Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts

JOSEPH T O B I A S
Department of Food Science
University of Illinois
Urbana 61801
G. A. M U C K
Dean Foods Co.
Rockford IL 61101
INTRODUCTION

Many developments in the ice cream industry

find their parallel in other industries. It was
inevitable that computer and automation
should have an impact; that economies of
continuous processing be e x p l o i t e d ; t h a t output
per plant should increase, demanding a corresponding increase in size and capacity of
processing equipment; and that government
regulations should stiffen in an atmosphere
of consumer advocacy. Ice cream is inherently
an energy intensive product and expensive
energy could change the industry markedly.
Energy consumption has been reduced in many
plants, but developing long range strategies to
continue to reduce consumption must remain a
top priority. Costs of all sorts have increased
and so has the price of ice cream. It is fortunate
that new ingredients and improved efficiencies
in production and distribution served to moderate price increases.
DISCUSSION
Federal Standards of Identity

After hearings and consultations, beginning

in 1942, federal standards for frozen desserts
were instituted in 1960 (1). They have been a
dominant factor since their inception. Many
states changed their laws to conform to the
federal standards.
Initially, there were no requirements for
ingredient labeling except as pertained to
characterizing flavor. The latest modification
of the federal standards (2) requires ingredient
labeling, and additional labeling requirements
may be forthcoming. Some manufacturers have
elected to provide nutritional labeling.

The initial and current standards were of the

"recipe" type in that they listed the milk
products that were permitted. Unlike the
original version, current standards have applied
the "safe and suitable" concept to ingredients
other than milk products with the burden of
proof falling on the manufacturer.
An attempt to modify provisions for nonfat
milk solids of the standards resulted in a bitter
controversy that saw the US Department of
Agriculture writing ic e cream standards pursuant
to a mandate from the US Congress. At issue
was a proposal to allow any milk-derived
protein to be used as long as the final concentration and protein efficiency ratio (PER)
met minimum stated requirements. This would
have allowed ice cream to be made with a
combination of caseinates and whey solids or
modified whey solids as the only source of
nonfat milk solids. This proposed modification
of the standards eventually was withdrawn by
the US Food and Drug Administration. Mellorine
standards (3), introduced at about the same
time, were adopted with the controversial
protein requirement language included. Tables
1 and 2 contain a summary of a portion of the
frozen dessert standards in force.
Number of Plants

The number of plants has declined over the

past 25 yr from about 3,500 to about 1,000.
These numbers do not include counter freezer
of soft-serve operations. Total annual production
has increased over the same period from about
820 million gal to about 1,250 million (Table
3). Per capita consumption increased from
about 20 quarts to nearly 23 quarts although it
peaked in 1975 and since has been in a slight
downward trend (Table 4).
Soft-Serve and Direct-Draw Milk Shakes

Received October 20, 1980.

1981 J Dairy Sci 64:1077-1086

Soft-serve production increased phenomenally since 1955, from approximately 59

1077

1078

TOBIAS AND MUCK

TABLE 1. Selected federal standards for frozen desserts (2, 3, 4).

Product
Ice cream
Bulky flavored
ice cream
Frozen
custard c
Mellorine
Ice milk
Ice milk
Bulky flavored
ice milk
Sherbert

Weight
(lb/gal)

Total
food
solids
(lb/gal)

Total
milk
solids
(%)a

Milk
fat
(%)

Whey
solids
(%)b

Egg
yolk
solids
(%)

