Accounting Changes and Error Corrections

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ACCOUNTING CHANGES AND ERROR CORRECTIONS

Copyright 2013 by
DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY

P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA 90721-5332
All rights reserved. No part of this course may be

reproduced in any form or by any means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
2
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ACCOUNTING CHANGES AND ERROR CORRECTIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will learn:
1. What the different types of accounting changes are.

2. How accounting principles apply in the accounting for changes.
3. How to handle retrospective accounting changes.
4. How to the accounting for changes in estimates.
5. How to account for changes in a reporting entity.
6. How to do the accounting for correction of errors.
7. How to analyze the effect of errors.
A companys financial statements sometimes report significantly different results from year
to year. This may be due to changes in economic circumstances, but it may also be due to
changes in accounting methods or corrections of errors in recording past transactions.
Changing the accounting method used can have dramatic impact on a companys financial
statements. Because of this impact, one can argue that accounting changes detract from the
informational characteristics of compatibility and consistency. So why are these accounting
changes made? The main reason for these changes can be summarized as follows:
1. Due to changes in economic conditions, companies may need to change methods of

accounting to more clearly reflect the current economic situation.
2. A company, as a result of experience or new information, may change its estimates of
revenues or expensesfor example, the estimate of uncollectable accounts receivable or
the estimated service lives of depreciable assets.
3. Accounting standard-setting bodies may require the use of new accounting method or
principle, such as new reporting requirements for postretirement benefits.
4. Management may be pressured to report profitable performance. Clever accounting
changes can result in higher net income, thereby reflecting favorable on management.
Whatever the reason, accountants must keep the qualitative characteristic of usefulness
in mind. They must determine whether the reasons for accounting changes are appropriate and
then how best to report the changes to facilitate understanding of the financial statements.
The detection of errors in accounting from past transactions presents a similar problem.
The errors must be corrected and properly appropriate disclosures made so that the readers of
the financial statements will clearly understand what happened. The purpose of this course is to
discuss the different types of accounting changes and error corrections and the related
accounting procedures that should be used. This course covers the accounting, reporting, and
disclosures associated with changes in accounting principles (method), estimates, and reporting
entities as stipulated in ASC 250-10-05, Accounting Changes and Error Corrections: Overall.
APB Opinion No. 20 has standardized the manner in which accounting changes are
reported. Opinion No. 20 classifies accounting changes as follows:
1. Change in Accounting Principle. A change from one generally accepted

accounting principle (GAAP) to another generally accepted accounting principle.
2. Change in Accounting Estimate. A change that occurs as the result of new
information or as additional experience is acquired. An example is a change in
the estimate of the useful lives of depreciable assets.
3. Change in Reporting Entity. A change from reporting as one type of entity to
another type of entity, for example, changing specific subsidiaries comprising the
group of companies for which consolidated financial statements are prepared.
Correction of an error in previously issued financial statements is not an

accounting change. Such errors include mathematical mistakes, mistakes in the application of
accounting principles, or oversight or misuse of facts that existed at the time financial
statements were prepared.
If an accounting change is immaterial in the current year but is expected to be significant

in future years, it should be completely disclosed in the year of change. This course also
discusses how to present and disclose corrections of errors made in a prior year.
CHANGE IN ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLE (METHOD)
There is an underlying presumption that an accounting principle, once adopted, should not be
changed for similar events and transactions. A change in principle may be caused by new
events, changing conditions, or additional information or experience.
As per ASC 250-10-55-1, Accounting Changes and Error Corrections: Overall, a change in
the composition of the cost factors in valuing inventory represents an accounting change in
principle and must be footnoted as to why it is preferred.
ASC 250-10-05-1 through 05-3 requires retrospective application (i.e., the application of a
different accounting method to previous years as if that new method had always been used) to
prior years' financial statements of changes in accounting principle, unless it is impractical to
ascertain either the period-specific impact or the cumulative effect of the change. If it is
impractical to do so, the newly adopted accounting principle must be applied to the beginning
balances of assets or liabilities of the earliest period for practical retrospective application.
Further, a corresponding adjustment must be made to the beginning balance of retained
earnings (or other appropriate equity components or net assets) for that period (it is not to be
reported in the income statement). If the cumulative dollar effect of applying an accounting
principle change to prior periods is impractical, the new accounting principle must be applied as
if it were adopted prospectively from the earliest practical date.
It is considered impractical to apply the impact of a change in method retrospectively only

if any of the following three conditions is present:
1. Retrospective application requires presumptions of management's intent in a

previous year that cannot be verified.
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2. After making a good faith effort, the company is not able to apply the
pronouncement's requirement.
3. It is impossible to objectively estimate amounts needed that (a) would have been
available in the prior year and (b) provide proof of circumstances that existed on the
date or dates at which the amounts would be recognized, measured, or disclosed
under retrospective application.
Note: If any of these three conditions exists, it is impracticable to apply the retrospective
approach. In this case, the new accounting principle is applied prospectively as of the earliest
date it is practical to do so.
An example of an impractical condition is the change to the LIFO method. In this case, the
base-year inventory for all subsequent LIFO computations is the beginning inventory in the year
the method is adopted. It is impractical to restate previous years' income. A restatement to
LIFO involves assumptions as to the different years the layers occurred, and these assumptions
would typically result in the calculation of a number of different earnings figures. The only
adjustment required may be to restate the opening inventory to a cost basis from a lower-of-
cost-or-market-value approach.
Disclosure is thus limited to showing the impact of the change on the results of operations
in the year of change.
ASC 250-10-05 mandates retrospective application to a change in accounting method be

restricted to the direct effects of the change (net of tax). An example of a change in principle is
switching from the average cost inventory method to the FIFO method. Indirect effects of a
change in method are recognized in the year of change. Examples are altering profit-sharing or
royalty payments arising from an accounting change.
A change in depreciation, depletion, or amortization must be accounted for as a change in

estimate affected by a change in principle.
The Retained Earnings Statement after a retroactive change for a change in accounting
principle follows:
Retained earnings1/1, as previously reported
Add: adjustment for the cumulative effect on previous years of applying retrospectively
the new accounting method for long-term construction contracts
Retained earnings1/1, as adjusted
An example of the retrospective accounting change approach when prior years are presented
appears below.
EXAMPLE
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XYZ Construction Company has in previous years used the completed contract
method for construction contracts. In 2X12, the company switched to the
percentage-of-completion method. The tax rate is 30%. The following information is
provided:
Before-Tax Income from
Percentage of Completed
Year Completion Contract
Before 2X12 $300,000 $200,000

In 2X12 90,000 80,000
Total at beginning of 2X12 $390,000 $280,000
Total in 2X12 100,000 95,000
The basis for the journal entry to record the change in 2X12 is:
Difference Tax (30%) Net of Tax
Before 2X12 $100,000 $30,000 $70,000

In 2X12 10,000 3,000 7,000
Total at beginning of 2X12 $110,000 $33,000 $77,000
Total in 2X12 5,000 1,500 3,500
The journal entry to record the change in 2X12 is:
Construction in progress 110,000
Deferred tax liability 33,000
Retained earnings 77,000
EXAMPLE
In 2X12, D Corporation decided to change from the FIFO method of inventory

valuation to the weighted-average method. Inventory balances under each of the
methods were as follows:
Weighted
FIFO Average
January 1, 2X12 $171,000 $177,000

December 31, 2X12 179,000 183,000
D's income tax rate is 40%.
In its 2X12 financial statements, what amount should D report
as the cumulative effect of this accounting change?
The required computation is as follows:
Weighted-average method as of January 1, 2X12, the year in
which the change is adopted $177,000
Less: FIFO method 171,000
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Cumulative effect of the change before taxes 6,000
Cumulative effect, net of taxes: $6,000 (1 - 40%) $ 3,600
Footnote disclosure should be made if an accounting change in principle is considered

immaterial in the current year but is expected to be material in a later year.
The following is not considered a change in principle:
A principle adopted for the first time on new (e.g., different depreciation method for
a new fixed asset) or previously insignificant events or transactions. (Note: A
change in principle occurs when a new principle is used for a pre-existing asset.)
A principle adopted or changed because of significantly different occurrences or

transactions. However, footnote disclosure should be made of the change in policy.
Changes in classification are not a change in principle but should be disclosed.
Footnote disclosure should be made of the nature and justification for a change in
principle, including the reason why the new principle is preferred. Justifiable reasons for a
change in principle include the issuance of a new authoritative pronouncement (e.g., FASB
statement), a change in tax law, a new AICPA recommended policy (e.g., AICPA statement of
position), a change in circumstances of the company, and a change in principle that better
conforms to industry practice. However, note that a change in principle solely for income tax
purposes is not a change in principle for financial reporting purposes.
Other footnote disclosures for a change in accounting principle follow:
The new method used.
Description of prior-year data that were retrospectively adjusted.
The effect of the change on income from continuing operations, net income, and
any other affected financial statement line item.
Per-share amounts for the current year and for the previous years retrospectively
adjusted.
The cumulative effect of the change on retained earnings as of the beginning of the
earliest period presented.
When it is impractical to derive retrospective application to prior years, the reasons it

is such and a description of the alternative method used to report the change.
In the case of indirect effects of a change in accounting principle, a description of

such indirect effects, including the amounts that have been recognized in the current
year and the related per-share amounts. Disclosure should also be made of the
amount of the total recognized indirect effects and the related per-share amounts
for each prior year presented.
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A change in accounting principle should be recognized by a retroactive adjustment of previous
year's financial statements recast with the newly adopted principle. Any cumulative effect of the
change for years prior to those presented is recorded as an adjustment to beginning retained
earnings of the earliest year presented. Therefore, under the required retrospective approach,
the previous years' income numbers are restated under the newly adopted principle in the
current year. As a result, comparability exists over the years.
APB No. 20, Accounting Changes, requires that most changes in accounting principle be
recognized by including the cumulative effect of the change in net income of the period of the
change, i.e., no restatement of prior-period financial statements. This procedure conflicts with
the concept of consistency or comparability, which requires that similar events be accounted for
similarly in successive periods, i.e., requiring restatement of prior-year statements for
accounting changes.
A transaction that is unusual in nature and infrequent in occurrence in the environment

