the longue duree, the system of
the fine arts looks transitional, ushering in (as in Lessings Laokoon) a stricter distinction
between the artsa poem is not like a picturethan characterized the happily multimedia
productions of premodern culture. The sorting out of the arts in turn prepares the ground for
the new media system, which is marked by the deliberate manipulation of multimedial effects.
For a superb study of the transition to the fine arts, see Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance
Thought II: Papers on Humanism and the Arts (New York, 1965), pp. 163227.
liferation of remediation by the later nineteenth century demanded nothing less than a new philosophical framework for understanding media as
such in contradistinction to the work of art conceived within the dominant
frame of mimesis. This new framework was provided by the idea of communication, which encloses all forms of media now, whether defined as art
(painting) or nonart (informational genres, newspapers, and so on) or
something in between (photography).43 The system of the fine arts yielded
to a new system, the media.
The proliferation of new media stimulated the rapid development of
communication theory, a subject too large to address here except in summary fashion by means of another set of philological annotations. On the
evidence of the word medium itself, we can conclude that its new visibility
confirmed its utility in connection with new occasions and instruments of
communication. The OED is rich in new citations of medium in the later
nineteenth century. Of these I will isolate three significant new uses, taking
the first two together: (1) Any of the varieties of painting or drawing as
determined by the material or technique used; and (2) A channel of mass
communication, as newspapers, radio, television etc. In the first definition, the term medium is used to produce a finer discrimination of the
material properties of particular arts, such as the distinction between oil
and watercolor. In the second definition, new information or communication media are identified that never acquire the status of arts. Media then
names a domain of cultural production that assimilates the traditional fine
arts to the larger category of what later comes to be known as mass communication. Some of these popular forms are fated to be derogated for
their false resemblance to art. This problematic is of course entirely familiar in the discourse of modernism and in part constitutes that discourse,
with consequences too familiar to rehearse and too complex to adjudicate.
The most surprising common use of the word medium in the period,
however, is (3) a person believed to be in contact with the spirits of the
dead and to communicate between the living and the dead. The puzzle of
nineteenth-century spiritualism, which we need only acknowledge briefly
here, has been greatly illuminated by historians of technology, who have
shown convincingly that such spiritualism is a shadow cast by communi43. Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, Illuminations:
Essays and Reflections, trans. Harry Zohn, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York, 1968), p. 227, reminds
us that much futile thought had been devoted to the question of whether photography is an
art. Benjamins conceptualization of the auratic distinction that formerly supported the cultic
reception of art gives us the first great theorization of technical media, now illuminated by the
flickering light of film, photographys medial successor. The resolution of photographys status
as an art (along with film) helped to propel the reorganization of the arts around the media
concept: print, visual, plastic arts, and so on.
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cations technology itself, a nice joke of history underscored by the tenacity