)4.5

~>1.6

~>20

~>10

~2.5

<1.4

~>4.5

/>1.6

/>16

/>8

~<2.0

<1.4

/>4.5
>~4.5
~>4.5
~>4.5

/>1.6
/> 1.6
~>1.3
~>1.3

~>20
e,g
/>11
>/11

/>10
f
/>2
~7

~<2.5
g
~<2.25
~<1.0

I>1.4
d
d
d

>~4.5
7>6.0

/>1.3
e

~>9
2 to 5

/>2
1 to 2

~<1.75
0 to 4

d
d

acaseinates m a y n o t be used to satisfy any part of the total milk solids requirement. Increases in milk fat
m a y be offset with corresponding decreases in nonfat milk solids, but the latter m u s t be at least 6% in frozen
custard and ice cream and 4% in ice milk. Corresponding adjustments m a y be made in bulky flavored products.
bSolids from concentrated or dried whey m a y n o t exceed 25% of the nonfat milk solids.
CAlso designated French Ice Cream or French Custard Ice Cream.
dpermitted.
eNo standard.
fMilk fat replaced by a m i n i m u m of 6% vegetable or animal fat.
gAt least 2.7% milk derived protein having a protein efficiency ratio (PER) not less than that of whole milk
protein, 108% of casein.

m i l l i o n gal t o 2 4 0 m i l l i o n gal. In 1 9 7 8 , n e a r l y
9 0 % w a s in t h e f o r m o f ice m i l k . R e l i a b l e
s t a t i s t i c s are n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r d i r e c t - d r a w

shakes,
but
considering
their
widespread
a v a i l a b i l i t y in f a s t f o o d o u t l e t s , s o f t - s e r v e s t o r e s
and schools, the volume produced must be

TABLE 2. Optional dairy ingredients listed in federal standards (2, 3). a

Cream:

fresh, dried, plastic.

Butter and butteroi[.

Milk:

fresh, concentrated, evaporated, sweetened condensed,

superheated condensed, dried.

Skim milk (nonfat milk):

fresh, concentrated, evaporated, dried, condensed,

sweetened condensed, superheated condensed, concentrated and partially delactosed, concentrated or dried
after modifying by t r e a t m e n t with calcium hydroxide
or disodium phosphate.

Cheese whey:

concentrated, dried.

Casein :

precipitated with gums.

Casein ate:

salt of a m m o n i u m , calcium, potassium or sodium.

Buttermilk:

fresh, condensed or dried; from churning of sweet

cream.

aFederal standards provide quality standards for certain of the above ingredients.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

ICE CREAM -- 75TH ANNIVERSARY ISSUE

1079

TABLE 3. Production of hard and soft frozen desserts in the United States 1955 to 1979 (millions of gallons), a

Year

All products
reported

Ice
cream

Ice
milk b

Sherbet

Water
ices

Mellorine
type

Other

1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1977
1978
1979

820
969
1,130
1,193
1,263
1,236
1,233
1,213

629
700
757
762
837
810
815
811

90
145
231
287
299
308
307
297

37
41
45
49
49
50
48
45

28
33
37
37
38
37
34
32

32
45
53
52
30
19
16
15

3.4
4.9
6.5
6.7
11.1
11.9
13.0
12.0

aAdapted from publication of the International Association of Ice Cream Manufacturers from data published
by the US Department of Agriculture.
blncludes freezer-made milkshake.

significant. E q u i p m e n t for dispensing this

p r o d u c t (Figure 1) was i n t r o d u c e d o n l y a little
over 25 yr ago. I m p r o v e m e n t s in e q u i p m e n t
served p r i m a r i l y to avoid excessive cycling o f
t h e c o m p r e s s o r , r e d u c e a g i t a t i o n of f r o z e n
p r o d u c t , a n d c o n t r o l serving t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
overrun.

