Governance of Decentralized Sanitation

Case study:
Assessment of sanitation options and users
acceptance in Dagomba Line, a slum
community in Kumasi, Ghana.

Name of the Lecturer: Naana Adwoa Amonoo

Organization: Consultant, Environmental Planning and Management
Country: Ghana
 Learning Objectives
At the end of this class, the course participant will be able to describe:

The environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line.

The perception of inhabitants on sanitation facilities in Dagomba Line.

Debate the relation between existing sanitation technologies and the

sanitation practices in Dagomba Line.

The slum dwellers reasons for their preferred alternative sanitation

practices.
 Lecture Contents
LECTURE 1
Brief description of Ghana
Sanitation in Ghana
Access and Policies for providing sanitation in Ghanaian slum
LECTURE 2
Description and brief history of the study area
Demographics of Dagomba Line
Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line.
Perception of Dagomba Line inhabitants about sanitation facilities.
LECTURE 3
Existing sanitation facilities and their relation to informal sanitation
practices in Dagomba Line.
Reasons for the existing informal sanitation practices in Dagomba
Line.
 Lecture Contents

LECTURE 1

Brief description of Ghana

Sanitation in Ghana

Access and Policies for providing

sanitation in Ghanaian slum
Brief description of Ghana
Located in West Africa along the Gulf of Guinea.
Land size of 238,535km2 with a total population of
27million.
System of governance is a constitutional
democracy. with a decentralized system of local
government and administration .
Consists of ten administrative regions each headed
by a regional minister.
District Assemblies form the principal units of the
regions. There are 170 Municipal , Metropolitan and
District Assemblies (MMDAs).
Capital city is Accra and currency is the Ghana
cedi(GHS)
75 ethnic groups and more than 100 linguistic
groups.
Median age of Ghanaian citizens is 30 years old
and average household size of 3.6 persons.
A significant rise in urbanization occurred between
1984 to 2000( 32.0% to 43.8%).
The Greater Accra region and the Ashanti Region is
the first and second most urbanized regions
respectively.
 Sanitation in Ghana (1 of 5)
Sanitation issues is the responsibility of the Ministry of local
Government and rural development (MLGRD).
One of MLGRDs mandates is implementing the Environmental
Sanitation Policy (ESP) through the Environmental Sanitation
and health Directorate (ESHD). ESHD is found within each of
the 170 MMDAs.
The MLGRD also prepares the NESSAP ( National
Environmental Sanitation Strategic Action Plan) i.e. policy
objectives and action plans subject to further modifications for
implementation by each MMDAs.
Each MMDA prepares DESSAP ( District Environmental
Sanitation Strategic Action Plan) to provide local level
strategies, plans, programmes and sub-projects based on
NESSAP.
 Sanitation in Ghana (2 of 5)
The ESP stipulates that a greater part of environmental
sanitation services be provided by the private sector with
the public sector agencies such as MMDAs as regulators.
In the events whereby the private sector fails to deliver due
to reasons such as industrial actions within their
organization, the public agencies are to stand in.
Household sanitation facilities are individual
responsibilities, or in the case of rented apartments the
landlords . Households without sanitation facilities in place
rely on communal/public toilets.
The Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP), WC, aqua privies,
Kumasi ventilated improved pit (K- VIP) are some of the
sanitation technologies used by households. Pan (Bucket)
latrines have been banned.
 Sanitation in Ghana (3 of 5)

Ghana's sanitation coverage

improved
13%
unimproved
13%

Shared 54%

open defecation
20%

Source: JMP, 2010

 Sanitation in Ghana (4 of 5)
Access and policies for slum sanitation

Slums have no legal status and are under constant

threat of eviction.
Lands occupied by slums are either:
i. lands not earmarked for human settlements, e.g.
industrial lands, along railway lines and buffer zones of
water bodies.
ii. government owned or
ii. privately owned for uses such as estate development
The Environmental sanitation policy (ESP) does not
provide for sanitation facilities in slums.
ESP (Pg. 5) states that To improve environmental
sanitation one strategy is to restrict the formation of new
slums.
 Sanitation in Ghana (5 of 5)
Access and policies for slum sanitation
Government agencies are therefore not mandated to provide
social services including sanitation services to slum dwellers.
However some private entities BOO pay-per-use sanitation
facilities in communities including some slums. These entities
make their own land acquisition arrangements.
Slum dwellers may be beneficiaries of sanitation facilities on
the grounds of humanitarianism. Even with this, the type of
ownership of the occupied land is a critical determinant.
Dwellers of slums without sanitation facilities may utilize that of
neighboring communities or scheme their own ways of
managing their excreta.
END OF LECTURE ONE
 Lecture 2

LECTURE CONTENTS
Description of the study area (Dagomba Line)
Brief history of Dagomba Line
Demographics of Dagomba Line
Environmental sanitation situation in
Dagomba Line.
Perception of Dagomba Line inhabitants
about sanitation facilities.
Description of the study area: Dagomba Line slum (1 of 2)

Dagomba
Line

Map of study area

Dagomba Line slum showing the

wooden shacks and the Aboabo River.
Description of the study area: Dagomba Line slum (2 of 2)

Dagomba Line is a slum with an area of approximately 5 km2 .