with which the spiritualists sought to use media technology to capture the
voices and images of the dead.44 In our history of concept formation, the
prevalence of the spiritual medium marks a transition from the notion of
communication premised on face-to-face exchange to one premised on
distance; both spatial ratios are embodied in the figure of the spiritual
medium, who mediated communications with the most distant of all
realms, Hamlets undiscovered country from whose bourn no traveler
returns.
If communication technology established a relation to spiritualism in
the nineteenth century, it served as the basis for a new profession in the
twentieth, public relations or advertising. The pioneers in this field were
highly sensitive to the diversity and specificity of media. I recall here the
most important of these new media professionals, Edward L. Bernays, who
baptized the field in his seminal study, Crystallizing Public Opinion, defining precisely its arena of operation. Of the public relations counsel, Bernays writes that this figures advice is given not only on actions which take
place, but also on the use of mediums which bring these actions to the
public it is desired to reach, no matter whether these mediums be the
printed, the spoken or the visualized wordthat is, advertising, lectures,
the stage, the pulpit, the newspaper, the photograph, the wireless, the mail
or any other form of thought communication.45 Bernays refers to mediums, but, as we know, the plural form was standardized as media, most
powerfully thereafter linked to the definite article: the media. With the
dissemination of that term, we disembark on the new continent Bacon
glimpsed in his The Advancement of Learning. The latency of the media
concept is superseded by the era of its ubiquity.
Saussure and Jakobson. The emergence of these new terms and new
professional (or, in the case of the spiritualists, quasi-professional) fields
suggests a context for understanding the twentieth-century project of reconceptualizing the process of signification within a theory of communi44. For a discussion of the connection between spiritualism and ideas about
communication, see John Durham Peters, Speaking into the Air: A History of the Idea of
Communication (Chicago, 1999), pp. 89 108, and Jeffrey Sconce, Haunted Media: Electronic
Presence from Telegraphy to Television (Durham, N.C., 2000). The survival of spiritualism in
this cultural form is also a survival of a dualist ontology of substances; body and soul were
typically described as mediated by a third term (or substance), spirit.
45. Edward L. Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion (New York, 1923), p. 14. Bernays might
profitably be paired with Norbert Weiner, who baptizes the entire field of control and
communication theory famously as cybernetics, from the Greek for steersman (Norbert
Weiner, Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine
[Cambridge, Mass., 1948], p. 19).
cation. The drive to produce such a theory was in part the result of the
immanent development of linguistics as a discipline; but that discipline
also gestured toward a possible new sciencesemiologywhose scope
was greater than that of linguistics and included the study of all forms of
communication. Still, Saussure and most twentieth-century linguists continued to insist that communication is best understood with reference to
the scenario of one person speaking to another. Predictably, the exclusion
of writing and of new, mediated forms of speechtelegraphic, phonographic, and so on undermined the model over the long term, with
perhaps fatal results for structuralist and other versions of the language
paradigm. The clamor of mass communications was already too great by
the beginning of the century to be shut out by linguistic theory. Two brief
annotations of Saussure and Jakobson will confirm the failure of much
theory to address technically mediated communication even in the process
of conceptualizing language.
It has not escaped anyones notice that linguistics turned increasingly in
the twentieth century to the scene of communication and to the task of
modeling this scene. Saussures inaugural Course in General Linguistics
depicts communication in its starkest form, as two talking heads whose
mouths, ears, and brains are linked together by lines composed of dots and
dashes. However firmly this picture insists on the speech scenario, its
slackly suspended lines hint at the telegraph or the telephone, a visual pun
that Saussure probably did not intend. Does this picture acknowledge, if
only unwittingly, the fact of new mediums? Saussure is expressly worried
rather about that old medium, writing, which he firmly grasps and just as
firmly excludes under the category of representation: The sole reason for
the existence of the latter [writing] is to represent the former [speech].46
This entirely conventional derogation spells trouble of the sort with which
we are all too familiar from the later critique of Derrida; but that is not the
problem to which I am pointing.47 The question raised by Saussures ex-
46. Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, trans. Roy Harris, ed. Charles
Bally, Albert Sechehaye, and Albert Riedlinger (1972; Chicago, 1986), p. 24; hereafter abbreviated
CGL. In context, Saussure is arguing for a distinction between value and meaning in order to
discount the nomenclature view of language. I am ignoring most of Saussures programmatic
agenda in order to isolate the pressure of emergent technical media on the language of his text.
47. Derridas critique of Saussure in Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
(Baltimore, 1976), pp. 29 55, retains its primal deconstructive force, subordinated to a
philosophical agenda that is only tangentially relevant, however, to the concern of this essay. In
making the case for writing, Derrida wants to claim that all language is, in the special sense of
his argument, writing, whereas I would like to hold on to the specificity of writing as a medium,
different from other media and possessing a peculiar set of effects by virtue of that difference.
For a vigorous argument on behalf of writing (or vulgar writing, in theorys sense) as a mode
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clusion is rather why signification requires more than just representational

