Gpower Tutorial PDF

GPOWER Tutorial
Before we begin this tutorial, we would like to give you a general advice for performing
power analyses.
A very frequent error in performing power analyses with G*Power is to specify incorrect
degrees of freedom. As a general rule, therefore, we recommend that you routinely compare
the degrees of freedom as specified in G*Power with the degrees of freedom that your
statistical analysis program gives you for an appropriate set of data. If you do not yet have
your data set (e.g., in the case of an a priori power analysis), then you could simply create
an appropriate artificial data set and check the degrees of freedom for this set.
Let us now start with the simplest possible case, a t-test for independent samples.
In a now-classic study, Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) compared the memory

performance of amnesics to normal controls. Amnesics are persons who have very serious
long-term memory problems. It very often takes them weeks to learn where the bathroom is
in a new environment, and some of them never seem to learn such things. Perhaps the most
intriguing result of the Warrington and Weiskrantz study was that amnesics and normals
differed with respect to direct, but not indirect measures of memory.
An example of a direct memory measure would be recognition performance. This measure

is called direct because the remembering person receives explicit instructions to recollect a
prior study episode ("please recognize which of these words you have seen before").
In contrast, word stem completion would be an indirect measure of memory. In such a task,
a person is given a word stem such as "tri....." and is asked to complete it with the first word
that comes to mind. If the probability of completing such stems with studied words is above
base-line, then we observe an effect of prior experience.
It should be clear by now why the finding of no statistically significant difference between
amnesiacs and normal in indirect tests was so exciting: All of a sudden there was evidence
for memory where it was not expected, but only when the instructions did not stress the fact
that the task was a memory task.
However, it may appear a bit puzzling that amnesiacs and normal were not totally
equivalent with respect to the indirect word stem completion task. Rather, normal were a bit
better than amnesiacs with an average of 16 versus 14.5 stems completed with studied
words, respectively. Of course, in the recognition task, normal were much better than
amnesiacs with correct recognition scores of 13 versus 8, respectively.
At this point, one may wonder about the power of the relevant statistical test to detect a
difference if there truly was one. Therefore, let's perform a post-hoc power analysis on
these Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) data.
Post-hoc Power Analysis
For the sake of this example, let us assume that the mean word-stem completion
performance for amnesics (14.5) and normals (16) as observed by Warrington and
Weiskrantz (1970) reflects the population means, and let the population standard deviation
of both group means be sigma = 3. We can now compute the effect size index d (Cohen,
1977) which is defined as
1 2
d=

We obtain
14.5 16
d= = 0 .5
3
The resulting d = 0.5 can be interpreted as a "medium" effect according to Cohen's (1977)
popular effect size conventions.
A total of
n1 = 4 amnesics and
n2 = 8 normal control subjects
participated in the Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) study. These sample sizes are used
by G*Power to compute the relevant noncentrality parameter of the noncentral t-
distribution. The noncentral distribution of a test statistic results, for a certain sample size,
if H1 (the alternative hypothesis) is true. The noncentrality parameter delta () is defined as
n1n 2
=d
n1 + n 2
Now we are almost set to perform our post-hoc power analysis. One more piece is missing,
however. We need to decide which level of alpha is acceptable. Without much thinking, we
choose alpha = .05. Given these premises, what was the power in the Warrington and
Weiskrantz (1970) study to detect a "medium" size difference between amnesics and
controls in the word stem completion task?
Start G*Power and

select: Type of Power Analysis: Post-hoc
Type of Test: t-Test (means), two-tailed
Accuracy mode calculation
Next, G*Power needs the following
input: Alpha: .05

Effect size "d": 0.5
n1: 4
n2: 8
You can now press the Calculate button and observe the following
result: Power (1-beta): 0.1148

Critical t: t(10) = 2.2281
Delta: 0.8165
This result is devastating: The relevant statistical test had virtually no power to detect a
"medium" size difference between amnesics and controls in the word stem completion task.
If we were to repeat the Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) study with more statistical
power, how many participants would we need? This question is answered by an
A Priori Power Analysis
In an a priori power analysis, we know which alpha and beta levels we can accept, and
ideally we also have a good idea of the size of the effect which we want to detect. We
decide to be maximally idealistic and choose alpha = beta = .05. (It means a power level of
1- = 0.95). In addition, we know that the size of the effect we want to detect is d = 0.5. We
are now ready to perform our a priori power analysis.
Select: Type of Power Analysis: A priori

Input: Alpha: .05
Power (1-beta): .95
Result: Total sample size: 210
Actual power: 0.9500
Critical t: t(208) = 1.9714
Delta: 3.6228
We are shocked. Obviously, there is no way we can recruit N = 210 subjects for our study,
simply because it would be impossible to find n1 = 105 amnesic patients (fortunately, very
few people suffer from severe amnesia!).
Assume that we work in a hospital in which n1 = 20 amnesics are treated at the moment. It
seems reasonable to expect that we can recruit an equal number of control patients to
participate in our study. Thus, n1 + n2 = 20 + 20 = 40 is our largest possible sample size.
What are we going to do? Well, we simply perform a
Compromise Power Analysis
Erdfelder (1984) has developed the concept of a compromise power analysis specifically
for cases like the present one in which pragmatic constraints prohibit that our investigations
follow the recommendations derived from an a priori power analysis. The basic idea here is
that two things are fixed, the maximum possible sample size and the effect we want to
detect, but that we may still opt to choose alpha and beta error probabilities in accordance
with the other two parameters. All we need to specify is the relative seriousness of the
alpha and beta error probabilities. Sometimes, protecting against alpha errors will be more
important, and sometimes beta errors are associated with a higher cost. Which error type is
more serious depends on our research question. For instance, if we invented a new, cheaper
treatment of a mental disorder, then we would want to make sure that it is not worse than
the older, more expensive treatment. In this case, committing a beta error (i.e., accepting
both treatments as equivalent although the cheaper treatment is worse) may be considered
more serious than committing an alpha error.
In basic research, both types of errors are normally considered equally serious. Thus, in our
present basic-research example we choose
q = =1

We're all set now to perform our compromise power analysis.
Select: Type of Power Analysis: Compromise

Input: n1: 20
n2: 20
Beta/alpha ratio: 1
Result: alpha: 0.2957
Power (1-beta): 0.7043
Critical t: t(38) = 1.0603
Delta: 1.5811
This is still not fantastic, but perhaps it is more reasonable than the alternatives we have. In
the end, you will have to decide whether it is worth the trouble given these premises.
We have now arrived at the end of our tutorial. If you want to learn more about statistical
power analyses, we recommend that you read Cohen's (1988) excellent book.
Referenced pages
Post-hoc power analyses
Post-hoc power analyses are done after you or someone else conducted an experiment.
You have:
alpha,
N (the total sample size),
and the effect size.
You want to know