It is found in the Kumasi metropolis, Ghanas Ashanti regional
capital.
Located within the buffer zone along the banks of the
Aboabo River. A railway line passes through the area.
Development in this area is prohibited.
Dwelling units comprises mainly of make shift wooden
structures that measure about 5m by 4m.
Flood prone therefore most of the shacks are raised about
30cm above ground.
Densely populated with an average of 16 shacks per km2 .
Shacks are separated by narrow alleys of about 80cm.
Dagomba Line: Brief History
Brief History of Dagomba Line.
During the ancient slave trade, the Dagombas from the Northern parts of Ghana
were preferred by the slave catchers due to their tall and powerful stature.
Majority of the Dagombas fled the slave trade in the north and came southward to
Kumasi to seek refuge in the Ashanti kingdoms since they believe they share the
same ancestral route.
Some of the areas that the migrants were given by the then Ashanti King to settle
on included Ashanti New Town, Asawasi, Alabar, Sawaba , Ayigya and Aboabo.
Aboabo borders the present day Dagomba Line.
More and more Dagombas came to join their compatriots, the increase in
population compelled new migrants to seek other available space, including the
hitherto unoccupied buffer zones along the Aboabo River .
Between 1988 and 2000s the Aboabo River began overflowing its banks. This
compelled many of the migrants to vacate the area. They began returning when
the waters subsided .
In 2007 the Metropolitan Authorities, as a matter of policy, decided to clear the
buffer zones of squatters. The entire area was set ablaze and the squatters
vacated again, only to return around 2011 when enforcement slackened.
Dagomba Line: Demographics

Demographics
There is overcrowding in most of the
shacks, an average of 25 people dwelling
in a shack.
Residents are migrants, mainly the
Dagomba ethnic group and other
minorities (Sisala, Gonja, Mossi,
Mamprusi) all from the Northern part of
Ghana.
Muslims are the predominant religious
group.
Age of most of the inhabitants falls within
14 30years.
Main occupation of males is scrap metal
business that takes place within the slum.
The women mainly work as head porters
in the central business district of Kumasi.
 Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line (1 of 7)

No sewerage connections Domestic waste water management

Solid waste management -Existence of pay- per -use communal bathrooms.
-Indiscriminate disposal of waste. Grey water from the bathrooms drains into the
-Aboabo River serves as receptacle Aboabo river.
for all forms of solid waste.

Excreta management
Through (1) formal and (2) Informal/localized practices.
Formal sanitation practices are usually employed by persons above 9years of age during daytime.
Persons below 9years usually employ informal/localized sanitation practices during the day.
However informal sanitation practices are solely employed by all in excreta management during late nights.
Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line (2 of 7)
(1)Formal sanitation practices:
Through the use of two communal pay- per -use sanitation facilities .
(a)A full flush toilet facility and (b) a squat toilet facility with a dysfunctional flush system)
- These facilities are on-site/ decentralized sanitation connected to septic tanks.
- BOO by private individuals.

(a) Full flush toilet facility

A WC toilet bowl found in the full flush A squat toilet bowl found in the full
toilet facility flush toilet facility
Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line (3 of 7)

Full Flush Toilet Facility

Has separate areas for males and females. Each
area consists of 12cubicles, out of which 2 are fixed
with WC bowls. The remaining are squats toilets.
Has a dysfunctional hand washing facility.
Opening hours 4 30am to 11pm
User fees of US$0.08 per use (1 GHS- US$0.38977
as at 16th March, 2014)
Frequency of cleaning , as to when the need arises.
 Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line (4 of 7)

b) Squat Toilet facility Comprises 12 cubicles for

each sex. All are squats
toilets.
Has separate areas for males
and females.
Opening hours : 4 am to 9pm.
User fees of US$0.08 per use
(1 GHS- US$0.38977 as at
16th March, 2014)
Frequency of cleaning is
.
twice daily.
 Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line (5 of 7)

2) i. Informal /localized sanitation practices (daytime):