Mix Making
Introduction of high-temperature short-time
(HTST) p a s t e u r i z a t i o n s t a n d a r d s at t h e beginning of this q u a r t e r c e n t u r y was a milestone, b u t its i m p a c t was n o t i m m e d i a t e . S o m e
p e o p l e q u e s t i o n e d t h e p r o p r i e t y o f H T S T in
m i x processing, p o i n t i n g to differences in
p r o d u c t quality, p a r t i c u l a r l y deficiencies in
body and texture from insufficient hydration
of p r o t e i n s a n d stabilizers. O t h e r s a d o p t e d

the c o n t i n u o u s aspect (Figure 2) o f t h e process

b u t used t e m p e r a t u r e s m u c h above t h o s e
p r e s c r i b e d b y the US Public H e a l t h Service.
" S u p e r h e a t i n g " at 1 0 5 C for 25 s p e r m i t t e d use
o f less stabilizer t h a n in the c o n v e n t i o n a l
process. A d d i t i o n a l e c o n o m i e s were realized
f r o m regenerative h e a t i n g a n d cooling capabilities i n h e r e n t to a c o n t i n u o u s process. Superh e a t i n g also h a d an e f f e c t o n flavor, and s o m e
c o n t r o v e r s y arose a b o u t its desirability. While
s o m e criticized t h e flavor as " s c a l d e d " , c o o k e d ,
or scorched, o t h e r s felt t h a t t h e r e was little
c o n s u m e r resistance a n d even a p r e f e r e n c e f o r
it. T h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h e flavor a r e i n f o r c e m e n t
for vanilla a n d felt justified in a d d i n g less
vanilla e x t r a c t .
V a r i o u s o b j e c t i o n s to t h e H T S T process
surfaced. Managers of small p l a n t s felt t h e y

TABLE 4. Per capita consumption of hard and soft frozen desserts in the United States, 1955 to 1979 (quarts).

Year

All products
reported

Ice
cream

Ice
milk

Sherbet

Water
ices

Mellorine
type

Other

1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1977
1978
1979

20.0
21.5
23.4
23.4
23.7
22.8
22.6
22.0

15.3
15.6
15.7
15.0
15.7
15.0
15.0
14.7

2.2
3.2
4.8
5.6
5.6
5.7
5.6
5.4

.9
.9
.9
.9
.9
.9
.9
.8

.7
.7
.8
.7
.7
.7
.6
.6

.8
1.0
1.1
1.0
.6
.4
.3
.3

.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
.2
.2
.2

aAdapted from publication of the International Association of Ice Cream Manufacturers from data published
by the US Department of Agriculture.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

1080

TOBIAS AND MUCK

Figure 2. A 4000 gal/h HTST mix pasteurizing

system. Homogenizer (on left) is located so the
drive is outside the processing room to reduce mechanical noise. Alcoves from upright ingredient storage
tanks are on the right. (Courtesy Crepaco, Inc.,
Chicago, IL)

batching systems (Figures 3 and 4) were developed for mixing dry and liquid ingredients at
almost any desired rate and with a high degree
of accuracy. Bulk delivery and handling of
ingredients is n o w c o m m o n . Milk cans have all
but disappeared, and milk, cream, condensed

Figure 1. Two-flavor soft-serve freezer with center

twist spigot. This freezer is pressurized for improved
overrun control, colder drawing temperature and
faster rate. It has a solid state temperature control
to minimize cycling of compressor. Similar features
may be found on direct-draw shake freezers. (Courtesy
Stoelting, Inc., Kiel, WI)

could n o t justify expenditures for new pasteurization e q u i p m e n t , especially because energy

costs of vat pasteurization were n o t out of line.
Where a variety o f mixes was made, there was
fear of intermingling mixes of different composition. I n c o r p o r a t i o n of dry ingredients into
cold mix presented a problem. Cleaning of
H T S T units was complicated until CIP (clean in
place) cleaning came into general use. Gradually,
m o s t of the objections were set aside as innovative solutions to problems were found.
T o d a y initial objections appear almost irrelevent
as the time approaches when the batch system
of m i x processing largely will be phased out.
Several technological advances helped spur
continuous m i x processing along. A u t o m a t i c
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

Figure 3. Two batching tanks (rear) are on load

cells. Liquid ingredients are metered into one or
the other. A portion of the liquid is pumped to
the high speed blender (center) where dry ingredients
when used are added. The mixture is then returned
to the batching tank. Control is from the autobatching
system located in the mix room panel. Weights of
each ingredient and the completed batch is indicated
and recorded automatically. (Courtesy Crepaco,
Inc., Chicago, IL)