the power of a test to detect this effect.
For instance, you tried to replicate a finding that involves a difference between two
treatments administered to two different groups of subjects, but failed to find the effect with
your sample of 36 subjects (14 in Group 1, and 22 in Group 2). Choose Post-hoc as type of
power analysis, and t-Test on means as type of test. Suppose you expect a "medium" effect
according to Cohen's effect size conventions between the two groups (delta = .50), and you
want to have alpha =.05 for a two-tailed test, you punch in these values (and 14 for n 1,
plus 22 for n 2) and click the "Calculate" button to find out that your test's power to detect
the specified effect is ridiculously low: 1-beta = .2954.
However, you might want to draw a graph using the Draw graph option to see how the
power changes as a function of the effect size you expect, or as a function of the alpha-level
you want to risk.
Note that there is a list of tests for fast access to test-specific information.
Compromise Power Analysis
Compromise power analyses represent a novel concept, and only G*Power provides
convenient ways to compute them. Thus, if you ever asked yourself "Why G*Power?", this
is one possible answer (accuracy of the algorithms and second-to-none flexibility being
other candidates for an answer to this question).
You may want to use compromise power analyses primarily in the following two situations:
1. For reasons that are beyond your control (e.g., you are working with clinical
populations), your N is too small to satisfy conventional levels of alpha and beta (1-
power) given your effect size.
2. Given conventional levels of significance, your N is too large (e.g., you are fitting a
model to data aggregated over subjects and items) such that even negligible effects
would force you to reject H0.
In compromise power analyses, users specify H0, H1 (i.e., the size of the effect to be
detected), the test statistic to be used, the maximum possible total sample size, and the ratio
q := beta/alpha which specifies the relative seriousness of both errors (cf. Cohen, 1965,
1988, p. 5). The problem is to calculate an optimum critical value for the test statistic which
satisfies beta/alpha = q. This optimum critical value can be regarded as a rational
compromise between the demands for a low alpha-risk and a large power level, given a
fixed sample size.
Given appropriate subroutines for computing the noncentral distributions of the relevant
test statistics (i.e., the exact distributions of the test statistics if H1 is true, cf. Johnson &
Kotz, 1970, chap. 28, 30, and 31), it is relatively easy to implement compromise power
analyses using an efficient iterative interval dissection algorithm (cf. Press, Flannery,
Teukolsky, & Vetterling, 1988, chap. 9).
The question is, therefore, why compromise analyses are missing in the currently available
power analysis software. The only reason we can think of is that non-standard results may
occur, that is, results that are inconsistent with established conventions of statistical
inference. Given some fixed sample size, a compromise power analysis could suggest to
choose a critical value which corresponds to, say, alpha = beta = .168.
These error probabilities are indeed non-standard, but they may nevertheless be reasonable
given the constraints of the research. To illustrate, consider the special case of some
substantive hypothesis which implies H0, for instance, the hypothesis of no interaction.
Does it make more sense to choose alpha = beta = .168 rather than to insist on the standard
level alpha = .05 associated with beta = .623? Obviously, the standard .05 alpha-level
makes no sense in this situation, because it implies a risk of almost two-thirds to accept
falsely the hypothesis of interest. Therefore, not only a priori and post-hoc analyses, but
also compromise power analyses should be offered routinely by software which is designed
to serve as a researcher's tool.
Note that there is a list of tests for fast access to test-specific information
One-Tailed versus Two-Tailed Tests
If you are interested in testing two directional parameter hypotheses against each other
(e.g., H0: mu1 <= mu2; H1: mu1 > mu2), a one-tailed test is more appropriate than a two-
tailed test. Limiting the region of rejection to one tail of the sampling distributions of H1
provides greater power with respect to an alternative hypothesis in the direction of that tail.
The figure below tries to illustrate this.
Alpha Error Probability
Alpha is the probability of falsely accepting H1 when in fact H0 is true. The figure below
illustrates alpha for an F-test with respect to an alternative hypothesis that corresponds to a
so-called "noncentral" F sampling distribution defined by the noncentrality parameter
lambda.
Power and the Beta Error Probability
The power of a test is defined as 1-beta, and beta is the probability of falsely accepting H0
when in fact H1 is true. The figure below illustrates beta and the power of an F-test with
respect to an alternative hypothesis that corresponds to a so-called "noncentral" F sampling
distribution defined by the noncentrality parameter lambda.
Effect Size
Effect size can be conceived of as measures of the "distance" between H0 and H1.
Hence, effect size refers to the underlying population rather than a specific sample. In
specifying an effect size, researchers define the degree of deviation from H0 that they
consider important enough to warrant attention. In other words, effects that are smaller than
the specified effect size are considered negligible. The effect size parameter should be
specified prior to collecting (or analyzing) the data.
Which choice is considered appropriate depends on

1. the theoretical context of the research,
2. related research results published previously, and
3. cost-benefit considerations in applied research.
Cohen's (1969, 1977, 1988, 1992) effect size measures are well known and his conventions
of "small," "medium," and "large" effects proved to be useful. For these reasons, we
decided to render G*Power completely compatible with Cohen's measures and to display
the effect size conventions appropriate for the type of test selected. These effect size indices
and some of the computational procedures to arrive at effect size estimates are described in
the context of the tests for which they have been defined. These are:
Cohen (1977, 1988) justifies these levels of effect sizes.

Index small medium large
t-Test on Means d 0.20 0.50 0.80
t-Test on Correlations r 0.10 0.30 0.50
F-Test (ANOVA) f 0.10 0.25 0.40
F-Test (MCR) f2 0.02 0.15 0.35
Chi-Square Test w 0.10 0.30 0.50
In G*Power, effect size values can either be entered directly or they can be calculated from
basic parameters characterizing H1 (e.g., means, variances, and probabilities). To use the
latter option, users must click on the "Calc 'x' " button (x representing the effect size
parameter of the test currently selected).
In order to prepare the appropriate G*Power input, it may sometimes be necessary to know
the relation between the sample size and the effect size measure on the one hand and the
noncentrality parameter of the noncentral distributions on the other hand. We have
provided the relation between the sample size, the effect size measures, and the
noncentrality parameters on a separate page.
Total Sample Size
In G*Power the total sample size is the number of subjects summed over all groups of the
design.
In a t-test on means, the sample size may vary between groups A and B. Note, however,
that in this case we want sigma to be approximately equal in both groups. Otherwise, both
the t-test and the corresponding G*Power calculations may be misleading because the
distributions of the test statistic under H0 and H1 will differ substantially from (central and
noncentral) t-distributions.
Another problem could be unequal standard deviations in the populations underlying the
two samples. In this case, Cohen (1977) recommended to adjust sigma to sigma' according
to
A +B
2 2
=
2
According to Cohen (1977) the number of participants in both groups A and B must be
equal for this correction to be acceptable. If the group sizes vary, then this adjustment is not
appropriate.
Please note that you will only arrive at an approximation of the true power of the t-test if
the assumption of equal variances is violated. However, Cohen (1977) argues that the
approximation will be "adequate" from most purposes.
As a general warning, you should keep in mind that G*Power results are valid if the
statistical assumptions underlying the tests are met (e.g., normal distributions and
homogeneous variances within cells). Some work has been done on the robustness of these
tests, that is, the deviation of actual and nominal alpha error probabilities when the
distribution assumptions are not met. However, little is known on a test's power given a
misspecified distribution model. Thus, G*Power results may or may not be useful
approximations to the true power values in such cases.
In F-Test (ANOVA), we assume that there are an equal number of subjects in each group.
If, in a post-hoc or compromise power analysis, the total sample size is not a multiple of the
group size, then the power analysis will be based on the average group size (a noninteger
value). G*Power will inform you if this is the case.
Note also that in a priori power analyses, the sample size is usually rounded to the next
multiple of the number of groups or cells in your design. This implies that the actual power
of your test usually is slightly larger than the power you entered as a parameter.
The Ratio q:= beta/alpha
In a compromise power analysis, the ratio q := beta/alpha specifies the relative seriousness
of both types of errors (cf. Cohen, 1965, 1988, p. 5).
For instance, if alpha errors appear twice as serious as beta errors, then you can risk a beta
error which is twice as large as alpha, thus q = beta/alpha = 2/1 = 2. This value is what you
would then insert as the "beta/alpha ratio" in a compromise power analysis.
Alternatively, if you think you'd rather not risk committing a beta error (e.g., a beta error is
considered three times as important as an alpha error), then you would specify q =
beta/alpha = 1/3 = 0.3333.
These choices depend on the different valences you associate with either outcome of the
test. However, we suspect that in basic psychological research at least, q = beta/alpha 1/1 =
1 is the rational choice most often.
Given your decision as to the relative seriousness of both types of errors, the problem is to
calculate an optimum critical value for the test statistic which satisfies beta/alpha = q. This
optimum critical value can be regarded as a rational compromise (hence the term
"Compromise power analysis") between the demands for a low alpha-risk and a large
power level, given a fixed sample size.
The Noncentrality Parameter
The noncentrality parameter of the t distribution is called delta, and that of the F and Chi2
distributions is called lambda. Both measures increase as a function of N and the effect size
postulated by H1. More detailed information about the relation among sample size, effect
size, and the noncentrality parameter is also available.
The Critical Value
The critical value of the test statistic (z, t, F, and Chi2 in the cases we look at here) defines
the boundary of the rejection region of H0. Publications of power values and final decisions
concerning total sample sizes or critical values should always be based on accuracy mode
calculations.
The Relation Among Sample Size, Effect Size, and Noncentrality Parameter
It may sometimes be necessary to know the relation between the total sample size and the
effect size measure on the one hand and the noncentrality parameter of the noncentral
distributions on the other hand. Therefore, we present these relations here for all test
procedures offered by G*Power.
t-Test on Means
In t-test on means, the noncentrality parameter delta is
n1n 2
=d
n1 + n 2
Where:
1 2
d=

