4002 Soil Fertility PDF

BA SIC GUIDE
The Basics
of Soil Fertility
Shaping our relationship to the soil
2004 Ausgabe Deutschland
The enhancement of soil fertility

was a crucial value already to
the pioneers of organic farming,
but the conservation of fertile soil is not always given
enough attention. And yet
organic farming depends
on good natural soil fertility. Exhausted and damaged soils cannot offer the
desired performance. The
cultivation of soil fertility
requires a lot of care.
This booklet offers a view
on soil fertility from different
angles. It deliberately avoids
offering universal 'instructions',
but rather seeks to provide information to stimulate new thinking about
2016
a sustainable relationship to the soil.
This publication results from the Organic Knowledge Network Arable project
funded by the Horizon 2020 programme of the European Union.
net
arable
Why Talk About Soil Fertility?

In cultivating the land, we live from and with soil
fertility. An ecologically vital soil is continuously
restoring its productivity. If we neglect its needs,
it suffers as a result. The soil loses vitality, and
becomes more sensitive to weather and erosion;
harvests decline. In organic farming, damage can
not be offset by purely technical means. This is why
an exhausted or degraded soil requires recovery
by means of ecologically sensitive actions, which
help the soil to regenerate on its own. Despite the
practical constraints and problems, many possible
actions are available enabling us to act according
to our responsibility as farmers for a living soil. It is
worth it, not only financially.
In the 1960s, scientist Ernst Klapp defined soil
fertility in a practical sense as "the natural, sus
tainable ability of a soil to produce plants". He
described it as the ability of the soil to provide
everything for stable yields without external aid.
Since then, agricultural science has widely been
replacing the comprehensive term soil fertility with
a multitude of physical, chemical and biological
variables. One of the current tasks of science is
to render such detailed knowledge applicable to
farming practice.
Many practitioners have developed their own stra
tegies and techniques for the care of soil fertility.
They have learnt through observation, and relied
on their intuition. Such experience and the know
ledge gained via scientific experiments and obser
vations complement each other well. This booklet
aims to stimulate the practice of a truly sustainable
culture of a fertile, living soil, based on well-tried
fundamentals, as well as on the testing of new
possibilities.
The editors
We feel that in many areas, simple

cause-and-effect observations do not
match up to our actual living environment.
This is why it is more timely and necessary
than ever to see the soil as a complex organism instead of a simple chemical-mechanical
model.
Thomas Fisel, advisor Bioland
CONTENTS
PART 1: PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY 3
1.1 The soil of pioneers
3
1.2 Soil fertility A term undergoing change 4
1.3 What does soil fertility mean in organic

farming?
5
1.4 The invaluable contribution of soil
organisms
7
1.5 Using the potential for gentle soil
cultivation
9
PART 2: PERCEIVING SOIL FERTILITY 11
2.1 Direct observations
11
2.2 Observation with the help of

instruments
12
PART 3: PRESERVING AND IMPROVING
SOIL FERTILITY 14
3.1 Soil organic matter management
14
3.2 Organic matter-preserving crop rotations 15
3.3 Organic fertilisers
17
3.4 Green manure
20
3.5 Promoting wild plants instead of

fighting weeds?
22
3.6 Soil compaction and how to avoid it 24
3.7 Soil erosion and how to avoid it
26
PART 4: THE FUTURE OF SOIL CULTURE 28
4.1 Taking account of the climate
28
4.2 Improving the stability of the agro ecosystem
29
4.3 Ideas for the organic soil culture of

the future
30
The microsphere is a wonderful habitat. In the centre of the picture: a single-celled organism.
The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL
Part 1: Principles of Soil Fertility

1.1 The soil of pioneers
Organic farming has developed as an agricultural
approach since the beginning of the 20th century.
However, its historical roots are as old as agricul
ture itself. For several decades, organic farming was
practised and developed only on a small network
of farms. The 1980s and 1990s saw increased
recognition, and newcomers to organic farming.
Before introducing the reader to current knowl
edge about good treatment of soil fertility from a
holistic point of view, based on scientific and prac
tical information, we would like to acknowledge its
roots with the help of a few quotes from the early
pioneers:
Influences of soil biology
The farm owner Albrecht THAER recognised (1821):
"Much in the way that organic matter is a product
of life, it is also the precondition of life." And while
most researchers were turning towards agricultural
chemistry, Charles DARWIN discovered a fact most
crucial for organic farming (1882): "The plough is
one of the oldest and most valued inventions of
man, but, long before its existence, the land was
regularly ploughed by earthworms."
At the beginning of the 20th century, new micro
scopes were tapping into the inconceivable diver
sity of soil life, and an ecological way of thinking
started to develop. Richard BLOECK (1927) wrote:
"Through the activity of microscopic life, arable land
became a real living being." The image of a cycle
reoccurred. The Swiss farmer Alois STCKLI wrote
(1946): "persistent and increasing soil fertility
depends on the condition of a cycle of the sub
stances", yet "in many places there is resistance
against accepting the integral role of organisms in
the soil in this context". One of the co-founders of
organic farming, Hans-Peter RUSCH, regarded the
cycle of life to be essential (1955): The "living sub
stance" is "introduced to each living being in the
substance cycle". The agronomist Franz SEKERA
emphasised (1951): "The tilth (optimum soil con
dition) is defined as the biological engineering of
the crumb structure by soil-inherent microorga
nisms."
Ideological ideas and influences
Rudolf STEINER taught the following during his
agricultural course (1923): "One needs to know
that fertilisation must consist in life-promotion of
the soil. And in the seed we gain an image of
the universe as a whole." In England, Lady Eve
BALFOUR (1943) stated that only ecology asso
ciated with Christian values may help us realise

"that all in the heavens and on earth is only part
of one whole", and further, that the health of the
soil, plant, animal and human is one and indivisi
ble. Her agricultural colleague Sir Albert HOWARD
observed (1948) that "Mother Earth never tries to
do agriculture without animals; she always culti
vates mixed cultures. "Organic farming is supposed
to adopt Mother Earth's natural agriculture method." Mina HOFSTETTER (1949), a Swiss pioneer
of organic farming, regarded the feminine qualities
of the earth to be a key to a deeper understand
ing of soil fertility. Mother Earth may speak directly
to the female farmer if the latter finds peace and
quiet to listen: "she will teach us again, or wipe
us out."
Why the terms organic and ecological
farming?
The 'Bio-logy' (i.e. the logos of life) of organic
farming was literally understood as a life teaching
by its founders, i.e. as a holistic life and farming
philosophy. Rather than concentrating on chemi
cal substances, they focused on cohabitations of
individual beings or 'ecosystems', which on a high
er level were perceived to be a unit in the whole,
i.e. an 'organism'. Hence organic farming uses
the terms soil organism, farm organism, organism
earth, as well as soil, farm and earth as an ecosys
tem. Not to replace the interaction and the steady
continuation of natural and social life by technolo
gy, for many against the backdrop of an interaction
with spiritual, divine influences, was believed to
be essential. Exemplifying the interconnectedness
of all things, the following guiding principle was
coined: "Healthy soil healthy plants healthy
humans." This idea is still key in our day, and stat
ed for example in the principle of health, one of
the four principles of Organic Agriculture defined by
IFOAM (2005).
Rudolf Steiner 1861-1925
Albert Howard 1873-1947
Mina Hofstetter 1883-1967
Maria Mller 1894-1969
Nikola Patzel
Soil fertility is the indispensable foundation of agriculture, not oil. This is why
the soil belongs in the hands of those who
nurture it, not those of speculation. In order
to cope with the challenges of the 21st century, practical knowledge gathered by farmers and scientific knowledge of academia
must come together better.
Eve Balfour 1898-1990
Jrgen Hess, University of Kassel,

Witzenhausen, Germany
Hans Peter Rusch
1906-1977
1.2 Soil fertility A term undergoing

change
With the emergence of applied agricultural scien
ces, a soil's yield was regarded to be its essential
fertility measurement. The soil's nutrient content
(mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potash) was
interpreted as a fertility indicator until artificial
fertilisers came to be seen as being available on
demand and substituted self-reliant soil fertility in
the eyes of many. But with dwindling resources,
the discussion of the term is moving yet again in
another direction. The efficiency of nutrient cycling
in the soil especially within the cycle for plant
yields as a way of measuring soil fertility is return
ing to the foreground.
Soil fertility is an ecological life process
The soil is habitat to an immense variety of micro
organisms, animals and plant roots. A fertile soil
bears healthy crops over generations with its low
demand for external inputs such as fertilisers, pes

ticides and energy. In a fertile soil, soil organisms
efficiently turn nutrients and organic matter into
plant yields, build up organic matter, protect the
plants from diseases, and make the soil crumbly.
Such a soil can easily be cultivated, absorbs rain
water well, and withstands capping/siltation and
erosion. A fertile soil leads via its filtering to clean
groundwater and it neutralises (buffers) acids
which reach the ground surface through polluted
air. A fertile soil also quickly breaks down harmful
substances such as pesticides. Moreover, a fertile
soil represents an efficient reservoir for nutrients
and carbon dioxide. It thus prevents overfertili
sation of rivers, lakes and seas and contributes to
reducing global warming.
In the view of organic farming, soil fertility is
mainly the result of biological processes, and not
of applied chemical nutrients. A fertile soil reacts
actively with the plants; it structures itself and is
capable of regeneration.
Balancing the appreciation of the soil's

functions and the demand that it functions
Today, the term 'soil quality' is sometimes used
instead of soil fertility. Soil quality is the sum
of all socially valued functions of the soil. This
perspective may help to extend attitudes to the
soil into new areas. Nevertheless one needs
to appreciate that the definition of soil quality
determined by soil functions always depends
on contemporaneous economic and/or political
constraints. The most important natural soil func
tions are:
Production function: Yields that suit local
conditions.
Transformation function: Nutrients are effi
ciently turned into yield.
Habitat function: Living space for an active
and diverse flora and fauna.
Degradation function: Degradation/trans
formation of plant and animal residues, and
thereby closing the nutrient cycle.
Self-regulation function: No danger of being
permanently thrown off its healthy balance
e.g. efficiently 'digesting' or suppressing path
ogens which penetrate the soil.
Filtering, buffering and storage function:
Retaining and breaking down harmful sub
stances; keeping nutrients in the soil; storing
carbon dioxide.
Paul Mder
In such 'earthworm towers', clayhumus complexes and earthworm mucilage work rather visibly
towards soil cohesion.
Perspectives and definitions of soil fertility

Currently obtains a great yield
under highly industrialised
conditions
Corresponds to the
achievable financial gain
Steadily delivers a great yield

with a strong external input
Perspectives and definitions

of soil fertility
Factor perspective
Is assessed with the help
of an indicator set
Biocentric perspective
Delivers a good yield with a

low use of auxiliary additives
Is the sum of all nutrients

Is the sum of all scientifically
quantifiable 'positive' soil
properties
Functional perspective
Yield perspective
Secures yield despite of

highly fluctuating conditions
Fulfills socially desired functions, e.g. nutrition, pollutant

decompositions, water
absorption
Includes plant health

through the soil
Is proving its regenerative

capacity
Is a life process
Is an ecologically sound soil

Regulates the cycle of life
and death
Corresponds to a qualitative
system analysis of influencing
factors
Diagram: Nikola Patzel
There are many perspectives and definitions of soil fertility in agriculture. Are we assessing the soil itself (biocentric) or that which we
demand from it (functional)? Do we measure soil fertility on the basis of the yield or of different properties of the soil itself?
Scientific analysis of fertile soil

