~Mundy,

'.,r
Karen; Comparative and International Education:
Issues for Teachers; Teachers College Press, 2008; p.
77-106.

Chapter Four

Comparative Indigenous Ways of

Knowing and Learning
Katherine Madjidi and jean-Paul Restoule

INTRODUCTION

Comparative education tends to focus primarily on mainstream national

systems of education. These systems are often colonial models imposed
on the earlier inhabitants of the country, although that point is not
always made explicit by the comparativist. 1 Indigenous epistemologies
and pedagogies have garnered little attention in comparative education
theory and practice. However, Indigenous peoples have maintained
and honoured their distinct ways of knowing for generations, even
while experiencing intense colonial pressure. In a time when many
are recognizing the limitations of Western, monocultural education
systems, Indigenous ways of knowing and learning provide a rich basis
for comparative education study. As this chapter will illustrate, these
worldviews have much to offer today' s Indigenous and non-Indigenous
students and educators as we seek sustainable, peaceful ways to live.
This chapter highlights key areas for the comparative study of
Indigenous ways of knowing and learning. We begin by demonstrating
that an opportunity for comparative education presents itself within
nation-state borders, through the study of Western (mainstream)
and Indigenous (locally contextual) worldviews. We then discuss the
representation of Indigenous knowledge in comparative education, and
introduce four areas for further comparative study: the reclaiming of
Indigenous ways of knowing, comparative Indigenous-to-Indigenous
exchange, Indigenous knowledge and international educational policy,
and the relevance of Indigenous ways of knowing for mainstream
educational reform. We conclude by discussing some implications of
Indigenous ways of knowing and learning for teachers, and suggest
ways to incorporate these into today' s classrooms.

~.
78 Comparative and International Education Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 79

In this chapter, the terms Indigenous or Indigenous peoples refer to and sexual abuse. This systematic effort to instill Western knowledge
the original inhabitants of a particular geographic territory or area, as and values and to simultaneously erase Aboriginal cultural ways of
well as to collective Indigenous peoples internationally. 2 The capitalized knowing and learning is at the root of many of the challenges troubling
term Aboriginal refers specifically to the First Nations, Metis, and Inuit Aboriginal populations in Canada. 7 This experience was not unique
peoples in Canada, although it can also be used synonymously with to Canada: systematic, imposed residential schooling for Indigenous
Indigenous. Native American or American Indian refers to the Indigenous children was also implemented in the United States (under the name
peoples residing in what is now known as the United States of America. 3 Indian boarding schools) and Australia (where the children who were
Western is used to designate people, customs, and ideas originating taken are called the Stolen Generation). In developing countries such
from a European context, including countries with majority populations as Guyana, in South America, the boarding school model is still used
of European descendents such as Canada, the United States, and in rural Indigenous regions, and many of the same practices (including
Australia. Wherever possible, the specific name for a particular cultural discouragement of Indigenous language, dress, and culture; imposition
group will be used (for example, Anishinaabe, Innu, Swedish). 4 We of Western curriculum; and separation from family and community)
note that Western and Indigenous, as monolithic categories, are broad continue today.
generalizations, both comprised of diverse national and cultural Western and Indigenous models of education are each framed
groups, each with their own unique traditions, perspectives, and by worldviews that inform their epistemologies and pedagogies.
approaches to learning. However, we use these general categories as Epistemology, from a Western standpoint, is the theory of knowledge,
a basis for drawing out points of comparison between two distinct sets and pedagogy, tne-processeSliy"Wnic'Fi pecip1eccimet6.Tearnorknow. 8
of world views and approaches to knowing and learning. The essentiafcontf!cflJefweenTricligenotis ~nl iinported educ'ational
systems arises, as Vandra Lea Masemann describes, "from a basic
COMPARATIVE WESTERN AND INDIGENOUS WAYS OF epistemological difference in the path to knowledge itself; that is, a
KNOWING AND LEARNING basic disagreement about how people come to know what they know
and why they believe it to be true." 9
The clash of Western and Indigenous epistemologies can be traced As the primary basis for most colonially imposed systems of
back to first contact, meaning the moments in which colonial and education, Western methods are currently accepted as the mainstream
Indigenous cultures first collided. Although it was usually assumed approach to education in most countries. This model emerged relatively
by colonizers that the Indigenous populations were so-called primitive recently from its own comparative background across Western cultures;
cultures without sophisticated social systems, each Indigenous group for example, we learned in Chapter One that the United States borrowed
had its own developed worldview and corresponding approaches for from the Prussians in developing free and compulsory education in
the socialization and education of its people. 5 For example, Wendy the mid-1800s. This system of schooling has not always been widely
Brady states that her Australian Aboriginal ancestors had systems of accepted or implemented, as we learned from Karen Mundy in Chapter
education in place for 40,000 years before these were destroyed by Three. However, Western educational models have converged today
208 years of colonialism. 6 Further conflict occurred as the colonizers to comprise what is commonly thought of as schooling or education,
attempted to assimilate, subjugate, or "save" Indigenous people by and generally include formal school settings, age-graded classrooms,
indoctrinating them in Western educational systems. In Canada, separation of learning into disciplines, belief in a linear and objective
this was carried out by forcefully taking Aboriginal children from pursuit of truth, and a focus on literacy, numeracy, and science as
their families and sending them to residential schools far from home, primary areas for basic education.
where they were subjected to foreign belief systems, foods, language, Common generalizations comparing Western and Indigenous
clothing, and religion, and often to physical, emotional, psychological, epistemologies include binary classifications such as linear versus
 I
80 Comparative and International Education Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 81