in which the entity operates is classified as an extraordinary item. APB No. 20 requires that the
amount of the cumulative effect of an accounting change be reported between the captions
"extraordinary items" and "net income." Thus, the following is the order of items to be reported
separately in the income statement: income from continuing operations, discontinued
operations, extraordinary items, cumulative effect of changes in accounting principle, and net
income.
A change from one generally accepted accounting principle to another, such as from
SYD to straight-line depreciation or from weighted-average to FIFO inventory valuation, is
generally accounted for as a cumulative-effect change that is included in the determination of
income for the period of change. Consequently, neither change should be treated as a prior-
period adjustment.
Exhibit 1, from the annual report of Quaker Oats Company, shows disclosure for the
change to LIFO and its justification.
EXHIBIT 1
DISCLOSURE OF CHANGE TO LIFO
QUAKER OATS COMPANY
Note 1 (In Part): Summary of Significant Accounting Policies
Inventories. Inventories are valued at the lower of cost or market, using various cost methods, and
include the cost of raw materials, labor and overhead. The percentage of year-end inventories valued
using each of the methods is as follows:
June 30 Current Year Prior Year
Average quarterly cost 21% 54%
Last-in, first-out (LIFO) 65% 29%
First-in, first-out (FIFO) 14% 17%
Effective July 1, the Company adopted the LIFO cost flow assumption for valuing the majority of remaining
U.S. Grocery Products inventories. The Company believes that the use of the LIFO method better matches
current costs with current revenues. The cumulative effect of this change on retained earnings at the
beginning of the year is not determinable, nor are the pro-forma effects of retroactive application of LIFO to
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prior years. The effect of this change on current-year fiscal results was to decrease net income by $16.0
million, or $.20 per share.
If the LIFO method of valuing certain inventories were not used, total inventories would have been
$60.1 million higher in the current year, and $24.0 million higher in the prior year.
CHANGE IN ACCOUNTING ESTIMATE
APB No. 20, Accounting Changes, states that accounting estimates change as new events occur,
as more experience is acquired, or as additional information is obtained. A change in accounting
estimate is accounted for on a prospective basis (only over current and future years.) Prior
years are not adjusted. Examples of areas for which changes in accounting estimates often are
needed include the following:
1. Uncollectible receivables
2. Useful lives of depreciable or intangible assets
3. Residual values for depreciable assets
4. Warranty obligations
5. Quantities of mineral reserves to be depleted
6. Actuarial assumptions for pensions or other postemployment benefits
7. Number of periods benefited by deferred costs
Footnote disclosure should be made of the nature and reasons for the change unless it involves
changes in the ordinary course of business (e.g., modifying a bad debt percentage). The impact
of the change in estimate on net income and per share earnings should be disclosed if the
change will affect future-year results.
Exhibit 2 provides examples of disclosure relating to estimates contained in the 2009

annual reports of two companies: H. J. Heinz Company and McDonald's. Even though the
companies had different auditors (PricewaterhouseCoopers and Ernst & Young, respectively), it
is surprising how similar the note disclosures are.
EXHIBIT 2
DISCLOSURE RELATING ESTIMATES
J. HEINZ COMPANY AND SUBSIDIARIES
NOTES TO CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
I. Significant Accounting Policies
Use of Estimates: The preparation of financial statements, in conformity with

accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America, requires management to make
estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, the disclosure of
contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements, and the reported amounts of
revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from these estimates.
MCDONALD'S CORPORATION
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies
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Estimates in financial statements
The preparation of financial statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted
in the U.S. requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the amounts reported in
the financial statements and accompanying notes. Actual results could differ from those estimates.
All changes in estimates should be reflected either in the current period or in current and
future periods. No retroactive adjustments or pro forma (as-if) statements are to be prepared
for a change in accounting estimate. Changes in estimates are considered to be part of the
normal accounting process, not corrections or changes of past periods. However, disclosures
such as the ones in Exhibit 3, reported by United Airlines, are useful in helping readers of
financial statements understand the impact of changes in estimates.
EXHIBIT 3
DISCLOSURE OF CHANGE IN ESTIMATE
UAL Corporation (the "Company") follows a deferred revenue accounting policy to record the
fair value of its Mileage Plus frequent flyer obligation. The Company defers the portion of the
sales proceeds of ticketed revenue on United and our alliance partners, as well as revenue
associated with mileage sales to third parties, that represents the estimated air transportation
fair value of the miles awarded. This deferred revenue is then recognized when the miles are
redeemed.
Some of these miles will never be redeemed by Mileage Plus members, and the Company
recognizes an estimate of revenue from the expected expired miles, which is referred to as
breakage, over an estimated redemption period. The Company reviews its breakage estimates
annually based upon the latest available information regarding mileage redemption and
expiration patterns.
During the first quarter of 2010 the Company obtained additional historical data,
previously unavailable, which has enabled the Company to refine its breakage estimates. This
new data indicates that a larger number of miles than previously estimated are expected to
expire. As a result, the Company has changed its estimate of Mileage Plus breakage on a
prospective basis, effective beginning in the first quarter of 2010. In addition to this change in
estimate, the Company is making an improvement to the accounting model for Mileage Plus
breakage that is inseparable from the change in estimate.
These changes will result in the recognition of approximately $64 million of incremental
passenger revenue in the first quarter of 2010, reducing the net amount of revenue that we
otherwise would have deferred to future periods.
When the effect of a change in accounting principle is inseparable from the effect of a
change in estimate, APB No. 20 requires that it be accounted for in the same manner as a
change in estimate only. An example of such a change is the change from deferring and
amortizing a cost to recording it as an expense when incurred because future benefits of the
cost have become doubtful. Because the new method is adopted to recognize a change in
estimated future benefits, the effect of the change in principle is inseparable from the change in
estimate. APB No. 20 requires that the effect of a change in accounting estimate be accounted
for in the period of change if the change affects that period only, or in the period of change and
in future periods, if the change affects both.
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A permanent loss on an asset is not a change in accounting estimate but rather a current-
period loss.
EXAMPLE: In 2X12, ABC Company changed its bad debt estimate based on an
aging of accounts receivable, resulting in recording bad debts of $60,000, which is
$3,000 less than if a revised estimate was not made. The journal entry is:
Bad debts 60,000

Allowance for bad debts 60,000
The related footnote would state that ABC Company modified its estimate of uncollectible
accounts to reflect better the net realizable value of accounts receivable. The impact of
the change in estimate was to increase 2X12 net income by $3,000.
EXAMPLE
On January 1, 2X09, a fixed asset was purchased costing $50,000 and having an
estimated life of 20 years with a salvage value of $2,000. On January 1, 2X12, the
estimated life was revised to 14 remaining years with a new salvage value of $2,200.
Assuming that the straight-line depreciation method is used, the journal entry on
December 31, 2X12, for depreciation expense follows:
Depreciation expense 2,900

Accumulated depreciation 2,900
Computation:
Book value on 1/1/2X12:
Initial cost $50,000
Less: accumulated depreciation ($50,000 -
$2,000)/20 years = $2,400 $2,400 3 years
depreciated = $7,200 (7,200)
Book value $42,800
Depreciation for 2X12:
Book value 42,800
Less: new salvage value 2,200
Balance $40,600
Depreciable cost $40,600

= = $2,900
New life 14 years
Exhibit 4, from the annual report of Ampco-Pittsburgh Corporation, disclosure of a change in

estimated useful lives.
EXHIBIT 4
DISCLOSURE OF CHANGE IN ESTIMATED USEFUL LIVES.
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AMPCOPITTSBURGH CORPORATION
Note 11: Change in Accounting Estimate.
The Corporation revised its estimate of the useful lives of certain machinery and equipment.
Previously, all machinery and equipment, whether new when placed in use or not, were in one
class and depreciated over 15 years. The change principally applies to assets purchased new
when placed in use. Those lives are now extended to 20 years. These changes were made to
better reflect the estimated periods during which such assets will remain in service. The change
had the effect of reducing depreciation expense and increasing net income by approximately
$991,000 ($.10 per share).
CHANGE IN REPORTING ENTITY
A change in reporting entity refers to preparing financial statements for an entity different from
the one reported in previous years. Examples of a change in reporting entity are:
A change in the subsidiaries making up consolidated financial statements.
Presentation of consolidated or combined statements rather than individual company

statements.
A change in reporting entity requires the restatement of previous years' financial

statements as if both of the previously separate companies were always combined. No more
than five years are restated. The restatement is needed for comparative financial purposes and
for meaningful historical trends.
The impact of the change in reporting entity on income before extraordinary items, net
income, and earnings per share is presented for all years.
A change in the legal structure of a business is not considered a change in reporting entity.
An example is a sole proprietorship becoming a corporation. Further, the purchase or sale of an
investee is not a change in reporting entity.
A footnote is required on the nature of and reason for the change in reporting entity in
the year it is made.
Exhibit 5 shows a note disclosing a change in reporting entity, from the annual report of
Hewlett-Packard Company.
EXHIBIT 5
DISCLOSURE OF CHANGE IN REPORTING ENTITY
HEWLETT-PACKARD COMPANY
Note: Accounting and Reporting Changes (In Part)
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Consolidation of Hewlett-Packard Finance Company. The company implemented a new
accounting pronouncement on consolidations. With the adoption of this new pronouncement,
the company consolidated the accounts of Hewlett-Packard Finance Company (HPFC), a wholly
owned subsidiary previously accounted for under the equity method, with those of the company.
The change resulted in an increase in consolidated assets and liabilities but did not have a
material effect on the company's financial position. Since HPFC was previously accounted for
under the equity method, the change did not affect net earnings. Prior years' consolidated
financial information has been restated to reflect this change for comparative purposes.
ERROR CORRECTIONS
A financial statement error can impact the interpretation of the financial statements in the year
of the error and in all subsequent years when the error year is used for comparison. For
financial reporting purposes, when an error is detected, all financial statements presented for
comparative purposes are corrected and restated. For bookkeeping purposes, most errors that
go undetected counterbalance over a 2-year period; those errors that impact income and that
have not counterbalanced are corrected by making a direct adjustment to retained earnings.
Error corrections are not considered accounting changes, but their treatment is specified
in ASC 250. ASC 250-10-05-4 covers correction of errors made in a previous year. They are
treated for accounting purposes as prior-period adjustments. They should be charged or
credited net of tax to retained earnings and reported as an adjustment in the statement of
shareholders' equity. It is not included in net income for the current period.
Prior-period adjustments adjust the beginning balance of retained earnings for the net of
tax effect of the error as follows:
Retained earnings1/1 unadjusted
Prior-period adjustments (net of tax)
Retained earnings1/1 adjusted
Add: net income
Less: dividends
Retained earnings12/31
Errors may arise because of mathematical mistakes, erroneous application of GAAP, or

misuse of information existing at the time the financial statements were prepared. Additionally,
changing a principle that is not GAAP to one that is GAAP represents an error correction.
In ascertaining whether an error is material and therefore reportable, consideration should

be given to the significance of each correction on an individual basis and to the aggregate
effect of all corrections. An error must be corrected immediately when uncovered.
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If comparative financial statements are presented, there should be a retroactive
adjustment for the error as it impacts previous years. The retroactive adjustment is presented
via disclosure of the impact of the adjustment on prior years' earnings and components of net
income.
Footnote disclosure for error corrections in the year found include the nature and
description of the error, financial effect on income before extraordinary items, net income, and
related earnings per share amounts.
EXAMPLE
At year-end 2X10, a company omitted the accrual of utilities expense of $3,000,

which was paid on January 4, 2X11. The correcting entry on December 31, 2X11 is:

Utilities expense 3,000
EXAMPLE
Drake Company bought Travis Company on January 1, 2X10, recording patents of

$80,000. Patents has not been amortized. Amortization is over 20 years. The
correcting entry on December 31, 2X12 is:
Amortization expense
($80,000/20 years = $4,000 1 year for 20X3) 4,000
($4,000 2 years for 2X10 and 2X11) Patents 12,000
EXAMPLE
At the beginning of 2X09, a company purchased machinery for $500,000 with a

salvage value of $50,000 and an expected life of 20 years. Straight-line depreciation
is used. By mistake, salvage value was not subtracted in arriving at depreciation.
The calculations on December 31, 2X12 are:
19X7-19X9
Depreciation taken (incorrect):
$500,000/20 years 3 $75,000
Depreciation (correct):
($500,000 - $50,000)/20 years 3 67,500
Difference $ 7,500
The correcting journal entries on December 31, 2X12 are
To correct for error.
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To record depreciation for 2X12.
EXAMPLE
Mills Corporation purchased equipment on January 1, 2X09 for $40,000 with a