As an alternative to purely nutrient chemistry, for a
long time there were efforts to detect the funda
mentals of soil fertility with organic matter chemis
try, attempting to elucidate and classify organic
matter directly via its chemical structures. Such
attempts were unfruitful. Today we focus on other
properties: the availability of nutrients, the carbon/
nitrogen (C/N) ratio of organic matter, as well as
the transforming and recycling activity and the
organic matter quality of the soil. They all serve as
a measure for
nutrients directly available to plants. Which ele
ments are to be found in a heated-water extract
of the soil?
readily available nutrients in the life cycle. What
is the size of microbiological biomass, and what
is its C/N ratio?
organic matter stability (stable organic matter
is heavier and immature organic matter). How
complex are its molecular assemblies, and what
is its density?
Paul Mder
1.3 What does soil fertility mean in

organic farming?
For organic farming, 'soil fertility' primarily means
a characteristic of the living soil. As soil fertility is a
feature of the never quite transparent soil organism,
we may never fully understand it on an intellectual
level, nor fully quantify it by measurements alone,
similar to our understanding of human beings. This
is why we talk about soil fertility in the context of a
holistic acknowledgement of the soil and its impact
on plants, as well as the analysis or measurement
of individual characteristics.
The diagnoses and measures in this booklet are
concerned with possibilities of observing the soil
and describing it with regard to individual qualities:
Physical qualities can be recognised e.g. via a
spade test. A physically sound soil offers living
and working space for all soil animals and plant
roots, with sufficient air for respiration. It is the
farmer's responsibility to stabilise the soil struc
ture with plant roots, to make it viable and to
avoid compaction by gentle use of machines.
Unfortunately, our current society is distanced from nature, and only

a minority of people is aware of the importance of a sound and
intact soil. The high use of chemicals in today's conventional agriculture
will in the future be labelled as a flash in the pan, as it is neither soil-improving nor life-enhancing. Only high soil fertility will guarantee sustainable and sufficient nourishment for humanity.
Jean-Louis Colling-von Roesgen, organic farmer on the Karelshaff, Luxembourg
Amoeba
Mite
1.4 The invaluable contribution of soil

organisms
Nematode
Root with
root hair
Springtail
Humus
particle
(organic
matter)
A fertile soil hosts a rich variety of organisms

which are all taking part in important process
es. Earthworms and insect larvae burrow through
the uppermost soil layers in search of dead plant
material. Their passages aerate the earth and the
pores and passages are able to absorb water like a
sponge. Springtails, mites and millipedes degrade
plant litter. Microorganisms turn residue from ani
mals and plants into valuable organic matter. Finally,
bacteria convert organic residues into their chem
ical constituents, and predatory mites, centipedes,
beetles, fungi and bacteria regulate organisms
before they can become harmful.
Silt
Fungal hyphae
The soil particle illustrates well

how through the organic matter
everything in the living soil is
interconnected.
Bacteria
Nematode
A springtail (Collembola). No need to worry about the decomposition of plant litter in an intact soil.
Chemical qualities are determined through

measuring individual nutrients and possibly
also pollutants, and e.g. the pH value (calcium
oxide/acid levels). A chemically well-appointed
soil-plant organism has all necessary chemical
elements and organic compounds available for
its nourishment. Complex metabolites of dif
ferent organisms enhance the plant's immune
response. By returning extracted nutrients, we
are trying to support these qualities in a healthy
balance. In the case of previous overexploitation,
the soil first needs to be balanced out.
Biological qualities of the soil we are able to
see in its transforming/recycling activity, the
occurrence and visible evidence of life forms
in the soil. The cohabitations are robust and
active at the right time. Within the self-regulating
ecological balance, all the animals, plants and
microorganisms are working symbiotically. It is
our job as cultivators to understand soil ecology
well enough to be able to create or restore the
conditions for a robust balance.
Earthworms Master builders of fertile soils

With a single generation and a maximum of eight
cocoons per animal and year, earthworms repro
duce at a rather slow rate. With a life expectancy
of five to eight years they are however the most
long-lived soil animals, and play a prominent role
in the soil.
Earthworms produce 40 to 100 tonnes of valua
ble worm casts per hectare and year in Central
European soils. This is equivalent to a soil growth
of 0,5cm for arable land, and 1,5cm for grassland.
The valuable material contains on average five
times more nitrogen, seven times more phospho
rus, and eleven times more potassium than the
surrounding soil.
An intensive mixing of organic substance with
mineral soil particles, microorganisms and mucous
secretions of earthworms leads to stable crumb
structures. The latter help to prevent the soil from
silting up, and promote its cultivability as well as
As a cumulative effect of its activities, cultivated fer

tile soil can produce good yields again and again.
If this does not happen, we should observe the
aforementioned soil qualities closely in order to
identify irregularities.
Learn to love your worm; it's the best

livestock investment you will ever
make on your farm.
Iain Tolhurst, organic grower near Reading, UK
The editors
its nutrient and water retaining capabilities. In this

way, earthworms loosen up heavy soils and make
sandy soils more cohesive.
With their burrows, earthworms ensure a good
aeration of the soil. Especially the stable burrows of
vertically digging earthworms improve the absorp
tion and storage of water significantly. Soils rich in
earthworms absorb four to ten times the quantity
of water of soils with fewer worms. This way, sur
face runoff and erosion can be reduced. Up to 900
meters of worm burrows can be found per square
metre and to a depth of a metre in unploughed
soils.
Earthworms break down up to 6 tonnes of
dead organic material per hectare and year in the
ground. At the same time, they are transporting
soil material from the subsoil to the topsoil, thereby
rejuvenating the latter. They are also promoting the
colonisation and reproduction of useful soil bacte
ria and fungi in their passages and faeces. Once
diseased foliage moves into the ground, harmful
organisms inhabiting the leaves are degraded
organically. Over 90% of worm burrows are popu
lated with plant roots. The latter can thus penetrate
deeper soil layers without encountering resistance,
and there find ideal nutritional conditions.
Soil-inhabiting species, such

as earthworms, are the quiet
master builders of soil fertility.
Intensive tillage considerably
reduces their populations.
The number of cocoons in the

soil indicates good living conditions for earthworms.
Maintaining soil fertility on a stockfree farm

Our soils at Hardwick are sandy clay loams, a fair
ly useful soil type for the wide range of vegetable
types that we grow within a seven-year stockfree rotation. We have over many years aimed to
reduce tillage to the minimum needed in order
to preserve the soil organic matter and avoid soil
damage. This is not easy, primarily due to lack
of suitable equipment for small scale vegetable
systems. We make great use of green manures
within the rotation, with almost 3 years of long
term clovers/lucerne mixtures, as well as many
overwintering and relay green manures slotted in
around the vegetables.
Making good use of this fertility is a chal
lenge in the context of land preparation ahead
of planting and sowing crops. The plough is still
the primary tool of cultivation at some points
in the rotation to create a clean seedbed from
heavy green manure crops. Timing is critical and
all primary cultivations are done during the spring,
immediately ahead of plantings to minimise peri
ods of uncovered soil.
Due to the high usage of green manures and
additional applications of woodchip compost dur
ing the fertility building phases in the rotation, our
soil structure is very good with no problems of
compaction. Earthworm populations play a major
role in maintaining good soil structure.
Secondary cultivations are shallow, no more than

100mm, except prior to potatoes when they are
up to 150mm. Power harrow is the preferred
tool with some use of triple K spring tines and/or
harrow comb for the creation of stale seedbeds.
All tined implements including power harrow are
round tines as opposed to knife blades, as the
latter are particularly damaging to soil structure.
The use of bladed implements causes smear
and shear hence their avoidance. All cultivations
are aimed at creating the best conditions for crop
establishment and weed control using the min
imum of force and soil inversion. And generally,
we use a lot of relay green manures within estab
lished crops to maintain ground cover, enhanced
biodiversity, nutrient trapping/fertility building and
weed control.
Iain Tolhurst is an organic

producer since 1976,
organic advisor and tutor
since 1984. He is a leading figure in both Organic
and Stockfree Organic
since its conception. His
8 ha vegetable farm
is a commercial enterprise, but also acts as a
demonstration unit and
teaching centre for stockfree, agro-forestry and
agro-ecological principles
of production.
How to protect and promote earthworms

Farmers can contribute to the promotion of earth
worms. The following are the most important
points:
Use minimal machining processes which are

gentle on the soil as well as till and drill combi
nations. Avoid heavy machinery.
Only cultivate completely dry, stable soils.
Tillage and mechanisation

Ploughs and quickly rotating devices should
only be used if essential, as they may kill many
earthworms, depending on when the cultivation
is done. The loss rate with ploughing is at about
25 %, with rotating instruments up to 70 %.
At times of earthworm activity, March/April and
September/October, (intensive) tillage should
be avoided.
Tillage of the soil in a dry or cold state is consid
erably less harmful to earthworms, as they will
remain in the deeper soil layers.
The soil should be turned as little as possible;
when ploughing, do it only minimally with an
on-land plough, to avoid compaction in deeper
soil layers. Plant residues should be worked in
only superficially; not buried in too deep.
Crop rotation
A long crop rotation with perennial and deeprooting catch crops rich in clover or green man
ure, and varied harvest residues, offer abundant
nourishment for earthworms.
A plant cover, especially during winter, may pro
mote earthworms considerably. Soil-regenera
tion periods, provided by the use of perennial
meadows, are a godsend to earthworms.
Fertilisation
A balanced and well cared for soil is beneficial
to plants and earthworms.
Slightly rotted manure or compost is usually
more helpful than fresh manure to build soil
organic matter, to reduce weeds, to speed
the take-up when applied to grassland and to
achieve long term nutrient supply.
Organic fertilizer and manure should only be
worked in superficially.
Dilution and processing of liquid manure has
a positive effect on earthworms. However
non-processed liquid manure (ammonia!) may
seriously damage earthworms and other bene
ficial organisms living in the soil surface layer.
Liquid manure should only be applied on
absorbent soil.
Regular liming (according to pH values) is
important, as most earthworms avoid soils with
a pH below 5,5.
Ploughing results in loosening up the

topsoil for a limited amount of time.
The earthworms' influence is more profound
and varied. They build an extensive system
of channels which ideally supplies the soil
and plants with water and nutrients.
Lukas Pfiffner, FiBL, Switzerland
Effects of various intensive cultivation practices on earthworms

Intensive soil tillage
Medium-intensive soil tillage
Up to about 70 % earthworm losses
Medium-intensive soil tillage

Leaf litter dwellers

cm
cm
cm
0
0
5
5
10
15
20
Horizontal burrowers
Spring/autumn:
vertical burrowers
in the topsoil
Rotary equipment Severe damage

of the habitat
5
10
10
15
Moderate damage
of the habitat
Moderate
damage
of the habitat
Tractor-drawn equipment
Tractor-drawn equipment
15
20
20
25
25
25
30
30
30
Compacted zone by plough

Compacted zone by plough
Summer/winter: vertical burrowers in the subsoil

Vertical burrowers
Summer/winter: vertical burrowers in the subsoil
The more intensively the soil is cultivated, the higher the losses. In springtime and autumn losses are highest.
I am always amazed how all the myriads of soil organisms know exactly
what needs to be done. The great collaboration, which ultimately makes soil fertility
possible, cannot simply be called coincidence, in my book. We ought to simply stand
in awe.
Martin Kchli, organic farmer in Buttwil, Switzerland
Bacteria and fungi underrated helpers