is Cohen's (1977, 1988, p. 40) effect size parameter for t tests for means, and n1 and n2 are
the sample sizes in groups 1 and 2, respectively.
t-Test on Correlations
In t-test on correlations, the noncentrality parameter delta is
= N
1
2
Where N is the total sample size (i.e., the number of pairs of values) and rho is the
population correlation coefficient according to H1 (i.e., Cohen's rho, see Cohen, 1977,
1988, p. 77-81).
Other t-Tests
In the Other t-Tests option we used f as an effect size measure (cf. Cohen, 1977, 1988,
Chap. 8.2). The relation between delta and f is
=f N
F-Test (ANOVA), F-Test (MCR), and Other F-Tests
The standardized effect size measures f or f2 are also used in power analyses for F-tests (F-
Test (ANOVA), F-Test (MCR), and Other F-Tests). Their relation to the noncentrality
parameter lambda of the noncentral F distribution is given by Lambda:
= f N , where f =
2 2
1
2
and 2 denotes the coefficient of determination in the population according to H1 (e.g.,

Koele, 1982, p. 514). For global ANOVA F-tests, 2 is just eta2. (2)
For special F-tests of main effects or interactions in complex ANOVA-designs, 2 equals

the partial eta2.
Analogously, 2 coincides with the (partial) squared multiple correlation in multiple

regression/correlation F-tests (cf. Cohen, 1988, Chap. 9.2.1).
Chi-Square Tests
For Chi-Square tests based on m-cell contingency tables (m in N), Cohen (1977, 1988,
Chap. 7) uses
m
p0( i ) p1( i )
w=
i =1 p0( i )
as an effect size measure, where p0(i) and p1(i) denote the cell probabilities for the i-th cell
according to H0 and H1, respectively. Then
=w N
2
is the noncentrality parameter of the noncentral chi-square distribution (Cohen, 1988, p.

549).
Actual Power
When you use G*Power to perform an a priori power analysis, the program calculates the
'exact' sample size for you. Assume that this exact sample size for a t-test is 60.70. Of
course, you cannot recruit 60.70 subjects. Therefore, G*Power rounds to the next
reasonable integer for your t-test, which would be 62 (two groups of 31 subjects each).
However, 62 is larger than 60.70, and one way to express what this means is to say that,
with 62 subjects and all other parameters being equal, your t-test has more power to detect
an effect than it would have given the 'exact' number of 60.70 subjects. This 'inflated'
power value is displayed as Actual power. Note that in this way G*Power guarantees that
with the sample size computed for an a priori power analysis, the power of your test is
always at least the power you specified.
1. List of Tests
o t-Test on Means
Two group t-test, equal group sizes, equal sigma

Two group t-test, unequal group sizes, equal sigma
Two group t-test, equal group sizes, unequal sigma
o t-Test on Correlations
o Other t-Tests
Matched-Pairs t-Test
One-Sample t-Test
z-Test
Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U test (plus hints for other nonparametric
tests)
o F-Test (ANOVA)
ANOVA, Fixed Effects: Single-Factor Designs

ANOVA, Fixed Effects: Multi-Factor Designs
ANOVA, Planned Comparisons
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
o F-Test (MCR)
MCR, One Predictor Set

MCR, Two Predictor Sets
o Other F-Tests
MANOVA
Repeated Measures Designs, Univariate Approach
Repeated Measures Designs, Multivariate Approach
o Chi-Square Tests
Chi-Square, Goodness-of-Fit-Tests
Chi-Square, Contingency Tests
t-Test on Means
In this section, we refer to t-tests which are used to compare independent sample means. H0
implies that the two means in the population are equal:
H0: 1 - 2 = 0
For matched-pairs t-tests, use the "Other t-Tests" option.
Chose "one-tailed" or "two-tailed," depending on your hypothesis.
We have four examples on this page:
Two group t-test, equal group sizes, equal sigma

Unequal group sizes
Unequal sigma
Two Group t-Test, Equal Group Sizes, Equal Sigma
You have 2 populations A and B which you want to compare with respect to x. Assume
that the random variable x is normally distributed with a standard deviation of s (sigma) in
both populations. Assume further that the population means of x are muA and muB in
population A and B, respectively. Thus,
H0: A - B = 0
H1: A - B = c, c 0.
Which total sample size do you need such that the probability of obtaining a t statistic equal
to or larger than a critical value is alpha = 0.05 under H0 and 1-beta = .9 under H1?
Assume that the difference in means between the groups postulated by your H1 is equal to
one half of the standard deviation, thus d = 0.5 (e.g., A = 10, B = 12, = 4).

Input: Alpha: .05
Power (1-beta): .9
Effect size "d": 0.5 (To calculate the effect size
from A, B, and ,
simply click "Calc d", insert
the means and the standard
deviation, and click "Calc &
Copy".)
Critical t: t(170) = 1.9740
Delta: 3.2787
Assume further that you do not have enough money to pay 172 subjects. However, 140
would seam feasible. Which critical t would still result in a "fair" test of your H1? We use a
compromise power analysis to compute an optimum critical value for the test statistic
which satisfies the ratio q := beta/alpha. This optimum critical value can be regarded as a
rational compromise between the demands for a low a-risk and a large power level, given a
fixed sample size.