$5,000 salvage value and a 10-year life. Maintenance expense was charged by
mistake. On December 31, 2X12, the error was uncovered before the books were
closed. The calculations and correcting entry follow:
Depreciation expense equals:

($40,000 - $5,000)/10 years = $3,500 per year
Equipment 40,000
Accumulated depreciation ($3,500 4 years) 14,000
Retained earnings ($40,000 - $10,500)* 29,500
*
3,500 3 years (2X09 2X12) = $10,500.
EXAMPLE
On January 1, 2X11, a six-year advance of $120,000 was received. In error, revenue

was recorded for the entire amount. The error was found on December 31, 2X12
before the books were closed. The correcting entry is:
Retained earnings ($120,000 - $20,000) 100,000

Revenue (for current year) 20,000
Deferred revenue ($20,000 4 years) 80,000
EXAMPLE
If an enterprise changes from the recognition of vacation pay expense from the cash
basis to the accrual basis, how should the change be accounted for?
In general, a change from an accounting principle that is not generally accepted

(accounting for vacation pay expense on the cash basis) to one that is generally
accepted (accounting for it on the accrual basis) should be presented as a correction
of an error. The following procedures should be followed in this circumstance:
The correction should be accounted for as a prior-period adjustment (i.e.,

an adjustment as of the beginning balance of retained earnings, net of
taxes) for the earliest year presented.
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There should be a restatement of all comparative prior financial
statements presented so that they now reflect the accounting for
vacation pay expense on the accrual basis instead of the cash basis.
Footnote disclosure should be made in the financial statements regarding

the prior-period adjustment correcting the error, the restatement of the
financial statements presented, and the effect of the correction on net
income.
EXAMPLE
If an entity changes from the cash basis of accounting for service contracts to the
accrual method, how should the change be treated in the financial statements?
This represents another example of a change from an accounting principle that is

not generally accepted to one that is generally accepted. It therefore should be
accounted for as a correction of an error. As in the previous example, the correction
should be handled as a prior-period adjustment, net of taxes, for the earliest year
presented of the beginning balance of retained earnings. Restatement of all
comparative financial statements presented should also be made as well as proper
footnote disclosure of the changes and their effects.
EXAMPLE
Tessie Company had a retained earnings balance of $800,000 at December 31, 2X11.
In September 2X12, Tessie ascertained that insurance premiums of $120,000
covering a four-year period beginning January 1, 2X11, had been fully paid and fully
expensed in 2X11. Tessie has a 40% tax rate. What amount should Tessie report as
adjusted beginning retained earnings in its 2X12 statement of retained earnings?
The $120,000 of insurance premiums for the four-year period beginning January 1,
2X11, which had been fully paid and expensed, clearly should not have been
expensed in total. Because the premiums represented coverage for a four-year
period and only one (2X11) had transpired, net income and retained earnings in
2X11 was understated by 3/4 of $120,000 ($90,000), net of taxes. This amount,
$90,000, should have been accounted for as an insurance prepayment at the end of
2X11. Thus, a correction (an addition) of $90,000 (100% 40%), or $54,000, is
needed to correct the beginning balance of retained earnings in 2X12. Tessie should
report $854,000 ($800,000 + $54,000) as its adjusted beginning retained earnings
balance in its 2X12 statement of retained earnings.
Classification errors usually do not affect net income. However, prior years' financial
statements issued for comparative purposes should be corrected to present the
appropriate classification.
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Types of Errors
There are a number of different kinds of errors. Some errors are discovered in the
period in which they are made and are easily corrected. Others may not be discovered
currently and are reflected on the financial statements until discovered. Some errors are
never discovered; however, the effects of these errors may be counterbalanced in
subsequent periods, and after this takes place, account balances are again accurately
stated. Errors may be classified as follows:
1. Errors discovered currently in the course of normal accounting procedures.

Examples of this type of error are clerical errors, such as an addition error, posting
to the wrong account) misstating an account, or omitting an account from the trial
balance. These types of errors usually are detected during the regular summarizing
process of the accounting cycle and are readily corrected.
2. Errors limited to balance sheet accounts. Examples include debiting Accounts
Receivable instead of Notes Receivable, crediting Interest Payable instead of Notes
Payable, or crediting Interest Payable instead of Salaries Payable. Another example
is not recording the exchange of convertible bonds for stock. Such errors are
frequently discovered and corrected in the period in which they are made. When
such errors are not found until a subsequent period, corrections must be made at
that time and balance sheet data subsequently restated for comparative reporting
purposes.
3. Errors limited to income statement Accounts. The examples and correcting
procedures for this type of error are similar to those in (2). For example, Office
Salaries may be debited instead of Sales Salaries. This type of error should be
corrected as soon as it is discovered. Even though the error would not affect net
income, the misstated accounts should be restated for analysis purposes and
comparative reporting.
4. Errors affecting both income statement Accounts and balance sheet accounts.
Certain errors, when not discovered currently, result in the misstatement of net
income and thus affect both the income statement accounts and the balance sheet
accounts. The balance sheet accounts are carried into the succeeding period; hence,
an error made currently and not detected will affect future earnings. Such errors
may be classified into two groups:
(a) Errors in net income that, when not detected, are automatically counterbalanced in
the following fiscal period. Net income amounts on the income statements for two
successive periods are inaccurately stated; certain account balances on the balance
sheet at the end of the first period are inaccurately stated, but the account balances
in the balance sheet at the end of the succeeding period will be accurately stated. In
this class are errors such as the misstatement of inventories and the omission of
adjustments for prepaid and accrued items at the end of the period.
(b) Errors in net income that, when not detected, are not automatically counterbalanced
in the following fiscal period. Account balances on successive balance sheets will be
15
inaccurately stated until such time as entries are made compensating for or
correcting the errors. In this class are errors such as the recognition of capital
expenditures as expenses and the omission of charges for depreciation and
amortization.
When errors affecting income are discovered, careful analysis is necessary to

determine the required action to correct the account balances. As indicated, most errors
will be caught and corrected prior to closing the books. The few material errors not
detected until subsequent periods and those that have not already been
counterbalanced must be treated as prior-period adjustments.
The following sections describe and illustrate the procedures to be applied when
error corrections require prior-period adjustments. It is assumed that each of the errors
is material. Errors that are discovered usually affect the income tax liability for a prior
period. Amended tax returns are usually prepared either to claim a refund or to pay any
additional tax assessment. For simplicity, the examples on the following pages and in
the exercises and problems at the end of the chapter ignore the income tax effects of
errors.
Illustrative Example of Error Correction
Assume that ABC Supply Depot, Inc., began operations at the beginning of 2X11. An
auditing firm is engaged for the first time in 2X13. Before the accounts are adjusted and
closed for 2X13, the auditor reviews the books and accounts and discovers the errors
summarized below. Effects of these errors on the financial statements, before any
correcting entries, are indicated as follows: A plus sign (+) indicates an overstatement
and a minus sign (-) indicates an understatement.
Analysis Sheet to Show Effects

At End of 2X11
Transactions Income Statement Balance Sheet
Net Retained
Section Income Section Earnings
(1) Understatement of merchandise inventory of $1,000 on Cost of
December 31, 2X11. Goods Current
Sold + - Assets - -
(2) Failure to record merchandise purchases on account of Cost of
$850 in 2X11; purchase was recorded in 2X12. Goods Current
Sold - + Liabilities - +
(3) Failure to record merchandise sale on account of $1,800
in 2X12. (It is assumed that sales the sales for 2X12 were
recognized as revenue in 2X13.
(4) Failure to record accrued sales salaries of $450 on
December 31, 2X11; expense was recognized when Selling Current
payment was made. Expense - + Liabilities - +
(5) Failure to record prepaid tax of $275 on December 31,
2X11; amount was included in Miscellaneous General General Current
Expense. Expense + - Assets - -
16
(6) Failure to correct accrued interest on notes receivable of
$150 on December 31, 2X11; revenue was recognized when Other
Revenue Current
collected in 2X12. - - Assets - -
(7) Failure to correct unearned service fee of $225 on
December 31, 2X12; amount received was included in
Miscellaneous Revenue.
(8) Failure to record depreciation of delivery equipment. On Selling Noncurrent
December 31, 2X11, $1,200. Expense - + Assets + +
On December 31, 2X12, $1,000.
(9) Incorrectly capitalizing an expenditure for operating

expense on January 1, 2X11; depreciation expense of $400 Operating Noncurrent
was incorrectly recognized in 2X11 and 2X12. Expense - + Assets + +
of Errors on Financial Statements

At End of 2X12 At End of 2X13
Transactions Income Statement Balance Sheet Income Statement Balance Sheet
Net Retained Net Retained
Section Income Section Earnings Section Income Section Earnings
Cost of
(1) Goods
Sold - +
Cost of
(2) Goods
Sold + -
(3) Accounts
Sales - - Receivable - - Sales + +
(4) Selling
Expense + -
(5) General
Expense - +
(6) Other
Revenue + +
(7) Other Current Other

Revenue + + Liabilities - + Revenue - -
Noncurrent Noncurrent
Assets + + Assets + +
(8) Selling Noncurrent Noncurrent

Expense - + Assets - + Assets + +
(9) Operating Noncurrent Noncurrent

Expense + - Expense + + Assets + +
Each error correction is discussed in the following paragraphs.
(1) Understatement of Merchandise Inventory It is discovered that the merchandise
17
inventory as of December 31, 2X11, was understated by $1,000. The effects of the
misstatement were as shown below.
Income Statement Balance Sheet

2X11 Cost of goods sold overstated Assets understated (inventory too low)
(ending inventory too low)
Net income understated Retained earnings understated
2X12 Balance sheet items not affected, retained earnings
Cost of goods sold understated
understatement for 2X11 begin corrected by
(beginning inventory too low)
net income overstatement for 2X12
Net income overstated
Because this type of error counterbalances after two years, no correcting entry is
required in 2X13.
If the error had been discovered in 2X12 instead of 2X13, an entry would have been
made to correct the account balances so that operations for 2X12 would be reported
accurately. The beginning inventory for 2X12 would have been increased by $1,000, the
amount of the asset understatement, and Retained Earnings would have been credited
for this amount, representing the income understatement in 2X11. The correcting entry
in 2X12 would have been as follows:
Merchandise Inventory 1,000

Retained Earnings 1,000
This correcting entry is the same whether the company uses a periodic or a perpetual
inventory system. As seen with error (2), the correcting entry is sometimes different,
depending on what type of inventory system the company uses.
(2) Failure to Record Merchandise Purchases It is discovered that purchase invoices

as of December 28, 2X11, for $850 had not been recorded until 2X12.The goods had
been included in the inventory at the end of 2X11. The effects of failure to record the
purchases were as shown on page 20-20.

2X11 Cost of goods sold overstated Liabilities understood (accounts payable too low)
(purchases too low)
Net income overstated Retained earnings overstated
2X12
Cost of goods sold overstated Balance sheet items not affected, retained earnings
(purchases too high) overstatement for 2X11 begin corrected by
Net income understated net income understatement for 2X12
Because this is a counterbalancing error, no correcting entry is required in 2X13.