One gram of soil contains hundreds of millions
of bacteria and hundreds of metres of fungal
hyphae. The microorganisms (including the ones
in animals' digestive tracts) are capable of breaking
down plant and animal material into its basic com
ponents. They not only regulate nutrient cycles by
breaking down organic matter, but are also capable
of fixing nitrogen from the air and forming symbios
es with plants. Bacteria and fungi are part of almost
all mineralisation processes in the soil.
Mycorrhizae (root fungi) form a symbiotic rela
tionship with plants, infest the plant root, and open
up an extended soil area for the latter. Mycorrhizal
fungi contribute further positive properties for the
soil structure. They enable an exchange of sub
stances between plants which are connected by
them. Cultivation disrupts the fungal network in the
soil. The mycelium regenerates however.
Lukas Pfiffner, Paul Mder and Andreas Fliessbach
1.5 Using the potential for gentle soil

cultivation
The extensive degradation of the soil started thou
sands of years ago with cultivation and intensive
tillage, which were often associated with over
stocking. The invention of steel and the introduc
tion of the modern turning plough amplified this
process with an intensive mixing of the soil. The
use of tractors allowed for ploughing depths pre
viously unheard of. In the past 40 years, intensive
soil use has led to a loss of about 30% of arable
land through erosion.
The organic farming pioneers' motto was to
loosen soil in greater depth and to minimally cul
tivate it, in order to maintain the natural soil for
mation. Efforts at reduced cultivation are therefore
rather old in organic farming. The practical reali
sation of gentle soil cultivation in organic farming
implied innovative technological developments at
a very early stage. These include e.g. the Kemink
system (soil loosening, fixed driving alleyway), the
layer plough (the soil is ploughed in two layers),
and the layer cultivator (the soil is tilled minimally,
Hyphae of an endomycorrhizal fungus with round storage organs (vesicles) in a plant root. The delicate hyphae may grow in the smallest of soil spores where they exploit nutrients and water. This way,
mycorrhizae are able to multiply the roots' active surface, increasing the nutrient- and water intake.
Fertilising, pesticides, and soil cultivation weaken the fungi.
and the lower layer of the soil is loosened). How

ever, a systematic investigation into reduced soil
cultivation in organic farming only began about 20
years ago.
Experiments in organic conditions have shown
that reduced cultivation brings about a further
increase of the topsoil's organic matter content, that
biological activity and soil structure improve, and
that the ability to retain water available to plants
is also increased. The latter fact is a particularly
important yield factor during dry phases. Neverthe
less, weedsespecially grasses and root-spreading
weedsand breaking up grass-clover without deep
ploughing remain our key challenges.
If you apply the system of reduced cultivation properly, especially depth-

reduced cultivation, the life in the soil is promoted. If this effect is assisted by an appropriate crop rotation, it can help reduce subsoil compaction, offset negative effects seen
with denser bedding in a previously plou
ghed ploughing layer, and facilitate a generally more stable soil. The surface becomes
stronger with a higher content of organic
matter, also because an increased number
of fungi stabilise the aggregates.
Harald Schmidt, Foundation Ecology & Agriculture,
Germany
This cultivator with a double-star roller is an alternative to the disc harrow. It loosens the soil in a deep
or shallow manner. The machine offers the option of mountable straw feeder and harrow for an optimal incorporation of straw.
The necessity for an even gentler handling of the

soil has prompted practitioners and researchers to
look for new solutions for the problems of reduced
cultivation. The use of an on-land plough alone
is enough to help avoid compaction in the sub
soil. Newer machines such as the Precilab plough,
the Ecomat or the stubble slicer (highly modified
skimmer) allow for shallow soil cultivation. Several
non-turning systems, such as the Ecodyn cultivator,
combine for instance extensive skimmer plough
shares with broad-standing, broadly positioned
loosening tines. Even (no-till) direct drilling follow
ing green manuring has been successfully tried.
Innovations in weed control are also expected to
be delivered by robotics.
Climate change is a further push factor for sys
tems rich in organic matter. Because of these inno
vations, organic farming has a chance to improve
the productivity of arable farming by utilising bio
logical processes, as well as to combat climate
change thanks to carbon sequestration in the soil.
Paul Mder
Producing living soil with reduced tillage
Richard Gantlett farms

at Yatesbury in Wiltshire
(534 ha of silty clay
loam over lower grey
chalk) growing cereals,
vegetables and pedigree Aberdeen Angus
cattle. For further reading visit http://yatesbury.webs.com/soil-life
10
The focus of all the work on our farm is to pro

duce the best living soil that we can. I believe that
a lively soil produces healthy plants and in turn
healthy animals and people. That means sustain
able, profitable crops. In my view there are four
key ingredients to producing and maintaining a
living soil: plant diversity, soil food, cow manure
and cultivations.
I had been tinkering with cultivators for some
time when I visited Manfred and Fredrick Wenzs
farm in Germany, who have been farming organ
ically for 30 years without a plough. This gave
me the inspiration to give up ploughing myself
in 2004. For me, ploughs encourage docks and
couch and tend to lead to hard pans but most
of all they bury good soil which I see as being
counterproductive.
We sow pastures with as many different vari
eties and species as possible, which allows for
different plant types to occupy different spaces
in the soil profile and profit from soil variations
across a field. These plants must then be allowed
to fulfil their full potential by rotational grazing or

cutting, allowing the leaves to go up and the roots
to go down. The plants begin the process of har
nessing the life-energy from the sun and trans
porting it down into the soil.
Cow manure is the most valuable initiator in
the process of enlivening the soil. It brings all the
right concentration of bugs and bacteria together
to energise the soil into developing more vibrantly
than without it. We use small quantities of very
carefully composted cow manure, which we
spread as far as possible with plenty of air and
warm water. In addition, living organisms should
be fed with plant material such as green manures
and crop residues.
Our medium heavy soils require careful tim
ing of soil cultivation, working wet soils will create
house bricks and over working dry soils will create
dust which will set like concrete. But the livelier
we make the soils the more friable and easy to
work and more rain tolerant they become.
A cut soil will often form a smooth sealed sur
face like a brick which will be resilient to weath
ering, whilst a tined machine breaks open a soil
along weak points, which in turn lead to other
weak points which weather easily. To maintain
good aeration of the soil we tread it as lightly as
possible with machinery. We use a selection of
cultivators depending upon the need, a deep tine
riper with forward pointing legs for lifting and aer
ating, a vibroflex heavy duty spring tine for aerating
at shallower deeps with which we can also sow.
Give it a go, put some life-energy into your soil.
Part 2: Perceiving Soil Fertility

2.1 Direct observations
How can we evaluate soil fertility by simple means?
There are several methods that have proven help
ful, in the past and present. The main goal is to
take your time and observe plants, the soil's sur
face, the soil itself and its inhabitants in more detail.
Organic farming frequently requires the

practitioner to often go out in the field
with a spade and check the soil I seldom
see this put into practice though. I would
welcome farmers engaging more with the
complex system that is soil.
An indirect indicator of soil fertility is the speed

at which plant residue decomposes. The easiest
way is to observe straw decomposition. If during a
vegetation period straw remains unaltered on the
ground, it shows sparsely active soil life.
Smelling the soil
A fertile soil smells nice, not repellent. You can
compare it with the smell of forest soil or field mar
gins. If the soil smells of rot, something is wrong.
Roots also have an inherent odour which derives
from root excretions (exudates). Leguminous
plants have a pleasant smell. Earthworms can
often be found in the surrounding area.
Stefan Weller, advisor Bioland
Harald Schmidt
Observing the plants

The cultivated plant is always the best indica
tor plant. If it thrives well and healthily over the
years, the result will be a satisfying, high-quality
yield. If such a result is achieved without the use
of nitrogen fertilisers or chemical pesticides, we
may assume high soil fertility. The strength of soil
fertility becomes apparent particularly with unfa
vourable weather conditions over the whole year.
Associated plants, such as thistles or chamomile,
allow damage or signs of deficiency, such as com
pactions, to be revealed.
Interpreting the soil surface
The soil surface already gives indications of the
state of the underlying soil. If it is protected by a
vegetation cover, a surface crumbling emerges; the
so-called biological engineering of soil crumbs. It
can be recognised by its round soil crumbs, which
also prevent excessive capping/siltation and ero
sion of the soil. This is why capping/siltation and
erosion are indicators of a bad state of the soil.
With increasing organic matter content, capping/
siltation and erosion decrease.
Observing the soil life
The activity of earthworms and even smaller spe
cies, such as springtails, can be recognised by their
exit holes on the soil surface. They can mainly be
observed in springtime when organic mass has
been lying on the soil surface ready for consump
tion by soil organisms. At that time, many small
'drill holes', as well as a few bigger ones can be
spotted. With a cut of the spade, the channels can
also be made visible in the topsoil crumb. Earth
worm faeces on the soil surface, too, can indicate
a high activity of this particular soil worker.
Only loose soil allows for good root penetration. When taproots, e.g. of rapeseed, broad beans or
sugar beet, are splitting and branching out, this is an indicator of a compaction or disruptive layer.
Waterlogging and rot can also be detected at the roots.
11
2.2 Observation with the help of

instruments
The spade test
The spade test (also called spade diagnosis) is an
approved manual method for assessing the soil
structure. Before cultivation, the spade test allows
the depth of soil tilth to be checked. If plant growth
is worse in a dry year, the weather is quickly made
the culprit. But could it not also be that the root
depth was being limited by a disruptive layer?
During the summer months, the conditions
after sowing, as well as the effects of soil cultiva
tion, can also be determined on the basis of crop
plants. Extraction is made in four steps. In addition
to the square-end spade, a small claw is needed
for uncovering roots.
Step 1: Choose a test location representative in
terms of growth and surface. You need to take 2
to 3 test samples.
Step 2: Choose the cut of the spade in such a
manner that a crop plant is drawn during pullout. In order to ease the extraction of the soil
brick, dig a lateral hole up to the whole length
of the spade's blade.
Step 3: Then uncover the narrow sides of the test
sample in a wedge-shape with cuts of the spade.
Step 4: Now cut off the soil brick at the back and
carefully lift out the test sample. Resting the
sample on a waist-high support will facilitate the
assessment.
Consider the following during examination:
Can you detect the desirable round soil crumbs and earthworm
holes on the soil surface?
Between horizon A, where cultivation takes place, and horizon

B, the uncultivated subsoil, is there a compacted middle layer,
or a disruptive ploughing sole? See the boundary at a depth of
10cm on the picture above.
Note: Photographs and notes of the soil surface

taken before the sampling and of each test sample
allow for a better assessment of the development
of the soils.
Are the breaking edges in the topsoil rather round, or sharp?

Sharp breaking edges indicate that the soil has had to deal with
strong forces, e.g. heavy weights, and/or that the soil composition has an inferior soil-life development. Picture on the right:
Round soil crumbs under the catch crop of mustard show good
biological engineering.
Taking spade tests requires a lot of care. The soil brick should not be damaged during digging. During
lift-out, the soil brick needs to be held, to prevent it from breaking apart.
12
What form do carefully uncovered roots have? Are fine and side
roots abundant? Does the root length correspond to the season?
Do the roots stand out of the soil brick's bottom (which would
be a good sign)?
Spade test: Example of an assessment

The spade test shown was taken under winter
spelt wheat. The farm had been cultivating its
soils without a plough for a number of years.
The soil surface cannot be made out here,
but the crumb structure in the upper part can be
indicative for the soil surface. The latter was fine
at the time.
You can spot the horizons rather well. Just
about in the middle of
the soil brick is where
cultivation ends. Here
you can also see work
ing depth before the
sowing of spelt wheat,
at about 15 cm depth.
The soil structure of
the cultivation horizon
is excellent. Small round
crumbs can be seen,
and the spelt is able to root through this part of
the soil the many roots and fine roots indicate
this. The soil also crumbles away easily. Thus it is
assessed to be 'good' or 'very good'.
The nearer we get to the boundary with the
uncultivated subsoil, the bigger and more sharpedged the soil lumps are getting. Roots become
visible and protrude at the lower end of the brick.
The spelt wheat is able to root through this

soil. Its dense structure can also be interpreted as
natural carrying capacity under ploughless cultiva
tion. We may rate this soil condition as 'satisfacto
ry' to 'good'.
The boundary between cultivated and unculti
vated soil is very visible. What matters here is that
the roots are continuing to grow regularly and that
rainwater is not being
accumulated (ear th
worm tunnels). Harm
ful compac tion and
natural, dense structure
in the deeper layers
are especially if the
soil is still permeable
for roots often barely
distinguishable without
knowing the conditions
of cultivation. In this case, the examination with a
soil probe alone is not helpful.
The spelt's position in crop rotation is yet to be
included in the assessment. As the first crop after
grass-clover, this sample would be harder to cate
gorise. Being a second or third crop (including the
cultivation of catch crop), the overall impression
of the sample is good.
Stefan Weller, advisor Bioland
The soil probe (penetrometer)

The soil probe is an iron bar that sometimes comes
with a pressure-measurement spring and a pres
sure display. The probe measures the penetration
resistance of the soil, i.e. usually its density. The
probe bar is pressed into the soil with a constant
pressure. If the resistance of the soil grows stronger,
a compaction (or a stone) must have been hit. The
depth is displayed on the probe, or can be meas
ured with a yardstick. The measurement should be
performed several times. The soil probe falls short
of offering data as to how the soil looks inside. If
you suspect there to be difficulties, you should also
dig up the soil.
pH meter
The pH level indicates the acid/base condition of
the soil. It has a significant effect on the plant avail
ability of the nutrients, as well as on the soil life.
The Hellige pH-Meter is a good choice for meas
uring pH. Readings should not only be made on
the soil surface. It is recommended to know the
pH values also at the depths of 10 and 20 cm.
The pH can vary significantly between different soil
layers. Fertiliser input, rock dusts and limings influ
ence the pH.
Stefan Weller
The spade test is a simple yet very in-

formative way to assess the soil's condi
tion in the field on your own. The spade test
has given me a much better understanding
of the soil.
Georg Doppler, organic farmer in Waizenkirchen,
Upper Austria
The Hellige pH-Meter combines the soil with an indicator solution, and the level is shown on a colour
scale.
13
Part 3: Preserving and Improving Soil Fertility

