QUADRATIC DEPENDENCY

INTRODUCTION
A quadratic trinomial in x is an expression of the form
ax2 + bx + c
where x is the variable or the unknown and a, b and c are
constants or coefficients.
A quadratic trinomial is also called a polynomial made up with 3
terms.
The order of the polynomial is found by the highest exponent
applied to the unknown x. Quadratic means order 2.
For example x2 + 5x + 6, 4x2 9 and 9x2 + 6x + 1 are quadratic
expressions.

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

A quadratic function is a function of x which can be written in its
standard form as
y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
where a, b and c are real numbers and a 6= 0.
We can say that x is the independent variable as y depends on x
in the formula y = ax2 + bx + c. We say that y is a function of x;
Graphing quadratic functions
Any real number may be used for x in the formula y = ax2 + bx + c.
All quadratic functions have graphs that are similar in shape. The
graph of any quadratic function is called a parabola.
The basic quadratic function is y = f (x) = x2
(i.e. a = 1, b = 0 and c = 0)

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing the simplest quadratic function y = f (x) = ax2
Graph the function y = ax2 using your graphic calculator and fill
the table below for a = 1, a = 2, a = 3 and a = 4

x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
a=1 y = x2
a=2 y = 2x2
a = 1/2 y = x2 /2
a = 1/10 y = x2 /10
a = 1 y = x2
a = 2 y = 2x2
a = 1/2 y = x2 /2
a = 1/10 y = x2 /10

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 3 / 30

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing the simplest quadratic functions y = f (x) = ax2
Note that the basic quadratic function y = f (x) = x2 is found when
a = 1.
The domain is the set of all real numbers x R, and the range is
y [0, +[ when a > 0 and y ] , 0] when a < 0.
The parabola is said to open upward for a > 0 and to open
downward for a < 0.
As a increases the parabola gets thinner when a > 1 and gets
wider when a > 1.
Therefore a controls the aperture of the parabola.
The vertex is found at (0, 0) and is the minimum of y = f (x) when
a > 0 and the maximum of y = f (x) when a > 0.
We can also observe that the parabola is symmetrical with respect
to the y-axis, (i.e. the line of equation x = 0).

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 4 / 30

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing quadratic functions of the form y = f (x) = x2 + p
Graph the function y = x2 + p using your graphic calculator and fill
the table below for p = 1, p = 2, p = 3 and p = 4

x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
p=1 y = x2 + 1
p=2 y = x2 + 2
p=3 y = x2 + 3
p=4 y = x2 + 4
p = 1 y = x2 1
p = 2 y = x2 2
p = 3 y = x2 3
p = 4 y = x2 4

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 5 / 30

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing the quadratic functions of the form y = f (x) = x2 + p
Note that the basic quadratic function y = f (x) = x2 is found when
p = 0.
The domain is the set of all real numbers x R, and the range is
y [p, +[.
If p > 0, the graph y = x2 moves upwards
If p < 0, the graph y = x2 moves downwards
Therefore p controls the vertical translation.
The vertex is found at (0, p) and is the minimum of y = f (x) when
a > 0 and the maximum of y = f (x) when a > 0.
We can also observe that the parabola is symmetrical with respect
to the y-axis, (i.e. the line of equation x = 0).

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 6 / 30

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing quadratic functions of the form y = f (x) = (x q)2
Graph the function y = (x q)2 using your graphic calculator and
fill the table below for q = 1, q = 2, q = 3 and q = 4

x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
q=1 y = (x 1)2
q=2 y = (x 2)2
q=3 y = (x 3)2
q=4 y = (x 4)2
q = 1 y = (x + 1)2
q = 2 y = (x + 2)2
q = 3 y = (x + 3)2
q = 4 y = (x + 4)2

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 7 / 30

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing the quadratic functions of the form y = f (x) = (x q)2
Note that the basic quadratic function y = f (x) = x2 is found when
q = 0 and p = 0.
Note that expanding y = f (x) = (x q)2 gives
y = f (x) = x2 2qx + q 2 .
The domain is the set of all real numbers x R, and the range is
y [p, +[.
If q > 0, the graph y = x2 moves to the left
If q < 0, the graph y = x2 moves to the right.
Therefore q controls the horizontal translation.
The vertex is found at (q, 0) and is the minimum of y = f (x).
We can also observe that the parabola is symmetrical with respect
to the y axis, (i.e. the line of equation x = 0).