tokens in order to succeed.
Elsewhere Saussure invokes the conventional, Lockean thesisThe
value of a word is mainly or primarily thought of in terms of its capacity for
representing a certain idea (CGL, p. 112)in order to refute it. His theory
of the signifier and signified as a composite articulation asserts to the contrary an indissoluble or constitutive link between these two elements of the
sign. The articulating function is different from representation and is expressed in Saussures analysis by a series of figures: the action of wind
producing waves on water, scissors cutting through the recto and verso of
paper, and the coin as medium of exchange. Without attempting to explicate these figures individually, we can register the extent to which an unstated concept of medium governs the figures, a small troop of medial
metaphors conscripted to fend off the model of representation: If words
had the job of representing concepts fixed in advance, one would be able to
find exact equivalents for them as between one language and another. But
this is not the case (CGL, pp. 114 15). Representation is relegated rather to
writing, as the medium that is supposed to do no more than give us tokens
for spoken words.
We need not draw any larger philosophical conclusions from this annotation, which offers only to describe the philological context for modeling linguistic communication. Two very different formulations are
contending for dominance here: (1) language represents thought; and (2)
language mediates thought. The second, however, is only tacit in Saussure.
His theory of signification rejects a representational relation between
words and concepts in favor of a looser relational concept, one that is
closer in the end to mediation, though this concept never comes out from
behind the figures Saussure uses. In the following half-century, the conceptual architecture built on the higher ground of mediation reaches a
great height; we need only ascend a few stories to get a view of the surrounding terrain, which brings the arguments of Benjamin Whorf, Edward Sapir, Lev Vygotsky, and Ludwig Wittgenstein into view. Reality
itself can be described for these theorists as mediated by language (that is,
more than just represented). The hypothesis of language as medium is no
longer just a way of pointing to the distorting effect of words, in Lockes
sense, but of evoking the world making of semiotic mediation. This thesis
goes far beyond what can be inferred from the scenario of the talking
of communication superior to speech itself, see Harris, Rethinking Writing (Bloomington, Ind.,
2000).
heads. The proliferation of communication media in the social environment suggests that communication can no longer be modeled as the representation of silent thought by spoken word.
The more rigorous the analysis of communication, the more likely it is
that a process of mediation will come to the fore. Jakobsons later model is
exemplary in this respect. In his well-known and influential essay Linguistics and Poetics, Jakobson analyzes the scene of communication into
six constituents, the two poles of addresser and addressee and four intermediate terms: context, message, contact, and code. Of these, the contact
isolates the medium as such, probably with some indebtedness to the new
information theory of Claude Shannon, who introduced the notion of the
channel that Jakobson invokes in his definition of contact: a physical
channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of them to enter and stay in communication.48
Although this physical channel includes the medium of speech in face-toface exchange, the physicality of the channel is best evinced by technological devices of communication, which are prone to obvious physical
(mechanical or electronic) failure. When Jakobson describes the communication function specific to contacthe calls this the phatic function he evokes the vicissitudes of telephonic communication: Hello, do
you hear me? The phatic utterance supposedly has no other content than
a query about the success or failure of the channel, but behind the apparent
semantic poverty of the phatic utterance looms the entire problematic of
mediation as the extrapolation of a communicative process from the physical medium.
The purpose of Jakobsons elaborate model is to give an account of the
poetic function, which he defines as a set toward the MESSAGE as such.
The message does not name a content but rather the sounds and words
of which the message is composed; the set toward the MESSAGE is a use
48. Roman Jakobson, Linguistics and Poetics, Selected Writings, ed. Stephen Rudy, 6 vols.
(The Hague, 1981), 3:2122. The essay was first delivered as a lecture in 1958. Claude E. Shannon
published The Mathematical Theory of Communication in 1948. It was republished as Claude
E. Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, Ill.,
1963). Most of our current notions about the mechanics of communication can be found in
Shannons work, including the analysis of the channel. For an important comment on the
relation between Shannon and Jakobson, see Lydia H. Liu, iSpace: Printed English after Joyce,
Shannon, and Derrida, Critical Inquiry 32 (Spring 2006): 517. Liu also reminds us of Shannons
use of Printed English as the basis for his mathematical analysis of the concepts such as
redundancy in communication. Shannon reduces the twenty-six letters of the alphabet (plus
one space) to bits of information, in which the semantic content is subordinated to the analysis
of transmission, in effect recasting Printed English as a code (like many of his peers, Shannon
worked on code breaking during the war). Jakobsons absorption of Shannons terms
introduces elements of information theory into the formative statements of structuralism.
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of language promoting the palpability of signs, deepen[ing] the fundamental dichotomy of signs and objects.49 By directing attention to the
words of the message, as opposed to its meaning, poetic function asserts
the special quality of poetic language; however, this quality is not restricted
to poetry. Jakobson immediately names as poetic many other uses of language, most famously the campaign slogan, I Like Ike.50 The slide here
from poetry to advertising suggests that a concern with media is more than
just implicit in the structure of Jakobsons model. The poetic function
introduces a kind of melodious noise into the channel of communication,
heightening consciousness of the channel as such and so distancing the
message from the object or referent. In the case of the slogan cited, the
pleasant concatenation of syllables allows us to admire the words without
endorsing the candidate.
It would be hard to deny that the set toward the MESSAGE confuses
contact and message; the same string of sounds constitutes both the channel and the reflexivity of the message. In proposing his formula Jakobson
comes interestingly close to the nearly contemporary, and more famous,
formula of McLuhan, the medium is the message. The latency of the
media concept in Jakobson throws McLuhan into high contrast as the
popularizer of that concept; but perhaps this contrast is best understood as
a repetition of the difference between Locke and Wilkins (this time to the
advantage of the technophile). If McLuhan seems less theoretically sophisticated alongside Jakobson, his famous slogan nonetheless has the effect of
pointing up the limits of Jakobsons obsession with the phonemic manifestation of reflexivity. Jakobsons preference for sound pattern oddly deemphasizes the mediation of poetic speech by writinga channel of
communication overlaying (or remediating) the medium of speech.
Whatever Jakobson asserts about the possibility of making the speech
channel palpable must also be true of writing; much poetry depends on
that fact.51 Despite the emphasis on sound, Jakobsons model of communication does not theoretically exclude other vectors of mediation, such as
the mediation of speech by writing, or the mediation of writing by print,
and so on. In any of these contexts the medium can be disturbed or manipulated in such a way as to heighten its reflexivity, resulting either in
noise or poetry. The semantic poverty of the phatic utterance is thus the
verso of the semantic fullness we find in the poetic.
In other scenes of theory, the archaistic term poetic can be replaced by
49. Jakobson, Linguistics and Poetics, p. 25.
50. See ibid., p. 26.
51. It seems doubtful, for example, that the example of I Like Ike would work as well in the
phonemically identical case of I Like Eyck.
literariness or writing. Whatever name is invoked for this function, its purpose is to interrupt the referential or representational function. Theory
likes to say that this interruption belongs inherently to language, but the
concept of channel commands a far larger domain. The language paradigm, to which Jakobson made so crucial a contribution and which still
dominates the cultural disciplines, fails to grasp communication as its
underlying problematic and so misses the chance to gather the poetic, the
literary, and writing itself within the larger theoretical enclosure of the
media concept. This thesis, unfortunately, can only be offered as an assertion, awaiting fuller demonstration in some other context. It remains for
us to consider in this essay some implications of the challenge posed to the
dominant notion of representation by the media conceptif it is indeed
the case that what was set aside by Aristotle millennia ago has now thrust
itself into the foreground of culture.
6. Representation and Media