These are solely employed by persons below 10 years of age. Location for these
practices vary with age and gender.
(a)Defecation yard/Field
Located along the Aboabo river and secluded from the cluster of shacks and full glare
of men who carry out their income generating activities (scrap metal business) in the
slum.
Prefered by female children nearing puberty.
Reason: Girls nearing puberty are body conscious and therefore prefers a somewhat
secluded place as a place of convenience.
(b) Open defecation among heaps of solid waste
Located along the banks of Aboabo River.
Prefered by male children nearing puberty.
Reason for preference: Offers privacy to some extent for these boys.
 Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line (6 of 7)

(c) Open defecation in the Aboabo River

Also preferred by male children nearing

puberty
Practice adopted only at low water levels.
Piles of Solid Waste
(d) Open defecation in alleys of
shacks/along the Aboabo River
Employed by young children under
supervision of their guardians or not. With
respect to the alleys, defecation is done
onto the bare floor. After the practice, the
feces is collected with a broom and
discarded into the River body. However
feces left along the river after open
defecation is left uncollected.

Aboabo River
 Environmental sanitation situation in Dagomba Line (7 of 7)
ii. Informal sanitation practices (Night time)
(a) Open defecation directly in to the Aboabo
River
Often employed by male adults.
Common among dwellers of shacks in close
proximity to the River Aboabo or those who
live in the first line of shacks from the River.
(b) Open defecation beside the Aboabo River
in polyethylene bags
Commonly employed by female adults who
live in close proximity to the Aboabo River.
The polyethylene bagged excreta is discarded
into the water body after the practice
(c) Open defecation in alleys of shacks
Employed by females irrespective of age. The
adults ones are mostly dwellers who live
further away from the River. If it is
A child defecating along the Aboabo River polyethylene bagged, it is kept till the following
morning to be discarded into the River body
 Perceptions of Dagomba Line dwellers on existing sanitation facilities
Majority of the respondents expressed
dissatisfaction with the squat toilet facility due
to the following reasons.
The fear that little children /children with Full flush
smaller stature might fall into the excreta
45 43
passageway. They are therefore prevented
40 Pour flush
from using them. 35 squat toilet
29
Unhygienic conditions - malodorous and 30
messy. 25
FF and PF
20
Not use-able for pregnant women . 15
High user fees. 10
8
5
0
Frequency
Most of the respondents were satisfied with Full flush
Pour flush
FF and PF
the full flush toilet facility due to : squat toilet

Good hygienic conditions-less smell and

less mess.
Type of Toilet facility used by respondents in Dagomba Line
Dissatisfaction with ff toilet facility was due
to higher user fees. This reason was
common among family heads with more
dependents.
Perceptions of Dagomba Line dwellers on existing sanitation facilities

However, despite the poor hygienic conditions of the squat toilet facility, it had more
user load than the full flush toilet facility.
Reasons: Lower user fees
Ease of access- situated at the route to the working places of the head porters.

Their perceptions were assessed based on a set of indicators and criteria adapted
from Katukiza et al., 2010.

1. Socio-cultural Indicator
a. Religious Acceptability
The sanitation facilities are perceived as religiously acceptable among the majority
Muslims and minority Christians.
These religious sects accept that these facilities are able to separate excreta from
humans. The tenets of their religions eschew dirt.
b. Cultural Acceptability
The majority ethnic group, the Dagombas and the other minorities (Sisala,
Mamprusi, Gonja, Mossi) perceive the toilet facilities as culturally acceptable.
 Perceptions of Dagomba Line dwellers on existing sanitation facilities
c. Privacy
Offer ample privacy for both genders. This is because there were separate areas for
each of them. Secondly a door is provided for each cubicle.

2.Financial/Economics Indicator
Payment Satisfaction
Payment satisfaction is low among users of both facilities. The user fees are
perceived as high.
However ,caretakers expressed satisfaction with the user fee as it is enough to cover
operation and maintenance costs.

3. Sanitary conditions
Smell/ Vector Control/ Exposure to pathogens
a) Squat toilet facility
Hygienic conditions are poor- messy and malodorous. However vector control was
satisfactory
High probability of coming into contact with pathogens, since feaces are usually on
the passageway for urine.
.
Perceptions of Dagomba Line dwellers on existing sanitation facilities (4 of 4)

b) Full flush toilet facility

Hygienic conditions are satisfactory. Less smelly, good vector control and no visibility of feaces on the urine
passageway. Therefore there is a lower risk of coming into contact with pathogens.
Good hygienic conditions attributable to more frequent cleaning. Sweeping and scrubbing is done when the
need arises.