cyclical, objective versus subjective, secular versus spiritual, industrial and the second is that we are all related." 14 Willie Ermine articulates
versus nature- and context-based, and fragmentary versus holistic. 10 To the two key concepts in Indigenous philosophy ~JJ.d_place,
construct a more in-depth comparative picture, the following aspects of "power being the living energy that inhibits and/ or composes the
ways of knowing and learning can be explored: What are learning and univ~se, ana place.beifigtFie relaHonsnijJ"of1h1ngsto each other." 15
knowledge? Where do people come to learn and know? How do people In this W9EQ.Y.i&~.h.YJ~an beings are seen as one element in a greater
come to learn and know? From whom do they learn? And, why/for
" circl;;;unity with all c~~aiio,n: l.J~d~rstanding this relationship is
what purpose do they learn? Given the wealth of literature on Western f;;;_d~ti~;aTtoi~arning on~'s place in the world.
models of education, and the Western educational paradigm in which The notion of spiritual reality is also central to Indigenous
this chapter is being written, this section will focus on Indigenous
epistemology. 16 Battiste explains, "Knowledge is not secular. It is a
educational approaches and perspectives from Indigenous scholars
process derived from creation, and as such, it has a sacred purpose.
on these five questions. Through an analysis of this literature, we
It is inherent in and connected to all of nature, to its creatures, and to
will draw out comparisons between Western and Indigenous ways of
human existence." 17 Leroy Little Bear states, "In Aboriginal philosophy
knowing and learning.
. .. all things are animate, imbued with spirit, and in constant motion.
In this realm of energy and spirit, interrelationships between all
What Are Learning and Knowledge?
entities are of paramount importance, and space is a more important
Mi'kmaq scholar Marie Battiste describes Indigenous epistemology
as theories, philosophies, histories, ceremonies, and stories as ways referent than time." 18 From an Indigenous perspective, it is through
of knowing. She offers the following commonly used understanding the spiritual or metaphysical worlds that one can construct meaning
of Indigenous knowledge: "Indigenous knowledge comprises all in the physical world. 19 This contrasts sharply with the modern-day
knowledge pertaining to a particular people and its territory, the nature secularity of Western education. Although many colonial schools were
or use of which has been transmitted from generation to generation." 11 associated with a church, current Western religious education in schools
However, she also claims that rather than being diametrically is primarily externally imposed, prescriptive, and treated as separate
opposed to Western education, Indigenous knowledge reveals subject matter within the disciplinary pursuit of knowledge. Indigenous
Western limitations by presenting a more holistic, developed form of spirituality is largely personal, sacred, and integrated throughout one's
knowledge that "fills the ethical and knowledge gaps in Eurocentric interaction with and interpretation of the world. 20
education, research and scholarship." 12 She provides a fuller definition The importance of spiritual development is represented in the
of Indigenous knowledge, explaining: Indigenous-based framework known as the medicine wheel. Depictions
of the medicine wheel are usually divided into four quadrants,
[It] embodies a web of relationships within a specific ecological representing the four cardinal directions as well as the four areas
context; contains linguistic categories, rules and relationships of human development (physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual).
unique to each knowledge system; has localized content and Each of these directions is associated with multiple meanings, such as
meaning; has established customs with respect to acquiring stages of life, seasons, animals, gifts, or qualities. Some cultures include
and sharing of knowledge ... and implies responsibilities for additional dimensions, such as placing the self at the centre of wheel to
possessing various kinds of knowledge. 13 mark balance and the spiritual relationships between all things/1 or two
additional directions above and below to represent the spirit world and
Several Indigenous scholars identify two central themes underlying the Mother Earth. Although its use is primarily associated with North
Indigenous worldviews: all things are animate and all things are American Plains cultures (such as Cree, Dakota, and Blackfoot), similar
interconnected. Joseph Couture writes, "There are only two things you concepts are used by Indigenous groups throughout the world, such as
have to remember about being Indian. One is that everything is alive, the Maori Nga hau e wha (four winds) and other models based upon the
82 Comparative and International Education
Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 83

circle and the idea of four or six directions. 22 Marlene Brant Castellano development holistically. With developmental capacities falling within
writes that the medicine wheel "is not a model of rigid categorization each area of the medicine wheel, corresponding pedagogical practices
... rather it is a model of balance ... The medicine wheel teaches us to and educational objectives can be constructed. 26
seek ways of incorporating the gifts of the other quadrants ... Through
the sharing of diverse gifts, balance is created in individual lives and Where Do People Learn?
in society as a whole." 23 For Indigenous peoples, knowledge is firmly grounded in a particular
The medicine wheel, as Figure 4.1 depicts, offers a clear basis sense of place. Little Bear writes, "The Earth cannot be separated from
for Indigenous epistemological frameworks and the development of the actual being of Indians." 27 This relationship with the earth as Mother,
related pedagogy. 24 The Sacred Tree describes the four directions as and with a traditional territory as the basis for and source of life, is
each holding particular gifts, which an individual has the potential to central to all processes of learning and knowing for Indigenous peoples.
develop throughout a lifelong journey of learning. Rather than viewing Pueblo educator and scholar Gregory Cajete explains, "Indigenous
education as the development of intellectual capacity, as is primarily education is, in its truest form, about learning relationships in context." 28
the case in Western education, the medicine wheel frames human African scholar George Dei also emphasizes the importance of place as
the basis for Indigenous spirituality and knowledge/9 as we learned
Figure 4.1 in Chapter Three. Therefore, when Indigenous peoples are educated
Medicine WheeP 5 in Western school buildings, separate from their traditional land, this )

NORTH
decontextualizes their learning and disconnects learners from their l
base of experience. _j
Mind
Elderhood The Canadian Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples describes
Winter the importance to Indigenous peoples of learning from the land:
Sweetgrass
Air/Wind
Wisdom The need to walk on the land in order to know it is a different
Logic approach to knowledge than the one-dimensional, literate
White
WEST EAST approach to knowing. Persons schooled in a literate culture are
Body Spirit accustomed to having all the context they need to understand ...
Adulthood Birth and Childhood
Fall CENTRE embedded in the text before them .... Persons taught to use all their
Spring
Sage Self Tobacco senses- to interpret a complex, dynamic reality- may well smile
Earth Balance Sun/Fire at the illusion that words alone, stripped of complementary sound
Introspection Innocence
Commitment
and color and texture, can convey meaning adequately. 30
Renewal
Black Yellow
SOUTH
Emotion
In this context, Western educational superiority is questioned, and
Youth/Adolescence claiming to understand through words alone is exposed as a limited
Summer experience of knowing.
Cedar
Water Another point of contrast between Western and Indigenous
Compassion cultures is the relationship of human beings to the earth and other
Fullness beings. Western, monotheistic religious perspectives place "man"
Red
as dominant over all Creation, a concept that has been applied to
humanity's search for domination over the earth and its resources.
 84 Comparative and International Education
Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 85

This belief has also been translated to a search for domination over
How Do People Learn?
knowledge itself. In contrast, many Indigenous nations view humans as
Indigenous worldviews on the origin of knowledge inform how one
the last beings to be created and therefore the most humble in relation
learns in an Indigenous epistemological framework. Castellano presents
to the natural worldY Similarly, knowledge is viewed not as an area
three categories of Indigenous knowledge, each with a particular
to be dominated but rather as an ongoing experience of understanding
one's relationship t~e land, community, and aii creafeCI15eings. origin. The first,_E;a~~i~n.~.l. ~,SJ~}.~~?,.~T~~~~~:_s, sreation
In an In-aigerious~woi!avii:tw~-eduCaHon fs-~'baseCI upon the stories, gene!!,?~~:-~~~..~le!LQ,U~hh?.~.!h<.}.t~r.e pas~~!,'?,~. from
generahon to generation. This knowledge is often considered sacred to
requirements of everyday life. In this way, education is "an experience
a particul'arindigenous nation, and is passed on through storytelling,
~""-a subjec~i'::~-~~l?.~i~J:l.t:_e that, for__~!;t;;l<l12~r, becomes
knowledgei.!!_i_ts~lf. The experience is knowledge." 32 Thus, the "where" apprenticeship, and elaborate ceremonies and rituals to ensure its
OTTea.rning..defines one's experience and happens everywhere. The preservation. The second category, empirical knowledge (such as
~ ..;><.-l--"~-"'.+!'..1tf;-__.,..._,!)iQ:;-'~-~-.
......-'.... -~.-. ~---<".-
0
- '. .- "-:<. -.