ICE CREAM -- 75TH ANNIVERSARY ISSUE

Figure 4. Mix batching, pasteurizing, and equipment cleaning panel. (Courtesy Crepaco, Inc., Chicago,
IL)

skim milk, and sweeteners may be pumped as

needed to and from storage tanks. Highly
dispersible forms of stabilizers have been
developed. Although some problems still are
encountered, reasonably efficient blenders for
dry milk, whey powder, cocoa, and stabilizers
are available. Finally, cleaning operations have
been automated and improved significantly.
A variety of equipment has been produced
for HTST pasteurization of mix including heat
exchangers of the plate and tubular types,
annular space heaters, vacuum-steam heaters,
and combinations of heaters and vacuumizers.
Plate heat exchangers appear to be the most
popular.
Packaging of mix for resale also underwent
changes. Originally, most of the mix was sold in
5 or 10-gal metal milk cans. Current alternatives
include bulk distribution, plastic bag-in-box,
plastic bag-in-returnable crate, and .5 and 1 gal
milk cartons. Notable advances have been in
equipment for filling flexible plastic containers.
Dairy Ingredients

The most striking change in dairy ingredients

has been the acceptance of whey solids. Federal
standards permit their use in concentrations up
to 25% of the total nonfat milk solids. Dried
sweet whey is the most common form used,
and although there still are difficulties encountered, its quality has been improved
considerably. A petition to permit the use of
acid whey and modified whey has been filed
with the F o o d and Drug Administration, but no
action has been reported.

1081

Economics has been the motivating force

behind the search for less expensive milk solids.
Both fat and serum solids increased in cost, the
latter quite drammatically. To gain a measure
of temporary advantage, some processors tried
imported blends of sugar and milk fat, but
there were many quality problems. Imported
casein blended with domestic whey to simulate
composition of nonfat dry milk is a competitive
substitute, but federal standards do not provide
for such a product. Caseinates are permitted
only in addition to required milk solids. Sweet
cream dry buttermilk offered some help, but
whey powder proved to be the most effective
cost reducing ingredient. The presence of whey
solids in ice cream is as common today as was
their absence 25 yr ago.
Nondairy Mix Ingredients

In 1955, corn derived sweeteners were not in

general use in ice cream. They are used widely
today, and economics played an important role
in their acceptance, especially when sugar prices
soared. However, the case for corn sweeteners
goes beyond price. They have functionality that
influences sensory properties of the product,
and they provide a partial solution to quality
problems of body and texture when the product
is mistreated in storage. Corn sweeteners were
improved both in quality and variety in the
past 25 yr. Improved refining yielded a waterclear product without "artifical sweetener"
flavor, regardless of degree of starch hydrolysis
(DE equivalent).
New members were added to the corn
sweetener family. High maltose corn syrup
appeared first; more recently several generations
of a high fructose corn syrup were introduced.
Their functionality and economics must be
evaluated carefully. Twenty five years ago, a
25% replacement of sucrose with corn syrup
solids was considered too high by some. Much
higher replacements are common today. Products sweetened entirely with corn syrups have
been made, and if sugar prices again rise beyond
reasonable limits, corn sweeteners might be
used exclusively.
The previous version of the federal standards
contained a long list of stabilizers and emulsifiers permitted for ice cream. There was no
need for the list in the present version of the
standards because the "safe and suitable"
concept was introduced. The most common
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