Input: n1: 70
n2: 70
Beta/alpha ratio: 2 (That is, we are willing to
commit a beta error twice as
large as our alpha error.)
Result: alpha: 0.0670
Critical t: t(138) = 1.8465
Delta: 2.9580
Two Group t-Test, Unequal Group Sizes, Equal Sigma
We have done a study in which, for some reasons, the group sizes are not equal. In Group
A we have 24 subjects; in Group B we have 33. What is the power of the t-Test comparing
the means of both groups, and how much power have we lost due to the unequal group
sizes?
Select: Type of Power Analysis: Post-hoc

Type of Test: t-Test (means), one-tailed
(This time assume that we know the
direction of the difference between
the groups.)
Input: Alpha: .05
Effect size "d": 0.8 (We expect "large" effects
according to the effect size
conventions of Cohen,
1977.)
n1: 24
n2: 33
Result: Power (1-beta): 0.9032
Critical t: t(55) = 1.6730
Delta: 2.9821
Two Group t-Test, Equal Group Sizes, Unequal Sigma
What do you do if A B?
This is not normally a problem because the t-test is known to be quite robust, at least as
long as the groups sizes are equal. Cohen (1977, p. 44) suggests to adjust sigma to sigma':
A +B
2 2
=
2
Simply use sigma' instead of sigma to calculate the effect size using the "Calc 'd'" option,
then proceed as in the examples given above.
A word of caution is in order, however: The power values computed by G*Power will only
be approximations in this case. Computer simulation results on the appropriateness of this
approximation are not yet available
t-Test on Correlations
In this section, we refer to t-tests which are used to evaluate the H0 that a product moment
correlation in the population is zero
H0: r = 0, and H1: r = c, c 0.
Chose "one-tailed" or "two-tailed" depending on your hypothesis. The effect size index is r,
the correlation in the population itself.
Example
We want to know how many subjects it takes to detect r = .30 in the population, given
alpha = beta = .05. Thus,
H0: r=0
H1: r = .30
Type of Test: t-Test (correlations), one-tailed
Input: Alpha: .05
Power (1-beta): .95
Effect size "r": 0.3 (You can calculate the effect
size from r2;simply click
"Calc 'r'", insert the value for
r2, and click "Calc & Copy;
but this is obviously
relatively trivial)
Critical t: t(109) = 1.6590
Delta: 2.3408
Other t-Tests
With this option, we can perform power analyses for any test that depends on the t-
distribution. All parameters of the noncentral t-distribution can be manipulated
independently. Note that with "Other t-Tests" you cannot do a priori power analyses, the
reason being that there is no definite association between N and df (the degrees of
freedom). You need to tell G*Power the values of both N and df explicitly.
We consider 3 examples here:
Matched-pairs t-tests
One-sample t-tests
z-Tests
In addition, we give hints on how to do power analyses for nonparametric tests such as the
Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U test
Matched-Pairs t-Tests
In t-tests for matched pairs, we have differences of the values from N matched pairs,
y1 = xA1 - xB1
: : :
yN = xA1 - xB1
The H0 we test is that the pairs do not differ, that is, the population mean Y of the
differences is zero. More formally,
H0: Y = 0
H1: Y = c, c 0.
When computing the standard deviation Y of the distribution of differences, we need to

take into account the correlation r between A and B in the population:
Y = A + B 2r A B
2 2
where A and B are the standard deviations of x in the populations A and B, respectively,
and r is the population correlation between A and B as paired.
In matched-pairs t-tests, N is the total sample size (i.e., total number of pairs), df = N-1, and
the effect size is:
Y
f =
Y
Where Y is the difference between the means as specified by H1.

Example
Assume that we are faced with a repeated measures design in which the same subject is
observed under each of two treatments. We have data from 40 subjects. Previous research
has shown that the standard deviation of the differences is approximately 20. We consider
mean differences of 8 or larger as important. Thus, the effect size we need to enter is f =
8/20 = 0.4. We fix alpha at 0.05.

Type of Test: Other t-Tests, two-tailed.
Input: Alpha: 0.05
Effect size "f": 0.4
N: 40
(Df = N-1 in matched pairs t-
df: 39
tests.)
Critical t: t(39) = 2.0227
Delta: 2.5298
As we said before, you cannot perform a priori power analyses directly, but you can, of
course, perform repeated post-hoc power analyses, adjusting N and df until you arrive at the
power value you desire. For instance, if you want, in the above example, the power to be
.95, you simply increase N and df (= N-1) until the power is as close as possible to .95
(which will be the case with N = 84 and df = 83 for the present example).
One-Sample t-Tests
We want to compare the mean of a population from which we sample to a constant c. The
effect size index d is computed according to
c
f =

where and are the mean and the standard deviation in the population, respectively. As
Cohen (1977, p. 46) writes, the interpretations of f (Cohen's d3') as well as the effect size
conventions are identical to those for d.
N is the total sample size, and df = N-1. Thus, we're all set to do this power analysis
analogously to the one for matched pairs t-tests (above).
z-Tests
We can easily do power analyses for z-tests with G*Power because, as df approaches
infinity, the t-distribution asymptotically converges with the normal distribution with mean
d =f N
and standard deviation 1. In other words, the critical t(32000) is virtually identical to the
critical z value. As the effect size index, we use:
1 2
f =

N is again the total sample size. 1 and 2 are the the means in populations 1 and 2,
respectively.
However, for df we specify df = 32000. That's it.
In this way, you can perform power analyses for all sorts of z-tests (e.g., approximate z-test
for hypotheses about binomial probabilities, comparisons of correlations between two
different samples etc.). Note, however, that N and f have to be specified such that they
make sense for the test you want to consider.
Nonparametric Tests
Some variants of power analyses for nonparametric tests can be conducted by adjusting the
result obtained for the corresponding parametric test (cf. Bredenkamp, 1980; Singer, Lovie
& Lovie, 1986).
For example, an a priori power analysis for the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U test can be
conducted by first performing an a priori power analysis for the t-test for means. If the t-test
model is valid, and Nt designates the sample size necessary for the t-test to achieve some
given power (1-beta), then the sample size Nu = Nt/A.R.E. yields approximately the same
power for the U test.
A.R.E. denotes the asymptotic relative efficiency (or Pitman efficiency) of the U test
relative to the t-test which is 3/pi = .955 (see Lehmann, 1975).
The same procedure may often be used to approximate the power of randomization tests
(Onghena, 1994, pp. 144-176). In this case, the A.R.E. of the randomization test relative to
the corresponding parametric test is 1. For power analyses in randomization tests which do
not have a corresponding parametric test, special computer software is in preparation
(Onghena, 1994; Onghena & Van Damme, 1994).
F-Test for Analyses of Variance (ANOVA)
We can easily do power analyses for single-factor and multi-factor experiments. In

G*Power, you select
F-Test (ANOVA), Global for
ANOVA, fixed effects: Single-factor designs, or
F-Test (ANOVA), Special for
ANOVA, fixed effects: Multi-factor designs,

ANOVA, fixed effects: Planned comparisons, and
Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA).
Note: For F-Test (ANOVA) (as well as for F-Test (MCR)), you can choose whether you
want to perform power analyses for global (i.e., omnibus) tests or for special tests. Global
test is the default option. This test refers to the H0 that all means in the design are equal
(ANOVA) or that all regression coefficients (next to the additive constant) are zero (MCR).
Random effects ANOVAs and mixed effects ANOVAs are not considered. We may add
them at a later time, however. A discussion of how to do power analyses for repeated
measures ANOVAs and MANOVAs can be found in the Other F-Tests section.
For the ANOVA designs, we will use the effect size index f (Cohen, 1977). The relation of
f to the noncentrality parameter lambda is given by lambda = f2 * N.
ANOVA, fixed Effects: Single-Factor Design
H0 is that the population means in k conditions are identical. More formally
(m m) = 0
2
H0 : i
i =1
k
(m m ) = c; c > 0
2
H1: i
i =1
where k is the number of conditions, mi is the mean in condition i, and m is the grand mean.
You can compute the effect size index from group means and s which is assumed to
be constant across groups by clicking on "Calc 'f'". We will spare you the formula
behind that. (Just that much: You can save a lot of time when you use the "Calc 'f'"
option.)
Example
We compare 10 groups, and we have reason to expect a "medium" effect size (f = .25).
How many subjects do we need?