idea that learning should take place only within the four walls of the healing properties of a particular plant), is most easil)r're!ated to
a school, through the prescription of a fixed written curriculum, is Western means of obtaining knowledge as it is acqui~~~ ~I::,~~~ t~sting

.'f( :~~~:~~~~~:fi~~~~-~~:fe~~q7e~hat learnin_2_~_~Y~~rnj~, exp~~tial,

and observation. However, in Indigenous epistemology this is not
c~der~d'a'Tinear process in which a particular truth is hypothesized,
---,naig~;;-ous.epi~temology conceptualizes education and learning tested, and then proven as true, as in the Western scientific method.
as both life-wide (happening across formal, non-formal, and informal Rather, empirical knowledge is viewed as cyclical, dynamic, and
settings) and lifelong. 33 Traditionally, education from an Indigenous evolving over time through the collaborative observations and inputs
perspective is not conducted through a formal, age-graded system. of many individuals. The third category Castellano calls revealed
The importance of different life stages is recognized, represented in knowledge. This kind ofknowledge c~es from the spiritwoTrd,"'and
the medicine wheel by childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. IS"aCqliired through dreams, visions, and intuitions. Whereas revealed
Different learning takes place at different points in time. For example, knowledge in the Western world is reserved exclusively for prophets
the period of adolescence is marked in many Indigenous cultures by of God and miracles, in the Indigenous world each individual has the
rites of passage and initiation. These rites of passage are important for responsibility to make their own inner journey into the metaphysicaJ.3 7
a healthy transition from childhood to adulthood. David Lertzman ties Great significance is attributed to dreams and vision quests as ways
some of today' s youths' social struggles to the loss of these cultural for an individual to find his or her purpose of life. Castellano explains,
34
practices. Fhulu Nekhwevha describes similar cultural practices that "Sometimes knowledge is received as a gift at a moment of need;
are central to Indigenous education in African contexts. 35 This concept sometimes it manifests itself as a sense that the 'time is right' to hunt
of ongoing learning throughout the different stages of life is distinct or counsel or to make a decisive turn in one's life path." 38 This multi-
from current Western systems, which place learning within a formal faceted understanding of the origins of knowledge makes learning
age-graded schooling structure. In Western cultures, education is often a dynamic process, going far beyond the limits of an approved
considered synonymous with schooling. Although this is changing curriculum, textbook, or schoolteacher's personal knowledge base.
as more emphasis is placed in Western cultures on lifelong learning, A commonly cited difference between Indigenous and Western
the general expectation still is that one must first learn through the modes of education is of primarily oral versus primarily literate
intensive accumulation of knowledge over several years of formal cultures. In Indigenous societies, great emphasis is placed on the oral
schooling, and then "do" once he or she graduates from the formal transmission of knowledge through storytelling, traditionally used
system. In contrast, in Indigenous cultures, learning has always been to convey Indigenous knowledge, customs, and values. 39 Cajete says
viewed as" a life-long responsibility" 36 for each individual, taking place that "stories [teach] people who they are so they can become all they
in a variety of contexts.
were meant to be." 40 Storytelling is described as the oldest form of the
86 Comparative and International Education Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 87

arts and thus the basis for the other arts, such as drama, dance, and Sacred cultural practices embody ways for knowing and learning
music. 41 Whereas Western cultures often view storytelling as an activity that often fall under the spiritual education quadrant of the medicine
to entertain small children, in Indigenous pedagogy it is a central tool wheel. Ceremonies help create the conditions necessary for the inward
for teaching and learning. 42 journey towards metaphysical knowledge, 51 "instilling the attitude of
Equally important to Indigenous pedagogy are the various modes expectant stillness that opens the door to full awareness." 52 Ceremonies
of experiential learning, such as modelling, observation, in-context are also considered opportunities for educational reward, praise,
learning, apprenticeships, and games as methods for learning by and recognition. Through honoring ceremonies, such as conferral
doing. 43 "Through observation, experience, and practice children of a name or holding of a potlatch, 53 the community recognizes the
learn the skills, beliefs, values, and norms of their culture." 44 These individual's movement through the life stages and/ or development
practices are not exclusive to Indigenous cultures, and were central of certain capacities. Rather than conforming to external rules, as
to most cultures prior to industrialization. However, the introduction in Western society, in Indigenous societies one is responsible to the
of Western schooling marked the separation of children from the group. Ceremonies also confer rights to hold knowledge and authority
community as a base of experience and learning. Lertzman describes to wisdom keepers in the community. Sacred practices thus serve as
the Indigenous context for learning: "Within a community, extended educational markers, points of recognition or" graduation," and award
family supplies the social context, along with teachers and individual a greater level of responsibility in the community.
specialists for these important tasks. Mother Earth provides everything
Western evaluation of knowledge contrasts with the sacred
else: classroom, science lab, playground, athletics facility, church,
practices and educational measures of Indigenous peoples:
grocery, hardware store, and drug store." 45
Another important aspect of Indigenous pedagogy is language,
Educational philosophy in contemporary education has focused
which "embodies the way a society thinks." 46 Ermine calls language
on information to the masses, leading to standardized tests ...
a "touchstone" for Indigenous culture, saying, "It is imperative that
and those who can extract information are called educated and
our children take up the cause of our languages and cultures, because
intelligent. What this approach ignores is the knowledge that
therein lies Aboriginal epistemology, which speaks of holism." 47 As
comes from introspection, reflection, meditation, prayer, and other
has been well documented by anthropologists, language is central to
kinds of self-directed learning. 54
cultural worldviews. For example, in Mi'kmaq culture, languages are
verb-rich, process and action oriented, describing "happenings" rather
than objects. 48 James (Sakej) Youngblood Henderson explains that the The subjective, such as the experience of participating in ceremonies
use of fewer verb tenses in some Indigenous languages does not imply a and cultural practices, is central to Indigenous epistemology and access
more simplistic language structure but rather a view of time and space to truth. This stands in opposition to the Western value of objectivity. 55
as continuous rather than fragmented. 49 This notion of Aboriginal knowledge as personal and sacred leads us
Other language differences include a varying cadence of speech, into the next discussion, of who teaches or confers knowledge.
commonly known as "wait-time." From an Indigenous perspective,
when in dialogue one should take time to internalize and process the From Whom Do People Learn?
other's remarks before responding. Eber Hampton terms this reflective In Western educational contexts, the authority of those who confer
thinking. 50 When Indigenous students do not respond immediately knowledge is clearly established. Through formal certification, an
to a question in the classroom, the Western teacher might consider individual receives the designation "teacher," carrying the defined
them slow, disrespectful, or unknowing, whereas for the Indigenous role and responsibility of educating his or her students. Other sources
student this may be a sign of their thoughtfulness and respect for the for knowledge in the classroom include the approved curriculum and
other's ideas. pedagogical materials.
 Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 89
88 Comparative and International Education