3.1 Humus (soil organic matter)
management
In organic farming, the formation of soil organic
matter is regarded as an important contributing
factor for the improvement of soil problems. There
are good reasons for this, since a closer look reveals
organic matter to be the crucial point of soil fertility:
Organic matter tends to deposit itself as layer on
the surfaces of crumbs. On such surfaces, big
ger lumps tend to break again (predetermined
break points), so that smaller crumbs remain.
Organic matter covers the crumbs and pro
tects them from too much water. This way, the
crumbs burst less frequently in the rain, and the
soil experiences less capping/siltation.
On surfaces rich in organic matter, crumbs of
heavier soils do not stick together as much. Thus
soils remain cultivable over a greater humidity
range. Organic matter not only lightens heavy
soils, but also makes light soils more cohesive
with clay-humus-complexes!
Green waste and manure become organic matter-like, and therefore more valuable for the preservation of soil fertility.
14
Do we take our time to appreciate soil

and plant with all senses, and not just
superficially when driving over it? Are we
developing a sense for our soils and plants,
instead of following general recipes? Have
we preserved our curiosity and willingness
to learn in order to better understand the
complex system that is soil?
Nikola Patzel
In crumbled, non-capped/non-silted soils,

smaller quantities of fine material are washed
into the deeper soil layers. Rain seepage also
follows more rapidly. Therefore less erosion
happens. Roots can intrude deeper into such
soils, and get the water in the lower layers dur
ing droughts. Such soils show a better water
balance.
More organic matter means also more nourish
ment for bacteria, fungi and other organisms in
the soil. More active soil microorganisms also
reduce pest populations in the soil.
Green vegetation decays rapidly into nutritious
organic matter which is nourishment for the soil
organisms. Lignified plant materials and dead
microorganisms, on the other hand, take longer
to decay. They integrate with clay minerals and
become a clay-humus complex, i.e. permanent
organic matter.
Whether soils are rich or poor in organic matter
depends also very much on the location con
ditions. Heavy and humid soils tend to be rich
er in organic matter, whereas sandy and loess
soils tend to be rather poor in organic matter.
The effects of organic matter reduction due to
unsustainable crop rotation can often only be
seen after a number of years. The formation of
organic matter with crop rotation therefore also
takes several years. The addition of green and
manure compost can speed up the process.
In this way, a lack of organic matter in the crop
rotation may be partially compensated for. Addi
tionally bought high-quality manure composts
come at a price, of course.
An increase of the organic matter content leads
to a more active and crumbly soil with a better
nitrogen supply. A decrease of the organic mat
ter content leads to a tougher, quickly eroding
soil with a tendency to compact and with a low
er nitrogen supply.
How can one improve the humus content

of the soil?
With green and manure compost, more
mature organic matter compounds are intro
duced to the soil, largely resisting decomposi
tion, and promoting organic matter formation.
Lignified crop residues are only slowly degrad
ed, and thus tend to promote lignin-degrad
ing, slow-growing soil fungi, which enrich the
soil flora. These crop residues contribute to
the formation of permanent organic matter.
Perennial grass-clover in the crop rotation not
only introduces organic matter formation, but
also a lot of easily degradable root mass to
the soil, and thus primarily provides nutrients
for earthworms and microorganisms.
Balancing organic matter

The objective of every cultivation should be to
achieve an at least balanced humus (organic mat
ter) budget on all the plots over the period of the
entire crop rotation. Whether the goal has been
achieved or not can be monitored with an organic
matter balance.
The methods of balancing organic matter (so far
mainly used in Germany, Austria and Switzerland)
are mostly built on estimates and calculations
based on the crop rotation and the cultivation. For
the balancing on organic farms, only a handful
of methods are suitable, such as e.g. the REPRO
method by Hlsbergen1 and the site specific meth
od (Standortangepasste Methode) by Kolbe. For
the application of organic matter balances national
standards apply. Organic matter balances of differ
ent farms must be compared with caution. Addi
tionally, organic matter measurements are recom
mended every couple of years. However, not only
the total quantity of organic matter is important,
but also the quality of permanent organic matter,
as well as the turnover of nutrient organic matter.
mately cause great problems with soil fertility and

plant diseases. A good crop rotation must produce
permanent organic matter in the long term, or at
least keep the balance even and avoid the devel
opment of diseases, pests and weeds.
The central element of each organic crop rota
tion is grass-clover. Under grass-clover, the soil can
rest. Weed seeds are prevented from germinating,
and diseases and pests are subdued and cut down
by the increased activity of soil organisms. The
longer grass-clover is permitted to stand, the higher
is its value as a preceding crop. Three-year-old clo
ver meadows also effectively suppress thistles. The
use of other short-term green manures however,
can only partially replace grass-clover, because of
their short cultivation period.
In the long run, a broad and varied crop rotation
with a high percentage of green cover and chang
ing cultivation and harvest periods will pay off.
Hansueli Dierauer
Grass-clover is an effective self-enforcer of soil fertility. Without leguminous leys or green manures as
a main crop in crop rotation, durably profitable organic farming is not possible.
With regulated organic matter management, we are able to preserve the fertility of our soils and to regenerate unsound
soils. The contributing factors should be
made up of manure and compost fertilisation in combination with green compost
and cultivation of leguminous crops, with
appropriate cultivation.
Alfred Berner
3.2 Organic matter-preserving crop

rotations
A too one-sided orientation of the market in organ
ic farming has the result that crop rotation rules are
partially disregarded because of short-term aspects:
crop rotations are being narrowed and lined up
lacking balance, and the share of grass-clover is
being reduced. When it comes to crop rotation
in organic farming, the soil should again be the
focus of consideration. Cultivating solely commer
cial crops with the highest contribution margin per
hectare, and largely renouncing the cultivation of
fertility building leys and green manures, will ulti
Peter Neessen, organic farmer on the Terrenhof in

St. Vith, Belgium
Brock, C., Hoyer,U., Leithold, G., Hlsbergen, K.-J., 2008. A New

Approach to Humus Balancing in Organic Farming, 16th IFOAM
Organic World Congress, Modena, Italy, June 1620, 2008
(archived at http://orgprints.org/view/projects/conference.html).
15
Organic matter-effective rules for crop

rotation:
Crop residues of a few crop plants
Crop
Crop residue (tonnes of dry

matter per ha and year)
A minimum of 20% of grass-clover in the

crop rotation, for the development of soil fer
tility and weed suppression.
Maximum 60% cereals in the crop rotation,
and maximum 20% of a single type of crop,
in order to avoid diseases.
Changing between foliage plants and cere
als, organic matter-promoting and organic
matter-exhausting crops, winter and summer
crops, early sowings and late sowings, to pre
vent overexploitation of the soil, and prob
lems with soil-borne diseases and problem
atic weeds.
Cultivating catch crops for green manuring for
the production of nutrients and organic matter,
as well as for the protection of the soil from
erosion.
0,61
Potatoes, sugar beet

Autumn temporary fodder cultivation
0,9 1,8
Cereals, thresher peas, maize, rapeseed,

field beans
12
Winter temporary fodder cultivation
1,5 3
Sowing for use in autumn
24
Grass-clover- and -lucerne mixtures
36,5
Source: Lehrmittel Bodenkunde, edition-lmz, Switzerland
Schematic examples of a organic matter-promoting and of an organic matter-exhausting crop rotation

Especially root-crop-dominated crop rotations often show a negative humus balance in practice. The following examples
show how even crop rotations with strongly exhaustive root crops and an average of 0,5 to 0,8 livestock units can achieve
a positive humus balance.
Liquid manure Manure (+ 1,0)

(+ 0,6)
Liquid manure (+ 0,6)
Hairmeal pellets
(+ 0)
Manure
(+ 1,0)
Potatoes
Spelt
Year
Organic
matterexhausting
Balance:
Maize
Grass-clover Winter wheat
( 1,0)
( 2,1)
1,3 organic (+ 1,8)
matter units1
Freezing green manure (+ 0,2)
Grain legumes
(+ 0,4)
( 2,8)
( 1,0)
Organic matter-exhausting crop rotation: This crop rotation only makes use of stacked manure (muck heap) and has only single-year
grass-clover. As manure is needed for maize and spelt, the farmer has to use organic commercial fertiliser for potatoes. In combination
with a single frost-kill green manure (e.g. mustard), organic matter is depleted because of the root crops.
Liquid manure Rotted manure (+ 1,4)

(+ 0,6)
Liquid manure (+ 0,6)
Year
Manure
compost (+ 2,0)
Organic
matterpromoting
Grass-clover
Balance:
+ 2,8 organic (+ 1,8)
matter units1
Grass-clover Winter wheat

(+ 1,4)
( 1,0)
Maize
( 2,1)
Grain legumes
(+ 0,4)
Potatoes
( 2,8)
Overwintering green manure (+ 0,3) Freezing green manure (+ 0,2)
Organic matter-promoting crop rotation: This crop rotation comprises two years of grass-clover which contributes significantly to the
formation of organic matter. Adding rotted manure and manure compost brings much stable organic matter into the soil. The two
green manures (e.g. grass-clover, green oats) provide much fresh biomass. Despite two very exhausting crops (potatoes are simply an
example), the organic matter balance of this crop rotation is positive. Farms lacking animal manure may improve their organic matter
balance with generous additions of plant-based compost.
* Calculation basis: Organic matter units simplified according to Leithold and Hlsbergen, Journal kologie & Landbau, Edition 105,
1/1998, pages 3235. Assumption: Addition of liquid manure: 30m3; diluted 1:1; Addition of manure: 20t.
16
3.3 Organic fertiliser

Manure and liquid manure from animal husbandry,
as well as composts and green cuttings from plant
cultivation, are the most important organic ferti
lisers in organic farming. More recently, fermenta
tion substrates from biogas plants have also been
coming into use more frequently.
These organic fertilisers influence the soil with
differing qualities: physically from liquid to firm
ly structured, chemically from simple-mineral to
complex-organic, organically from one-sided to
many-sided.
Long-straw varieties serve not only high straw production, but

also the production of organic matter.
The challenge of soil fatigue

If a plant species or a group of species cannot
be successfully cultivated in a soil after three to
four years of cultivation break, the phenomenon
is called soil fatigue. Apple trees, roses and legu
minous plants are especially known for this. Soil
fatigue may be caused by an accumulation of
pathogenic microbes, by a one-sided impoverish
ment of the soils regarding essential nutrients, by
toxins exuded by plants (allelopathy), by a bad soil
structure, or by a combination of these factors.
Legume fatigue can pose problems to an organ
ic farm. It manifests itself in a year-by-year decrease
in the vigour of grass-clover and grain legumes. It
is based on an ecological imbalance in the soil
(development of pests) and various possible caus
es are currently being researched. A cure is usually
individual to the farm and requires competent con
sultation.
Compost
Compost contains organic matter, stabilised by rot
ting, which serves the production of organic matter.
It provides the soil with a phosphorus-emphasised
nutrient-mix. Time and again, studies have shown
that compost advances soil life and soil fertility one
step further than other organic fertilisers would on
their own: compost rebuilds the soil. While manure
compost also displays a good nitrogen effect,
green waste compost has rather little effect.
In practice, the communal composting of com
munity green waste and individual manure has
proven effective, also economically; the costs of a
turning machine and labour can be paid for with
the contributions from green waste composting.
Each country has its own legal framework to be
followed.
When young, lignin-containing plant composts
are added to rapidly growing crops, it may lead to
a temporary nitrogen-block in the soil, especially
in spring. In such cases, more mature composts
already containing nitrate are more suitable. An
auxiliary fertilisation with a readily available organic
source of nitrogen, such as liquid manure, can help
lower the risk.
Long-term experience shows that a crop