The fact of media proliferation suffers from no lack of interest among
scholars. As with much theory concerned with technological change, early
responses to new media tended to be written in the manner of prophecy
and, worse, to lapse into technological determinism.52 A more sober reflection on media will necessarily refrain from imputing determinism to the
mere fact of a technical means of communication; that is to say, mediation
cannot be reduced to an effect of technical media. Let us recall that Marx
famously reflected on new media in the interrogatory mood: What becomes of Fama alongside Printing House Square?53 We are still learning
52. One might mention Friedrich Kittler in this context, though not because his work is by
any conceivable measure nave. Kittler fuses several current strains of postmodernism with a
version of technological determinism, by way of the materialism shared by both. On the issue of
millennialist accounts of computer technology, I observe that a note of caution is beginning to
mute the trumpets of the technophiles. Recent commentators such as Lev Manovich, for
example, have been careful to eschew the more apocalyptic McLuhanite style. And yet even
Manovich cannot resist asserting that: This new revolution is arguably more profound than
the previous ones [he refers here to the printing press], and we are just beginning to register its
initial effects (Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media [Cambridge, Mass., 2001], p. 19).
Perhaps, but there is a reservation worth inserting here in response to the implicit diminution
of earlier technologies, many of which (telecommunication, rapid transit) were world
transforming in a way the computer has not begun to match. Certainly we have not seen any
social transformation that can be linked to the computer comparable in magnitude to the
Protestant Reformation, which depended crucially on print media. Of course this is not to say
that transformations on this scale will never occur. But the cultural effects of digitization loom
so large to us today because we see them against the background of technologies that have been
thoroughly naturalized, as integrated into the lifeworld as the ground beneath our feet.
53. Karl Marx, Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft),
trans. Martin Nicolaus (1953; New York, 1973), p. 110.
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what questions to ask of technical mediation. There is no question, however, that changes in the modes of social mediation can be inferred from
the operation of technical media and that reflection on this fact has deepened the theory of mediation and of society. The work of John B. Thompson can be cited in this context, especially his mapping of the types of
mediated interaction in modernity.54 This work dovetails a higher level of
abstraction with that of Anthony Giddens, Manuel Castells, Luhmann,
Habermas, and others working in the fields of systems, media, and information theory. Given the importance of this workit is nothing less than
a new instauration of sociologyit is a puzzling fact that the concept of
mediation remains undertheorized in the study of culture and only tenuously integrated into the study of media. In retrospect it would seem that
the disciplinary division between media and communication studies, on
the one hand, and the cultural disciplines, on the other, has had the unfortunate effect of inhibiting the development of a general sociology of
culture on the basis of communication and the correlative processes of
mediation.55
54. See John B. Thompson, The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media
(Stanford, Calif., 1995). Thompson gives an account of three types of interaction: (1) face-toface; (2) mediated interaction; and (3) mediated quasi-interaction. The second refers to
interactions such as telephonic, mail, email, and so on. The third refers to more one-sided
seeming interactions initiated by media forms that require no direct response to the maker of
the content. These would include novels, most television and film, and many other forms of
entertainment, high or low.
55. Habermass theory of communicative action is promising for its attempt to coordinate
a theory of the media with the mediating function of social phenomena such as money and
power, which Habermas calls steering media (Steuerungsmedien) (Habermas, The Theory of
Communicative Action, trans. Thomas McCarthy, 2 vols. [Boston, 1987], 2:390). Habermass
theory builds on Parsonss generalization of money as the medium of exchange, a theory that
already incorporated a cybernetic framework for understanding social systems and is echoed
precisely in Habermass use of the term steering. Habermass attempt to integrate the work of
art, however, into the theory of communicative action under the category of the expressive
seems to me less successful, and this problem has unfortunately impeded recognition of the
theorys potential to shift the emphasis of social theory generally to mediation. If the
conceptualization of art in Habermass work seems unequal in gravity to the argumentative
motive of communicative action, perhaps this reflects more a bias of his intellectual formation
than a necessary implication of his theory. For an exemplary struggle with this problem, see
Habermas, On the Distinction between Poetic and Communicative Uses of Language, On the
Pragmatics of Communication, trans. Frederick G. Lawrence, ed. Maeve Cook (Cambridge,
1998), pp. 383 402. This brief consideration of Habermas can be supplemented with an equally
brief recognition of the importance of Luhmanns theory of art as a special system of social
communication, in Art as a Social System, trans. Eva M. Knodt (Stanford, Calif., 2000), p. 128.
Luhmanns otherwise extraordinary work advances an idiosyncratic conception of medium,
grounded usually in the domain of perception (the visual or aural), or sometimes in language
as a medium of fixation for intuition (ibid., p. 116). What we call a technical medium is closer
to what he calls form, although his examples here are sculpture, painting, poetry, musicthe
traditional fine arts. The emphasis on the phenomenal or intuitional medium on the one hand
Williams. The tradition of philosophical and social theory descending