1082

TOBIAS AND MUCK

stabilizers 25 y r ago were gelatin, alginates,

CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose), and carrageenan. Guar gum and locust bean gum in combination with carrageenan are used most
commonly today, although CMC, microcrystalline cellulose, and others also are used.
The shift has been toward complete, customized
stabilizer-emulsifier combinations for particular
products. With new frozen desserts came appropriate stabilizer-emulsifier mixtures. Perceptions of important quality attributes changed
and so did stabilizers. The demand for more
protection from heat shock led to higher corn
sweeteners and of stabilizers that promote a
heavy body.
Stabilizers were introduced to function
under different conditions. For HTST pasteurization, dispersibility in cold and adequate
hydration during the brief period of heating
were essential. Combinations were developed
for acid products, soft-serve ice milk, directdraw shakes, and the so-called "natural" ice
creams. A lesson learned with high-fat soft-serve
was that increasing emulsifier promoted rather
than prevented churning in the freezer. Thus,
the role of an emulsifier is actually one of a
de-emulsifier. Under favorable conditions, it
helps produce a dry product from the freezer,
but under unfavorable conditions it promotes
churning.

Figure 5. Two, 3-cylinder ice cream freezers

produce 3600 gal of ice cream per hour and are
cleaned-in-place. (Courtesy Crepaco, Inc., Chicago,
IL)

formance was refined. Speed and uniformity

of fill and weight control were improved,
especially compared with hand filling. Plastic
film "shrink-wrapping" (Figure 7 ) o f several
containers is replacing Kraft paper for the same
purpose, thus providing better product inventory
and improved delivery efficiencies.
The half-gallon container predominated as
increasing volumes of ice cream were sold
through supermarkets. Presently, about two-

Ice Cream Freezing

Required increases in mix processing capacities were matched by higher freezer and
ingredient feeder (fruit feeder) capacities.
Freezers (Figures 5 and 6) with capacities up to
2400 gal/h have been produced. Important
factors considered in designing the larger
freezers were efficiency, overrun and temperature controls, mutator action, size of ice
crystals, and size and distribution of air cells.
Even though freezers are not cleaned entirely in
place, CIP cleanability of portions was incorporated into the design. Innovations i n
freezer controls included "instant stop/instant
start," a feature that avoids freeze-ups and
permits quick resumption of freezing after
difficulties, such as after a breakdown of a
packaging machine has been corrected.
Packaging

During the past 25 yr, filling and packaging

equipment came into general use, and perJournal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

Figure 6. A 3D 122 Vogt freezer with 3 freezing

cylinders. Each cylinder may have a capacity of up
to 400 gal of finished ice cream per hour, thus a
six-cylinder freezer may have a capacity of 2400
gal per hour. (Courtesy Cherry - Burrell, Cedar
Rapids, IA)

ICE CREAM - 75TH ANNIVERSARY ISSUE

Figure 7. Plastic shrinkable film overwrap ("shrinkwrap") operation. (Courtesy Dean Foods Co., Belvidere, IL)

1083

texture, is being accomplished by various

airblast freezers, plate contact freezers (Figure
9), and blast tunnels of the tray or spiral
conveyor types. Unpackaged, extruded novelty
items are hardened on special plates that move
within a blast-cooled chamber. Rapid hardening
made ice cream storage more efficient. Hard
packages are palletized easily and moved by
fork lift trucks designed to withstand low
temperatures. Frostless, subzero storage rooms
for palletized products may use flow racks
(Figure 10) or high bay racks and cranes
(Figure 11). Such systems have improved
frozen storage management and are compatible
with computer controlled inventory.
Novelties

thirds of all ice cream is sold in half-gallon

containers, 75% of them rectangular in shape
and mostly made of paper. A significant portion
still is packaged in round containers, particularly
pints, quarts, and bulk quantities.
Among innovations were the 1-gallon
consumer package, the 4, 5, and 6-quart plastic
pails for retail sales, retail packs of novelty
items, a container that forms a reclosable,
lift-up lid after tearing out a zipper-like paper
strip, and round half-gallon containers formed
in-house (Figure 8).