rotation with two years of grass-clover
does not guarantee that the organic matter
content will be preserved, even less so for a
soil with a high level of organic matter. It can
be decisive how many crop residues remain
in the field or are restored.
Alfred Berner, FiBL
Producing a (micro-) biologically high-quality compost, which does not damage the environment and
boosts plants, necessitates good knowledge and experience.
17
What needs to be considered when

composting green waste or manure?
Compost should not be waterlogged (check
by squeezing it in your fist). Covering may be
needed.
Compost should not dry out. If necessary,
water the compost during turning.
Turning the compost helps the rotting process.
Adding soil (10%) promotes stable organic
matter compounds.
A rotting temperature of at least 50C promotes
hygiene and kills off weed seeds.
Liquid manure
Liquid manure contains much readily available
ammoniacal nitrogen and quickly mineralising
organic substances which contribute little to the
formation of organic matter. The quick and specif
ically applicable fertilising ability of liquid manure
during growth is its great advantage.
Liquid manure should be applied during humid
weather on absorbent soils, in order to minimise
loss of nutrients as well as the harmful effect on
air and water. If too much liquid manure is applied
to the soil, the emerging ammonia can burn earth
worms living on the surface. A well-developed soil
life may however incorporate moderate adminis
trations of diluted or processed liquid manure of
about 25m3 per hectare into the food chain, and
thus return it into the organic cycle.
Manure
Manure, being a mixture of plant and animal sub
stances, is a more balanced fertiliser than liquid
manure. Its quality however depends greatly on
its storage. For the production of soil and for yield,
slightly rotted manure and mature manure com

post are significantly better than fresh manure or
(rotting) stacked manure. Even if only consider
ing nitrogen, processed manure works as a better
fertiliser, as it will not induce nitrogen-blocks from
barely rotted straw or cause damage via manure
clods. Manure compost approaches the quality
of compost given a longer storage time. Deep lit
ter manure is a special case: it usually requires an
additional mechanical loosening before it can rot
and then be applied.
Appropriately evaluating the nitrogen effect
The effectiveness of a fertiliser as a provider of
nitrogen depends not only on its nitrogen content,
but also on the ratio of carbon and nitrogen (C/N
ratio). Liquid manure has e.g. C/N 7 ('narrow'),
straw has C/N 50 to 100 ('broad'), compost is
often around a C/N of 20 to 30. A rapid N-fertilis
ation takes place at a C/N ratio of about 10. With
a rising C/N ratio, organic fertilisers function more
and more as long-term fertilisers with an increasing
contribution to the formation of organic matter. The
speed of nitrogen absorption also depends strong
ly on general availability of nitrogen in the soil, e.g.
on the nitrogen found in root exudates of legumes,
on the temperature and humidity of the soil, as
well as on the diversity and vitality of the soil life.
Manure should reach the soil as brown

rotted manure or manure compost,
and not as fresh farmyard manure. This way,
it is best transformed by soil organisms.
Alfred Berner, FiBL
Within the substance cycle of

soil fertility, cows usually play
the leading role. Digestion, milk
and manure of a cow feeding
on diversified roughage differ
quantifiably from a heavily
protein-fed cow.
18
Digestates as fertilisers?
Since the invention of biogas plants, it has been
possible to fertilise with their digestates. The diges
tate often originates from the same initial sub
strates as compost (liquid manure, solid manure,
plant material, etc.), and it also contains a similar
amount of nutrients and organic matter. Due to
different degradation processes during compost
ing and fermentation, the quality of such fertilisers
however varies considerably: compost emerges
with oxygen from aerobic rotting; its organic mat
ter and nitrogen are stabilised during maturation.
Digestate, on the other hand, emerges without
oxygen from anaerobic fermentation (rotting), and
is still in the process of degradation when being
applied. This is why the following should be con
sidered for fertilisation with digestates:
Liquid digestate (digestate/fermentation liquid
manure) contains much ammonium (NH 4+),
which can easily escape as ammonia (NH 3)
during drying. Digestate liquid manure should
therefore be used on absorbent soil during cool,
humid and windless weather with a trailing
hose or shoe, or with the slotted-nozzle proce
dure, perhaps even in diluted form. Avoid anaer
obic conditions for formation of nitrous oxide
(N2O)!
Moist, solid digestate can be effective as a
fast nutrient provider, but makes an uncertain
contribution to long-term organic matter produc
tion and adds next to nothing to the soil struc
ture. If digestate dries out, ammonia is lost! Moist
digestate may be rotted later on, to create better
compost. In order to minimise loss of ammonia,
you should mix in slightly rotted woody material.
In organic farming, fertilising with digestates is only
allowed with restrictions (consult the relevant certi
fication guidelines!).
Alfred Berner and Jacques Fuchs
Is there a phosphorus-deficiency problem

on organic farms?
In farms lacking addition of nutrients, phospho
rus can become scarce in fodder or fertiliser. A
possible way to address phosphorus deficiency
without having to acquire raw phosphate would
be to add manure or compost. Cultivation of
legumes and the promotion of soil-microorgan
ism activity may be able to mobilise larger quan
tities of phosphorus bound in the soil. Farms
which are suffering from a phosphorus deficien
cy for plants and animals often have a high pH
value in their soils. The high pH value impedes
the plants' uptake of phosphorus.
Solid digestates can transform into more valuable fertiliser with the help of aerobic post-rotting.
Content of main nutrients (in kg per t) in organic fertilisers (fresh substance)
Corg
Norganic
Nmineral
Animal-run
manure*
175
4,0
1,3
1,0
9,0
Stacked
manure*
150
4,1
0,8
1,4
5,5
Manure
compost*
106
4,6
1,0
2,0
6,6
Green waste
compost
214
6,7
0,3
0,1
4,2
Solid digestate
235
5,7
0,3
0,1
4,2
Slurry 1:1*
35
0,9
1,2
0,4
6,6
Liquid
digestate
61
2,0
2,0
0,9
3,3
* Farm fertiliser from dairy cattle
Source: GRUDAF, Switzerland, 2009
Organic nitrogen becomes plant-available in the mid- and long-term; mineral nitrogen however can
quickly be absorbed by the plants and microorganisms with potential negative impacts on plant
health and product quality. It is also promptly lost. The table shows average figures. Especially the
phosphorus content of the fertilisers can vary widely, depending on what the animals were fed.
If soils have been depleted and exhaus

ted over centuries, we have the duty
and debt as arable farmers to help these
soils regenerate.
Sepp Braun, organic farmer in Freising, Germany
19
3.4 Green manure

Good reasons for the use of green manures are
manifold. They improve soil quality, decrease
crop-rotation diseases, and help to bind nutrients
from the air or to mobilise them in the soil. Green
manuring is a one of the most important possibili
ties for farms with few or no cattle to nourish the
soil and to produce organic matter.
But no green manure can meet all demands
and wishes at the same time. Depending on what
is to be achieved with green manure, different sin
gle seeds and mixtures are worth considering. A
mixture with grasses is often sensible when the
green manure is also being used for fodder. For
pure green manures, grass-free mixtures are also
well suited.
Objective: Erosion protection during winter

For erosion protection, the timely seeding of a
winter-hardy green manure, such as a grass-clover
mixture or ryegrass after cereals, or forage rye (also
vetch rye) or winter turnips after potatoes or maize
can be used.
Green manures and climate

Green manures that are incorporated after they
have been killed by frost, or those that are rich in
biomass and winter-hardy, can release more cli
mate-damaging gases (especially nitrous oxide)
into the atmosphere during freezing and thaw
ing cycles in winter. Winter-hardy green manures
sown before the beginning of September
(depending on climatic region) should be mown
in October, and the mowings removed from the
field, e.g. for use as silage.
Objective: Nitrogen supply for following crop

The best nitrogen supplies are achieved by leg
ume crops, e.g. peas or field beans, or, for longer
service times and seeding after cereal harvesting,
clover-lucerne mixtures. Dense legume cultivations,
left standing until flowering, can furnish 70140kg
nitrogen per hectare for the following crop. For
short-term greening during the season and with a
growth period of about 3 months, summer vetches
or Egyptian-Persian clover are suitable. Undersown
grass-clover stubbles bring an increase of 50kg N
per hectare.
Especially grain legumes, such as the lupine,
are able to tap phosphorus for following crops, as
well as fixing nitrogen.
In spite of time, labour and cost efforts, the cultivation of green manures across the whole crop rotation is economically sound, as market crops deliver more stable yields.
Choose the appropriate plants for your

objective
Objective: Improved soil structure, production
of organic matter
For organic matter production, grass-clover mix
tures with cultivation duration of at least 1,5 years
are best suited, as they grow roots through the soil
most thoroughly and intensively.
Ideally, the mixture is regularly mown (perhaps
with fodder sales), and the last growth processed
into mulch. Cattle-free farms can dispense with
grasses (lucerne-clover mixtures), to bring in more
nitrogen but it is usually an advantage to include
grasses, as they greatly promote organic matter
production thanks to their stronger soil rooting and
they provide a more stable release of nitrogen with
lower risk of leaching. In dry locations, lucernegrass mixtures work best.
20
Objective: Conservation of nitrogen for the

following crop
For this purpose, fast growing varieties, especially
green oats, forage rye, or mustard and Brassica
rapa/turnip varieties are most suitable.
Oil (fodder) radish in particular can exploit deep
soil layers and recuperate translocated nitrogen. If
however frost-kill varieties are not ploughed before
winter, and the following crop is cultivated before
winter, much nitrogen can be wasted.
Quite a few new varieties are currently being
introduced into cultivation as catch crops, such as
Sudangrass, lyme grass, Guizotia (Guizotia abyssinica/ramtil), which grow fast and efficiently sup
press weeds , and are in part drought-resistant.
Experience will tell which ones will prevail.
Nitrogen gain from legumes

At the cut from grass-clover and pure legume
cultivation, the N supply can be estimated as fol
lows:
Grass-clover stubbles: +50kg N/ha.
Grass-clover before grass shoots: 1525kg N/
ha for each kg/m2 of fresh mass. This gives
us, given 14kg of fresh mass per m2, about
20100kg N per hectare.
Grass-clover after grass shoots (including for
age rye, green oats): 020kg N/ha, regard
less of quantity, as the C/N ratio is usually
quite wide.
Pure legumes before flowering about
3035kg N/ha per kg of fresh mass and m2.
Dense, knee-high cultivation about 34kg/m2
= 80140kg N/ha.
This silty soil of an organically cultivated vegetable farm near Vienna shows structure problems.
Marchfeld has almost no animal husbandry, and therefore no farm manure. With additionally bought
straw and green manure, the farm is now offering more nourishment to soil organisms, in order to
improve the soil structure. This will also reduce water and wind erosion.
Green manures and their effect

Green manure/
mixture
Production
of organic
matter
Gain of
nitrogen
for following crop
Subsoil
loosening
Erosion
protection
during
winter
Prevention
of pests
and
diseases1
Weed suppression
Comments
Grass-clover
1,5 years
Suppresses thistles and bindweed, pro

motes docks/sorrels. Risk of wireworms
for following crop. Thorough rooting of the
deeper soil with lucernes.
Pure grass seeds

(up to 9 months)
Non-host for root-knot nematodes and

many crop-rotation diseases of root crops
and vegetables.
Clover-lucerne
mixture
(up to 9 months)
Suited as a green manure between cereals

and maize, little depth effect given an
over-year-long cultivation. Longer periods
of cultivation maybe applicable.
Lupines, field
beans (until
flowering)
Susceptible to nematode varieties, few

problems with wireworms in following
crop. Lupines need warmth. Rather unsuit
able when legumes are part of the main
crop.
Peas, vetches
(until flowering)
Pea is less warmth-dependent, also suita

ble for winter cultivation. Vetches depend
ing on type. Peas are unsuitable if the
same are part of the main crop. Vetches
only limitedly.
Phacelia
(until flowering)
Not related to crop types. N-gain via pre

vention of washing out.
Oil (fodder)
radish
Not in a crop rotation with cruciferous

plants, subsoil loosening only when cul
tivated for a longer period. N-gain via
prevention of washing out. Recovery effect
depending on variety (nematodes).
Key: no effect; = very strong effect; 1 Focus on diseases with a wide range of hosts, and nematodes
21
Objective: Subsoil loosening