Type of Test: F-Test (ANOVA), Global
Input: Alpha: .05
Power (1-beta): .95
Effect size "f": .25 (Note that in G*Power you
can compute f directly from
the population means and the
population standard
deviation sigma; simply
click "Calc f" after selecting
"F-Test (ANOVA), Global".)
Groups: 10 (This is a new item that pops
up only when you do power
analyses for ANOVAs.)
Critical F: F(9,380) = 1.9045
Lambda: 24.1237
Thus, we need 39 subjects in each of the 10 groups. What if we had only 200 subjects
available? Assuming that both alpha and beta are equally serious (i.e., the ratio q :=
beta/alpha = 1) which probably is the default in basic research, we can compute the
following compromise power analysis:
Input: Total sample size: 200

Beta/alpha ratio: 1
Result: Alpha: 0.1592

Critical F: 1.4762
Lambda: 12.50000
ANOVA, Fixed Effects: Multi-Factor Designs
In multi-factor designs, we want to determine separately the power for the main effects and
for the interactions involved.
For main effects, the H0, the interpretation of the effect size index f, and the procedure are
basically the same as for single-factor designs. The major difference is that the numerator
df (df = degrees of freedom) are reduced relative to a single-factor design because other
factors have to be taken into account.
Thus, the only new part is that you need to specify, as the "Groups", all cells of your multi-
factor design, and as numerator df (the new item for this type of power analysis) you enter i
- 1, where i represents the levels of the specific factor to be tested.
Note that there may be considerable differences between the power analysis values as
determined by G*Power and those determined according to the "approximations" suggested
by Cohen (1977, p. 365). G*Power is correct, while Cohen's approximations systematically
underestimate the power.
This problem with Cohen's approximation method is described in more detail in the context
of our description of the accuracy of the algorithms used in G*Power.
Example 1
Let us assume we have a 3 x 5 design in which Factor A has 3 levels and Factor B has 5
levels. We first want to compute a power analysis for main effect A:

Type of Test: F-Test (ANOVA), Special
Input: Alpha: .05
Effect size "f": .25
Total sample size: 270
Groups: 15 (That is, all cells in your 3x5
design, thus 15 because there
are 3 * 5 levels for Factor A
and Factor B, respectively.)
Numerator DF: 2 (Factor A has 3 levels, thus
the test of the main effect of
Factor A has 3-1=2 df.)
Result: Power (1-beta): 0.9637 (Yeah!)
Critical F: F(2,255) = 3.0312
Lambda: 16.8750
Example 2
Assume that your H0 states that there is no interaction between A and B. How do you
perform a power analysis for this case?
The number of Groups is again 3 * 5 = 15. The numerator df is (3-1) * (5-1) = 8. If you
enter these values and leave the rest as it was for the main effect, then this is the result:

Critical F: F(8,255) = 1.9748
Lambda: 16.8750
To extend this further, assume that you have a 3 x 4 x 6 design with factors A, B,
and C. You test the main and interaction effects of this design using the
following values (assuming alpha = .05, effect size f = .25, and a total sample
size of 288):
Effects Groups: Numerator df: Power (1-beta):

A 72 2 0.9727
B 72 3 0.9557
C 72 5 0.9197
AxB 72 6 (2 * 3) 0.9013
AxC 72 10 (2 * 5) 0.8290
BxC 72 15 (3 * 5) 0.7469
AxBxC 72 30 (2 * 3 * 5) 0.5630
Example 3
So far, we have limited the discussion to post-hoc power analyses. However, in planning a
multi-factor design, we want to know how many participants we need to recruit for our
experiment. How do we proceed in that case?
Essentially, our decisions involve the following steps:
Step 1:
We compute a priori power analyses for the statistical tests of the effects of all factors and
interactions that are interesting from a theoretical point of view. We ignore all other factors
and interactions.
Step 2:
Case 1:
One factor or interaction (henceforth our critical factor or interaction) is more important for
our research question than all other factors or interactions. Two alternatives are possible:
1. Our critical factor or interaction is the one associated with the largest
sample size as determined in Step 1. We use that sample size. As a
rule, we will be on the safe side with all other relevant factors and
interactions.
2. Our critical factor or interaction is the not the one associated with the
largest sample size as determined in Step 1. We need to do some
more work:
We take the sample size as suggested for the critical factor or

interaction and perform post-hoc power analyses for all other factors
or interactions that are theoretically relevant. If we can live with the
error probabilities associated with the statistical tests of the effects of
these factors, then we are done.
If we are not happy with the error probabilities, we try to increase the
sample size up to the level at which we find both the error
probabilities and the resource demands acceptable.
Case 2:
All factors and interactions are equally important. We use the largest sample size as
determined in Step 1. As a rule, we will be on the safe side with all other relevant factors
and interactions. (Note that Case 2 and Case 1.1 lead to the same result.)
Let us return to our 3 x 5 design in which Factor A has 3 levels and Factor B has 5 levels.
For simplicity, we assume that we want to detect effects of size f = .40 for the two main
effects and the interaction given alpha = beta = .05. The relevant a priori power analyses
suggest the following sample sizes:
Effects Groups: Numerator df: Total sample size:

A 15 2 105*
B 15 4 135*
AxB 15 8 165*
* Note that the total sample size values produced by G*Power are somewhat smaller.
However, we use the next largest number that can be divided by 15 because our design has
15 cells and we wish to assure that the n's in all cells are equal
In a Case 2 situation, we would need a total sample size of 165. Given that our assumptions
about alpha and the effect size remained unchanged, a total sample size of 165 would imply
power values > .99 for tests of the effects of Factors A and B. This result is a dream come
true!
Alternatively, let us assume a Case 1 situation in which Factor B is the most important
factor from a theoretical point of view. What would the implications be of accepting 135 as
the total sample size?
Given that our assumptions about alpha and the effect size remained unchanged, a total
sample size of 135 would imply power values of . 9890 and .9195 for tests of the effects of
Factors A and the A x B interaction, respectively. This result is certainly acceptable and we
may decide to use 135 as the total sample size.
ANOVA, Planned Comparisons
With planned comparisons, the H0 is that the contrasts among the means do not explain, in
the dependent variable, any variance which has not already been accounted for by other
sources of the effect. The effect size f is defined as:
2
Rp
f = 2
1 Rp
where R2p is the partial multiple correlation between the dependent variable and the
variable(s) coding the contrast among the means. In G*Power, click "Calc F" after selecting
"F-Test (ANOVA), Special" to calculate f from the partial multiple correlation (referred to
as partial eta-square in G*Power).
For a power analysis, it does not matter whether the contrasts are orthogonal or not.
However, note that f does not only depend on the population means but also on the
correlations among the contrast variables.
Example
Assume you have a Factor A with 4 levels. We want to determine whether the effect of A
on our dependent variable Y is linear, but not quadratic or cubic. You can code A into 4-
1=3 orthogonal contrast variables as follows.
x1, linear -3 -1 1 3
x2, quadratic 1 -1 -1 1
x3, cubic -1 3 -3 1
Assume that your H1 specifies that R2p = .20 for the linear contrast (x1). Thus, f = .1667.
If you have 60 subjects in your experiment (i.e., 15 in each of the four groups), what are the
alpha and beta error probabilities if both types of errors are equally important (i.e., the ratio
q := beta/alpha = 1)?