If the error had been discovered in 2X12 instead of 2X13, a correcting entry would
have been necessary. In 2X12, Purchases was debited and Accounts Payable was
18
credited for $850 for merchandise acquired in 2X11 and included in the ending
inventory of 2X11. Retained Earnings would have to be debited for $850, representing
the net income overstatement for 2X11, and Purchases would have to be credited for
the same amount to reduce the balance in 2X12. The correcting entry in 2X12,
assuming the company uses a periodic inventory system, would have been as follows:
Retained Earnings 850

Purchases 850
If the company had used a perpetual system, the incorrect purchase would have been
debited directly to Inventory. Accordingly the correcting entry would have been made in
2X12:

Inventory 850
(3) Failure to Record Merchandise Sales It is discovered that sales on account of

$1,800 for the last week of December 2X12 had not been recorded until 2X13. The
goods sold were not included in the inventory at the end of 2X12.The effects of the
failure to report the revenue in 2X12 follow:
2X12 Revenue understated (sales too low) Assets understated (accounts receivable too low)
Net income understated Retained earnings overstated
When the error is discovered in 2X13, Sales is debited for $1,800 and Retained
Earnings is credited for this amount, representing the net income understatement for
2X12. The following entry is made:
Sales 1,800
(4) Failure to Record Accrued Expense Accrued sales salaries of $450 as of

December 31, 2X11, were overlooked in adjusting the accounts. Sales Salaries is
debited for salary payments. The effects of the failure to record the accrued expense of
$450 as of December 31, 2X11, were as shown on page 20-21.

2X11 Expenses understated Liabilities understood (accrued salaries not reported)
(sales salaries too low)
19
2X12
Expenses overstated Balance sheet items not affected, retained earnings
(salaries too high) overstatement for 2X11 begin corrected by
Net income understated net income understatement for 2X12
No entry is required in 2X13 to correct the accounts for the failure to record the
accrued expense at the end of 2X11, the misstatement in 2X11 having been
counterbalanced by the misstatement in 2X12. However, if comparative income
statements were presented in 2X13, then the amounts reported for sales salaries in
2X11 and 2X12 would be corrected. If the error had been discovered in 2X12, an entry
would have been required to correct the accounts for the failure to record the accrued
expense at the end of 2X11, if the net income for 2X12 is not to be misstated. If
accrued expenses are to be properly recorded at the end of 2X12, Retained Earnings
would be debited for $450, representing the net income overstatement for 2X11, and
Sales Salaries would be credited for the same amount, representing the amount to be
subtracted from salary expenses in 2X12. The correcting entry made in 2X12 follows:

Sales Salaries 450
(5) Failure to Record Prepaid Expense It is discovered that Miscellaneous General

Expense for 2X11 included taxes of $275 that should have been deferred in adjusting
the accounts on December 31, 2X11. The effects of the failure to record the prepaid
expense were as follows:

2X11 Expenses overstated (miscellaneous Assets understated (prepaid taxes not reported)
general expenses too high)
2X12
Expenses understated (miscellaneous Balance sheet items not affected, retained earnings
general expenses too low) understatement for 2X11 begin corrected by
Net income understated net income overstatement for 2X12
Because this is a counterbalancing error, no entry to correct the accounts is required in

2X13.
If the error had been discovered in 2X12 instead of 2X13, a correcting entry would
have been necessary. If prepaid taxes had been properly recorded at the end of 2X12,
Miscellaneous General Expense would have to be debited for $275, the expense relating
to operations of 2X12, and Retained Earnings would have to be credited for the same
amount, representing the net income understatement for 2X11. The following
correcting entry would have been made in 2X12:
Miscellaneous General Expense 275

(6) Failure to Record Accrued Revenue Accrued interest on notes receivable of $150
20
was overlooked in adjusting the accounts on December 31, 2X11.The revenue was
recognized when the interest was collectedin2X12. The effects of the failure to record
the accrued revenue follow:

2X11 Revenue understated (interest Assets understated (interest receivable not reported)
revenue too low)
2X12
Expenses overstated (interest Balance sheet items not affected, retained earnings
revenue too high) understatement for 2X11 begin corrected by
Net income overstated net income overstatement for 2X12
Because the balance sheet items at the end of 2X12 were correctly stated, no entry to
correct the accounts is required in 2X13.
If the error had been discovered in 2X12 instead of 2X13, an entry would have
been necessary to correct the account balances. If accrued interest on notes receivable
had been properly recorded at the end of 2X12, Interest Revenue would have to be
debited for $150, the amount to be subtracted from receipts of 2X12, and Retained
Earnings would have to be credited for the same amount, representing the net income
understatement for 2X11. The correcting entry in 2X12 would have been as follows:
Interest Revenue 150

(7) Failure to Record Unearned Revenue Fees of $225 received in advance for
miscellaneous services as of December 31, 2X12, were overlooked in adjusting the
accounts. Miscellaneous Revenue had been credited when fees were received. The
effects of the failure to recognize the unearned revenue of $225 at the end of 2X12
were as follows:

2X12 Revenue overstated (miscellaneous Liabilities understated (unearned service fees not
revenue too high) reported)
An entry is required to correct the accounts for the failure to record the unearned
revenue at the end of 2X12 if the net income for 2X13 is not to be misstated. If the
unearned revenue was properly recorded at the end of 2X13, Retained Earnings would
be debited for $225, representing the net income overstatement for 2X12, and
Miscellaneous Revenue would be credited for the same amount, representing the
revenue that is to be identified with 2X13. The correcting entry follows:
21
Miscellaneous Revenue 225
(8) Failure to Record Depreciation Delivery equipment was acquired at the beginning
of 2X11 at a cost of $6,000. The equipment has an estimated 5-year life. Its
depreciation of $1,200 was overlooked at the end of 2X11 and 2X12. The effects of the
failure to record depreciation for 2X11 were as follows:

2X11 Expenses understated (depreciation Assets overstated (accumulation depreciation of delivery
of delivery equipment too low) equipment too low)

2X12 Expenses not effected Assets overstated (accumulated depreciation of delivery
equipment too low)
It should be observed that the misstatements arising from the failure to record
depreciation are not counterbalanced in the succeeding year.
Failure to record depreciation for 2X12 affected the statements as follows:

2X12 Expenses understated (depreciation Assets overstated (accumulated depreciation of
of equipment too low) delivery equipment too low)
When the omission is recognized, Retained Earnings must be decreased by the net
income overstatements of prior years and Accumulated Depreciation must be increased
by the depreciation that should have been recorded. The correcting entry in 2X13 for
depreciation that should have been recognized for 2X11 and 2X12 is as follows:

Accumulated DepreciationDelivery Equipment 2,400
(9) Incorrectly Capitalizing an Expenditure Operating expenses of $2,000 were paid

in cash at the beginning of 2X11. However, the payment was incorrectly recorded as
the purchase of equipment. The "equipment" was assumed to have an estimated 5-year
life with $0 residual value, and depreciation of $400 was recognized at the end of 2X11
and 2X12.The effects of this incorrect capitalization of an expenditure were as follows:

2X11 Expenses understated (operating Assets overstated (asset, net of accumulated
expense too low, partially offset depreciation, is recorded when there should
by depreciation expenses) not be an asset)
22
2X12 Expenses overstated (depreciation Assets overstated (asset is still incorrectly recorded,
too high) though the net amount is less)
When the error is discovered, Retained Earnings must be decreased by the net
income overstatement of 2X11 (partially offset by the net income understatement in
2X12) and the accounts related to the "equipment" (Equipment and Accumulated
Depreciation) must be eliminated. The correcting entry in 2X13 is as follows:

Accumulated DepreciationEquipment 800
Equipment 2,000
REQUIRED DISCLOSURE FOR ERROR RESTATEMENTS

If an error (either accidental or intentional in nature) is subsequently discovered that affected a
prior period, the nature of the error, its effect on previously issued financial statements, and the
effect of its correction on current period's net income and EPS should be disclosed in the period
in which the error is corrected. In addition, any comparative financial statements provided must
be corrected.
An example of the disclosure provided when an error correction is made through a prior-
period adjustment is given in Exhibit 6; the error correction (intentional errors in this instance)
was made in 2000 by Xerox . Xerox provides extensive disclosure as to the effect of the errors
on the income statement and the balance sheet for each year affected. As you read over the
businesslike description of the accounting errors uncovered at Xerox, keep in mind that
underlying this dry verbiage lie the destroyed careers of many accountants and managers at
Xerox who stepped over the earnings management line into the area of earnings misstatement .
Between the lines of this note one can also sense the lost trust of Xerox shareholders,
customers, suppliers, and regulators.
23
EXHIBIT 6
XEROX RESTATEMENT
24
25
Who Wins from Restatement?
When companies report restatements, investors usually lose money. What should investors do if
a company misleads them by misstating its financial results? Join other investors in a class-
action suit against the company and in some cases, the auditor. Class-action activity has picked
up in recent years, and settlements can be large. To find out about class actions, investors can
go online to see if they are eligible to join any class actions. Below are some recent examples.
Company Settlement Amount Contact for Claim

Xerox $670 million www.gilardi.com
Transamerica HomeFirst $ 8 million www.gilardi.com
Tommy Hilfiger Corp. $ 6 million www.gilardi.com
The amounts reported are before attorney's fees, which can range from 15 to 30 percent of the
total. Also, investors may owe taxes if the settlement results in a capital gain on the
investment. Thus, investors can get back some of the money they lost due to restatements, but
they should be prepared to pay an attorney and the government first.
Source: Adapted from C. Coolidge, "Lost and Found," Forbes (October 1, 2001), pp. 124-125;
www.gilardi.com. Accessed on May 10, 2012.
SUMMARY OF GUIDELINES FOR ACCOUNTING CHANGES AND ERRORS

The summary listed below presents the appropriate accounting procedures applicable to
each of the four main categories covered in ASC 250, Accounting Changes and Error
Corrections. Naturally, accountants must apply these guidelines with judgment and
should seek to provide the most relevant and reliable information possible.
Changes in accounting principle