4. Technical Indicator
Use-ability
a) Pregnant women
Total cubicles for both sanitation facilities are 24. Out of these two have been fixed with WC bowls while the
rest are squats toilets. Their physiological state makes it more convenient for them to utilize the WCs than the
squats toilet.

b) Younger children /children with small stature

It is perceived that the toilet facilities
- poses a risk due to the likelihood of a fall into the excreta passageways.
- Unhygienic conditions which might expose them to pathogens.
- High user fees, therefore more priority are given to older persons in the family when it comes to payment for
the use of these facilities.

c) Men and non-pregnant women

Both facilities are convenient for their use.
END OF LECTURE TWO
 Lecture 3

LECTURE CONTENTS

Existing sanitation facilities and their relation to

informal sanitation practices in Dagomba Line.

Reasons for the existing informal sanitation

practices in Dagomba Line.

 Existing sanitation facilities and their influence on informal sanitation practices in
Dagomba Line. (1 of 2)
In Dagomba Line, a combination of both formal and informal sanitation practices are employed to meet sanitation
needs. This is because the extent of the appropriateness of the existing sanitation facilities do not meet the entire
sanitation needs of the various user groups. Outlined below are the components of the sanitation facilities that act
as push factors for informal sanitation practices.

(1)Modus Operandi of Sanitation Facilities

- They are not operated 24hrs (opening hours from 4 30am to 11pm). Thus ,meeting sanitation needs during late
nights must be done informally
- Caretakers revealed that operating these facilities at night may attract attacks from thugs who may make away
with the revenue realized . Again fewer people visit the facilities late in the night than the day.

(2) Financial/Economics
Payment Satisfaction
Low
Younger children do not usually use the sanitation facilities
Reasons
User fees for both facilities are perceived by inhabitants as high. Therefore for a family head with more
dependents, priority is given to older members of the family when it comes to payment for the use of the
sanitation facilities.
In the case of minors, family heads may not be present always to make payment for the use of the facilities.
 Existing sanitation facilities and their influence on informal sanitation practices in
Dagomba Line. (2 of 2)

3) Technical Indicator
i. User-friendliness
With respect to the squat toilets, faeces are usually seen on the
passage way for urine, instead of passing through it s
passageway .

ii. Use-ability
The deduction by guardians that younger children would
handle the faeces usually seen on the urines passageway.
This may expose them to pathogens.

4) Poor sanitary conditions

The malodorous and smelly conditions of the squats toilets
are perceived to be unhygienic for children.
It is perceived that a more hygienic practice is to open
defecate in various locations of their choices.

5. Safety
Squats toilets pose a risk to younger children due to the
likelihood of a fall into the excreta passageways.
To ensure safety, children may either be allowed or prevented
from using the sanitary facilities based on the caretakers
judgment of their stature. Those with a small stature are
prevented from utilizing the facilities.
A squat toilet in Dagomba Line
Reasons for preferred alternative (informal ) sanitation practices (1 of 2)
1. Modus Operandi of Sanitation Facilities
opened within the hours of 4:30am to11:30pm and not 24hours.
Therefore inaccessible during late nights.

2. Superstitious beliefs
The belief among the Dagomba ethnic group that dwarfs capture anyone that goes out at night. This belief was
common among adults males.
If the toilet facilities were to be operated at night, it would not be utilized, due to the fear of dwarfs.
Based on this belief, male adults prefer to open defecate into the Aboabo River provided they live in close
proximity to it.

3. Security
This slum serves as hideout for thugs who operate in the night.
To augment security, town guards do night patrols to lookout for criminal suspects.
Residents therefore dread night outings due to reasons such as probable thug attacks or mistaken for a
criminal suspect.
A person who has no belief in dwarfs attacks at night would avoid utilisation of the sanitation facilities should it
be operated in the night.
The alternative is open defecating in the alleys of the slum into polyethylene bags, kept until the following
morning and then thrown into the Aboabo River.
 Reasons for preferred alternative sanitation practices (2 of 2)

4.Religious beliefs
It is against the tenets of the Muslim religion, which is the major
religion in Dagomba line for a woman to make a night out,
particularly after 11pm.
At night, Muslim women opt for open defecation into
polyethylene bags placed either in the slums alleys or along
the River.
This is a more preferable option especially for people that live
further from the River and those that want to avoid thugs attack.

5. Age
Older children, especially those nearing puberty, also engage in
open defecation. They however prefer relatively secluded
places as compared to older children.
Reasons for preferred alternative sanitation practices (2 of 2)

6. Gender
Older female children prefer to use the defecation yard while
older male children defecate in the Aboabo River or among piles
of solid waste along the Aboabo River.

7. Location of the slum

The slum is located within the buffer zone and along the River
bank.
Thus it is time saving, cheaper , more hygienic for residents
to utilize the river as a medium for open defecation.
The River also serves as a receptacle for the method of wrap
and throw and for all forms of waste.
END OF LECTURE THREE

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