from Hegel posited a concept of mediation in reference to nothing less
than the totality of things, a level of generality that need not be reproduced
in this argument but can be scaled down to the (barely) manageable level of
society. Within this smaller totality different domains are said to be experienced not directly but in mediated fashion. The form of these mediations
is difficult to discern, but Raymond Williams is surely right that the basesuperstructure model of classical Marxism functioned as an early theory of
mediation, more or less indebted to Hegel, but carrying forward a revisionist version of his dialectic. By superstructure, Marx usually meant the
political and legal apparatus, but superstructure would now have to include the domain of the cultural, which most social theory considers of
immense importance in modernity. With the further development of cultural theory, the base-superstructure model has itself been displaced by
efforts to model the relation of culture to the two domains of the political
and the economic. For us, this three-starred constellation defines the question of mediation, as in Fredric Jamesons assertion that everything is
mediated by culture.56
In his invaluable account of the mediation concept, Williams observes that its emergence responded to uneasiness with the relegation
of culture to mere reflection of the economic or political domains. I
consider reflection in this context to be another version of the ancient
topos of representation, both simpler and more complex than classical
mimesis (simpler because the metaphor of reflection reduces the cultural
work to a passive role, more complex because the object of reflection is
potentially the social totality). Williams argues that the social and mate-
is joined to an exclusive focus on the fine arts on the other. Caught somewhere in between, the
materiality of media (our question of the medium as such) is relegated to the environment of
the art system. Luhmanns focus on the artwork as such presupposes the scheme of the fine arts
and postpones, at least theoretically, examination of the system of media. We find that
discussion in The Reality of the Mass Media, trans. Kathleen Cross (Stanford, Calif., 2000),
where the concept of media is dissociated from the system of the arts.
56. Fredric Jameson, Reification and Utopia in Mass Culture, Signatures of the Visible
(New York, 1992), p. 29. The full sentence from Jameson possibly reassimilates mediation to
representation: If we follow Debords argument about the omnipresence and the omnipotence
of the image in consumer capitalism today, then if anything the priorities of the real become
reversed, and everything is mediated by culture, to the point where even the political and the
ideological levels have initially to be disentangled from their primary mode of representation
which is cultural. But compare the less ambiguous statement of Max Horkheimer and
Theodor Adorno, The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception, in Dialectic of
Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments, trans. Jephcott, ed. Gunzelin Schmid Noerr (Stanford,
Calif., 2002), p. 99: The whole world is passed through the filter of the culture industry.
355
356
rial character of artistic activity was suppressed in reflection theory and

that it was at this point that the idea of reflection was challenged by the
idea of mediation.57 This account seems plausible, although it is difficult
to pin names and dates to it. If Williams credits mediation theory with a
less alienated grasp of culture, he is reluctant in the end to see mediation as
a successful remedy for the deficiency of the reflection concept, largely
because mediation assumes separate and pre-existent areas or orders of
reality, between which the mediating process occurs whether independently or as determined by their prior natures (ML, p. 99). Putting the
problem in this way, Williams finds that mediation can be hard to distinguish from the kind of reflection critical theory wants to expose as ideological distortion. Indeed, representation has been easily incorporated into
many versions of media theory in preference to mediation, precisely in
order to sustain the project of ideology critique.58 For Williams, if mediation cannot be shown to operate positively to draw social divisions together, as opposed to merely confirming their separation, then he is
inclined to conclude that mediation seems little more than a sophisticated notion of reflection (ML, p. 99). But perhaps he asks too much of
mediation here on behalf of a demand on culture to accomplish restorative
ends.
It is not difficult to see what limits the usefulness of the mediation
concept, even in the context of studying the media. It is always possible to
collapse the mediations performed by the media back into representations,
which become vulnerable at once to ideological critique. This has been the
perennial strategy of cultural criticism, and the reassertion of that mode of
criticism in recent years has in effect set aside mediation even as the study
of media has intensified. But what is mediation anyway, if it is something
more or other than a species of representation, as Williams feared?
57. Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford, 1977), p. 97; hereafter abbreviated ML.
58. Williams remains wary of the concepts of mediation and medium. In his essay, Means
of Communication as Means of Production, he takes a harder Marxist line on this issue,
arguing that in the modern socioeconomic process, the real activities and relations of men are
hidden behind a reified form, a reified mode, a modern medium (Williams, Means of
Communication as Means of Production, Problems in Materialism and Culture [London,
1980], p. 62). Such a view seems to favor construing medium as a mode of distorted
representation. In a similar way, the concept of representation has come back to dominate
cultural analysis more than ever; the challenge to representation by the concept of mediation
may be said thus far to have failed. It is of some symptomatic significance, for example, that the
name of the flagship journal of New Historicism is Representations. The journal catapulted the
concept of representation back to the top of the theoretical lexicon by advancing a more
sophisticated analysis of representation than was formerly adduced from studies of the realist
novel. Notwithstanding this advance, there remains a perceptible yearning in the cultural
disciplines today for a simpler mode of interpretation that would allow the social to be read off
directly from persons, places, objects, or events in texts.
Let us refrain from the temptation to make this question disappear by