In an Indigenous context, the question of who may teach and from Conflicts also arise in relation to questions of authority. On
whom one learns is much more complex. As previously described, the one hand, all beings are teachers in an Indigenous paradigm.
Indigenous knowledge is grounded in the land; therefore, Mother Education is considered a collective responsibility that is taken on ',~
Earth is considered by many as the supreme teacher. Equally important by fl'fewnole community. 59 On the other hand, the right to hold and '
is the spirit world, which includes all Creation and ancestors who t"iansfer knowledge is a responsibility endowed by the community
have passed on. As all Creation is considered animate, all beings are based on an individual's earning of that right, as well as by familial
imbued with Spirit and are therefore potential teachers. Animals or and ancestral relationships. Particular individuals are designated as
transformative spirit beings, such as the trickster, are characters used to educators in specific contexts; for example, an uncle or aunt is typically
teach children what to do and especially (through their mistakes) what chosen to lead a child through his or her rites of passage. Therefore,
not to do. 56 Rocks are referred to in many cultures as grandmothers and an Indigenous child entering a Western classroom may question the
grandfathers and are considered the oldest living teachers. teacher's authority, since he or she has no context within which to
In Indigenous epistemology, the self is the ultimate teacher. value that authority.
Ermine describes the meeting of Western and Indigenous peoples in In Indigenous communities, positions of knowledge or respect
1492 in North America as a clash between peoples destined for two within the community, such as Pipe Holders, Bundle Holders, or
different journeys of discovery: one towards the physical, or "outer Wisdom Keepers, are obtained through ancestral rights or personal
space," and the other towards the metaphysical, or "inner space." He worth, as well as through an elaborate process of apprenticeship and
writes, "Aboriginal epistemology is grounded in the self, the spirit, training. These are viewed as positions of service and responsibility
the unknown .... [It] speaks of pondering great mysteries that lie no rather than of hierarchical superiority. For example, in most Indigenous
further than the self." 57 Ways of knowing and learning in an Indigenous cultures Elders hold a central role in teaching and guiding children and
paradigm are therefore profoundly persona~~9_.3?_iE~~.l1al, based upon the community. The designation of Elder (in contrast to" senior citizen")
a journey into the inner metaphysical and spiritual worlds of the self. implies gifts of experience and knowledge. Most Elders do not seek
Indigenous pedagogy assumes personal authority in the search status, and position themselves with humility, understanding that they
61
for knowledge, and "values a person's ability to learn independently are stilllearning. 60 One Elder stated, "I am just one day old." Elders
by observing, listening, and participating with a minimum of traditionally are treated with ultimate respect: if an Elder is speaking,
intervention or instruction." 58 The Indigenous educational principle he or she will not be interrupted or questioned critically. This value of
of non-interference sets forth the idea of respect for others' wholeness respect can create confusion or conflict for the Indigenous student in a
and their independent ability to understand and access knowledge. Western context, when they are encouraged to think critically and to
Although Western educational theorists such as Johann Pestalozzi, question those in authority.
Hans Frochel, Maria Montessori, and more recently Paulo Freire have Deborah McGregor, an Anishinaabe educator, argues that
argued for the inherent capacity of the individual and for child/learner- Indigenous knowledge is governed by rules that are inextricable from
centred dialogic education, mainstream Western education historically Indigenous peoples' traditional relationships to personal and historical
has viewed the teacher (and the text) as the authority who holds the identity, experience, land, and ancestral or earned rights. Therefore,
knowledge and who has the responsibility to confer this knowledge Indigenous knowledge is not a subject that can be studied and then
to students. These contrasting values have been a source of conflict mastered: "U]ust because someone has studied [Traditional Ecological
62
between Western teachers and Indigenous students in the classroom, Knowledge] does not mean that one now has it." In contrast, in
leading some Indigenous students to rebel when they feel they have Western science, the objective is to obtain or possess knowledge by
been disrespected through the teacher's interference in their personal studying it, with an increasing number of years of education directly
62
learning processes. correlated to one's qualifications as a so-called expert in a field. From
 90 Comparative and International Education
Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 91

an Indigenous perspective, "Knowledge is not a commodity that can Experience67 (see Chapter One). However, as indicated above, such
be possessed or controlled by educational institutions, but is a living literature focused more on the effects of colonial systems of education
process to be absorbed and understood." 64
on Indigenous peoples, rather than independently valuing local or
Indigenous educational practices.
For What Purpose Do People Learn?
The notion that Indigenous perspectives could hold equal validity
The question of why we learn, or what is the purpose of knowledge, is
did not significantly enter the field of comparative education until1990,
best understood within the Indigenous worldview that all things are
when Masemann advocated the meaningful inclusion of diverse ways
related. If all life is interconnected, then the survival of each life form
of knowing, including Indigenous knowledge, in her Comparative and
is dependent on the survival of the others. A common Indigenous
International Education Society (CIES) Presidential Address. 68 Since
saying is, "The honour of one is the honour of all; the hurt of one is
the hurt of all." that date, there has been notable movement: the 1996 World Congress of
Comparative Education Societies saw the first special Commission for
The Western concept of education as a means for the personal Indigenous Education, and the resulting book, Tradition, Modernity, and
advancement of the individual contrasts with the idea that education
Post-Modernity: Implications for Comparative Education, included articles
is a means for the individual to serve the group. According to Eber
on Indigenous education. 69 Robert Teasdale and Zane Ma Rhea's Local
Hampton, "Education is to serve the people .... The competitive success Knowledge and Wisdom in Higher Education, published in 2000, presents
of the individual is an implicit value of Western schools and, as such,
Indigenous perspectives on higher education, in contexts such as Papua
is in direct conflict with the Indian value of group success through
New Guinea, Peru, and Australia?0 Scholars such as Claudia Zaslavsky
individual achievement." 65 In a study conducted on the student
and Anne Hicking-Hudson have also pioneered comparative research
experiences in the American Indian Program at Harvard, Hampton
on topics such as ethnomathematics, culturally powerful pedagogies,
found that the majority of Native American students went there with teacher preparation in Indigenous school settings, and Indigenous
the intention of using their education to help their communities.
teacher identities, thereby deeply enriching the comparative literature
The goal of Indigenous education is not individual prosperity or with a consideration of Indigenous and local knowledges. 71
success, but dignity and responsibility to the community. The ultimate This scholarship is encouraging; nevertheless, our studies
purpose of learning is to understand one's place in relation to the web suggest that Indigenous ways of knowing are still far from accepted
of life, and to gain the skills and knowledge needed to contribute to the as mainstream. It was not until1998 that Indigenous knowledge (IK)
advancement of all beings. In this context, the greater one's knowledge, was included as a subject area in the US-based Comparative Education
the greater the responsibility that one holds.
Review; a review of articles since that date reveals very few published
on Indigenous topics in the major comparative education journals,
THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE with a disproportionate majority in special issues or non-mainstream
journals. For example, in 2003 several articles were grouped in a
Representation of Indigenous Knowledge in Comparative Education
special issue of Comparative Education, entitled "Indigenous Education:
Within the formal field of comparative education, surprisingly Addressing Current Issues and Developments." Further, most articles
little attention has been paid to specifically Indigenous educational in that issue (as well as in the field) were written from non-Indigenous
worldviews and contexts. Comparative research has focused rather perspectives, and focused on languages and mother-tongue literacy.
"on the education systems ... that were superimposed on the earlier While important subject areas, this focus on language demonstrates a
inhabitants of the country." 66 The most significant studies addressing persisting interest in the outer (and some would argue, "safer") forms
Indigenous peoples prior to 1990 are compiled in Philip Altbach and of Indigenous culture, without incorporating a deeper investigation of
Gail P. Kelly's Education and Colonialism and Education and the Colonial Indigenous knowledge and underlying worldviews.
 Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 93
92 Comparative and International Education