For this purpose, oil (fodder) radish or perennially
cultivated lucerne are worth considering.
The soil must be loosened with a cultivator
beforehand, so that the roots and green-manure
plants may access the deeper soil layers more eas
ily and subsequently stabilise the pores (biological
engineering). Oil radish also requires a sufficient
ly long cultivation period of at least 3 months for
good effects. Lupines and field beans can, along
side other deep-rooting legumes, also be used for
a deeper root penetration of the soil.
Objective: Prevention of diseases and pests
Green manures are supposed to minimise the
disease and pest pressure for the following crop.
Therefore no green manure should be cultivated
that is closely related to the main crop (e.g. mus
tard with rapeseed or cabbage varieties). Peas are
most succession-sensitive, followed by other types
of legumes. Green manures of grain legumes do
not belong in a crop rotation which cultivates the
same legume as a main crop.
One should pay attention to diseases and pests
which affect many different host plants, such as
Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia and certain kinds of nema
todes.
Highly disease-susceptible green manures (e.g.
sunflowers to Sclerotinia) should be avoided if sus
ceptible main crops are cultivated (rapeseed, vege
tables, sunflowers).
With the overwintering cultivation of a green
manure, crop-rotation problems can be bypassed.
For example, root-knot nematodes cannot repro
duce on winter peas or vetches if the plants are
broken up at an early enough stage.
Objective: Weed suppression
Seed-propagated weeds can be suppressed with
fast-growing green manures. Often the best mix
tures to use are ones that take well to cutting, i.e.
are amenable to a cut (a scarifying cut) soon after
growth to 1015cm in height, and which then form
a densely closed stand. Perennial weeds, such as
thistles and bindweeds, are best suppressed with
perennial stands of grass-clover.
Martin Koller
3.5 Promoting wild plants instead of

fighting weeds?
Most wild plants originate from riverbanks and
locations where the soil was constantly in motion.
Thanks to cereal cultivation they have made their
way to Central Europe, where they colonised the
fields as 'weeds'. They took their time adapting to
certain light and soil conditions. This is why they
are often specialised, some making use of even
extreme conditions such as compacted soils.
Europe counts about 650 plant species among its
field plants. Depending on the soil's acidity and
the cultivated crop (cereal or root crop), different
plant communities emerge.
This beautiful cornflower brings beneficial organisms into field

and vegetable cultivations. It is contributing to the agroecosystem's self-regulation.
Due to the use of herbicides, intensive nitrogen-fer

tilisation, seed cleaning, sophisticated cultivation
techniques, and productive arable crop plants, life
conditions of these field plants have worsened
considerably. Today, 40% (Germany) to 80%
(Switzerland) of those species are on the Red
List. Moreover, after years of conventional farming,
the seed stock is depleted in such a way that the
absence of location-typical species persists even
years after a transition.
All that sprouts from the earth has its

particular intended purpose, and dili
gently contributes to the completion of the
entire Creation. Nothing growing from the
earth is in vain, nothing useless oftentimes the same that poses harm to you is
harmless feed to birds and animals.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 339-397 AD
22
How to promote endangered field plants?
The following measures can help preserve

endangered field plants:
Minimum tillage of the soil.
Allow for regular fallow periods.
Choose greater row distances or sow crops by
hand.
Later on, stubble cultivation with use as sheep
or cattle pasture.
Include location-specific, older crop plants
such as flax, lentils, buckwheat or millet.
Possibly cultivate perennial forage crops
(there is however a conflict of objective with
soil fertility!).
Various benefits not least for the soil

Field plants form the basis of existence for many a
beneficial organism, promote pollination rates, and
provide distraction feed for pests. They also pro
mote the soil's tilth (optimum soil condition), as
they root through the crop plants and protect them
from direct sunlight. On fields staying without plant
cover for longer periods, such as e.g. maize, they
can counteract erosion.
From wild plant to problem weed
In principle, wild plants are competitors of crop
plants for water, nutrients, light and space, and
were therefore exterminated for the sake of crops.
The varieties permanently established in the field
have adapted to weed control. Yet many wild
plants are non-problematic because of their weak
competitiveness.
Unfavourable growing conditions, especially,
bring out varieties which are superior in growth to
arable crops. Plants like the creeping thistle, the
field bindweed, docks (sorrels) or wild rye (wheat
grass), which can multiply fast from roots or rhi
zomes, are a great challenge in the field.
A balanced crop rotation, careful soil cultiva
tion, and optimal starting and growth conditions
for arable crops often contribute to the wild plants
becoming an accompanying flora which can have
overall positive effects on soil fertility and harvests.
Soil cultivation irritates wild plants!
Every kind of soil movement, even that provoked
by a light, minimal tillage of the soil, stimulates the
wild plants' germination. If there is a strong emer
gence of wild plants, these can be controlled with
multiple minimum stubble-tillage or multiphase
seedbed preparation with a pseudo-seedbed. Only
after these possibilities have been tried should one
decide whether weeds should be controlled with
special devices or in other ways.
This accompanying flora for oats, consisting of Camelina (false flax) and low-growing clover, will not
become weeds. Other wild plants like the creeping thistle, wild rye (wheatgrass) or the field bindweed should however be regulated in organic farming.
How many field plants does wheat tolerate or need?
Many studies have substantiated the

important role organic arable farming
has in protecting endangered field flora. In
organic fields, the diversity of wild plant varieties is two to three times higher than with
herbicidal cultivation. High cultivation intensity, nurse crops, perennial field forage-crop
cultivation, excessive control of field weeds,
and immediate stubble cultivation have
adverse effects on the diversity of the flora
in organic farming too.
Lukas Pfiffner, FiBL
Lukas Pfiffner and Herwart Bhm
23
3.6 Soil compaction and how to avoid it
What to do if soil is compacted?
Soil compaction Machine-induced damage

on the ground
Soil compaction occurs when vehicle-induced soil
pressures are higher than a soil's carrying capacity.
Any soil can be compacted, be it sandy or clay soil.
Damaging compactions of clay soils are quickly
apparent. Fertile loess-loam soils seem to be more
forgiving of mistakes. But even they show compac
tion, although yield reductions may only be seen
in years of extreme weather conditions. Even small
proportions of silt and clay increase the compac
tion sensitivity of sandy soils.
During mechanical loosening of the subsoil, the

soil may lose more of its structure, resulting in
a re-consolidation worse than the original com
paction that was being tackled. To avoid this, the
following should be observed:
Only carry out subsoil loosening if the soil is
dry in the loosening depth.
Stabilise the loosened structure by sowing
long-term deep-rooting plant species (e.g.
grass-clover, lucerne), if possible during the
same working step.
Change cultivation techniques in such a way
that mistakes are not repeated.
If the soil is being compacted, this primarily means
that the soils supply lines for oxygen and water are
being crushed. As a consequence, the soil absorbs
water less well, and water drains off on the sur
face. The living conditions for soil microorganisms
and roots deteriorate with the lack of air exchange,
i.e. the resulting lack of oxygen. Soil compaction
makes physically deep-reaching soils ecologically
shallower by obstructing roots from growing into
deeper soil layers.
A severely compacted soil, with mechanically loosened subsoil, before the sowing of lucerne.
Growth of grass-clover and lucerne with unhindered soil penetration of over 2 metres depth.
"The courage of waiting is one way to avoid

mistakes"
Soil moisture is the defining factor of a soil's car
rying capacity because the water works as a lubri
cant between the soil particles. If there is too much
water, the soil structure ceases to support it. It takes
nerve to wait until the soil has dried and is stable,
but it is well worth it in the long term. An antici
patory crop rotation and choice of crops, allowing
for more flexibility especially during the sowing and
harvest season, can be helpful in this case. Catch
crops draw water from the soil in autumn and
improve its carrying capacity for autumn sowing.
Sometimes a soil has been so compacted with heavy machinery that life
can barely get by. In this case we need to
apply expensive technology and roughly
repair the damage. Then, everything needs
to stabilised with complete root penetration
of all the soil layers, and be brought back
into balance. We as humans are responsible
for this.
Sepp Braun, organic farmer in Freising, Germany
24
We first had to learn what a heavy soil

really means. If you have got a spade
and take out about a spade's length of soil,
and water is present, it is quite clear that
you have no business working on the soil. It
may look dry on the surface, but this does
not mean that you can go on the field. And
you really need to develop a sense for this.
Uwe Brede, organic farmer in Hesse, Germany
Soils are more stable if they are cultivated less

often and less deeply. Uncultivated soil develops,
thanks to the work of earthworms and microorgan
isms, a thorough system of pores, which ensures
sufficient air and water supplies. There may how
ever be conflicts with mechanical weed control
operations.
The inner pressure of a tyre largely corresponds
to the pressure on the soil surface to a depth of
about 10cm. This makes it clear that the tyre pres
sure should be kept low. Modern radial tyres are
ideal, as they can be driven on the field with a very
low pressure, whereas trailers with truck tyres do
not belong on the field!
To determine how much the tyre pressure can
be lowered, one needs to find out the wheel load
(measured axle load divided by two), and to read
the minimal tyre pressure for the wheel load and
driving speed recommended in the tyre-pressure
table provided by the manufacturer. This procedure
increases the transfer of traction and reduces sur
face-smearing slippage.
The greater the wheel load, the deeper the pres
sure penetrates the soil, independent of contact
area and inner tyre pressure. Wide tyres can there
fore help avoid topsoil compaction, but are less
effective against subsoil compaction given higher
wheel loads. Lighter tractors, trailers and machinery
are generally more soil-conserving, and allow for
inner tyre pressures of even less than 1 bar/14,5
Psi.
As an additional rule: the more frequently the
soil is driven on, the more compaction you have
in the driving lane. Driving practice adjusted to the
requirements of the soil promotes soil fertility and
saves money.
The on-land plough can drive outwith the furrow. The as yet uncultivated soil sustains less damage
from driving. Slippage and the creation of a plough sole can be avoided. The usual rules of practice
against soil compaction still apply for the on-land plough.
Melanie Wild, Markus Demmel, and Robert Brandhuber
This very compact silt soil on a slope is physically moderately compacted. Was the compaction caused by driving, or may we interpret it as a good natural carrying capacity for driving? After
decades of strong erosion, this soil has been cultivated without ploughing, but including the use of
glyphosate. The soil is permeable for earthworms and water; erosion has been stopped. However, the
dense bedding and the modest organic activity of the soil have led to a lack of mesopores as well as
to a relatively low water-retention capacity.
25
3.7 Soil erosion and how to avoid it

Every mechanical soil cultivation technique loos
ens the soil's compound structure and thereby
reduces the energy expenditure needed to wash
away soil material. Freshly cultivated soil lacking a
protective vegetation cover is, given even a very
slight slope, vulnerable to the impact of raindrops
and to surface runoff.
The primary objective of farming should

be to keep the soil permanently covered. Even organic farming can still improve
in this area. For instance, we should reconsider the late sowing of cereal in autumn;
the soil lies bare for a long time and the
cereal cannot possibly exploit the available
nutrients before winter. We should further
favour mixed instead of monocultures this
is where organic farming still barely differs
from other cultivation methods.
Bernd Ewald, organic advisor, IBLA, Luxemburg
The pictures show the impact

of erosion. The remaining
soil is structurally weak, and
shows a low germination rate.
Sown-in soil from a depth of
020cm (A), 2030cm (B),
and 3060cm (C), under a
700-year-old meadow.
Organic farming generally creates good conditions

for the prevention of water and wind erosion: The
proportion of especially erosion-vulnerable row
crops is low, and grass-clover guarantees a good
soil cover and helps to stabilise soil aggregates after
cultivation. Nevertheless there are periods without
soil cover and the clean-wiped slate associated
with the use of the plough is still common practice.
Robert Brandhuber, Markus Demmel,and Melanie Wild
Erosion-effective cultivation measures:
Lay out hedges transversely to the slope. The

division of a 200-m-long, erosive slope into
two 100-m-long slopes reduces the soil loss
by a third.
Lay out wide grass verges alongside streams
as buffer zones, ideally with trees and bush
es. A number of countries offer corresponding
funding programmes.
Where possible, cultivate transversely to the
slope.
Avoid the cultivation of crops with wide row
spacing (e.g. maize) or requiring frequent
soil cultivation (e.g. field vegetables) on ero
sion-endangered fields.
Cover the soil with catch crops and nurse
crops.
26
Requirements for erosion protection