Beta/alpha ratio: 1
Critical F: F(1,56) = 1.7700
Lambda: 4.8975
Analyses of Covariance (ANCOVA)
In an analysis of covariance, we replace a dependent variable Y by a corrected dependent

variable Y' which we arrive at by partialling out the linear relation between Y and a set X =
(Xa, ... , Xq) of q covariates Xi (Cohen, 1977, p. 379).
Y' = Y - bi (Xi-m(Xi)), i = 1 ... q,
where
bi is the regression weight of Y on Xi (bi is constant across all populations),
Xi is the covariate i (i.e., Xi may be different in each of the populations), and
m(Xi) is the grand population mean of the concomitant variable or covariate i.
In other words, covariate Xi differs in each of the populations we look at, but its relation to
Y and, hence, its regression weight bi is the same in all of those populations.
The analysis of covariance is essentially an analysis of variance of the Y' measures.

However, we need to adjust the denominator df, which is why we need to select the "F-Test
(ANOVA), Special" option.
If k is the number of cells of your design, choose
groups = k + q (q is the number of covariates in your design).
In this way, the denominator df are reduced appropriately because G*Power assumes that
denominator df = N - groups.
If the correlation between Y and the covariates is substantial, then the power of your
statistical test is increased. This is so because the within-population standard deviation Y'
in the denominator of the F ratio is smaller than Y.
Specifically, where r is the (multiple) population correlation between Y' and Y, we find that
= Y 1 r
2
The numerator does not decrease correspondingly. It may even increase.
Example
Assume a 2 x 3 design. A covariate X has been partialled out of a dependent variable Y'.
We want to detect 'large' effects (f = .40) according to Cohen's effect size conventions for
Factor B which has 3 levels. We had 60 subjects, and we decide that alpha = .05. What is
the power of the F-test in this situation?

Input: Alpha: .05
Effect size "f": .40
Groups: 7 (That is, 2 * 3 + 1 = 7.)
Numerator DF: 2 (Factor B has 3 levels, thus
the test of the main effect of
Factor B has 3-1=2 df.)
Critical F: F(2,53) = 3.1716
Lambda: 9.6000
Other F-Tests
The "Other F-Tests" option is very powerful, but you have to know what you are doing in
order to use it.
It is provided to enable you to do power analyses for any test based on the F-distribution
which is not covered by the F-Test (ANOVA) item and the F-Test (MCR) item. Of course,
you can do power analyses for standard ANOVAs and MCRs using the "Other F-Tests"
option, but it is usually much more convenient (and less error-prone) to use the options we
provided for these standard cases directly.
"Other F-Tests" is similar to the "Other t-Tests" item in that you can (in fact: must) specify
the sample size and the degrees of freedom (both numerator and denominator)
independently. Although this is important for a number of F-based tests, we think the two
most important classes are
MANOVAs,
repeated measures analyses according to the so-called univariate approach, and
multivariate repeated measures analyses.
In this section, we briefly sketch how you can use G*Power to perform power analyses for
these types of tests.
Before we begin, please note that, as with "Other t-Tests," you cannot do a priori power
analyses directly, but you can of course do repeated post-hoc power analyses, adjusting N
and (simultaneously!) the df's until you arrive at the power value you desire.
MANOVAs
For reasons given in Bredenkamp and Erdfelder (1985), Olson (1976) and Stevens (1979),
we prefer the Pillai-Bartlett V criterion as a multivariate test statistic. It is well known that
under H0 the transformed V statistic
Vh
sh
df1
F=
1 Vh
sh
df2
is approximately F(df1, df2) distributed and
Vh is the Pillai-Bartlett V for the effect to be tested,
sh = min(p, nh),
p = the number of dependent variables,
nh = the number of predictors for the effect to be tested,
df1 = p * nh (numerator degrees of freedom),
df2 = sh * (N-k-p+sh), and
N is the total number of subjects summed across all k groups of the design (see Pillai &
Mijares, 1959; Olson, 1976).
Vh/sh varies between 0 and 1 and can be regarded as a multivariate R2 or eta2.
A convenient measure for the multivariate effect size in the underlying population is
Vh
2 sh Vh
fmult = =
1 Vh s h Vh
sh
where V(h) denotes the Pillai-Bartlett V in the underlying population, not in a particular
sample.
Pillai and Jayachandran (1967) published exact power tables for small values of f2mult and
small values of p. Stevens (1980) reported computer simulation results for a larger range of
effect sizes and p values. We have compared these power tables to the power values
computed by means of G*Power's "Other F-Tests" option assuming that, under H1, the F
transformation of the V statistic is approximately noncentral F(df1, df2, lambda) distributed
with
numerator df1 = p * nh, and denominator df2 = sh * (N-k-p+sh), and the noncentrality
parameter = sh * N * f2mult.
In general, we found a quite good agreement, with perhaps a slight tendency to

overestimate the power using the proposed approximation. Nevertheless, the approximation
may often be sufficiently precise.
Note that the relation between sample size, effect size, and the noncentrality parameter
lambda for MANOVAs is different from that for ANOVAs where lambda = f2 * N.
For a global MANOVA test we find that nh = k-1, and for special MANOVA tests we find
that nh = the number of predictors of the effect to be tested. For instance, in a MANOVA
based on an AxB design, A having a levels and B having b levels, we find
nh = a-1 for the main effect of A,

nh = b-1 for the main effect of B, and
nh = (a-1)(b-1) for the multivariate interaction.
Example
Assume that we have a k=3 group MANOVA design with a total sample size of 3 * 20 = 60
subjects, p = 2 dependent variables, and our effect size is f2mult = .15.
This is how we calculate the power for this test:

Type of Test: Other F-Tests
Input: Alpha: .05
Effect size "f2": 0.1500
N: 120 Note that we enter N = (2 *
total sample size) and not
simply the plain total sample
size because lambda
= sh * N * f2
= 2 * 60 * 0.15
= 18.
Numerator DF: 4 p * nh = 2 * 2 = 4
Denominator DF: 114 sh * (N-k-p+sh)
= 2 * (60-3-2+2)
= 114
Critical F: F(4,114) = 2.4513
Lambda: 18.0000
Repeated Measures Designs, So-Called Univariate Approach
To illustrate power analyses for the so-called univariate approach to repeated measures
designs, we use an A x B design in which A is a between-subjects factor and B is a within-
subject factor. Factors A and B have a and b levels, respectively.
Example
Assume that we have
a = 2 levels of Factor A,
b = 4 levels of Factor B, and
N = 2 * 10 = 20.
Between-Subjects Effect
The test for the between-subjects main effect of Factor A has
Numerator df = a - 1 = 2 - 1 = 1, and
denominator df = N - a = 20 - 2 = 18.
The power of the between-subjects effect depends on the number of repeated measures in
our design, and on the correlation between the levels of the repeated measures. This can be
seen when looking at the noncentrality parameter lambda for this case:
m
=N
(1 + (m 1) )f 2
Where:
N: is the total number of subjects,

m: is the number of levels of the repeated measures factor,
: is the population correlation between the individual levels of the repeated measures
factor, and
f2 : is just the effect size for between-subject designs as used by Cohen (1977, 1988), that
is, the ratio of effect variance to the error variance within cells.
Obviously, if there is no repeated measures factor (i.e., m = 1), then the above equation
reduces to:
= Nf ,
2
which is just the noncentrality parameter G*Power uses in F-Tests (ANOVA).
Let us assume that we want to detect a "medium" effect according to Cohen's effect size
conventions for ANOVA F-tests. Thus,
f = .25 and therefore f2 = 0.0625.
Next we assume that the correlation between the levels of the repeated measures Factor B is
.75. As a consequence of the so-called sphericity assumption, we must assume that the
correlation between all possible pairs of repeated measurements is identical. If sphericity is
not given in our data, then we have a problem. We will deal with the sphericity problem
below.
Given the above assumptions, the noncentrality parameter for our design is
m 4
=N = 20 = 1.538
(1 + (m 1) )f 2
(1 + (4 1)0.75 )0.0625
A technical point to be aware of is that G*Power computes the noncentrality parameter
lambda as
= Nf
2
Where f2 is the label of the effect size slot when you select "Other F-Tests". Therefore, we
need to enter
m
= 0.0769
(1 + (m 1) )f 2
As the effect size term to be used in our computations:

Input: Alpha: .05
N: 20 2 * 10 = 20
Numerator DF: 1 a-1=2-1=1
Denominator DF: 18 N - a = 20 - 2 = 18
Critical F: F(1,18) = 4.4139
Lambda: 1.5380
Within-Subject Effect
The test for the with-subjects main effect of Factor B has
Numerator df = b - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3, and
denominator df = (N - a) * (b - 1) = 18 * 3 = 54.
The power of the within-subject effect depends on the correlation between the levels of the
repeated measures. This can be seen when looking at the noncentrality parameter lambda
for this case:
2
Nmf
=
1
Where:

effect, and
Let us assume that we want to detect an effect of the same size as before (i.e., f2 = 0.0625).
The correlation between the levels of the repeated measures Factor B is .75 (see above). As
a consequence of the so-called sphericity assumption, we must again assume that the
correlation between all possible pairs of repeated measurements is identical. If it is not, then
we have a problem. We will deal with this problem further on.
Given the above assumptions, the noncentrality parameter for our design is
2
Nmf
= = 20 * 1 = 20.
1
As before, the technical point to be aware of is that G*Power computes the noncentrality
parameter lambda as
= Nf
2
need to enter
2
mf
=1
1
As the effect size term to be used in our computations.
We can now proceed as before.

Input: Alpha: .05
Effect size "f2": 1
N: 20 2 * 10 = 20
Numerator DF: 3 b-1=4-1=3
Denominator DF: 54 (N - a) * (b - 1)
= 18 * 3
= 54
Critical F: F(3,54) = 2.7758
Lambda: 20.0000
Interaction of Between-Subjects and Within-Subject Effect
The procedure for the within-between interaction test is basically identical to the procedure
for within-subject effects. The formulae for the degrees of freedom in this case are
Numerator df = (a - 1) * (b - 1) = (2 - 1) * (4 - 1) = 3, and
denominator df = (N - a) * (b - 1) = 18 * 3 = 54.
The power of the interaction effect also depends on the correlation between the levels of the
repeated measures. The noncentrality parameter lambda for this case is:
2
Nmf
=
1
Where:

effect, and
As before, the technical point to be aware of is that G*Power computes the noncentrality
parameter lambda as:
= Nf
2
need to enter
2
mf
1
As the effect size term to be used in our computations. We can now proceed as before.
Problems Resulting from the Sphericity Assumption
In the so-called univariate approach, we must assume that all repeated measures have equal
variances and are correlated equally with each other. This is often referred to as the
sphericity assumption.
If sphericity is met, then analytic results for the power calculations of univariate repeated
measures tests such as those illustrated above are available.
Unfortunately, sphericity is a very strong assumption which is very likely violated in many
situations (see O'Brien & Kaiser, 1985). For instance, if five levels of a repeated measures
factor represent successive points in time, then it is almost certain that the correlation of the
measures taken at the first and the second level is larger than the correlation between the
first and the fifth level.
If sphericity is not met, then the tests of main effects and interactions involving the within-
subject factors occur at an artificially increased Type I error rate because the resulting F
values are artificially inflated.
One way to react to this problem is to apply the corrected univariate tests in which the
Geisser-Greenhouse or the Huynh-Feldt estimate of epsilon are used to provide improved
Type I error rates.
1
Epsilon is 1 if sphericity is met, whereas without sphericity, we find that 1
n
(where n represents the size of the associated residual covariance matrix, e.g., n = k-1 for a
within-subject main effect with k levels).
In order to take violations of sphericity into account, both the numerator and the
denominator degrees of freedom of the F test must be multiplied by epsilon, and the
significance of the F ratio must be evaluated with the new degrees of freedom. The Geisser-
Greenhouse epsilon tends to be relatively conservative, which is a property the Huynh-
Feldt epsilon tries to correct.
How can we assess the power of corrected univariate tests?
Muller and Barton (1989) have proposed an approximation to the power of the Geisser-
Greenhouse or Huynh-Feldt-corrected test. Following their approach, we compute
numerator df(c) = (numerator df)*(estimate of epsilon),
denominator df(c) = (denominator df)*(estimate of epsilon), and
lambda(c) = lambda*(estimate of epsilon).
Assume that sphericity is violated and we find that the estimate of epsilon = .6. What is the
effect of this violation on the power of our within-subject test? Using the within-subject
example above, we compute
numerator df(c) = 3 * .6 = 1.8
denominator df(c) = 54 * .6 = 32.4, and
lambda(c) = 20 * 0.6 = 12.

We can now reevaluate the power of this test. Note that G*Power expects df values to be
integers, which is why we need to enter numerator df = 2 and denominator df = 33. We also
need to make adjustments to what we enter as the effect size index in order to ensure proper
calculation of lambda. More precisely, we enter 1 * 0.6 = 0.6 as the effect size index for our
within-subject effect. In that way, we arrive at lambda = 20 * 0.6 = 12.

Input: Alpha: .05
N: 20 2 * 10
Numerator DF: 2 round(3 * .6) = 2
Denominator DF: 33 round(54 * .6) = 33
Critical F: F(2,33) = 3.2849
Lambda: 12.0000
Thus, the power of the corrected test is clearly less than the power of the uncorrected test in
which the sphericity problem is simply ignored.
In essence, if we insist in using the so-called univariate approach to repeated measure

analyses, then we face a choice between two unattractive alternatives: Either we ignore the
(non)sphericity problem (and accept that we commit an error by testing at an artificially
increased Type I error rate), or accept a reduction of the power of our statistical tests.
Repeated Measures Designs, Multivariate Approach
Repeated measures designs may also be analyzed using a multivariate approach. One
advantage of this approach is that MANOVAs do not require the sphericity assumption to
be met (which appears to be violated quite often, see O'Brien & Kaiser, 1985).
Using the MANOVA approach, we treat the levels of the within-subject factor as different
dependent variables. The univariate A x B design discussed above thus is regarded as a
multivariate design with between-subjects factor A and p = b dependent variables. Let us
consider the same design as above, but from a multivariate perspective.
Example
Between-Subjects Effect
First, the result for the between-subjects is identical to the result we received for the
univariate approach. We can therefore proceed quickly to the
Within-Subjects Effect
The F-test for the within-subject Factor B has
Numerator df = b - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3, and
Denominator df = s(h) * (N-k-p+s(h)) = 1 * (20-2-3+1) = 16.
Where
N is the number of participants,
k is the number of groups in the design (Factor A has 2 levels),
p is the number of dependent variables (The 4 levels of the within-subject factor B are
recoded into 4 - 1 = 3 dependent variables using appropriate contrast variables. The
recoded variables may then represent, for instance, linear, quadratic, and cubic trends in
the repeated measurement. See O'Brien and & Kaiser,1985 , for details.).
The noncentrality parameter lambda for this case is identical to the one used in the
univerate approach to repeated measures analyses (see Davidson, 1972):
2
Nmf
=
1
Where
N is the total number of subjects,
m is the number of levels of the repeated measures factor,
is the population correlation between the individual levels of the repeated measures
effect, and
f2 is just the effect size for between-subject designs as used by Cohen (1977, 1988), that is,
the ratio of effect variance to the error variance within cells.
We consider again an effect size of f2 = 0.0625 in the following example. Given = .75 (as
before), we need to enter
2
mf
=1
1
as the effect size term to be used in our computations.