In the remainder of this chapter, we therefore suggest four areas

Figure 4.2
for the further incorporation of Indigenous ways of knowing and
The Thanksgiving Address75
learning in comparative education studies. We hope that our brief
exploration of these areas will both stimulate teachers to consider Onkwehshon:a (The People)
potential implications for their classroom practices as well as encourage May we now gather our minds as one and give one another greetings
comparative education students to pursue research in these areas. and thanks that we are gathered here in good health and in peace.
(All agree).
Rediscovering Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Learning for Iethinistenha Onhwentsia (Mother Earth)
Indigenous Classrooms May we now gather our minds together as one and greet and give our
Through the comparative study of Western and Indigenous knowledge, thanks to our mother earth for all that she gives us so we may live.
scholars are striving to understand and bring forth models of Ohnekashon:a (The Water)
Indigenous epistemology and pedagogy that have been suppressed and May we now gather our minds together as one and turn to the spirit
de-validated for years by the imposition of colonial education systems of the waters of the world. With oneness of mind, we now send
our thanks to the waters of the world for quenching our thirst and
and residential schools. Given the differences illuminated earlier in
this chapter, it is not difficult to understand why Western, colonially purifying our lives.
Kariota'shon:'a (Animal Life)
imposed models of education have been a site of conflict for Indigenous
May we now gather our minds as one and give our words of
peoples. An essential lack of agreement and understanding between the
greetings and thanks to the animals.
two world views, combined with the forced assimilation of Indigenous
Okwire'shon:'a (Trees of the Forest)
peoples into Western school systems, has led not only to Indigenous May we now gather our minds together as one and give greetings
peoples' disconnection from their own ways of knowing and learning, and thanks to the trees of the forest for the fruits we eat, for the shade
~l:ll.?lsoJo thei~ pet:cei~edfailure in the.mainstreamSCflOol system. in summer, and for the shelter of our homes.
Documents such-astheT990re-porfofthe Cana-cllan RoyafCommission Otsi'ten'okon:'a (Bird Life)
on Aboriginal Peoples have brought this reality to the forefront. The Creator instructed the birds to sing upon the arrival of each new
A rift in common understanding between Western and Indigenous day, and to sing so that all life will not know boredom. With one
cultures in countries such as Canada and the United States continues mind we now greet and thank the bird life.
today. For example, a survey of students in Toronto area schools in Ratiwe:ras (Grandfather Thunders)
2002 found their knowledge of Aboriginal peoples and issues in Canada The Creator instructed the grandfather thunders to put fresh water
greatly lacking. 72 The same year, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada's the rivers, lakes, and springs to quench the thirst of life. So with one
mind we give our greetings and thanks to our grandfathers.
National Working Group on Education appeared to confirm the trend
Ehtsitewahtsi:'a Kiehkehnekha Karahkwa (Our Eldest Brother The Sun)
across Canada. 73
We are the younger siblings and our brother sun shines the light so
On a hopeful note, the Indigenous scholars cited in this chapter we may see and radiates warmth that all life may grow. We now with
offer snapshots of the movement by Indigenous peoples to reclaim one mind give greetings and thanks to our eldest brother the sun.
their ways of knowing and learning. This literature has been growing in Iethihsotha Ahsonthenhka Karahkwa (Our Grandmother The Moon)
strength since 1972 when the landmark document Indian Control ofIndian Our Creator placed her in charge of the birth of all things and made
Education was presented to the government of Canada, but change has her leader of all female life. All babies of all nations are born by her
been slow to occur. Reports in Canada and the United States recognize orchestration. May we now gather our minds into one and send our
the failure of the Western school system for Indigenous peoples and the greetings and our thanksgiving to our grandmother the moon.
need to develop culturally relevant models of education?4 Although
 , t

Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 95

94 Comparative and International Education

Shonkwaia"tison (Our Creator) where technology and traditions are seamlessly interwoven. At the
Our Creator made all of life with nothing lacking. All we humans high school level, some Indigenous students have the opportunity to
are required to do is waste no life and be grateful to all life. And so learn in their language and culture at cultural survival schools such as
now we gather all our minds into one and send our greetings and our Kahnawake (since 1978), and Joe Duquette School in Saskatoon (since
thanksgiving to our maker, our Creator. 1980). At the post-secondary level, Blue Quills First Nations College and
Algoma University College have proven that, while a residential school
building may remain, Aboriginal peoples can transform those sites with
there is still a gap between rhetoric and practice, educational projects programs providing truly empowering experiences and knowledge.
and programs created by and for Indigenous peoples, which integrate Some movements seek a complete immersion in cultural learning, such
Indigenous ways of knowing and learning, continue to emerge. as the Mohawk Language Immersion Project at Kanatsiohareke in New
Exemplary models in Canada include the Kanien'kahaka (Mohawk) York State and the Seventh Generation Education Institute near Fort
Akwesasne science and math program, the Dene Kede curriculum, and Frances, Ontario. In a partnership between the University of Manitoba
the Innuqatiglit program in the Northwest Territories.76 and the Centre for Indigenous Environmental Resources, continuing
The Akwesasne science and math program is a remarkable three- education is offered to build capacity in Aboriginal communities.
year set of curriculum units integrating Western and Kanien'kahaka Courses embody integration and are team-taught by an Elder providing
thought and methods for learning about the world we inhabit. traditional knowledge, an Aboriginal scholar with university training,
Akwesasne is based upon the Thanksgiving Address (see Figure 4.2), and a Western-trained scientist.
a central spiritual and cultural tradition of the Haudenosaunee (Six Indigenous people$ in Canada have noted the Tribal College system
Nations) people, which acknowledges and gives thanks to each aspect in the United States and the famous language nests of the Maori in New
of Creation. Zealand as models the]r may want to reproduce locally. This marks an
The curriculum follows its structure, moving from the Earth emerging form of COII1tparative education: Indigenous peoples from
upward through grasses, trees, animals, to the waters, birds, sky, stars, one region learning from Indigenous peoples in another post-colonial
and universe. Students learn about these topics from both Western context.
and Kanien'kahaka perspectives, with neither approach receiving
greater weight. For instance, the children may learn how Western Indigenous-to-Indigenous Comparative Study and Collaboration
biologists classify local trees, and at the same time the Kanien'kahaka Increased possibilities for global travel, communication, and cross-
words for local flora. Elders are incorporated into the teaching process cultural sharing have prompted the formation of international
and often take the students out on the land to learn the language and Indigenous allianceis and cross-Indigenous partnerships and
stories containing the traditional knowledge about particular topics. scholarship. Diverse Indigenous nations from around the world have
An early unit provides students with the skills to deal with conflicting been meeting, formally and informally, to share their knowledge
information, a necessary prerequisite to handling information from practices and to form bonds of solidarity in a movement to promote
disparate world views (see Chapter Ten for a further discussion of peace Indigenous knowledge and to demand the recognition of Indigenous
and conflict education). 77 rights and knowledge on a global scale. These interchanges are laying
Other examples of integration of Aboriginal learning into Western the foundation for a new kind of comparative education study, among
educational settings in Canada include early childhood education and between Indigenous peoples.
programs such as Aboriginal Head Start, the initiatives featured Many of these cross-Indigenous gatherings do not appear in
in the Red River College video series Our Children, Our Ways, and the formal, documented literature: they have been primarily based
innovative elementary schools such as Eel Ground in New Brunswick upon oral sharing and experiential immersion in the ways of another
 ,.,
96 Comparative and International Education Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 97