In United Kingdom, to qualify for your full
Basic Payment Scheme (BPS) payment
or any payments under greening or agri-
environmental schemes, you must meet
the requirements of GAECs 4, 5 and 6. This
means that you must: a) take all reasona
ble steps to protect soil by having minimum
soil cover unless there is an agronomic jus
tification not to or where establishing a cov
er would conflict with requirements under
GAEC 5 (GAEC 4); b) manage your land to
minimise soil erosion (GAEC 5); and c) use
appropriate practices to maintain the levels
of organic matter in soil (GAEC 6).
Germany implemented stricter regulations
for erosion protection in erosion-endangered
locations in 2010, within the scope of Cross
Compliance (requirements for direct pay
ments).
In Austria, the measures greening of ara
ble land and mulch/no-till farming can be
combined with organic cultivation on the
same piece of land, and are eligible activities
within the agri-environmental project. Similar
funding measures are offered by the Ger
man federal states.
Switzerland counts criteria regarding catch
crops and soil-cover rate among its require
ments for the ecological proof of perfor
mance.
In Luxembourg, the sowing of catch crops
and nurse crops, mulch and no-till farm
ing, and the planting of erosion-controlling
or green verges are supported by an agrienvironmental project.
A bad surface structure should be a warning signal to every conscientious farmer! A good cover and
well-nourished biological engineering in the topsoil are prerequisites for a sustainable agriculture.
Pictures: An arable field without (above) and with (below) organic fertilisation after heavy rain (longterm DOK-trial by FiBL in Therwil, Switzerland). An organically nourished and biologically active soil
can better absorb rainwater, and retains its surface structure even after the rain. Thus, the soil is better
protected against erosion.
The worse the soil structure is, and the

more energy a plant needs to root
through the ground, the weaker it is. This
can play a role for surface diseases and
pests. What's more, the environment in the
soil often promotes certain foot diseases. I
observe this often with peas, which are very
susceptible to compaction. If the soil is too
dense, foot diseases occur more often and
can be identified at an early stage. Soil structure and plant health hence often strongly
correlate. Cereal varieties are mostly less vulnerable than peas.
Harald Schmidt, SL
Nurse crops are an effective measure against erosion. The soil-covering vegetation absorbs the
impact of raindrops, and the near-surface rooting has a superior cohesion effect for the soil.
27
Part 4: The Future of Soil Culture

4.1 Taking account of the climate
Agriculture and climate change are strongly corre
lated. On the one hand, agriculture is threatened
by global warming: increasing drought, and aug
mented extreme precipitation and erosion, pose
difficulties for food production worldwide. On the
other hand, agriculture contributes about 1015%
of overall greenhouse gas emissions. Taking into
account the emissions of the supply industry (fer
tilisers, pesticides), and land reclamation through
deforestation, the contribution goes up to 30%.
The organic matter supply is not only

crucial for soil functions and yield performance. It determines the carbon storage
of the soil, as well as most greenhouse-gas
flows of agriculture. Our research team is
developing organic matter-balance methods,
in close collaboration with practice and consulting services. The objective is to shape
crop rotation, fertilisation and soil cultivation
in a way that gives rise to the location-specific optimal organic matter content.
Kurt-Jrgen Hlsbergen, TU Mnchen
(Weihenstephan), Germany
The importance of soils in the global carbon

balance
With photosynthesis, plants form organic C com
pounds from atmospheric CO2. The compounds
are then released into the soil as root residues/
exudates or driven off the field as harvest. The area
of the soils (the pedosphere) is, after the oceans,
the second largest carbon reservoir of the animate
earth (the biosphere)! In the organic matter and
soil life of the earth, there are about 1600 billion
tonnes of carbon, which is significantly more than
in the atmosphere (780bn t C) and vegetation
(600bn t C, especially wood) combined. In the
soil, the carbon from plant residues and organic
fertiliser either oxidises or is converted to organic
matter. Organic matter consists of about 60% car
bon. With a C-content of 1% (this corresponds to a
organic matter content of about 1,7%), the topsoil
binds about 45t C per hectare.
The turnover and reduction rate of organic mat
ter varies from a few days to weeks for fresh plant
material, to years or decades for straw, farmyard
manure or well-rotted compost and to centuries
or millennia for highly interconnected organic mat
ter. The more organic matter compounds are bound
to each other and to clay minerals, and embedded
in structurally stable soil crumbs, the more protect
ed they are from degradation processes.
The function of soil in the carbon balance

Gt = gigatons, C = carbon
Emission
6,5 Gt C/year
Photosynthesis
120 Gt C/year
Organic matter formation and

breakdown play an integral
part in climate-relevant carbon
flows. The CO2 content of the
atmosphere is currently increasing by 3,3Gt C per annum. The
exchange of C with lime, the
greatest carbon reservoir by far,
works much more slowly and
thus does not appear on this
diagram.
28
CO2 in the atmosphere

780 Gt C
Respiration
60 Gt C/year
Vegetation
n
600 Gt C
Reduction currently
more than
60 Gt C/year
/y
Litter
60 Gt C/year
Fossil carbon
4000 Gt C
Release
90 Gt C/year
Intake 92
Gt C/year
Soil organic matter

1600 Gt C
Ocean 39000 Gt C
Source: Heinz Flessa, adaptation by Gattinger and Editors
The potential of organic farming for storing

carbon in soils
System comparisons worldwide have shown
that organic cultivation systems are able to retain
about 500kg more C per hectare and year than
comparable conventional systems. During the first
ten to thirty years after conversion of cultivation,
the soils store additional carbon. After this, a new
balance is established. If the crop rotation is also
significantly simplified in organic farming, perhaps
even by doing without grass-clover cultivation in a
main-crop position, the existing organic matter can
definitely not be maintained. Intensive soil cultiva
tion also stimulates organic matter reduction and
further wastes a large amount of crude oil.
Comprehensive studies in Europe have shown
that currently most soils have a net carbon emis
sion into the atmosphere. One reason is that the
already increased average temperatures are lead
ing to organic matter reduction and are therefore
self-reinforcing. These studies further show that in
practice only a small minority of farms is actually
using their potential for organic matter production!
Methane and nitrous oxide
Methane (CH4) has a greenhouse effect 20 to 40
times as strong as CO 2. Living and well-aerated
soils absorb methane from the atmosphere and
break it down. This is opposed by the production
of methane by farmyard manure. (Manure-) com
posting produces far less new methane than other
farmyard manures.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) has a 310-times greater
greenhouse effect than CO2. It occurs when there
is a lack of oxygen in the soil, even for a short time.
The greater the quantities and concentrations of
nitrogen introduced by fertilisers, the greater the
amount of nitrous oxide that is produced. There
fore high concentrations of mineral nitrogen (Nmin)
should be avoided in the soil solution, and a good
natural air supply and water permeability of the
soil should be ensured. Research has shown that
organic fertilisers with a high ammonium-N con
tent have an increased N2O-loss potential. Such
fertilisers, e.g. pig or biogas liquid manure, can be
as damaging as ammonium-nitrate fertilisers. It is
part of the high art of farming to adjust the N-en
try and N-mineralisation from organic compounds
according to the crop's actual need. A rather early,
shallow ploughing of grass-clover with an imme
diate following crop helps to avoid undigested
plant residues after freeze-thaw cycles in winter
leading to high emissions of N2O.
Andreas Gattinger, Kurt-Jrgen Hlsbergen, Adrian
Mller, Andreas Fliebach, and Hartmut Kolbe
4.2 Improving the stability of the

agroecosystem
Green soil surface tends to

absorb CO2, and brown surface
to emit CO2.
Man-made climate change will lead to weather pat

terns changing in Europe, with increasing extremes.
Organic farming can prepare accordingly, so as to
achieve satisfactory harvests even in bad years.
It is mainly a question of being able to manage
with much or little water. In crop cultivation, this
has consequences for resistance against pests and
diseases. Stability during thunderstorms, which are
likely to increase with climate change, might also
pose problems for some crops.
1. The most important thing in times of crisis is a
very vibrant and varied soil life. A good network
of soil organisms helps the plants to obtain
the necessary nutrients and water even during
times of scarcity, as well as to find help against
disease and pest infestation in the immune
system of the soil-plant organism during times
of weakness.
2. A permeable soil structure not only prevents
lack of oxygen, but also protects against flood
ing, and minimises risks of water-induced
surface, rill and gully erosion. Organic farming
further necessitates light cultivation machines,
which have a lower risk of soil compaction.
Mixed cultivation systems which occupy many different layers in the soil
and have plants of various heights make the
most efficient use of the land area among
agricultural food production systems. At the
same time, they have the greatest utilised
biodiversity.
International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge,
Science and Technology for Development, 2009
29
3. A complete soil cover reduces water loss. Shrubs,

such as hedges or agroforestry thwart drying
winds, and the half-shade provided by shrubs
or mixed cultivation can also be an advantage
for certain crops (apart from rather humid condi
tions), as they do not need to close their breath
ing pores (stomata) to protect against evapora
tion.
4. Organic matter can store 3 to 5 times its own
weight in water. With e.g. 1% more organic mat
ter, the soil is able to store 40mm more water
for plant availability. Reduced soil cultivation
improves the infiltration rate and water-retaining
capacity, thanks to the increase of organic matter
in the topsoil.
5. The soil must remain permeable for roots
as deeply as possible, which means that one
should not create barrier layers. This way, espe
cially deep-rooting plants like lucerne, oil (fod
der) radish and sunflower are able to resist dry
periods.
6. Varieties bred in organic conditions must deal
with more weeds and microbes than those grow
ing under the protection of chemical agents or
with artificial fertilisers. The former are therefore
automatically being selected on the basis of dis
ease resistance and the ability to prevail. A further
aspect of breeding is stability.
7. Plants' resistance to dry periods depends on
breeding aspects (thickness of cell wall, breath
ing pores, among others), but also on balanced
availability of nutrients during growth. Not over
dosing the soil with nutrient salts is self-evident
for organic farming.
8. Mixed cultivation gives greater yield stability, as
certain plants assert themselves better depend
ing on the weather, thereby balancing out yield
losses of the weaker plants. Generally, diversi
ty can stabilise the overall yield on a farm (e.g.
lucerne for dry and clover for humid conditions).
The saying "The soil is the stomach of the plant" dates back to the times of Hippocrates. Others call
soil the naturally-creative head of agriculture. Yet others call it the "the Bosom of Mother Earth". All
these designations point to a truth.
30
Conclusion: The more self-supporting and strong

er a certain location's soil fertility is, the better the
stress tolerance and robustness (resilience) against
weather extremes. Thus all recommendations
of this booklet will also help secure yields in bad
years. Crops and machines adapted to extreme
weather are also needed to this end.
Sepp Braun; Department of Soil Sciences FiBL and
extension Bioland
4.3 Ideas for the organic soil culture

of the future
In its past development, organic farming has
achieved on an exemplary level. Organically mana
ged soil-plant organisms are in themselves more
fertile and stable than artificially nourished and
heavily technically controlled systems with minimal
self-regulation.
But: The greater the surfaces cultivated with
only one plant variety or few varieties in rotation,
the further away the ecosystem is from the flexi
ble balance seen in natural meadows and forests.
Nature has only few monocultures, which collapse
quickly. As crop farmers, we are however insisting
on the former, and prevent the biodiversity moving
naturally into the farmland with great expenditure
of external energy: diesel for intensive mechanical
control of spontaneous growth, and for the artificial
restructuring of the soil. In order to be able to farm
consistently differently and better adjusted to the
inherent needs of soil fertility, we need visions and
innovation for all players in organic farming. Here
are some suggestions:
Firstly: Paying more attention to overall yields
instead of individual yields
As extremely high individual yields of a cultivation
crop can only be achieved with very one-sidedly
optimised and highly sensitive high-maintenance
varieties, we ought to bid goodbye to the industrial
ideal of maximal individual yields in organic farm
ing. Instead, we can aim at optimising the yield of
the overall system, which is sufficiently robust even
against weather extremes. Perhaps this will bring us
mixed cultures which are simultaneously suitable
for the harvesting of food, feed and energy sources
together with harvested services, such as climate
protection, the new use of resources and the con
servation of a regionally sustainable water cycle.
Secondly: More and more differentiated cooperation with soil organisms
Earthworms, mycorrhizal fungi, rhizobia bacteria,
and many more soil organisms can become more
valuable partners for agriculture. Our arable farm
ing techniques should be species-appropriate to
them as well.
We may improve their living conditions with pur