resorting to the high theoretical move of reducing mediation to the process
of signification, conceived yet again as the undoing of representation or
reference. Grasping the nature of mediation depends in my view rather on
affirming the communicative function in social relations, that is, the possibility of communication. The assertion of the possible rejects its alternative, the actual, in recognition of the inherent difficulty of communication
and the diversity of its strategies and modes. The proper theoretical context for conceptualizing mediation is therefore the process of communication. In that context, the enabling condition of mediation is the
interposition of distance (spatial, temporal, or even notional) between the
terminal poles of the communication process (these can be persons but
also now machines, even persons and machines).59 Distanciation is another way of looking at the operation of transmission (what Bacon called
tradition, but meaning now something much more inclusive than he
imagined). The notion of interpolated distance should not be understood,
then, as identical to absence or to a term in the philosophical antinomy of
presence and absence. Distanciation creates the possibility of media, which
become both means and ends in themselvesnot the default substitute for
an absent object.60 If this were not the case, we would be unable to explain
the pleasure of talking on the telephone, reading novels, or even accumulating money as the medium of exchange. Pleasure in mediation may have
grown out of the need to relieve the anxiety attached to the dispersion of
persons in social space, but this pleasure now spurs the creation of new
media where there is no compelling social necessity for their existence.
59. This argument can be related to Anthony Giddenss conception of time-space
distanciation in The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford, Calif., 1990), p. 37. Although
Giddens identifies distanciation as a particular feature of modernity, he invokes the ancient
technology of writing as the precursor to later technologies of distanciation.
60. Distanciation, it should be underscored, is not the same thing as distance. An example:
in the climactic scene of Jane Austens Persuasion, Captain Wentworth writes a letter to Anne
Elliot while she sits only a few feet away. This is what we mean by distanciation in the first
instance. The captain is responding to Anne even as she is speaking, just as her words
communicate indirectly (mediately) with him through a quasi-coded discussion of the novel
and of female authorship. The resolution of their formerly failed communication assumes the
possibility of communication, which in turn depends on the strategic recourse to the mediated
form of the letter. This little exemplum must serve in lieu of further theoretical elaboration,
with the addition of one promissory note: the concept of communication here adumbrated
need not reinstate a sender-receiver model of communication, to which a dubious
intentionalism often adheres. Much communication, for example, transmits messages already
composed by another, even by the long dead, but transmission is no less an act of
communication for lacking any apparent intention other than passing on the message of
another. The media concept already supersedes the identity concepts of sender and receiver, as
media theorists have long been telling us in connection with remediation.
357
358
Adorno and Benjamin. The introduction of the theme of pleasure will

perhaps seem surprising, but the point I am making can be confirmed
fairly simply by noting that certain mediated interactions emailing or
text messaging, for exampleseem preferable at moments to face-to-face
encounters (as when we email the coworker in the next room). These
examples of mediated communication are far less grand than even the
most modest works of art but operate on the same basis, which is a social
investment in the medium itself. This investment may or may not be based
on representation (novels are instances of representation, but emails are
not). At a higher level of abstraction, culture as a mediation of the economic and political domains of society engages the same investment in
distanciation. To conclude this line of analysis and this essay, I will comment briefly on an exchange between Adorno and Benjamin on the subject
of the latters study of Charles Baudelaire, part of which was submitted to
the Zeitschrift fur Sozialforschung in 1938. Adorno initially rejected Benjamins submission, for reasons entirely instructive with respect to the
relation between mediation and representation.
In the section of the work to which Adorno objected most strongly,
Benjamin drew a connection between the imposition of a wine tax on the
citizens of Paris in the years 1849 and 1850 and the composition of Baudelaires poems thematizing wine and intoxication.61 The larger movement of
Benjamins argument can be bracketed in order to consider Adornos vehement response: Let me express myself in as simple and Hegelian manner as possible. Unless I am very much mistaken, your dialectic is lacking
in one thing: mediation. Adorno objected to the direct inference from
the duty on wine to LAme du vin and argued contrarily that the materialist determination of cultural traits is only possible if it is mediated
through the total social process. And there is more. Adorno does not
shrink from giving a name to the error into which Benjamin has fallen: To
express this another way: the theological motif of calling things by their
names tends to switch into the wide-eyed presentation of mere facts. If one
wanted to put it rather drastically, one could say that your study is located
at the crossroads of magic and positivism. This spot is bewitched. Only
theory could break this spell.62 Benjamins study provoked Adorno to
articulate what remains for us perhaps the most invaluable clarification of
61. For the relevant pages, see Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Age of High
Capitalism, trans. Zohn (London, 1973), pp. 1720.
62. Adorno, letter to Benjamin, 10 Nov. 1938, in Adorno and Benjamin, The Complete
Correspondence, 1928 1940, trans. Nicholas Walker, ed. Henri Lonitz (Cambridge, Mass., 1999),
pp. 282, 283. Following Hegel, Adorno insisted that mediation inheres in the work itself and not
in a third term.
the mediation concept. Failure to acknowledge mediation in cultural analysis precipitates a theoretical regression into positivism, made all the worse
by the implication of a magical causality in the social domainas
though the wine duty really somehow explained Baudelaires wine poems.
Adornos statement adumbrates a very useful critique avant la lettre of
much contemporary cultural criticism, which proceeds by just such an
appeal to fact, often overlaid with political claims for interpretation exceeding the scope of the evidence. This is a problem endemic to criticism of
the present day, for which Adornos words might serve as a warning and
corrective. And yet we might raise a question in reading this critique about
whether it is really fair to Benjamins work. In his reply to Adorno, Benjamin contends that the wide-eyed presentation of mere facts is nothing
but the philological attitude and that his discussion of the wine tax was
merely an attempt to establish a context for further interpretation of
Baudelaires poems, just as we would also have to do in interpreting an
ancient classical author.63 Benjamin perhaps rightly senses that mediation through the total social processfor Adorno this means that interpretation must be based ultimately on an analysis of the commodity form
would short-circuit his project, which does not really assert the equation of a
contextual fact such as the wine tax with the meaning of the wine poems.64 On
the contrary, Benjamin is intensely interested in the poetic form itself, a generic type of the medium of writing, and he positions this generic mediation between the philological gloss on the wine tax and the thematic of
intoxication in Baudelaires poems. Whatever a critic today may think of
Benjamins reading of these poems, this reading is not without a careful
consideration of mediation.
What, then, is the point at issue between Adorno and Benjamin?
Adorno gives us a theory of mediation that is proof against positivism, but
seems to be lacking in consideration of the multiple levels and forms of
media operating in the process of mediation. His principle of mediation
seems regardless (at least here) of media. The theoretical problem emerging from this exchange, then, is how to relate the theory of mediation to the
fact of media. The possible integration of technical media into the larger
chain of multiple and diverse types of mediation can be represented in
diagrammatic terms very roughly as follows, moving out from the individual cultural work through its successive mediations to the social totality:
63. Benjamin, letter to Adorno, 9 Dec. 1938, in Adorno and Benjamin, The Complete
Correspondence, p. 292; hereafter abbreviated L.
64. For an analogous struggle with the temptation of totalizing too quickly, see Jean-Paul
Sartre, Search for a Method, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York, 1963), p. 45.
359
360