Indigenous nation. Although these gatherings are considered examples development projects in Indigenous communities in countries such
of non-formal learning, they are often, in fact, quite formal, including as Guyana, Dominica, and Bolivia. Comparative learning naturally
strict protocols as to who can participate, what knowledge can be takes place in these settings; for example, Aboriginal youth share
shared, and how the sharing may happen. Examples include various with Guyanese Amerindian youth about the perils of alcoholism and
Elders' gatherings that have been taking place throughout the world the ways that it has negatively affected their communities, and the
and meetings premised on the prophecy of the Reunion of the Condor Amerindian youth in turn demonstrate traditional ways of living that
and the Eagle, which predicts the coming together of North and South have been forgotten by many Aboriginal youth in Canada. 80
American Indigenous peoples as a precursor to the achievement International funding agencies and universities are recognizing the
8
of world peace? Cross-circumpolar activities, between the Inuit in value of promoting official collaboration among Indigenous peoples.
Canada, Alaska, and Russia, and the Saami peoples in Norway, Finland, For example, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
and Sweden, are also gaining momentum through the creation of established the Indigenous Peoples' Partnership Program to fund
circumpolar peoples' organizations, research centres, and councils. partnerships between Indigenous organizations from Canada and
Indigenous scholars who have straddled both Indigenous and South America. The University of Calgary's International Indigenous
Western ways of knowing are also engaged in a movement to promote Studies Program focuses on the study of topics related to international
formal, literary scholarship and sharing among Indigenous peoples. Indigenous peoples, often in an" explicitly comparative perspective." 81
Examples include the World Indigenous Peoples' Conference on The field of comparative Indigenous-to-Indigenous study and
Education (WIPCE), and a newer body created in 2002, the World collaboration, in its early stages, offers exciting potential for a new kind
Indigenous Nations Higher Education Consortium (WINHEC), which of cross-cultural comparative learning.
promotes comparative scholarship on higher education from an
Indigenous perspective. Articles published in the WINHEC journal are Education for All and the Multilateral Incorporation of Indigenous
often based on collaborative scholarship between Indigenous peoples Knowledge
from different regions of the world. As "Education for All" is being promoted throughout the world as
Within international and development education, there are a few a Millennium Development Goal (MDG), it is timely to consider the
examples of international exchange programs and development projects relevance of Indigenous and local knowledge in relation to global
based on Indigenous-to-Indigenous sharing of cultural traditions and educational movements and educational multilateralism. Education
approaches to learning. In the Nunavut Youth Abroad program, for All (EF A), discussed in Chapter Three, sets forth the objective of
Canadian Northern youth learn to value their own culture through universal access to formal primary education and literacy. However,
comparative experiences with other Indigenous peoples. For example, a most EFA efforts, the targets of which are largely marginalized and
program participant is quoted in Aboriginal Planet online magazine: "In Indigenous populations, continue to propagate a Western-based model
Botswana, I learned that the San people or Bushmen lifestyles were very of schooling and curriculum with little attention to local or Indigenous
different to our Inuit lifestyles ... I learned that my culture is unique models of education.
and interesting to other people ... I'm proud of my culture and had fun As has been demonstrated in this chapter, vast differences exist
answering questions that people asked. I found out that our language is between Western models of schooling and Indigenous ways of
similar in some ways. " 79 Ghost River Rediscovery's Youth Leadership knowing. Further, attempts to eradicate Indigenous peoples' ways
Program is based upon a similar premise of developing Indigenous of knowing and to assimilate them in Western systems have resulted
youth leadership capacity through the international exchange of largely in failure in those school systems and severe negative impacts on
culture and experience amongst youth of various Indigenous nations. those peoples. In countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe, there

J
Aboriginal youth from Canada participate in co-operative learning and has been a serious backlash against Western neo-colonialist educational
 ~,,,