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 8 / 30

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing quadratic functions of the form y = f (x) = (x q)2 + p
Graph the function y = (x q)2 + p using your graphic calculator
and fill the table below for the following values of q and p

x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
q = 1,p = 2 y = (x 1)2 + 2

q = 2,p = 3 y = (x + 2)2 3

q = 3,p = 1 y = (x 3)2 1

q = 4,p = 5 y = (x + 4)2 + 5

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing the quadratic functions of the form
y = f (x) = (x q)2 + p
Note that the basic quadratic function y = f (x) = x2 is found when
q = 0 and p = 0.
Note that expanding y = f (x) = (x q)2 + p gives
y = f (x) = x2 2qx + (q 2 + p).
The domain is the set of all real numbers x R, and the range is
y [0, +[.
The graph is translated y = f (x) = x2 , q units horizontally and p
units vertically.
Therefore q controls the horizontal translation.
The vertex is found at (q, p) and is the minimum of y = f (x).
We can also observe that the parabola is symmetrical with respect
to the line of equation x = q.

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 10 / 30

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing general quadratic functions

We just looked at special quadratic functions. More complex
quadratic functions can be studied by writing them in a different
form to highlight different parameters.
The standard form of a quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c, can be
written in its vertex form

y = a(x q)2 + p

This vertex form is useful for plotting the corresponding parabola

since it highlights the coordinates of parabolas vertex (q, p) as
well as the equation of the parabolas line of symmetry x = q.

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QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graphing general quadratic functions
The relationship between the standard form and vertex form can
be found as follows

a(x q)2 + p = a(x2 2qx + q 2 ) + p

= ax2 2aqx + (aq 2 + p)

Equating standard and vertex forms gives

b = 2aq and c = aq 2 + p

Therefore we have
b b2 4ac
q= and p=
2a 4a

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QUADRATIC FACTORISATION
Factorisation is the process of writing an expression as product of
its factors.
Expansion

(x + 2)(x + 4) = x2 + 5x + 6

Factorisation
Factorisation by removing common factors
Some quadratic trinomials can be factorised by removing the
highest common factor of the terms in the expression. In fact, we
should always look to remove the highest common factors before
proceeding with any further factorisation. For example:
2x2 + 3x = x(2x + 3)
2x2 6x = 2x(x + 3)
(x 5)2 2(x 5) = (x 5)(x 7)
(x + 2)2 + 2x + 4 = (x + 2)(x + 4)
Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 13 / 30
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QUADRATIC FACTORISATION
Fully factorise by removing a common factor:
a) 3x2 + 5x b) 2x2 7x c) 3x2 + 6x
2
d) 3x 15x 2
e) (x 1) 3(x 1)
2
f) (x + 4) 2x 8 g) 2(x + 1)2 + x + 1
2
h) 3(x 2) (x 2) i) 52 (x + 5)2 34 x 15
4
Difference of two squares factorisation
Let us consider the expansion of (x + a)(x a) = x2 a2 ; Thus
the factorisation of x2 a2 is

x2 a2 = (x + a)(x a)

Factorise the following

a) 9 x2 b) 4x2 25 c) 2x2 8 d) 3x2 48
2
e) x 11 2
f) (x + 3) 5 2
g) (3x + 2) 9
2
h) (x + 2) (x 1) 2

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QUADRATIC FACTORISATION
Perfect square factorisation
We know the expansion of the square of the sum of two numbers
x and a is
(x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
We know the expansion of the square of the difference of two
numbers x and a is
(x a)2 = x2 2ax + a2
We can therefore factorise using these two perfect square
identities if we encounter quadratic trinomial which has a square
number as constant. For example:
x2 + 10x + 25 = (x + 5)2
x2 14x + 49 = (x 7)2