Accuracy
Input: Alpha: .05
Effect size "f2": 1
N: 20 2 * 10 = 20
Numerator DF: 3 b-1=4-1=3
Denominator DF: 16 (s(h) * (N-k-p+s(h))
= 1 * (20-2-3+1)= 16

Critical F: F(3,16) = 3.2389
Lambda: 20.0000
Thus, the power for the multivariate approach (0.9270) is slightly smaller than that for the
univariate approach (0.9646). However, this small advantage of the univariate approach is
present if and only if the sphericity assumption is met. If not, the multivariate approach
usually has more power (see O'Brien & Kaiser, 1985). In our example, the power of the
corrected univariate test was 0.8506.
As with the so-called univariate approach, interactions of within-subject and between-

subjects factors are treated just like within-subject effects.
Chi-Square Tests
There are two major categories of Chi2 tests:
Goodness-of-fit-tests and
Contingency tests.
In both cases we have 2 distributions over m categories which are to be compared, one
posited by H0 and one by H1. We use the effect size index w (Cohen, 1977).
The noncentrality parameter lambda of the noncentral Chi2 distribution is given by
=w N
2
Goodness-of-Fit-Tests
H0 postulates a multinomial distribution across the m disjoint categories with probabilities

p0(1), p0(2), ... , p0(m), with
m
p
i =1
0i =1
H1 posits a different multinomial distribution with probabilities p1(1), p1(2), ... p1(m), with
p
i =1
1i =1
The effect size index w is given by
m
(p p1i )
2
w=
0i
i =1 p0 i
You can easily calculate the effect size index w from these probabilities using the "Calc
'w'" option after you select "Type of Test: Chi-square Test." You will save time if you
decide to use this option.
The number of df (degrees of freedom) is m-1 if all probabilities have fixed values
according to H0 and no parameter needs to be estimated. More df's can be lost in the
process of parameter estimation. For instance, if the fit of empirical data to the normal
distribution is tested, then 2 more df's are lost because the mean and the standard deviation
have to be determined. Thus df = m - 1 - 2 in this case.
Example 1
We test how well an empirical distribution fits the normal distribution. First, we determine
the theoretical probabilities for 10 intervals. We want to detect "small" deviations from the
theoretical distribution according to Cohen's effect size conventions, thus w = 0.1. How
many subjects do we need, given alpha = beta = .05?
Select: Type of Power Analysis: A Priori

Type of Test: Chi-square test
Input: Alpha: .05
Power (1 - beta): 0.95
Effect size "w": 0.100 To calculate conveniently
the effect size from the
probabilities defining H0 and
H1, click "Calc 'w'", insert
the probabilities and click
"calc and copy")
DF for Chi: 7 (m - 1 - 2 = 10 - 3 = 7)
Critical Chi2: Chi^2(7) = 14.0671
Lambda: 21.8400
Example 2
Compromise power analyses can be of particular value when performing goodness-of-fit

tests. For instance, it may be that we have very many data points such that, given alpha and
beta = .05, even tiny and negligible deviations of the H0 and H1 probability distributions
would result in rejections of the model. For instance, we could have 3500 data points and a
1 df model test, in which case the question would be which level of alpha = beta guarantees
that only effects of at least w = 0.1 are detected. Let us suppose the relative seriousness of
alpha and beta is given by the ratio q := beta/alpha = 1.

Effect size "w": 0.1000
beta / alpha ratio: 1
DF for Chi: 1
Power (1 - beta): 0.9978
Critical Chi2: Chi^2(1) = 9.3934
Lambda: 35.0000
Contingency Tests
Suppose we have a two-dimensional I x J contingency table with i * j = m cells. H0

postulates that the random variables J and I are stochastically independent. In other words,
the cell probabilities are determined by the associated column and row probabilities. H1, in
contrast, posits that the distribution of the probabilities across the m cells is not determined
by the column and row probabilities. Again, w is computed from the probability
distributions according to H0 and H1 (see above). The degrees of freedom are given by
df = (i-1) * (j-1).
Example
Let us test the independence assumption for a 2 x 3 table, that is, df = 1 * 2 = 2. Given a
total sample size of 180, alpha = .05, and w = 0.327: What is the power of this test?
Select: Type of Power Analysis: Post hoc
Input: Alpha: .05
Effect size "w": 0.3270
DF for Chi: 2
Critical Chi^2: Chi^2(2) = 5.9915
Lambda: 19.2472

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GPOWER Tutorial

In a now-classic study, Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) compared the memory

An example of a direct memory measure would be recognition performance. This measure

n2 = 8 normal control subjects

Start G*Power and

input: Alpha: .05

result: Power (1-beta): 0.1148

A Priori Power Analysis

Select: Type of Power Analysis: A priori

What are we going to do? Well, we simply perform a

Compromise Power Analysis

Select: Type of Power Analysis: Compromise

Post-hoc power analyses

You want to know

Compromise Power Analysis

One-Tailed versus Two-Tailed Tests

Power and the Beta Error Probability

Which choice is considered appropriate depends on

Cohen (1977, 1988) justifies these levels of effect sizes.

Total Sample Size

The Ratio q:= beta/alpha

The Noncentrality Parameter

In t-test on correlations, the noncentrality parameter delta is

F-Test (ANOVA), F-Test (MCR), and Other F-Tests

and 2 denotes the coefficient of determination in the population according to H1 (e.g.,

For special F-tests of main effects or interactions in complex ANOVA-designs, 2 equals

Analogously, 2 coincides with the (partial) squared multiple correlation in multiple

is the noncentrality parameter of the noncentral chi-square distribution (Cohen, 1988, p.

Two group t-test, equal group sizes, equal sigma

ANOVA, Fixed Effects: Single-Factor Designs

MCR, One Predictor Set

For matched-pairs t-tests, use the "Other t-Tests" option.

Chose "one-tailed" or "two-tailed," depending on your hypothesis.

We have four examples on this page:

Two group t-test, equal group sizes, equal sigma

Two Group t-Test, Equal Group Sizes, Equal Sigma

Select: Type of Power Analysis: A priori

Select: Type of Power Analysis: Compromise

Two Group t-Test, Unequal Group Sizes, Equal Sigma

Select: Type of Power Analysis: Post-hoc

Two Group t-Test, Equal Group Sizes, Unequal Sigma

H0: r = 0, and H1: r = c, c 0.

We consider 3 examples here:

When computing the standard deviation Y of the distribution of differences, we need to

Where Y is the difference between the means as specified by H1.

Select: Type of Power Analysis: Post-hoc

However, for df we specify df = 32000. That's it.

We can easily do power analyses for single-factor and multi-factor experiments. In

F-Test (ANOVA), Global for

ANOVA, fixed effects: Single-factor designs, or

F-Test (ANOVA), Special for

ANOVA, fixed effects: Multi-factor designs,

ANOVA, fixed Effects: Single-Factor Design

H0 is that the population means in k conditions are identical. More formally

How many subjects do we need?

Select: Type of Power Analysis: A priori

Input: Total sample size: 200

Result: Alpha: 0.1592

Select: Type of Power Analysis: Post-hoc