98 Comparative and International Education Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 99

models, a warning that EF A and other such movements are destined not only because Western models are considered superior, but also
to fail if they continue to ignore Indigenous epistemology, pedagogy, because inclusion of Indigenous models would be more challenging and
and values. South African scholar Fhulu Nekwevha quotes Ethiopian time-consuming. If the goal of EFA is to be met by 2015, it may seem
Hailom Banteyerga as saying: more expedient for governments to continue to focus on implementing
the dominant Western model of education, including a standard
What we see today is that the so-called" modern education" is not curriculum and teacher training, rather than to develop locally relevant
satisfactorily addressing the problems of Africa to meet the needs models. However, in our experience, as documented by Nekwevha
and aspirations of the African people. In other words, it has not in this chapter and by Bickmore in Chapter Ten, when international
done much to boost the material growth and spiritual development programs do not take into consideration local peEspectives they are
of Africa .... If Africa is to regain its place as the centre of culture doomed to fail, and worse;ffieyOff'el'l1lavelastG;.g~egativ~fmplications
and civilization, it needs to re-think and reframe its education in for the participants. In contrast, examples such as those presented by
the context of Africa-and its problems and aspirations. 82 Jospeh P. Farrell in Chapter Five demonstrate that locally relevant
methods of education are likely to produce the best learning outcomes
Similar concerns are raised in relation to the current world for children and the highest chance for success in a developing country
trend towards international standardization and testing measures, or marginalized population context.
such as those discussed by Karen Mundy and Joseph P. Farrell in On a broader scale, the validity of Indigenous knowledge is
Chapter Eight. Although these assessments aim to provide a means slowly being recognized by international multilateral organizations.
for comparing education on a global level, they generally promote For example, the World Bank and the United Nations Educational,
a presumed universal (Western) standard of knowledge that places Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have websites
value on particular kinds of learning and performance and excludes dedicated to the collection and dissemination of Indigenous knowledge
and de-validates other (Indigenous) modes of learning and knowing. practices. The World Bank publishes a newsletter called "IK Notes"
Further, as Stephen Anderson discusses in Chapter Seven, school for the sharing of Indigenous knowledge practices. The UNESCO
improvement initiatives increasingly encourage teachers to teach to the database collects best practices in Indigenous knowledge and posts
them online for anyone to access. The recognition by these agencies
V test. Th. is sugge~.t..~.,t. hat th~. ~.e te. s~~-ar.e r:?t onl. y meas~:i~~ l?~e-~!~~a!lce, of the role of Indigenous knowledge represents a positive shift in
\\ but in fact dictating what knowledge is taught, valued, and promoted.
Thi~-te~s~;;~ been..w.eTCdocumented wfthin the.'CJnited"Stafes, consciousness for the international community. However, the way
where it has long been argued that standardized tests privilege a that this knowledge is being treated also raises important concerns
84
particular model of cultural capital and learning style. 83 As a result about the rights and responsibilities associated with that knowledge.
of these studies, minor adjustments have been made, such as efforts For example, posting forms of Indigenous knowledge in a web-based
to remove questions that contain obvious cultural or historical bias. database suggests that they can be borrowed and applied outside
However, contrasting worldview definitions of knowledge (and how of their human and geographical contexts, which contrasts with the
that knowledge is demonstrated, assessed, and validated) challenge above-cited literature establishing the centrality of place and context
notions of what constitutes cultural bias, as well as the relevance of to Indigenous knowledge.
these tests for a large percentage of the global population. As Indigenous educators and practitioners of international
In developing evaluation measures or promoting Education for All, development, we suggest that Indigenous knowledge does hold
meaningful consideration of Indigenous ways of knowing and learning relevance for global education and development practices, particularly
is certainly a more difficult task than simply importing an established where those practices impact Indigenous peoples. This knowledge
Western curriculum. Local perspectives and approaches are excluded may even have application outside of local contexts, for example, in
 'II

Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 101

100 Comparative and International Education

For Indigenous peoples, this knowledge is not new; the post-

approaches to environmental sustainability or more holistic models
of education, as we discuss below. However, sharing of Indigenous modern debate is merely the recognition by the Western world
knowledge must go beyond merely documenting practices; it must of paradigms that Indigenous peoples have lived and known for
be integrated in ways that fully consider underlying worldviews, thousands of years. Despite years of oppression, scholars, leaders,
and provide greater participation of Indigenous peoples as respected and Elders from within the Native world are also reaching out to their
partners on their own terms. Further, careful consultations with non-Indigenous brothers and sisters, offering once again to share their
communities and Elders are necessary to determine what is culturally wisdom where the dominant paradigm has fallen short. For most
appropriate and to respect the rights and responsibilities associated Indigenous peoples, this is the only choice. If education is service, and
with that knowledge. To integrate Indigenous knowledge and the hurt of one is the hurt of all, then the sharing of Indigenous wisdom
perspectives meaningfully, greater exposure to the teachings and at a time of need is the fulfillment of prophecy and our responsibility
greater comprehension will be required. as part of the circle.
A leading example of this kind of scholarship is The Fourth Way: An
The Fourth Way Indigenous Contribution for Building Sustainable and Harmonious Prosperity
Could aspects of Indigenous ways of knowing and learning be in the Americas. This document, written by Four Worlds International
incorporated in mainstream educational reform, not just for Indigenous and the United Indians of All Tribes Foundation, originates from
peoples but for all people? Is there value in this? Could it be done while nine years of consultation with Indigenous leaders and communities
respecting the rights to and sacredness of that knowledge? What would across the Americas. The Fourth Way proposes that the time has come
a curriculum incorporating Indigenous knowledge look like? These for humanity to adopt new ways of learning that will prepare us
questions set the stage for our final discussion. for a sustainable global future, and that we need to look towards an
In her 1990 CIES presidential address, Masemann proposed Indigenous-based, holistic education model to lead the way towards
that forms of Indigenous knowledge were not only valid, but also the establishment of world peace. 86 The Fourth Way movement is not
potentially instructive for widespread educational reform. Referring to alone in this call: organizations such as Global Elders are also offering
87
the rise of alternative paradigms for knowing, she argued, "What these to share models of Indigenous pedagogy and teachings. Couture
paradigms have in common is that they are holistic, context dependent, writes, "There are those who say that the Native Way holds a key, if
and integrative. They propose ways in which society might be knit not the key, to the future survival of mankind."
88

together again, not sundered apart." 85

Although world culture theory (discussed in Chapter One) suggests
that we are moving towards a uniform, standardized education model IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS
based upon a Western, graded, formal system, there is strong evidence It is not difficult to imagine that all people might thrive in environments
that this model does not work for many of the worlds' peoples. For that value wholeness, spirituality, and diverse modes and means of
example, demand is swelling in North America for alternative schooling learning. Indigenous pedagogical methods present a "valuable addition
options such as Montessori and Waldorf, which promote more to the present systems of education in any teaching topic, not only when
holistic, child-centred pedagogy. There is also a growing openness to teaching Indigenous peoples. By incorporating_s>bservation, experience,
Indigenous practices, as individuals become increasingly dissatisfied
i~<,?.3?.~~1iQDdDQJD.9.l!iry during the educ~tionpy~~ss, W,ewliibegin
with the current trend of world affairs, and with the failed mission
to create linkages from the experiences of human beings and transmit
of modernity as the elixir for the progress of humanity. Evidence 89
them wholly to students in the classroom."
of this shift has emerged in several arenas, notably in health and
Note that the shift required is not to adopt the" cultural" or" exotic"
environmental sciences, as the world looks to Indigenous peoples to
elements of Indigenous ways. As demonstrated in this chapter, the
share their traditional knowledge in a time of crisis.

}
 'II

102 Comparative and International Education Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 103

foundations of Indigenous epistemology are much deeper than this.