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QUADRATIC FACTORISATION
Use the perfect square rules to factorise the following quadratic
trinomials
a) 9x2 6x + 1 b) 8x2 24x 18 c) x2 + 8x + 16
2
d) x 20x + 100 2
e) 25x 10x + 1 f) x2 + 2x 1
9
2
g) 2x 8x 8 2
h) x + 3x + 4 i) 4x2 38 x + 49
Factoring expressions with four terms
Some expressions with four terms do not have an overall common
factor but can be factorised by pairing the four terms. For example:
ab + ac} + bd
| {z + cd}
| {z
= a(b + c) + d(b + c)
= (b + c)(a + d)
Factorise the following expressions
a) ax2 + 2x + 2 + ax and b) ax + by + bx + ay
Note that it is sometimes necessary to reorder the terms first.
Many expressions with 4 terms cannot nonetheless be factorised
using this method.
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QUADRATIC FACTORISATION
Factoring quadratic trinomials using the sum and product
method (ac-method)
Strategy for factoring quadratic trinomials using the sum and
product method (ac-method)
1 Find two numbers that have a product equals to ac and a sum
equals to b
2 Replace the bx by two terms using the numbers in step 1 as
coefficients
3 Factor the resulting four-term polynomial by grouping
Note that this method is not possible on all quadratic trinomials.
Factorise the following quadratic trinomials using the ac-method
a) 2x2 + x 6 b) 10x2 + 13x 3
2
c) 3x 11x + 6 d) 2x2 13x 7
e) 6x2 5x 6 f) x2 8x + 15

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
In the past, we have solved many linear equations of the form
ax + b = 0 (with a 6= 0). Linear equations involve linear
polynomials or 1st order polynomials which have unique solution.
Quadratic equations involve quadratic polynomials or 2nd order
polynomials and can be written in the form of
ax2 + bx + c = 0 a 6= 0
A quadratic equation may be factorised into a product of two linear
polynomials and may therefore have two, one or no real solutions.
Below are some simple quadratic equations which show the truth
of this statement.
x2 1 = 0 (x + 1)(x 1) = 0 x = 1orx = 1
x2 6x + 9 = 0 (x 3)2 = 0 x 3 = 0 x = 3
x2 + 1 = 0 x2 = 1 No solutions since x2 0
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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Equations of the form x2 = k
Let us consider
the equation
x2 = 2
If x = 2 then x2 = ( 2)
2
=2
If x = 2 then x = ( 2)2 = 2 since
2
( 2) ( 2) = 2
Thus the solutions of x2 = 2 are x = 2
In general,

x= k if k > 0
If x2 = k then x=0 if k = 0

No solutions if k < 0
Solve the following equations
a) x2 + 3 = 6 b) 3 2x2 = 7
c) (x 2)2 = 25 d) (x + 1)2 = 7

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
The Null Factor Law
For quadratic equations that are not of the form x2 = k, we need
alternative methods of solution.
These methods are based on re-writing the quadratic equation in
factorised form and use the null factor law
When the product of two or more numbers is zero, than at least
one of them must be zero.
So if ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0
Solve the following equations after factorisation and application of
the null law
a) 2x2 4x = 0 b) 2x2 + x 15 = 0

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Solution by factorisation
In order to solve quadratic equations which are not in factorised
form, use the following procedure
1 If necessary, rearrange the equation so one side is 0
2 Fully factorise the other side (usually the left hand side)
3 Use the null factor law
4 Solve the resulting linear equations
In order to factorise the quadratic polynomial, we first take out any
common factors, then recognise the type of factorisation required.
We look for:
Difference of squares factorisation
x2 a2 = (x + a)(x a)
Perfect square factorisation
x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 or x2 2ax + a2 = (x a)2
Sum and product method (ac-method)