Manufacture of stick and stick-less novelties

was automated highly. Most hand labor required
with brine tanks was eliminated. With regular
ice cream, rare product innovations generally
were confined to new flavors or formulas. But
variety in novelties came to be expected: shape
and size, frozen with agitation or still frozen,
extruded or filled into molds (Figure 12), made
of ice cream, ice milk, sherbet, fruit juices, ices,
and yogurt, glazed, enrobed, or covered with

Hardening

Perhaps the most significant advance in ice

cream manufacture was in hardening. Fast
hardening, which preserves smoothness of

Figure 8. An "in-house" round half-gallon container forming machine. (Courtesy Dean Foods,
Belvidere, IL)

Figure 9. A plate contact freezer for rapid hardening

of ice cream in rectangular containers. (Courtesy
Crepaco, Inc., Chicago, IL)
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

1084

TOBIAS AND MUCK

Figure 11. Frost-free, low temperature storage

room. Pallets are put onto flow-racks one aisle and
removed from the opposite aisle. (Courtesy Crepaco,
Inc., Chicago, IL)

Figure 10. Ice cream storage room employing

crane stacker system. (Courtesy Dean Foods Co.,
Belvidere, IL)

nuts or candy, singly or multiple flavored,

combined with wafers or cones, and packaged
to attract the eye. Merchandizing in consumer
size units, commonly 6, 12, and 24 per box,
provided high supermarket sales.

chose the flavor category. Presently, however,

the short supply of vanilla beans has caused a
sharp rise in the price of vanilla extract. If all
users insisted on an all natural vanilla, supply
would be grossly insufficient. To stretch the
supply and keep the price in line, flavors such
as Vanilla WONF (with other natural flavors)
are being developed for Category II and Category
III flavorings.

Flavors

It is difficult to identify new flavors. More

commonly, there were new combinations and
improvements of existing flavors. Vanilla
remains most popular, but availability of
sufficient vanilla beans is a problem. When the
ice cream standards came into existence,
the use of coumarin already had been banned.
The standards introduced language, applicable
to all flavors, by which a pure vanilla flavoring
(Category I) was distinguished from a mixture
in which natural vanilla predominated (Category
II) or a mixture in which artificial vanilla
predominated (Category liD. Throughout most
of the intervening period, the manufacturer
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

Figure 12. An 8-wide Vitaline stick novelties

unit. (Courtesy Dean Foods Co., Belvidere, IL)

ICE CREAM

75TH ANNIVERSARY

Cocoa prices also increased sharply, causing

processors to examine alternatives, among
which were cocoa extracts and extenders
and derivatives of carob beans.
As the volume of frozen desserts increased,
so did the demand for flavorings. Flavor manufacturers responded by offering fruits and
flavorings to provide ready selections for the
"Flavor of the Month", as well as for periodic
or continued use.
Variety of flavors has led to success of
present day successors to the old time ice cream
shoppes. These stores sell significant volumes of
ice cream, sherbets, water ices, and frozen
yogurt having flavors and names that are often
exotic. A soft-serve operation offering only a
vanilla-flavored product with several sundae
options often coexists in close proximity to a
multiflavor ice-cream store. Both appear to
have their own, special appeal to consumers.
Costs

How to maintain a high consumption in the

face of rising prices has been a continuing
challenge to frozen dessert manufacturers.
Examination of extremes in prices o f selected
ingredients encountered since 1955 is enlightening.
Cocoa
Sugar
Nonfat milk solids
Milk fat

65
84
254
65d

to $2.60/lb
to 404/Ib
to 90d/lb
to $1.50/lb

Energy and labor costs exhibited similar trends.

There were several measures available. Savings
from improved efficiencies of production and
distribution prevented drastic price increases.
Multiple lines of product became a rule in
supermarkets, and included were a lower priced
"traffic" line and one or more "higher quality"
lines. The "traffic" type product is often
available in only basic flavors and is formulated
to meet minimally the federal standards, i.e.,
maximum whey solids, minimum nonfat milk
solids, maximum overrun, and Category II or
III flavoring.