individual work] biographical oeuvre] genre] discourse] medium] social context] social totality
Or, to give (again a rough) sense of the content of the categories:

wine poems] Baudelaire] lyric] poetry/literature] writing/print] Paris, 1849] 19c capitalism
No doubt much more needs to be said about how the intermediate categories operate as mediations of the individual work and, conversely, how
the work itself functions to mediate social relations in the course of its
dissemination.65 In any case it will not do to read the wine poems as representing, in however distorted a mirror, the event of the wine tax or even
a set of socioeconomic conditions of which the wine tax is the symptom.
What is involved is mediation.
If Aristotle identified the medium as an aspect of representation, Benjamin (and differently, Adorno) implicitly subordinate representation as a
strategy of mediation, a gesture that was forward-looking, though lacking
the full theoretical elaboration needed to ground the cultural disciplines
today. Even absent that elaboration, the rule of representation over cultural theory might finally be abrogated in favor of the more inclusive principle of mediation. The subject Aristotle set aside two millennia ago has
returned as the name of a new phase of culture and as the annunciator of
new disciplines. This analysis enables us to state clearly the dilemma of the
cultural disciplines founded on the older scheme of the fine arts; these
disciplines manifest a falsely residual character because they remain theoretically unintegrated into the system of the media.66 If a new instauration
65. In the diagram (for the moment, no more than a back-of-the-envelope sketch), the
terms poetry and literature name discourses, writing and print name media; but this distinction
is offered only to demarcate the technical aspect of media, as poetry and literature cannot
appear except embodied in technical media or remediated. Although remediation is not limited
to new media, it is a conspicuous resource of twentieth-century media, as instanced by the
translation of novel into film and many other examples. The larger point of my argument,
however, is that mediation is not confined to new or technical media at all and that this process
must be conceived flexibly enough to include genres and discourses as well as modes such as
representation and narration, which are transmedial with respect to technical media. Readers
will also note that I have eschewed the concept of new media as defined by special relation to
the visual. In my account, the genesis of the media concept is the result of the visibility of the
media and not of visual media. Hence I have a reservation about the definition of new media
offered by Manovich, for whom new media is the union of computational technology with
imaging technology. For a critique of Manovich, see Mark B. N. Hansen, New Philosophy for
New Media (Cambridge, Mass., 2004), pp. 32 46.
66. The relative exhaustion of the dominant paradigm of representationits fixation as a
late version of ideology critique has been evident in the cultural disciplines for some time and
possibly accounts for their longing glance toward media studies as a way of moving beyond the
usual order of business. The extent of this discontent was attested in the proceedings of the
Critical Inquiry symposium of 2003 on the state of the cultural disciplines and foregrounded in
W. J. T. Mitchells introduction, Medium Theory: Preface to the 2003 Critical Inquiry
of the cultural disciplines is to be attempted, it is all the more necessary that