Employ the retrospective approach by:
a. Changing the financial statements of all prior periods presented.
b. Disclosing in the year of the change the effect on net income and earnings per share for all
prior periods presented.
c. Reporting an adjustment to the beginning retained earnings balance in the statement of retained
earnings in the earliest year presented.
If impracticable to determine the prior period effect (e.g., change to LIFO):
a. Do not change prior years' income.
b. Use opening inventory in the year the method is adopted as the base-year inventory for all
subsequent LIFO computations.
c. Disclose the effect of the change on the current year, and the reasons for omitting the
computation of the cumulative effect and pro forma amounts for prior years.
Changes in accounting estimate.
Employ the current and prospective approach by:
a. Reporting current and future financial statements on the new basis.
b. Presenting prior period financial statements as previously reported.
26
c. Making no adjustments to current-period opening balances for the effects in prior periods.
Changes in reporting entity.
Employ the retrospective approach by:
a. Restating the financial statements of all prior periods presented.
b. Disclosing in the year of change the effect on net income and earnings per share data for
all prior periods presented.
Changes due to error.
a. If detected in period error occurred, correct accounts through normal accounting cycle
adjustments.
b. If detected in a subsequent period, adjust for effect of material errors by making prior-
period adjustments directly to Retained Earnings balance for the years affected by those
errors. lf the error relates to a year that is not presented in the financial statements, the
Retained Earnings balance for the earliest year presented is adjusted. Also correct each item
presented in comparative financial statements.
c. Once an error is discovered in previously issued financial statements, the nature of the
error, its effect on the financial statements, and its effect on the current period's income and
EPS should be disclosed.
27
TYPES OF ACCOUNTING ERRORS
Accounting Category Type of Restatement
Expense recognition Recording expenses in the incorrect period or for an incorrect amount
Revenue recognition Improper revenue accounting. This category includes instances in which
revenue was improperly recognized, questionable revenues were recognized, or
any other number of related errors that led to misreported revenue.
Misclassification Misclassifying significant accounting items on the balance sheet, income

statement, or statement of cash flows. These include restatements due to
misclassification of short- or long-term accounts or those that impact cash
flows from operations
Equityother Improper accounting for EPS, restricted stock, warrants, and other equity
instruments
Reserves/Contingencies Errors involving accounts receivables bad debts, inventory reserves, income tax
allowances, and loss contingencies
Long-lived assets Asset impairments of property, plant, and equipment, goodwill, or other related
items.
Taxes Errors involving correction of tax provision, improper treatment of tax liabilities,
and other tax-related items
Equityother Improper accounting for comprehensive income equity transactions including

comprehensive income foreign currency items, minimum pension liability adjustments, unrealized gains
and losses on certain investments in debt, equity securities, and derivatives.
Inventory Inventory costing valuations, quantity issues, and cost of sales adjustments
Equitystock options Improper accounting for employee stock options
Other Any restatement not covered by the listed categories including those related to
improper accounting for mergers or acquisitions.
Source: T. Baldwin and D. Yoo, ' RestatementsTraversing Shaky Ground," Trend Alert, Glass
Lewis Sr Co. (June 2, 2005), p. 8.
28
ASC, FASB, AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GAAP AND IFRS
FASB
Accounting Corresponding Differences
Standards Original FASB IASB between U.S.
Topic Codification (ASC) Standard Standard* GAAP and IFRS
Change in ASC 250-10-45 FAS No. 154 par. IAS 8 par. 14-31 No substantial
accounting 4-18 APB No.
principle par. 1-16 Differences
28 par. 28
ASC 250-10-50 par.
1- 3
Change in
accounting ASC 250-10-45 FAS No. 154 par. IAS 8 par. 32-40 No substantial
estimate par. 17-20 19-22 Differences
ASC 250-10-50 par. FAS No. 157 par.
4- 5 20
Correction of
an error ASC 250-10-45 FAS No. 154 par. 1AS 8 par. 41-49 No substantial
par. 22-28 25-26 Differences
ASC 250-10-50 par. FAS No. 16 par.
7-11 10-15
APB No. 9 par.
17-18
APB No. 9 par.
26-27
APB No. 28 par.
29
* As noted earlier, the IFRS standard addressing accounting and reporting for changes
in accounting principles, changes in estimates, and errors is IAS 8 ("Accounting Policies,
Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors"). Various presentation issues related to
restatements are addressed in IAS 1 ("Presentation of Financial Statements"). The FASB
has issued guidance on changes in accounting principles, changes in estimates, and
corrections of errors, which essentially converges U.S. GAAP to IAS 8.
One area in which IFRS and GAAP differ is the reporting of error corrections in
previously issued financial statements. While both GAAPs require restatement, GAAP is
an absolute standardthat is, there is no exception to this rule.
The accounting for changes in estimates is similar between U.S. GAAP and IFRS.
Under GAAP and IFRS, if determining the effect of a change in accounting principle is
considered impracticable, then a company should report the effect of the change in
the period in which it believes it practicable to do so, which may be the current
29
period.
Under IFRS, the impracticality exception applies both to changes in accounting
principles and to the correction of errors. Under U.S. GAAP, this exception applies only
to changes in accounting principle.
IAS 8 does not specifically address the accounting and reporting for indirect effects of
changes in accounting principles. As indicated in the course, GAAP has detailed guidance
on the accounting and reporting of indirect effects.
30
GLOSSARY
Accounting Change A change in (1) an accounting principle, (2) an accounting estimate, or