poseful agricultural practices, such as the cultiva
tion of host plants, mixed cultures, grass-clover
cultivation, preserving soil cultivation, and a selec
tion of matching varieties. It needs to be exam
ined whether, in special cases, it makes sense to
vaccinate purposefully species-appropriate Rhizo
bia, Mycorrhiza fungi, and further microorganisms,
such as is already a standard with Rhizobia for soya.
Thirdly: Organic farming needs other varieties
Instead of the current crop plants which cannot
survive without narrowly defined conditions, we
need socially competent varieties which can be
stable in more near-natural conditions: Perhaps
long-straw cereals will find their place in the sun
on their own, with much bigger ears than now, but
with a lower population density? Will there be per
ennial varieties, a good perennial rye, perhaps in
mixed culture with legume undergrowth? Or even
involving caraway or parsnip ?
Fourthly: Nature-appropriate machines
Future farming need not be technology-hostile. We
can use devices and machines which serve nature
and the creation i.e. which do not combat them
or run counter to the advantages of organic farming.
More concretely, this could mean: Light vehicles
instead of field tanks? Combine harvesters collect
ing also weed seed, instead of blowing it onto the
fields? Perhaps even, for certain activities, selective
weeding and harvesting machines which find their
way in a mixed culture thanks to sensors and an
electronic control unit?
Fifthly: Soil culture needs education and culture
Not technology, but man is decisive for whether
agriculture is sustainable or not as a culture. Fertile
soil nature needs fertile human nature, and cul
tivated soils need cultivated humans. This is com
plementary to the motto: "Healthy soil healthy
plants healthy animals and humans". Does this
lead us back to more education and extension work
instead of regulatory compliance and controls? Edu
cation and extension work more geared towards our
values and visions, and less towards economic gen
eral conditions and regulations by the market and
society? Involving more mutual exchange, life- and
farm-development guidance, before suitable tech
nological and economic advice?
Sixthly: Sustainability needs the renewal of
forces and resources
Soils and humans become exhausted when
they are giving more than what they are receiving.
Exploitation cannot be sustainable. Renewabili
ty also entails that we re-enhance local, regional
and global cycles, and that we are open to system
changes. The future will show if we will be produc
Oats with Camelina is a simple

example for intercropping
a method that still has much
development potential.
ing faeces compost, or if we will also introduce ash

and charcoal from the farm's own wood heating
into the soils. What will certainly be important is that
field work will only access energy sources which
truly meet sustainability criteria.
Outlook: Visions start with the individual and
lead to community
Starting from the current situation of organic farm
ing, our agriculture still needs to achieve a great
deal if it is to last for hundreds and thousands of
years. Visionary courage and strength are still need
ed to make our agriculture truly sustainable and via
ble via trials and failures.
It corresponds with the nature of soil fertility, as
well as with a positively creative idea of man, that
the advancement of the handling of the soil cannot
be achieved with tighter requirements in guidelines.
To this end, it needs the freedom and develop
ment of the individual, and the exchange of ideas
and help among each other.
Sepp Braun, Paul Mder, and Nikola Patzel
Organic farming is not only a

question of surface, but also
of depth.
People's demand for organic foods

shows that a rethinking process is under
way. Organic farming thus is increasingly corresponding to the needs of the people. A
transition to organic farming provides us also
with the opportunity to preserve the fertility
of the earth for future generations.
Jean-Louis Colling-von Roesgen, Luxembourg
31
Further Information
Advice
www.agricology.co.uk/category/soil-management: A selection
of the best available resources.
For advice related to soil fertility management in UK please

contact:
www.organicresearchcentre.com > IOTA > Research dissemination > Technical leaflet downloads from non IOTA research
projects: Technical publications from organic research.
Institute for Organic Training and Advice IOTA

Organic Research Centre
Hamstead Marshall, Newbury Berks. RG20 0HR, UK
Phone +44(0)1588 640 118
mark.m@organicresearchcentre.com
www.organicresearchcentre.com > Research and development > Soils and cropping systems: Information on research
projects.
http://horticulture.ahdb.org.uk/great-soils: Information resour
ces elavorated by the GREATsoils programme funded by AHDB
Horticulture.
Imprint
Published by:
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL
Ackerstrasse 21 , Postfach 219, CH-5070 Frick
Phone +41 (0)62 8657-272, Fax -273
info.suisse@fibl.org, www.fibl.org
Postfach 90 01 63, D-60441 Frankfurt a. M.
Phone +49 (0)69 713 7699-0, Fax -9
info.deutschland@fibl.org, www.fibl.org
Seidengasse 33-35/13, A-1070 Wien
Phone +43 (0)1 9076313, Fax 313-20,
info.oesterreich@fibl.org, www.fibl.org
Organic Research Centre
Elm Farm (main site), Hamstead Marshall,
Newbury, Berkshire RG20 0HR, UK
Phone +44 (0)1488 658298,
Fax +44 (0)1488 658503
elmfarm@organicresearchcentre.com
www.organicresearchcentre.com
Authors: Alfred Berner (FiBL), Herwart Bhm
(vTI), Robert Brandhuber (LfL Bayern), Josef
Braun (organic farmer, Bioland), Uwe Brede
(organic farmer), Jean-Louis Colling-von Roes
gen (organic farmer), Markus Demmel (LfL
Bayern), Hansueli Dierauer (FiBL), Georg
Doppler (organic farmer), Bernd Ewald (IBLA),
Thomas Fisel (Bioland), Andreas Fliebach
(FiBL), Jacques Fuchs (FiBL), Richard Gantlett
(organic farmer), Andreas Gattinger (FiBL),
Hansueli Hberli (organic farmer), Jrgen He
(University of Kassel-Witzenhausen), Kurt-Jr
gen Hlsbergen (TU Mnchen), Martin Kchli
(organic farmer, Bioforum), Hartmut Kolbe
(LfL Bayern), Martin Koller (FiBL), Paul Mder
(FiBL), Adrian Mller (FiBL), Peter Neessen
(organic farmer), Nikola Patzel (FiBL), Lukas
Pfiffner (FiBL), Harald Schmidt (SL), Stefan
Weller (Bioland), Iain Tolhurst (organic farmer),
Melanie Wild (LfL Bayern).
Editing of original German edition:
Nikola Patzel and Gilles Weidmann (FiBL)
Editorial collaboration: Annegret Grafen
(Bioland), Stephanie Klaedtke and Steffi Zimmer
(IBLA Luxemburg)
Original edition reviewed by: Max Braun,
Michaela Braun, Jean-Louis Colling-von
32
Roesgen, Marc Emering, Thomas Fisel, Ernst

Frischknecht, Christa Gr, Stephan Jaun, Tom
Kass, Amand Keiser, Martin Kchli, Stefan Kim
melmann, Andreas Koopmann, Jrgen Ltjens,
Paul Mder, Peter Neessen, Dieter Petsch,
Alfred Schaller, Bernhard Schreyer, Ingrid Schul
er-Knapp, Walter Sorms, Ann-Kathrin Spiegel,
Henning Untiedt, Christian Vgeli, Manfred
Weller, Stefan Weller, Markus Wiggert, KlausPeter Wilbois, Birgit Wilhelm
Coordination of English edition:
Anja Vieweger (ORC)
Translation: Florin Regli, Switzerland
Contributions to the English edition:
Iain Tolhurst and Richard Gantlett
Revision of the English edition:
Chris Sinclair and Mark Measures
Design: Claudia Kirchgraber (FiBL)
Picture credits: Thomas Alfldi (FiBL): pages
7(1), 10(1), 13 (2), 18, 25 (1), 29; Amt fr
Umwelt Kanton Solothurn: p. 6 (1); Michaela
Braun (Bioland): p. 11, 23(1), 24 (2), 31(1);
Christophe David (Agropole-Isara, Lyon):
p. 27(3); Hansueli Dierauer (FiBL): p. 17(1);
Otto Ehrmann (Bildarchiv Boden): p. 1, 2, 4,
7(2), 30; Heinz Flessa (vTI)/Andreas Gattin
ger/Claudia Kirchgraber (FiBL)/ed.: p. 28;
Andreas Fliessbach (FiBL): p. 27(1), 27(2);
Jacques Fuchs (FiBL): p. 14, 17(2), 19; Fritz
Hni (private): p. 6(2); Theo Haslbeck (farm
er Geiselhring): p. 24(1); Martin Koller/
Alfred Berner/Claudia Kirchgraber (FiBL): p.
16; Martin Koller (FiBL): pp. 20, 21(2); Lore
Kutschera(): p. 31(2); Paul Mder (FiBL): p. 9;
Nikola Patzel (FiBL): p. 5, 21, 25(2), 26; Lukas
Pfiffner (FiBL): p. 23(2); Lukas Pfiffner/Claudia
Kirchgraber (FiBL): p. 8; Katharina Schertler
(Bioland): p. 22; Soil Association: p. 3(5); Phil
Sumption (Organic Research Centre): p. 7(3);
Anja Vieweger (Organic Research Centre):
p. 7(4), 10(2-4); Manfred Weller (Bioland):
p. 12(3, 6); Stefan Weller (Bioland): p. 12(1,
2, 4, 5), 13(1); www.oekolandbau.de,BLE,
Dominik Menzler: p. 15; cf. p. 3(1, 3, 4, 6).
ISBN Print 978-3-03736-337-9

ISBN PDF 978-3-03736-338-6
FiBL-Order No. 4002
Price: 6.00, 7.00 , 9.00 CHF (incl. VAT
plus postage)
Order addresses:
The publication can be ordered at ORC and
FiBL. It is also available for free download at
www.organicresearchcentre.com and
www.shop.fibl.org.
All information provided in this booklet was pro
duced by the authors to the best of their know
ledge, and checked by them as well as by the
editors involved with the utmost care. Never
theless, mistakes cannot be ruled out entirely.
This is why all information etc. comes without
any obligation or guarantee of the authors or
editors. Both therefore do not assume respon
sibility and liability for any possible factual
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First edition 2016
This guide was produced in the Organic Know
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What is soil fertility and how is it defined?

What is soil fertility and how is it defined?

What are some ways to preserve and improve soil fertility?

What are some ways to preserve and improve soil fertility?

BA SIC GUIDE

2004 Ausgabe Deutschland

The enhancement of soil fertility

a sustainable relationship to the soil.

Why Talk About Soil Fertility?

We feel that in many areas, simple

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Part 1: Principles of Soil Fertility

ciated with Christian values may help us realise

Rudolf Steiner 1861-1925

Albert Howard 1873-1947

Mina Hofstetter 1883-1967

Maria Mller 1894-1969

Eve Balfour 1898-1990

Jrgen Hess, University of Kassel,

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

1.2 Soil fertility A term undergoing

demand for external inputs such as fertilisers, pes

Balancing the appreciation of the soil's

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Perspectives and definitions of soil fertility

Steadily delivers a great yield

Perspectives and definitions

Delivers a good yield with a

Is the sum of all nutrients

Secures yield despite of

Fulfills socially desired functions, e.g. nutrition, pollutant

Includes plant health

Is proving its regenerative

Is an ecologically sound soil

Diagram: Nikola Patzel

Scientific analysis of fertile soil

1.3 What does soil fertility mean in

Unfortunately, our current society is distanced from nature, and only

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

1.4 The invaluable contribution of soil

A fertile soil hosts a rich variety of organisms

The soil particle illustrates well

Chemical qualities are determined through

Earthworms Master builders of fertile soils

As a cumulative effect of its activities, cultivated fer

Learn to love your worm; it's the best

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

its nutrient and water retaining capabilities. In this

Soil-inhabiting species, such

The number of cocoons in the

Maintaining soil fertility on a stockfree farm

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Secondary cultivations are shallow, no more than

Iain Tolhurst is an organic

How to protect and promote earthworms

Use minimal machining processes which are

Tillage and mechanisation

Ploughing results in loosening up the

Effects of various intensive cultivation practices on earthworms