scholars of culture strongly resist relegating the traditional arts to the sphere of
antiquated technologies, the tacit assumption in the losing competition between literature and the new media. Moreover, scholars of a traditional art
such as literature must take equally seriously both the mediation of literature
by technologies such as printas they already do in the context of book historyand the long-durational forms of writing, such as genre. No cultural
work comes to us except through such multiple categorical mediations, never
simply reducible to the effects of technical media. For this reason, a new instauration of the cultural disciplines depends on the integration of the media
concept into a general theory of mediation.
Still, for the time being it is the technical media that press upon us most
urgently the need for a theoretical instauration, and it is the operation of
such media that troubles the exchange between Benjamin and Adorno.
The subtext of media surfaces tellingly with reference to the difference
remarked by Benjamin between Adornos work on jazz and his own work
on film: In my own essay [The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical
Reproduction] I attempted to articulate the positive moments as clearly as
you have articulated the negative ones (L, p. 295).67 This puts the difference between Adorno and Benjamin simply and shrewdly. Several paragraphs earlier, Benjamin reflects unhappily on the fact that his work on
Baudelaire seems doomed to circulate only as a private correspondence.
Benjamins monograph becomes by default a letter to Adorno. His disappointment with Adornos decision occasions this further reflection on the
medium of print: the printed form allows the author a certain detach-
Symposium, Critical Inquiry 30 (Winter 2004): 324 35. See also Miriam Hansens contribution
to the symposium, Why Media Aesthetics? pp. 39195. In practical, institutional terms my
argument suggests that the exclusion of literature from the disciplinary formation of media
studies was a mistake, damaging both to media studies and literary studies. The same point can
be made concerning the relation between the cultural disciplines and communication studies.
Undoing this institutional segregation in fact as well as theory will likely prove difficult, but the
vitality of both sets of disciplines depends on it.
67. Elsewhere in the correspondence, Benjamin is an amused observer of the vicissitudes of
technically mediated communication: I took the liberty to recommend you [Adorno] to the
Brooklyn Institute, without finding out first whether you cared to lecture. By some odd
confusion, the letter was first sent to the Rhode Island Museum, because the people at the NY
Museum of Modern Art mistook your name for that of A. Dorner (over the telephone! you see
what machine reception does to sound and especially to nuances in names) (Benjamin, letter
to Adorno, 10 Aug. 1938, in Adorno and Benjamin, The Complete Correspondence, p. 269). The
light tone of the anecdote in this letter is not unrelated to a serious theoretical point, explicated
in Benjamin, The Storyteller, Illuminations, p. 87: What distinguishes the novel from the
story (and from the epic in the narrower sense) is its essential dependence on the book. The
dissemination of the novel became possible only with the invention of printing.
361
362
ment from his work, something that is of incomparable value. And then, if
it appeared in printed form, the text could become a subject of discussion,
and no matter how inadequate the discussion partners may be over here,
this would compensate me somewhat for the isolation in which I am working (L, p. 293). Benjamin is reminding Adorno that he is writing for
print and that Adornos decision to reject the publication of the manuscript is in some sense a failure to acknowledge the medium of his communication. Just for a moment Benjamin sounds rather like Condorcet on
the superiority of print, but he has the misfortune to be addressing the
future coauthor of the Dialectic of Enlightenment. In this plangent exchange, the question of mediation and its relation to media emerges but fails
to be resolved, which has been more or less the story of this relation since. In an
essay written years after the exchange on the Baudelaire monograph Adorno
reflected on the difficult reception history of his friends work. One sentence
from that essay might serve as a postscript for Adornos own struggle with
Benjamins insight into the media concept: Misunderstandings are the medium in which the noncommunicable is communicated.68
68. Adorno, Prisms, trans. Samuel and Shierry Weber (Cambridge. Mass. 1967), p. 232. In
annotating the exchange between Adorno and Benjamin I have, no doubt unfairly, cast them in
the allegorical roles of standing in for mediation and media respectively. A more conscientious
reading would complicate this allegory, which I leave standing for the sake of economy.
Adornos attention to the minute particulars of media is easy to retrieve from his oeuvre; I cite
here one example, the essay on Punctuation Marks, an exquisite meditation on the material
form of writing, in Notes to Literature, trans. Shierry Weber Nicholsen, ed. Rolf Tiedemann, 2
vols. (New York, 1991), 1:9197.

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Genesis of the Media Concept

Author(s): John Guillory

Genesis of the Media Concept

1. Mimesis and Medium

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

J O H N G U I L L O R Y is Julius Silver Professor of English at New York University.

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

dia or medium. No Greek equivalent for this term appears in Aristotles

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

The long silence in Western thought on the question of medium was

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

understanding of print closer to the idea of a medium, to the threshold of

2. Persuasion and Communication

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

3. Means and Medium

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

Consequences of our Thoughts; which being apt to slip out of our

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

tion. Hobbes acknowledges communication, but implicitly, by relegating

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

reasoning upon things; the Comfort, and Advantage of Society, he

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

the Controversies that make such a noise in the World, would of

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

standard of common usage is like an anchor holding signification to the

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

notion of clarity, that language should always be transparent to meaning.27

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

4. Medium and Mediation

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

communication theory. If we think of mediation as a process whereby two

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

present it will be necessary to press further with a consideration of the

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

cept of representation is inadequate in itself to describe the effect of its own

5. Mediation and Representation

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

cations technology itself, a nice joke of history underscored by the tenacity

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

clusion is rather why signification requires more than just representational

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

6. Representation and Media

John Guillory / Genesis of the Media Concept

Critical Inquiry / Winter 2010

Williams. The tradition of philosophical and social theory descending