(3) the reporting entity. The correction of an error in previously issued financial statements is
not an accounting change.
Change in Accounting Estimate A change that has the effect of adjusting the carrying
amount of an existing asset or liability or altering the subsequent accounting for existing or
future assets or liabilities. Changes in accounting estimates result from new information.
Change In Accounting Estimate effected by a Change in Accounting Principle A
change in accounting estimate that is inseparable from the effect of a related change in
accounting principle.
Change in Accounting Principle A change from one generally accepted accounting principle
(GAAP) to another GAAP.
Change in Reporting Entity A change from reporting as one type of entity to another type
of entity.
Counterbalancing errors. Errors that will offset or corrected over two periods.
Current adjustments. The cumulative effect of the use of the new method on the financial
statements at the beginning of the period is computed and is reported in the current years
income statement as a special item between the captions Extraordinary items and Net
income.
Direct Effects of a Change in Accounting Principle Those recognized changes in assets or
liabilities necessary to effect a change in accounting principle.
Error in Previously Issued Financial Statements An error in recognition, measurement,
presentation, or disclosure in financial statements resulting from mathematical mistakes,
mistakes in the application of GAAP, or oversight or misuse of facts that existed at the time the
financial statements were prepared. A change from an accounting principle that is not generally
accepted to one that is generally accepted is a correction of an error.
Errors Include mathematical mistakes, mistakes in the application of accounting principles, or
oversight or misuse of facts that existed at the time financial statements were prepared.
Indirect Effects of a Change in Accounting Principle Any changes to current or future
cash flows of an entity that result from making a change in accounting principle that is applied
retrospectively.
Noncounterbalancing errors. Errors that are not offset in the next accounting period.
Prospective adjustments. Previously reported results remain; no change is made. Opening
balances are not adjusted, and no attempt is made to allocate charges or credits for prior
events.
Restatement The process of revising previously issued financial statements to reflect the
correction of an error in those financial statements.
Retroactive adjustment. The cumulative effect of the use of the new method on the
financial statements at the beginning of the period is computed and the prior years financial
statements ate recast on a basis consistent with the newly adopted principle.
Retrospective Application The application of a different accounting principle to one or more
previously issued financial statements, or to the statement of financial position at the
beginning of the current period, as if that principle had always been used, or a change to
31
financial statements of prior accounting periods to present the financial statements of a
new reporting entity as if it had existed in those prior years.
32
Note: Skim through this section
for more annual report references
ANNUAL REPORT REFERENCES
IBM
2008 Annual Report
Note B. Accounting Changes
New Standards to Be Implemented
In December 2008, the FASB issued FASB Staff Position (FSP) financial Accounting Standard
(FAS) 132(R)-1 Employers' Disclosures about Postretirement Benefit Plan Assets. This FSP
amends SFAS No. 132(R), Employers' Disclosures about Pensions and Other Postretirement
Benefits to require more detailed disclosures about the fair value measurements of employers'
plan assets including (a) investment policies and strategies; (b) major categories of plan assets;
(c) information about valuation techniques and inputs to those techniques, including the fair
value hierarchy classifications (as defined by SFAS No. 157) of the major categories of plan
assets; (d) the effects of fair value measurements using significant unobservable inputs (Level 3)
on changes in plan assets; and (e) significant concentrations of risk within plan assets. The
disclosures required by the FSP will be made in the December 31, 2009 Consolidated Financial
Statements. This Statement does not impact the consolidated financial results as it is disclosure-
only in nature.
In November 2008, the FASB ratified the Emerging Issues Task force (EITF) Issue 08-7,
Accounting for Defensive Intangible Assets. A defensive intangible asset is an asset acquired
in a business combination or in an asset acquisition that an entity does not intend to actively
use. According to the guidance, defensive intangible assets are considered to be a separate unit
of account and valued based on their highest and best use from the perspective of an external
market participant. EITF 08-7 is effective January 1, 2009. The adoption of this EITF issue is
not expected to have an impact on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
In June 2008, the FASB issued FSP EITF 03-6-1, Determining Whether Instruments
Granted in Share-Based Payment Transactions Are Participating Securities, which will become
effective in 2009 via retrospective application. Under the FSP, unvested share-based payment
awards that contain non-forfeitable rights to dividends or dividend equivalents are participating
securities and, therefore, are included in computing earnings per share (EPS) pursuant to the
two-class method. The two-class method determines earnings per share for each class of
common stock and participating securities according to dividends or dividend equivalents and
their respective participation rights in undistributed earnings. Restricted Stock Units (RSUs)
granted to employees prior to December 31, 2007 are considered participating securities as
they receive non-forfeitable dividend equivalents at the same rate as common stock. RSUs
granted after December 31, 2007 do not receive dividend equivalents and are not considered
participating securities. The company will adopt the FSP in fiscal year 2009. The implementation
of the FSP is expected to decrease diluted EPS by $0.04 and $0.03 for the years ended
December 31, 2008 and December 31, 2007, respectively. Basic EPS is expected to decrease by
$0.05 in each of the years ended December 31, 2008 and 2007.
33
In March 2008, the FASB issued SFAS No. 161, Disclosures about Derivative Instruments
and Hedging Activitiesan amendment of FASB Statement No. 133. SFAS No. 161 expands the
current disclosure requirements of SFAS No. 133, Accounting for Derivative Instruments and
Hedging Activities, such that entities must now provide enhanced disclosures on a quarterly
basis regarding how and why the entity uses derivatives; how derivatives and related hedged
items are accounted for under SFAS No. 133 and how derivatives and related hedged items
affect the entity's financial position, financial results and cash flow. Pursuant to the transition
provisions of the Statement, the company will adopt SFAS No. 161 in fiscal year 2009 and will
present the required disclosures in the prescribed format on a prospective basis. This Statement
does not impact the consolidated financial results as it is disclosure-only in nature.
In February 2008, the FASB issued FSP FAS 157-2, Effective Date of FASB Statement No.
157. FSP FAS 157-2 delayed the effective date of SFAS No. 157 fair Value measurements
from 2008 to 2009 for all nonfinancial assets and nonfinancial liabilities, except those that are
recognized or disclosed at fair value in the financial statements on a recurring basis (at least
annually). The adoption of the provisions of SFAS No. 157 related to nonfinancial assets and
nonfinancial liabilities is not expected to have a material impact on the Consolidated Financial
Statements. See the Standards Implemented section of this note for a further discussion of
SFAS No. 157.
In December 2007, the FASB issued SFAS No. 160, Noncontrolling Interests in
Consolidated Financial Statementsan amendment of ARB No. 51. This Statement requires
that the noncontrolling interest in the equity of a subsidiary be accounted for and reported as
equity, provides revised guidance on the treatment of net income and losses attributable to the
noncontrolling interest and changes in ownership interests in a subsidiary and requires
additional disclosures that identify and distinguish between the interests of the controlling and
noncontrolling owners. Pursuant to the transition provisions of SFAS No. 160, the company will
adopt the Statement on January 1, 2009 via retrospective application of the presentation and
disclosure requirements. The company does not expect the adoption of this Statement to have
a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
In December 2007, the FASB issued SFAS No. 141(R), Business Combinations, which will
become effective in 2009 via prospective application to business combinations. This Statement
requires that the acquisition method of accounting be applied to a broader set of business
combinations, amends the definition of a business combination, provides a definition of a
business, requires an acquirer to recognize an acquired business at its fair value at the
acquisition date and requires the assets and liabilities assumed in a business combination to be
measured and recognized at their fair values as of the acquisition date (with limited exceptions).
The company will adopt this Statement in fiscal year 2009 and its effects on future periods will
depend on the nature and significance of business combinations subject to this statement.
Standards Implemented
In September 2006, the FASB finalized SFAS No. 157 which became effective January 1, 2008
except as amended by FSP FAS 157-2 as previously described and FSP FAS 157-1 and FSP FAS
157-3 as discussed below. This Statement defines fair value, establishes a framework for
measuring fair value and expands disclosures about fair value measurements; however, it does
not require any new fair value measurements. On January 1, 2008, the provisions of this
Statement were applied prospectively to fair value measurements and disclosures of (a)
34
financial assets and financial liabilities and (b) nonfinancial assets and nonfinancial liabilities
which are recognized or disclosed at fair value in the financial statements on a recurring basis
(at least annually). The adoption of this Statement did not have a material effect on the
Consolidated Financial Statements for fair value measurements made for the year ended
December 31, 2008. See note D, fair Value, on page 84 for additional information.
In February 2008, the FASB issued FSP FAS 157-1, Application of FASB Statement No.
157 to FASB Statement No. 13 and Other Accounting Pronouncements That Address fair Value
Measurements for Purposes of Lease Classification or Measurement under Statement 13. FSP
FAS 157-1 removed leasing from the scope of SFAS No. 157. In October 2008, the FASB issued
FSP FAS 157-3, Determining the fair Value of a financial Asset When the Market for That Asset
is Not Active. FSP FAS 157-3 clarified the application of SFAS 157 in a market that is not active
and provided an example to illustrate key considerations in determining the fair value of a
financial asset when the market for that financial asset is not active. FSP FAS 157-3 became
effective immediately upon issuance, and its adoption did not have an effect on the
Consolidated Financial Statements.
In February 2007, the FASB issued SFAS No. 159, The fair Value Option for financial
Assets and financial Liabilities, Including an amendment of FASB Statement No. 115, which
became effective January 1, 2008. SFAS No. 159 permits entities to measure eligible financial
assets, financial liabilities and firm commitments at fair value, on an instrument-by-instrument
basis, that are otherwise not permitted to be accounted for at fair value under other generally
accepted accounting principles. The fair value measurement election is irrevocable and
subsequent changes in fair value must be recorded in earnings. The company adopted this
Statement as of January 1, 2008 but has not applied the fair value option to any eligible assets
or liabilities. Thus, the adoption of this Statement did not affect the Consolidated Financial
Statements.
In the first quarter of 2007, the company adopted SFAS No. 156, Accounting for
Servicing of financial Assetsan amendment of FASB Statement No. 140, that provides
guidance on accounting for separately recognized servicing assets and servicing liabilities. In
accordance with the provisions of SFAS No. 156, separately recognized servicing assets and
servicing liabilities must be initially measured at fair value, if practicable. Subsequent to initial
recognition, the company may use either the amortization method or the fair value
measurement method to account for servicing assets and servicing liabilities within the scope of
this Statement. The adoption of this Statement did not have a material effect on the
Consolidated Financial Statements.
On January 1, 2007, the company adopted SFAS No. 155, Accounting for Certain Hybrid
financial Instrumentsan amendment of FASB Statements No. 133 and 140, which permits fair
value remeasurement for any hybrid financial instrument that contains an embedded derivative
that otherwise would require bifurcation in accordance with the provisions of SFAS No. 133,
Accounting for Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities. The adoption of this Statement
did not have a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
The company adopted FASB Interpretation No. 48, Accounting for Uncertainty in Income
Taxesan Interpretation of FASB Statement No. 109 (FIN 48) on January 1, 2007. FIN 48
clarifies the accounting and reporting for uncertainties in income tax law. This Interpretation
prescribes a comprehensive model for the financial statement recognition, measurement,
35
presentation and disclosure of uncertain tax positions taken or expected to be taken in income
tax returns. The cumulative effect of adopting FIN 48 was a decrease in tax reserves and an
increase of $117 million to the January 1, 2007 retained earnings balance.
Effective December 31, 2006, the company adopted SFAS No. 158, Employer's
Accounting for Defined Benefit Pension and Other Postretirement Plans, an Amendment of FASB
Statements No. 87, 88, 106 and 132(R), which requires the recognition of the funded status of
the retirement-related benefit plans in the Consolidated Statement of financial Position and the
recognition of the changes in that funded status in the year in which the changes occur through
gains and (losses) not affecting retained earnings, net of applicable tax effects. The provisions
of SFAS No. 158 were adopted pursuant to the transition provisions therein. The company
measures defined benefit plan assets and obligations as of December 31 and SFAS No. 158 did
not affect the company's existing valuation practices. The adoption of SFAS No. 158 had a
significant non-cash impact on the company's 2006 reported financial position and stockholders'
equity, reducing equity by $9.5 billion, net of tax. The adoption of SFAS No. 158 had no impact
on the company's existing debt covenants, credit ratings or financial flexibility.
In September 2006, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued Staff
Accounting Bulletin (SAB) No. 108, codified as SAB Topic 1.N, Considering the Effects of Prior
Year Misstatements when Quantifying Misstatements in Current Year Financial Statements. SAB
No. 108 describes the approach that should be used to quantify the materiality of a
misstatement and provides guidance for correcting prior-year errors. The company early
adopted SAB No. 108 in the third quarter of 2006 and accordingly, follows SAB No. 108
requirements when quantifying financial statement misstatements. The adoption of SAB No.
108 did not require any changes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.
In the third quarter of 2006, the company adopted FSP Fin 46(R)-6, Determining the
Variability to Be Considered in Applying FASB Interpretation No. 46(R). FSP FIN No. 46(R)-6
clarifies that the variability to be considered in applying FASB Interpretation 46(R) shall be
based on an analysis of the design of the variable interest entity. The adoption of this FSP did
not have a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
In the first quarter of 2006, the company adopted SFAS No. 154, Accounting Changes
and Error Correctionsa replacement of APB No. Opinion No. 20 and FASB Statement No. 3.
SFAS No. 154 changed the requirements for the accounting for and reporting of a voluntary
change in accounting principle. The adoption of this statement did not affect the Consolidated
Financial Statements.
Beginning January 2006, the company adopted SFAS No. 151, Inventory Costsan
amendment of ARB No. 43, Chapter 4. SFAS No. 151 requires certain abnormal expenditures to
be recognized as expenses in the current period versus being capitalized in inventory. It also
requires that the amount of fixed production overhead allocated to inventory be based on the
normal capacity of the production facilities. The adoption of this statement did not have a
material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
Tyco International
2008 Annual Report
7. Cumulative Effect of Accounting Change
36
During 2006, the Company adopted FIN No. 47, Accounting for Conditional Asset Retirement
Obligationsan Interpretation of FASB Statement No. 143. FIN No. 47 clarifies the timing of
liability recognition for legal obligations associated with an asset retirement when the timing
and (or) method of settling the obligation are conditional on a future event that may or may not
be within the control of the entity and clarifies when an entity would have sufficient information
to reasonably estimate the fair value of an asset retirement obligation. FIN No. 47 requires that
conditional asset retirement obligations, along with the associated capitalized asset retirement
costs, be initially reported at their fair values. Upon adoption, the Company recognized a liability
of $32 million for asset retirement obligations and an increase of $10 million in the carrying
amount of the related assets, of which $19 million and $5 million are reflected in liabilities and
assets of discontinued operations, respectively. The initial recognition resulted in a cumulative
effect of accounting change of $14 million after-tax loss ($22 million pre-tax), reflecting the
accumulated depreciation and accretion that would have been recognized in prior periods had
the provisions of FIN No. 47 been in effect at the time.
IBM
2007 Annual Report
Note B. Accounting Changes
New Standards to Be Implemented
In February 2008, the FASB issued FASB Staff Position (FSP) Financial Accounting Standard
(FAS) 157-1, Application of FASB Statement No. 157 to FASB Statement No. 13 and Its Related
Interpretive Accounting Pronouncements That Address Leasing Transactions, and FSP FAS
157-2, Effective Date of FASB Statement No. 157. FSP FAS 157-1 removes leasing from the
scope of SFAS No. 157, Fair Value Measurements. FSP FAS 157-2 delays the effective date of
SFAS No. 157 from 2008 to 2009 for all nonfinancial assets and nonfinancial liabilities, except
those that are recognized or disclosed at fair value in the financial statements on a recurring
basis (at least annually). See SFAS No. 157 discussion on page 74.
In December 2007, the FASB issued SFAS No. 141(R), Business Combinations, which will
become effective in 2009 via prospective application to new business combinations. This
Statement requires that the acquisition method of accounting be applied to a broader set of
business combinations, amends the definition of a business combination, provides a definition
of a business, requires an acquirer to recognize an acquired business at its fair value at the
acquisition date and requires the assets and liabilities assumed in a business combination to be
measured and recognized at their fair values as of the acquisition date (with limited exceptions).
The company will adopt this Statement in fiscal year 2009 and its effects on future periods will
depend on the nature and significance of any acquisitions subject to this Statement.
In December 2007, the FASB issued SFAS No. 160, Noncontrolling Interests in
Consolidated Financial Statementsan amendment of ARB No. 51. This Statement requires
that the noncontrolling interest in the equity of a subsidiary be accounted for and reported as
equity, provides revised guidance on the treatment of net income and losses attributable to the
noncontrolling interest and changes in ownership interests in a subsidiary and requires
additional disclosures that identify and distinguish between the interests of the controlling and
noncontrolling owners. Pursuant to the transition provisions of SFAS No. 160, the company will
adopt the Statement in fiscal year 2009 via retrospective application of the presentation and
37
disclosure requirements. The company does not expect the adoption of this Statement to have
a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
In February 2007, the FASB issued SFAS No. 159, The Fair Value Option for Financial
Assets and Financial Liabilities, Including an amendment of FASB Statement No. 115, which
will become effective in 2008. SFAS No. 159 permits entities to measure eligible financial assets,
financial liabilities and firm commitments at fair value, on an instrument-by-instrument basis,
that are otherwise not permitted to be accounted for at fair value under other generally
accepted accounting principles. The fair value measurement election is irrevocable and
subsequent changes in fair value must be recorded in earnings. The company will adopt this
Statement in fiscal year 2008 and does not expect the adoption of this Statement to have a
In September 2006, the FASB finalized SFAS No. 157 which will become effective in 2008
except as amended by FSP FAS 157-1 and FSP FAS 157-2 as previously described. This
Statement defines fair value, establishes a framework for measuring fair value and expands
disclosures about fair value measurements; however, it does not require any new fair value
measurements. The provisions of SFAS No. 157 will be applied prospectively to fair value
measurements and disclosures for financial assets and financial liabilities and nonfinancial
assets and nonfinancial liabilities recognized or disclosed at fair value in the financial statements
on at least an annual basis beginning in the first quarter of 2008. While the company does not
expect the adoption of this Statement to have a material impact on its Consolidated Financial
Statements at this time, the company will monitor any additional implementation guidance that
is issued that addresses the fair value measurements for certain financial assets, such as private
market pension plan assets, and nonfinancial assets and nonfinancial liabilities not disclosed at
fair value in the financial statements on at least an annual basis.
Standards Implemented
In the first quarter of 2007, the company adopted SFAS No. 156, Accounting for Servicing of
Financial Assetsan amendment of FASB Statement No. 140, that provides guidance on
accounting for separately recognized servicing assets and servicing liabilities. In accordance
with the provisions of SFAS No. 156, separately recognized servicing assets and servicing
liabilities must be initially measured at fair value, if practicable. Subsequent to initial recognition,
the company may use either the amortization method or the fair value measurement method to
account for servicing assets and servicing liabilities within the scope of this Statement. The
adoption of this Statement did not have a material effect on the Consolidated Financial
Statements.
In the first quarter of 2007, the company adopted SFAS No. 155, Accounting for Certain
Hybrid Financial Instrumentsan amendment of FASB Statements No. 133 and 140, which
permits fair value remeasurement for any hybrid financial instrument that contains an
embedded derivative that otherwise would require bifurcation in accordance with the provisions
of SFAS No. 133, Accounting for Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities. The adoption
of this Statement did not have a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
The company adopted FASB Interpretation No. 48, Accounting for Uncertainty in Income
Taxesan Interpretation of FASB Statement No. 109 (FIN 48) on January 1, 2007. FIN 48
clarifies the accounting and reporting for uncertainties in income tax law. This Interpretation
38
prescribes a comprehensive model for the financial statement recognition, measurement,
presentation and disclosure of uncertain tax positions taken or expected to be taken in income
tax returns. See note O, Taxes, on pages 97 to 99 for additional information, including the
effects of adoption on the Consolidated Statement of Financial Position.
Effective December 31, 2006, the company adopted SFAS No. 158, Employer's
Accounting for Defined Benefit Pension and Other Postretirement Plans, an Amendment of FASB
Statements No. 87, 88, 106 and 132(R), which requires the recognition of the funded status of
the retirement-related benefit plans in the Consolidated Statement of Financial Position and the
recognition of the changes in that funded status in the year in which the changes occur through
Gains and (losses) not affecting retained earnings, net of applicable tax effects. The provisions
of SFAS No. 158 were adopted pursuant to the transition provisions therein. The company
measures defined benefit plan assets and obligations as of December 31 and SFAS No. 158 did
not affect the company's existing valuation practices. The adoption of SFAS No. 158 had no
impact on the company's existing debt covenants, credit ratings or financial flexibility. See note
U, Retirement-Related Benefits, on pages 105 to 116 for additional information, including the
incremental effect of adoption on the Consolidated Statement of Financial Position.
In September 2006, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued Staff
Accounting Bulletin (SAB) No. 108, codified as SAB Topic 1.N, Considering the Effects of Prior
Year Misstatements when Quantifying Misstatements in Current Year Financial Statements. SAB
No. 108 describes the approach that should be used to quantify the materiality of a
misstatement and provides guidance for correcting prior-year errors. The company early
adopted SAB No. 108 in the third quarter of 2006 and accordingly, follows SAB No. 108
requirements when quantifying financial statement misstatements. The adoption of SAB No.
108 did not require any changes to the Consolidated Financial Statements.
In the third quarter of 2006, the company adopted FSP FIN 46(R)-6, Determining the
Variability to Be Considered in Applying FASB Interpretation No. 46(R). FSP FIN No. 46(R)-6
clarifies that the variability to be considered in applying FASB Interpretation 46(R) shall be
based on an analysis of the design of the variable interest entity. The adoption of this FSP did
not have a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
In the first quarter of 2006, the company adopted SFAS No. 154, Accounting Changes
and Error Correctionsa replacement of APB No. Opinion No. 20 and FASB Statement No. 3.
SFAS No. 154 changed the requirements for the accounting for and reporting of a voluntary
change in accounting principle. The adoption of this statement did not affect the Consolidated
Financial Statements in fiscal years 2007 and 2006. Its effects on future periods will depend on
the nature and significance of any future accounting changes subject to this Statement.
Beginning January 2006, the company adopted SFAS No. 151, Inventory Costsan
amendment of ARB No. 43, Chapter 4. SFAS No. 151 requires certain abnormal expenditures to
be recognized as expenses in the current period versus being capitalized in inventory. It also
requires that the amount of fixed production overhead allocated to inventory be based on the
normal capacity of the production facilities. The adoption of this Statement did not have a
Effective January 1, 2005, the company adopted the provisions of SFAS No. 123(R),
Share-Based Payment. The company elected to adopt the modified retrospective application
39
method provided by SFAS No. 123(R) and accordingly, financial statement amounts for the
periods presented herein reflect results as if the fair value method of expensing had been
applied from the original effective date of SFAS No. 123. See note A, Significant Accounting
Policies, on page 70 and note T, Stock-Based Compensation, on pages 102 to 105 for
additional information.
In March 2005, the FASB issued FASB Interpretation No. 47, Accounting for Conditional
Asset Retirement Obligations, an interpretation of FASB Statement No. 143 (FIN 47). FIN 47
clarifies that conditional AROs meet the definition of liabilities and should be recognized when
incurred if their fair values can be reasonably estimated. The company implemented FIN 47 at
December 31, 2005 and recorded conditional AROs of approximately $85 million. These
conditional AROs relate to the company's contractual obligations to remove leasehold
improvements in certain non-U.S. locations thereby restoring leased space to its original
condition. Upon implementation of FIN 47, the company recorded a $36 million charge (net of
income tax benefit of $21 million) which was reported as a cumulative effect of a change in
accounting principle in the 2005 Consolidated Statement of Earnings. The company's accounting
policy for AROs is described in note A, Significant Accounting Policies, on page 69. The pro
forma effect of retroactively applying FIN 47 for the year 2005 was:
($ in millions except per share amounts)

FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31: 2005
Pro forma amounts assuming accounting change is applied retroactively:

Pro forma net income $7,964
Pro forma earnings per share of common stockassuming dilution $ 4.89
Pro forma earnings per share of common stockbasic $ 4.98
ARO liabilities at December 31, 2005 $ 85
As of December 31, 2005, the company was unable to estimate the range of settlement
dates and the related probabilities for certain asbestos remediation AROs. These conditional
AROs are primarily related to the encapsulated structural fireproofing that is not subject to
abatement unless the buildings are demolished and non-encapsulated asbestos that the
company would remediate only if it performed major renovations of certain existing buildings.
Because these conditional obligations have indeterminate settlement dates, the company could
not develop a reasonable estimate of their fair values. The company will continue to assess its
ability to estimate fair values at each future reporting date. The related liability will be
recognized once sufficient additional information becomes available.
In June 2005, the FASB issued FSP No. FAS 143-1, Accounting for Electronic Equipment
Waste Obligations, (FSP FAS 143-1) that provides guidance on how commercial users and
producers of electronic equipment should recognize and measure asset retirement obligations
associated with the European Directive 2002/96/EC on Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (the Directive). In 2005, the company adopted FSP FAS 143-1 in those European
Union (EU) member countries that transposed the Directive into country-specific laws. Its
adoption did not have a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements. The effect of
applying FSP FAS 143-1 in the remaining countries in future periods is not expected to have a
40
In the third quarter of 2005, the company adopted SFAS No. 153, Exchanges of
Nonmonetary Assets, an amendment of APB No. Opinion No. 29. SFAS No. 153 requires that
exchanges of productive assets be accounted for at fair value unless fair value cannot be
reasonably determined or the transaction lacks commercial substance. The adoption of SFAS No.
153 did not have a material effect on the Consolidated Financial Statements.
Note C. Acquisitions/Divestitures
Acquisitions
In 2007, the company completed 12 acquisitions at an aggregate cost of $1,144 million.
The Software segment completed six acquisitions: in the first quarter, Consul Risk
Management International BV and Vallent Corporation, both privately held companies. Four
acquisitions were completed in the third quarter: Watchfire Corporation, WebDialogs Inc. and
Princeton Softech Inc., all privately held companies, and DataMirror Corporation, a publicly held
company. Each acquisition further complemented and enhanced the software product portfolio.
Global Technology Services completed four acquisitions: in the first quarter, Softek
Storage Solutions Corporation (Softek) and DM Information Systems, Ltd. (DMIS), both
privately held companies. Two acquisitions were completed in the fourth quarter: Novus
Consulting Group, Inc. and Serbian Business Systems, both privately held companies. Softek
augments the company's unified data mobility offerings and worldwide delivery expertise for
managing data in storage array, host and virtualized IT environments. DMIS will enhance and
complement the Technology Service offerings. Novus CG, a storage solution company, will
provide improved access to business information, enable stronger regulatory and corporate
compliance and improve overall information technology performance. Serbian Business Systems
establishes the company's maintenance and technical support services business in Serbia.
Global Business Services completed one acquisition in the fourth quarter: IT Gruppen AS,
which will add to the company's presence in the retail and media sectors.
Systems and Technology completed one acquisition in the fourth quarter: XIV, Ltd., a
privately held company focused on storage systems technology.
Purchase price consideration was paid in cash. These acquisitions are reported in the
Consolidated Statement of Cash Flows net of acquired cash and cash equivalents.
The table on page 77 reflects the purchase price related to these acquisitions and the
resulting purchase price allocations as of December 31, 2007.
During the fourth quarter of 2007, the company entered into a definitive agreement to
acquire Cognos, Inc. The acquisition of Cognos, Inc., a publicly held company, was completed
in January 2008. The acquisition of Cognos, Inc. supports the Information on Demand strategy
and will provide the company with a strong entry in the Business Intelligence market.
The closing of the Telelogic AB acquisition, announced in the second quarter of 2007, is
conditioned upon satisfactory completion of regulatory reviews in the European Union.
Regulatory reviews in the U.S. have been completed.
41
Unisys 2002 Annual Report
3 Accounting Changes
Effective January 1, 2002, the company adopted SFAS No. 142, Goodwill and Other Intangible
Assets. SFAS No. 142 no longer permits the amortization of goodwill and indefinite-lived
intangible assets. Instead, these assets must be reviewed annually for impairment in
accordance with this statement. SFAS No. 142 required the company to perform a transitional
impairment test of its goodwill as of January 1, 2002, as well as perform impairment tests on an
annual basis and whenever events or circumstances occur indicating that the goodwill may be
impaired. During 2002, the company performed its transitional and annual impairment tests,
which indicated that the company's goodwill was not impaired.
The changes in the carrying amount of goodwill by segment for the year ended December
31, 2002, were as follows:
(Millions) Total Services Technology
Balance at December 31, 2001 $159.0 $41.9 $117.1

Acquisition 3.0 3.0
Foreign currency translation adjustments (1.4) (2.4) 1.0
Balance at December 31, 2002 $160.6 $42.5 $118.1
The company's net income and earnings per share adjusted to exclude goodwill amortization
was as follows:
Year Ended December 31, (Millions, except per

share data) 2002 2001 2000
Reported income (loss) before extraordinary

items $223.0 $(49.9) $244.8
Add back goodwill amortization, net of tax 14.1 20.1
Adjusted income (loss) before extraordinary
items $223.0 $(35.8) $264.9
Reported net income (loss) $223.0 $(67.1) $225.0
Add back goodwill amortization, net of tax 14.1 20.1
Adjusted net income (loss) $223.0 $(53.0) $245.1
Earnings (loss) per share before extraordinary
items
Basic
As reported $ .69 $ (.16) $ .78
Goodwill amortization $ .69 .04 .06
As adjusted $ .69 $ (.12) $ .84
Diluted
As reported $ .69 $ (.16) $ .77
42
As adjusted $ .69 $ (.12) $ .83
Earnings (loss) per share