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Solution by factorisation
Solve for x the following equations
a) 4x2 + 12x = 0 b) 2x2 = 18x
2
c) x + 6x + 8 = 0 d) x2 + 11x + 24 = 0
2
e) x + 25 = 10x f) x2 + 2x = 48
g) 2x2 + 11x + 5 = 0 h) 5x2 + 21x + 4 = 0
2
i) 3x = 11x + 4 j) 6x2 + 11x + 3 = 0
k) x(x + 2) + 3(x 1) = 11 l) x(3 + x) + 3 = 31
m) x+1 4 = 1
2x n) x+4
2 = 6
x

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Completing the square
Factoring quadratic expressions can be very difficult and we have
generally dealt so far with cases where the factorisation involves
integers.
Quadratic equations such as x2 + 6x 1 = 0 have solutions which
are irrational. They cannot be written as a fraction in the form pq ,
where p Z and q Z
Quadratic equations like this cannot readily be solved by
factorisation, so instead we use a method called completing the
square. This involves the use of the perfect square factorisations.

x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2
x2 2ax + a2 = (x a)2

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Completing the square

Consider the equation x2 + 6x 1 = 0, then

x2 + 6x = 1
x2 + 6x+9 = 1 + +9
(x + 3)2 = 10

x + 3 = 10

x = 3 10

The hardest part of this process is knowing what number to add to

both sides of the equation to complete the square.
The number we must add to both sides is found by halving the
coefficient applied to x, then squaring this value

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PRACTICE
Completing the square
Solve for x the following equations suing completing the square
method
a) x2 + 2x 6 = 0 b) x2 18x = 3
c) x2 x 7 = 0 d) x2 2x + 7 = 0
2
e) x + 6x + 11 = 0 f) x2 + 8x + 5 = 0
g) x2 + 3x 2 = 0 h) x2 5x + 5 = 0
2
i) 2x + 6x 1 = 0 j) 2x2 + 8x + 1 = 0

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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
The quadratic formula
We can derive the formula of the solutions for a quadratic
equation.
Let us start with ax2 + bx + c = 0
b c
x2 + x + = 0
a a
2 b c
x + x=
a a
 2  2
2 b b c b
x + x+ = +
a 2a a 2a
 2 2
b b c
x+ = 2
2a 4a a
 2 2
b b 4ac
x+ =
2a 4a2
Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 26 / 30
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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
The quadratic formula
Therefore we have,

b b2 4ac
x+ =
2a 2a

b b2 4ac
x=
2a 2a
So if we denote = b2 4ac, the solutions of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are

b + b
x= andx =
2a 2a
is called the discriminant as it determines whether the quadratic
equation has real solutions or not.
Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 27 / 30
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QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
The quadratic formula
Indeed if
>0 Two real solutions
=0 One single real solution
<0 No real solutions
Which method to use for solving quadratic equations
If the quadratic equation is simple enough, we can solve it by
factoring or completing the square. These methods should be
considered first.
All quadratic equations can be solved by the quadratic formula.
Remember that the quadratic formula is shortcut to completing the
square.

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PRACTICE
The vertex and intercepts
Find the coordinates of the vertex, x-intercepts and y-intercepts
and state the range of the following quadratic functions
a) y = x2 + 2x 5 b) y = x2 2x + 7 c) y = x2 + 3x + 6
d) y = x 2x + 7 e) y = x + 4x + 1 f) y = x2 3x 2
2 2

Find the intersection of a straight line and a parabola

The intersection of a parabola y = ax2 + bx + c and a straight line
y = dx + e has coordinates that belong to both functions and
therefore must satisfy both equations.
We need to solve the system
( of simultaneous equations
y = ax2 + bx + c
y = dx + e
This system has therefore a non-linear equation. The strategy
here is to substitute the linear function into the quadratic function
and solve for x and then solve for y.
Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 29 / 30
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PRACTICE
Find the intersection of a straight line and a parabola
Find the coordinates of the point(s) of
a) y = x2 + 2x 5 and y = x 3
b) y = x2 2x + 8 and y = x + 6
c) y = x2 + 3x + 9 and y = 2x 3
d) y = x2 4x + 3 and y = 2x 6

Fabrice Castres January 8, 2017 30 / 30