ISSUE

1085

emerging over the relationship of dietary

cholesterol to heart disease. The product
made early sales gains, but recent statistics
indicate that production in 1978 was about
one-half that of 1955. Various dietary products were introduced, and some survived.
Regulatory activities concerning sweeteners
stymied progress in this family of products.
Imitation products were developed, but they do
not appear to be ready for the market nor vice
versa.
Marketing of both soft and hard frozen
yogurt began in the mid-seventies, packaged
and as novelties. Such questions as should
the mix be pasteurized after culturing or should
the product contain living bacteria still are
debated. In certain regions the product enjoys
some success, especially in the soft-serve and
novelty forms.
The age of consumer advocacy dictates that
attention be given to "natural ice cream". The
term is not defined adequately but is interpreted
commonly as requiring that no artificial or
synthetic ingredients be used. Products have
been made without stabilizers, with only
unaltered vegetable gums as stabilizers, without
emulsifiers, with only mono- and diglycerides as
emulsifiers, without added color, and with only
natural flavors. Considering the spirit of the
times, it is likely that "natural" frozen desserts
will receive continued emphasis.
Distribution

Greatly improved transportation equipment

(Figure 13) with over-the-road refrigeration
significantly increased sizes of areas of distribution. Freezers for the home also improved.
Thus, the volume of frozen dessert purchased
increased, and consumption unquestionably
increased because the product was there to be
enjoyed at any time. Development of a dolly
that could be moved through a plant and
loaded onto a route truck improved efficiency
by allowing more units to be handled per man
hour.
Quality

New Products

An early addition to the frozen dessert

family was mellorine, a product containing
vegetable fat in place of milk fat. Its introduction came at a time when controversy was

Each change in frozen dessert technology

has had an effect on product characteristics.
Most ice cream made today has a heavier,
more resistant body than the product of 25 yr
ago. It is protected better against damaging
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

1086

TOBIAS AND MUCK

monition that product quality is deteriorating
when sales are continuing to increase? Let us
hope that the admonition will not be ignored
forever.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Figure 13. A 12 door ice cream delivery truck with

a Diesel powered over the road refrigeration unit
with electric standby. Ice cream is carried on carts
easily loaded through full size rear doors. (Courtesy
Dean Foods Co., Franklin Park, IL)

effects of heat shock, although it probably

contains iess milk soiids. Rising prices severely
limited ingredient selection and product formulation, resulting often in reduced quality.
Fortunately, excellent products are available
and in most markets consumers have the
privilege of selecting from at least three levels
of product quality. Quantity of frozen desserts
sold during recent periods of price increase have
remained high, and this is what renders a critic's
position tenuous. Who will listen to the ad-

Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 64, No. 6, 1981

The authors thankfully acknowledge the

thoughts contributed by the following individuals: A. Filandro, Virginia Dare Extract
Co., Inc., Brooklyn, NY; M. Galligan, CherryBurrell, Cedar Rapids, IA; J. G. Kuebler,
Continental Colloids, Inc., West Chicago,
IL; J. E. Miller, Hubinger, Keokuk, IA; H. L.
Mitten, Crepaco, Inc., Chicago, IL; V. T. Smith,
Germantown Manufacturing Co., Broomall, PA;
S. E. Rossi. Fairmont Foods Co., Omaha, NE;
G. R. Stewart, Kraft, Inc., Philadelphia, PA;
and C. Wheafley, Beatrice Foods Co., Chicago,
IL.
REFERENCES

1 Anonymous. 1960. Frozen desserts. Definitions

and standards of identity. Fed. Reg. 25 (145).
2 Anonymous. 1978. Frozen desserts. Ice cream and
frozen custard, ice milk, sherbet. Fed. Reg. 43
(24):4596; and 43 (88): 19384.
3 Anonymous. 1977. Frozen desserts. Mellorine.
Fed. Reg. 42 (70):19134.
4 Anonymous. 1977. Water ices. Fed. Reg. 42
(70):19134.