Basic
As reported $ .69 $ (.21) $ .72
As adjusted $ .69 $ (.17) $ .78
Diluted
As reported $ .69 $ (.21) $ .71
As adjusted $ .69 $ (.17) $ .77
Effective January 1, 2002, the company adopted SFAS No. 143, Accounting for Asset
Retirement Obligations. This statement addresses financial accounting and reporting for legal
obligations associated with the retirement of tangible long-lived assets that result from the
acquisition, construction, development and normal operation of a long-lived asset. SFAS No.
143 requires that the fair value of a liability for an asset retirement obligation be recognized in
the period in which it is incurred if a reasonable estimate of fair value can be made. The
associated asset retirement costs are capitalized as part of the carrying amount of the long-
lived asset and subsequently allocated to expense over the asset's useful life. Adoption of SFAS
No. 143 had no effect on the company's consolidated financial position, consolidated results of
operations, or liquidity.
Effective January 1, 2002, the company adopted SFAS No. 144, Accounting for the
Impairment or Disposal of Long-Lived Assets. This statement addresses financial accounting
and reporting for the impairment or disposal of long-lived assets. SFAS No. 144 requires an
impairment loss to be recognized only if the carrying amounts of long-lived assets to be held
and used are not recoverable from their expected undiscounted future cash flows. Adoption of
SFAS No. 144 had no effect on the company's consolidated financial position, consolidated
results of operations, or liquidity.
In April 2002, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issued SFAS No. 145,
Rescission of FASB Statements No. 4, 44 and 64, Amendment of FASB Statement No. 13, and
Technical Corrections. SFAS No. 145 rescinds SFAS No. 4, which required that all gains and
losses from extinguishment of debt be reported as an extraordinary item. The provisions of
SFAS No. 145 related to the rescission of SFAS No. 4 must be applied in fiscal years beginning
after May 15, 2002. The company will adopt this statement effective January 1, 2003.
Previously recorded losses on the early extinguishment of debts that were classified as an
extraordinary item in prior periods will be reclassified to other income (expense), net. Adoption
of SFAS No. 145 will have no effect on the company's consolidated financial position,
consolidated results of operations, or liquidity.
In June 2002, the FASB issued SFAS No. 146, Accounting for Costs Associated with Exit
or Disposal Activities. SFAS No. 146 requires companies to recognize costs associated with exit
or disposal activities when they are incurred rather than at the date of a commitment to an exit
43
or disposal plan. SFAS No. 146 replaces previous accounting guidance provided by EITF Issue
No. 94-3, Liability Recognition for Certain Employee Termination Benefits and Other Costs to
Exit an Activity (including Certain Costs Incurred in a Restructuring) and will be effective for
the company for exit or disposal activities initiated after December 31, 2002. The company does
not believe that adoption of this statement will have a material impact on its consolidated
financial position, consolidated results of operations, or liquidity.
In November 2002, the FASB issued EITF Issue No. 00-21, Accounting for Revenue
Arrangements with Multiple Deliverables. This issue addresses how to account for
arrangements that may involve the delivery or performance of multiple products, services,
and/or rights to use assets. The final consensus of this issue is applicable to agreements
entered into in fiscal periods beginning after June 15, 2003. Additionally, companies will be
permitted to apply the guidance in this issue to all existing arrangements as the cumulative
effect of a change in accounting principle in accordance with APB No. Opinion No. 20,
Accounting Changes. The company does not believe that adoption of this issue will have a
material impact on its consolidated financial position, consolidated results of operations, or
liquidity.
In November 2002, the FASB issued Interpretation No. 45, Guarantor's Accounting and
Disclosure Requirements for Guarantees, Including Indirect Guarantees of Indebtedness of
Others, an Interpretation of FASB Statements No. 5, 57, and 107 and Rescission of FASB
Interpretation No. 34 (FIN No. 45). The interpretation requires that upon issuance of a
guarantee, the entity must recognize a liability for the fair value of the obligation it assumes
under that obligation. This interpretation is intended to improve the comparability of financial
reporting by requiring identical accounting for guarantees issued with separately identified
consideration and guarantees issued without separately identified consideration. For the
company, the initial recognition, measurement provision and disclosure requirements of FIN No.
45 are applicable to guarantees issued or modified after December 31, 2002. The company is
currently evaluating what impact, if any, adoption of FIN No. 45 will have on its consolidated
financial position, consolidated results of operations, or liquidity.
In January 2003, the FASB issued Interpretation No. 46, Consolidation of Variable
Interest Entities (FIN No. 46). This interpretation clarifies the application of Accounting
Research Bulletin No. 51, Consolidated Financial Statements, to certain entities in which
equity investors do not have the characteristics of a controlling financial interest or do not have
sufficient equity at risk for the entity to finance its activities without additional subordinated
financial support from other parties. FIN No. 46 applies immediately to variable interest entities
created after January 31, 2003, and to variable interest entities in which an enterprise obtains
an interest after that date. For the company's synthetic lease, as described in Note 12, FIN No.
46 is effective for the period beginning July 1, 2003.
Microsoft
2003 Annual Report
Note 3Accounting Changes
Effective July 1, 2000, we adopted SFAS 133 which establishes accounting and reporting
standards for derivative instruments, including certain derivative instruments embedded in other
contracts and for hedging activities. The adoption of SFAS 133 on July 1, 2000, resulted in a
44
cumulative pre-tax reduction to income of $560 million ($375 million after-tax) and a cumulative
pre-tax reduction to OCI of $112 million ($75 million after-tax). The reduction to income was
mostly attributable to a loss of approximately $300 million reclassified from OCI for the time
value of options and a loss of approximately $250 million reclassified from OCI for derivatives
not designated as hedging instruments. The reduction to OCI was mostly attributable to losses
of approximately $670 million on cash flow hedges offset by reclassifications out of OCI of the
approximately $300 million loss for the time value of options and the approximately $250
million loss for derivative instruments not designated as hedging instruments. The net
derivative losses included in OCI as of July 1, 2000 were reclassified into earnings during the
twelve months ended June 30, 2001. The change in accounting from the adoption of SFAS 133
did not materially affect net income in 2001.
Effective July 1, 2001, we adopted SFAS 141, Business Combinations, and SFAS 142. SFAS
141 requires business combinations initiated after June 30, 2001 to be accounted for using the
purchase method of accounting. It also specifies the types of acquired intangible assets that are
required to be recognized and reported separate from goodwill. SFAS 142 requires that goodwill
and certain intangibles no longer be amortized, but instead tested for impairment at least
annually. There was no impairment of goodwill upon adoption of SFAS 142.
Net income and earnings per share for fiscal 2001 adjusted to exclude amortization
expense (net of taxes) is as follows:
(In millions, except earnings per share)
Year Ended June 30 2001

Net income:
Reported net income $7,346
Goodwill amortization 252
Equity method goodwill amortization 26
Adjusted net income $7,624

Basic earnings per share:
Reported basic earnings per share $ 0.69
Goodwill amortization 0.02
Equity method goodwill amortization
-
Adjusted basic earnings per share $ 0.71

Diluted earnings per share:
Reported diluted earnings per share $ 0.66
Goodwill amortization 0.02
Equity method goodwill amortization -
Adjusted diluted earnings per share $ 0.68
Smucker's
2003 Annual Report
45
Note B: Changes in Accounting Principle
Effective May 1, 2002, the Company adopted Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No.
142, Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets (SFAS 142). In accordance with SFAS 142, goodwill
and indefinite-lived intangible assets are no longer amortized but are reviewed at least annually
for impairment. Prior to the adoption of SFAS 142, amortization expense was recorded for
goodwill and other intangible assets.
The following table sets forth a reconciliation of net income and earnings per share
information adjusted for the nonamortization provisions of SFAS 142.
Year Ended April 30,
(Dollars in thousands, except per share data) 2003 2002 2001
Net income, as reported $96,342 $30,851 $27,206

Goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible asset
amortization, net of tax benefit - 2,177 2,347
Net income, as adjusted $96,342 $33,028 $29,553

Earnings per common share:
Net income, as reported $ 2.04 $ 1.33 $ 1.13
amortization, net of tax benefit - 0.10 0.10
Net income, as adjusted $ 2.04 $ 1.43 $ 1.23
Net income, as reported-assuming dilution $ 2.02 $ 1.31 $ 1.12

amortization, net of tax benefit-assuming dilution - 0.10 0.10
Net income, as adjusted-assuming dilution $ 2.02 $ 1.41 $ 1.22
In fiscal 2003, the Company completed its initial and annual impairment tests for goodwill,
under SFAS 142. These tests confirmed that the fair value of the Company's reporting units
exceeds their carrying values, and that no impairment loss needed to be recognized for goodwill
during fiscal 2003.
46

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ACCOUNTING CHANGES AND ERROR CORRECTIONS

DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY

All rights reserved. No part of this course may be

ACCOUNTING CHANGES AND ERROR CORRECTIONS

After studying this chapter, you will learn:

1. What the different types of accounting changes are.

1. Due to changes in economic conditions, companies may need to change methods of

1. Change in Accounting Principle. A change from one generally accepted

Correction of an error in previously issued financial statements is not an

If an accounting change is immaterial in the current year but is expected to be significant

CHANGE IN ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLE (METHOD)

It is considered impractical to apply the impact of a change in method retrospectively only

1. Retrospective application requires presumptions of management's intent in a

ASC 250-10-05 mandates retrospective application to a change in accounting method be

A change in depreciation, depletion, or amortization must be accounted for as a change in

Retained earnings1/1, as previously reported

Retained earnings1/1, as adjusted

Before-Tax Income from

Before 2X12 $300,000 $200,000

Before 2X12 $100,000 $30,000 $70,000

In 2X12, D Corporation decided to change from the FIFO method of inventory

January 1, 2X12 $171,000 $177,000

Cumulative effect, net of taxes: $6,000 (1 - 40%) $ 3,600

Footnote disclosure should be made if an accounting change in principle is considered

The following is not considered a change in principle:

A principle adopted or changed because of significantly different occurrences or

Changes in classification are not a change in principle but should be disclosed.

Other footnote disclosures for a change in accounting principle follow:

The new method used.

Description of prior-year data that were retrospectively adjusted.

When it is impractical to derive retrospective application to prior years, the reasons it

In the case of indirect effects of a change in accounting principle, a description of

A transaction that is unusual in nature and infrequent in occurrence in the environment

QUAKER OATS COMPANY

Note 1 (In Part): Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

CHANGE IN ACCOUNTING ESTIMATE

Exhibit 2 provides examples of disclosure relating to estimates contained in the 2009

I. Significant Accounting Policies

Use of Estimates: The preparation of financial statements, in conformity with

Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

Bad debts 60,000

Depreciation expense 2,900

Depreciable cost $40,600

Exhibit 4, from the annual report of Ampco-Pittsburgh Corporation, disclosure of a change in

DISCLOSURE OF CHANGE IN ESTIMATED USEFUL LIVES.

Note 11: Change in Accounting Estimate.

CHANGE IN REPORTING ENTITY

A change in the subsidiaries making up consolidated financial statements.

Presentation of consolidated or combined statements rather than individual company

A change in reporting entity requires the restatement of previous years' financial

Note: Accounting and Reporting Changes (In Part)

Retained earnings1/1 unadjusted

Prior-period adjustments (net of tax)

Retained earnings1/1 adjusted

Add: net income

Errors may arise because of mathematical mistakes, erroneous application of GAAP, or

In ascertaining whether an error is material and therefore reportable, consideration should

At year-end 2X10, a company omitted the accrual of utilities expense of $3,000,