Figure 4.3
Investigations of the relevance of Indigenous knowledge for Western
or global education must consider the values and philosophical Ideas for Incorporating Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Learning
underpinnings informing Indigenous pedagogy: in Your Classroom

Indigenous knowledge presents several goals for educational Find out who the traditional inhabitants are of the land on which your
reform: acknowledging the sacredness of life and experiences; school stands. Using proper protocols, invite an elder to come to your
generating the spirit of hope based on experience as a connection classroom and share some of their teachings. Make a field trip to a local
with others in creating a new and equitable future; generating teaching facility such as a friendship centre.
the meaning of work as a vocation and as a mission in life; and
developing the capacity to do everything to open a new cognitive
space in which a community can discover itself and affirm its Make space for the expression of spirituality in your classroom. Create
heritage and knowledge in order to flourish for everyone. 90 a regular "spirit spot" or quiet time that students can use for reflection,
journaling, art, prayer, or meditation.
Any investigations of how Indigenous ways of knowing and
learning could be applied to mainstream efforts must involve
Indigenous peoples in their research, design, and implementation. Reinforce respect among students for one another
Otherwise, despite the best of intentions, they risk becoming yet another and the world around them.
Demonstrate that same respect towards them.
example of colonization, co-optation, and exploitation of Indigenous
peoples. As this chapter has demonstrated, Indigenous knowledge
is intimately connected to the historical, ecological, social, spiritual,
and ceremonial fabric of Indigenous societies and to the Indigenous Post teachings such as the Seven Sacred Teachings
or the medicine wheel in your classroom.
peoples themselves. Therefore, it cannot be understood outside of those
contexts. Through encouraging respectful, collaborative, comparative
scholarship between non-Indigenous and Indigenous peoples, and
among diverse Indigenous peoples, lies the potential for discerning Use circles and interactive modes of sharing,
such as a "talking circle" in which all students have
the path forward for education.
the opportunity to have a voice and share their emotions. 92
For teachers searching for practical ways to incorporate Indigenous
ways of knowing and learning in the classroom, there are many
curricular and online resources available. 91 At the end of this chapter,
Incorporate music, art, and storytelling integrally in your classroom
we offer some ideas for incorporating Indigenous ways of knowing and
as valid ways of sharing and learning. Invite Aboriginal
learning into your teaching practice. The way in which you incorporate and community artists to the class to share these traditions.
these suggestions will vary based on your personal interests and
expertise, and your classroom and school context. As a start, consider
teaching in ways that value every learning style in the medicine wheel:
Have your class explore Indigenous languages through place names
the spiritual, emotional, physical, and mental. In other words, for each on the map. Words such as Toronto, Ontario, and Canada all have
topic, find a way to intuit, feel, act, and think about it. surprising and interesting stories behind them.

:
 "'I
!i

104 Comparative and International Education Comparative Indigenous Ways of Knowing 105

When studying history, ask students how these events would affect QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND DISCUSSION
Aboriginal peoples. As part of a local oral history project have students
interview community elders (of all backgrounds) to tell the history not 1. Which characteristics or examples of Indigenous knowledge and
represented in textbooks. pedagogy do you think fit in with typical educational practices in
your teaching context? How might you use Indigenous knowledge
and pedagogy in your teaching?
Assign groups to research Aboriginal perspectives 2. How do you think the need to incorporate/recognize Indigenous
on all topics covered in a year. worldviews in the classroom can be reconciled with the need to
respect the context, rights, and responsibilities associated with that
knowledge?
3. What do you consider to be the relevance of Indigenous and
When studying biology, take your students outside to learn the names
local approaches to learning in the context of global educational
of the plants around your school. Have students bring examples of
movements such as Education for All?
Indigenous foods or medicines to class.

SUGGESTED FILM: THE LEARNING PATH, BY LORETTA

TODD
Promote a sense of knowledge and learning as a means for
service to the greater community. The Learning Path tells the story of Aboriginal peoples' forced
participation in the residential schooling system in Canada, including
experiences of racism, loss of cultural identity, and of educational
Use the world as your classroom, and all of its beings as teachers. alienation. It then shows how Native Canadians are now regaining
control over their education, highlighting the work of three Aboriginal
educators in Edmonton, Alberta. Part of a five-part documentary series
A common question from teachers, both Indigenous and non- entitled As Long as the Rivers Flow, the feature-length version of this film
won a Silver Hugo award at the Chicago International Film Festival.
Indigenous, is, "Do I have the right to teach from Indigenous cultural
worldviews and perspectives?" An Aboriginal Studies scholar at
University of Toronto has advised reframing this question to ask, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
"What is our responsibility?" 93 At a time of spiritual, ecological, and
Battiste, Marie. Indigenous Knowledge and Pedagogy in First Nations
social crisis, the opportunity exists to turn towards Indigenous-based
Education: A Literature Review with Recommendations. Report
holistic frameworks for knowing and learning, to help humanity
commissioned by the Minister's National Working Group on
develop a sense of respect and relationship with all Creation. In this age
Education. Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada,
of rapid globalization and increased interaction and interdependence
2002.
across cultures, the need to take into consideration Indigenous ways
Bopp, Judie, Michael Bopp, Lee Brown, and Phil Lane. The Sacred Tree.
of knowing and learning has never been more relevant.
3rd ed. Twin Lakes, WI: Lotus Light Publications, 1989.
*Cajete, Gregory. "Indigenous Knowledge: The Pueblo Metaphor of
Indigenous Education." In Reclaiming Indigenous Voice and Vision,
edited by Marie Battiste. Vancouver, BC: University of British
Columbia Press, 2000, 181-91.

~
106 Comparative and International Education

Cajete, Gregory. Look to the Mountain: An Ecology ofIndigenous Education.

Durango, CO: Kivak' Press, 1994.
Castellano, Marlene Brant. "Updating Aboriginal Traditions of
Knowledge." In Indigenous Knowledges in Global Contexts: Multiple
Readings of our World, edited by George. J. Sefa Dei, Budd L. Hall,
and Dorothy Goldin Rosenberg. Toronto, ON: OISE/University of
Toronto Press, 2000,21-36.
Colorado, Pam. "Bridging Native and Western Science." Convergence
21, no 2-3 (1988): 49-68.
Couture, Joseph. "The Role of Native Elders: Emergent Issues." In
The Cultural Maze: Complex Questions on Native Destiny in Western
Canada, edited by John Friesen. Calgary, AB: Detselig Enterprises
Ltd, 1991,201-17.
Ermine, Willie. "Aboriginal Epistemology." In First Nations Education
in Canada: The Circle Unfolds, edited by Marie Battiste and Jean
Barman. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press,
1995,101-12.
Four Worlds International and United Indians of All Tribes Foundation.
The Fourth Way: An Indigenous Contribution for Building Sustainable
and Harmonious Prosperity in the Americas. Seattle, WA: United
Indians, 2006.
*Hampton, Eber. "Toward a Redefinition of Indian Education." In
Battiste and Barman, First Nations Education, 5-46.
*Lertzman, David. A. "Rediscovering Rites of Passage: Education,
Transformation, and the Transition to Sustainability." Conservation
Ecology 5, no. 2 (2002): 30, www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art30.
Little Bear, Leroy. "Jagged Worldviews Colliding. In Battiste, Reclaiming
Indigenous Voice, 77-85.
Masemann, Vandra. "Ways of Knowing: Implications for Comparative
Education." Comparative Education Review 34, no. 4 (1990): 465-73.
McGregor, Deborah. "Coming Full Circle: Indigenous Knowledge,
Environment and our Future." American Indian Quarterly, 28, no.
3 and 4 (2004): 385-410.
Sawyer, Don, Howard Green, Art Napoleon, and Wayne Lundeberg.
NESA Activities Handbook for Native and Multicultural Classrooms,
Volumes 1-3. Vancouver: Tillacum Library, 1984,1991, 1993.