Therapeutic Music Education: An Emerging Model Linking

Philosophies and Experiences of Music Education With Music

Therapy
Lducation thrapeutique de la musique : un modle mergent
reliant philosophie et ducation musicale avec la musicothrapie

Elizabeth Mitchell, RP, MTA, PhD Candidate (Western University)

Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, CANADA

Abstract
Music therapists acknowledge that musical experiences within the context of
a therapeutic relationship afford personal growth and development for their
clients in a variety of domains. In therapeutic music education, educators
also recognize therapeutic potential, and students achieve personal growth
alongside musical growth. Seeking the essence of therapeutic music
education and its connections to music therapy theory and practice, the
researcher drew upon data analysis techniques and methods from grounded
theory and first-person research in this qualitative, phenomenological study.
Through interviews with university music educators and music students,
the research explored educators philosophies and students' experiences
of therapeutic music education, seeking to discern the qualities that render
certain settings of education therapeutic in nature as well as potential
links between therapeutic music education and music therapy. A model
of therapeutic music education with three main componentsteacher's
awareness, music as medium, and students personal growthemerged
from the data. Within therapeutic music education, there exists potential
for a parallel process between the students musical and personal growth to
unfold. Such processes are contingent upon the presence of an educator who
holds a holistic awareness of each student and recognizes unique qualities
and potential within musical experiences.

Keywords: music therapy, music education, university teaching,

qualitative research, therapeutic education, phenomenology, first-
person research

Rsum
Les musicothrapeutes reconnaissent que les expriences musicales
lintrieur d'une relation thrapeutique permettent aux clients de s'panouir
personnellement et de se dvelopper dans une gamme de domaines. Dans
lducation thrapeutique de la musique, les ducateurs reconnaissent aussi

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy co Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1] 2016,19

le potentiel thrapeutique; les tudiants sy panouissent personnellement
tout en spanouissant musicalement. En examinant lessence de lducation
musicale thrapeutique et ses connexions avec la thorie et la pratique
clinique en musicothrapie, la chercheuse, dans cette tude qualitative
et phnomnologique, sest base sur des mthodes et des techniques
d'analyse de donnes partir d'une thorie fonde et dune recherche
la premire personne. Au moyen dentrevues avec des ducateurs et des
tudiants en musique de niveau universitaire, la chercheuse a explor la
philosophie des ducateurs ainsi que les expriences des tudiants. Elle
cherche ainsi discerner les qualits qui rendent thrapeutiques certains
paramtres de lducation de la musique ainsi que des liens potentiels
entre lducation thrapeutique de la musique et la musicothrapie. Un
modle dducation thrapeutique de la musique avec trois composantes
a merg des donnes : la conscience des enseignants, la musique en
tant que mdium et lpanouissement personnel de l'tudiant. En effet,
il existe la possibilit quun processus parallle entre lpanouissement
personnel et lpanouissement musical de ltudiant se produise
lintrieur de l'ducation thrapeutique de la musique. De tels processus
sont conditionnels la prsence d'un ducateur qui possde une conscience
holistique de chaque tudiant et qui reconnat le potentiel et les qualits
uniques inhrentes aux expriences musicales.

Mots cls\ musicothrapie, ducation musicale, enseignement

universitaire, recherche qualitative, ducation thrapeutique,
phnomnologie, recherche la premire personne

Soon after commencing graduate music therapy studies, I acknowledged

that the voice of the music educator within me would not easily be silenced.
My belief that an experience framed as music education could potentially
have benefits that were therapeutic in addition to musical led to an interest
in therapeutic music education. As 1acknowledged the similarities between
my philosophies of music education and music therapy, I recognized that
these philosophies had been indelibly shaped by my recent experiences as
a voice student. Voice lessons had been a time of tremendous growth as
a musician, and yet this musical process had become intertwined with a
process of personal growth of incredible magnitude. This experience was a
strong catalyst for this study.

This research is rooted in the premise that the fields of music education
and music therapy lie on a continuum (see Figure 1]. As a continuum, there
are times when there is very little that distinguishes one point from another.

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016, 20

 C lin ic a l E d u c a tio n a l . T h e r a p e u tic T r a d itio n a l
m u s ic th e r a p y 'v m u s ic th e r a p y - r m u sic e d u c a tio n . m u s ic e d u c a tio n

Figure 1. A proposed music education/music therapy continuum.

Robertson (2000) created a similar continuum; however, his model did

not visually portray the therapeutic potential within music education that he
discussed in his paper (see Figure 2):

C lin ic a l <! \ E d u c a tio n a l A \ M u s ic e d u c a tio n / '' A M u s ic p ro fe s s io n

m u sic th e ra p y m usic th e ra p y . v

Figure 2. Robertson's (2000) music education/music therapy continuum.

This project addressed the following research questions:

What is the essence of therapeutic music education; that is, what
is it that makes certain contexts of music education therapeutic?
o What are therapeutic music educators philosophies with
regards to music education as a setting for personal growth?
o What are the therapeutic outcomes for students?
How do these philosophies and experiences of therapeutic music
education relate to music therapy?

Definitions
The Oxford Dictionary defines education as the process of receiving
or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university and
"information about or training in a particular field or subject ("Education,
2015). The extent to which education involves matters outside of the realm
of skill development or knowledge acquisition varies with regard to context
and cannot be fully addressed here. Bruscia (1998) explained that "education
focuses on the acquisition of knowledge and skill for its own sake (p.
177), whereas Ockelford (2000) distinguished between music therapy and
education based on the priority of therapeutic versus educational goals while
recognizing that both are relevant in both settings. He distinguished education
from training, "which is solely concerned with the acquisition of externally
determined skills" (p. 215). In this project, music education describes settings
involving a teacher and student(s) in which the primary stated purpose is to
impart and develop skills and information regarding music.
Distinguishing between therapeutic and therapy is also important
here, especially given that these terms are in vogue and may be used to
describe anything from psychoanalysis to shopping. I will use the term
therapy exclusively as it pertains to professional contexts involving a trained

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1} 2016, 21

therapist and client(s) who are working towards a clients enhanced health
or well-being in a domain, whether this be music therapy or another therapy-
profession that has its own training and certification. The Oxford Dictionary
defines therapeutic as having a good effect on the body or mind; contributing
to a sense of well-being" and also as administered or applied for reasons
of health" ("Therapeutic," 2015). It is used here to distinguish therapeutic
music education from therapy while also suggesting points of connection.
I use the term therapeutic music education to refer to contexts of music
education in which the educator recognizes potential for students to achieve
personal growth alongside musical growth and intentionally works towards
both with students. Music therapists acknowledge music-making and human
relationships as providing affordances for therapeutic growth; a therapeutic
music educator recognizes that such potential exists within music education
as well. I use the term affordances here deliberately to emphasize that "musics
meanings are constituted in and through use" (DeNora, 2000, p. 44). An
individuals experience of music education as therapeutic is not inherent
or guaranteed but rather is a possibility that is acted upon by individuals in
context.

Literature review
General Education and the "Therapeutic"
Scholarship regarding the role of the "therapeutic" within education
is prevalent among those interested in the philosophy, psychology, and
sociology of education. Furedi (2004), a sociologist, argued that therapy
has become a cultural phenomenon, "shaping public perceptions about
a variety of issues (p. 22), a change that Scott (2008) linked to the onset
of the postmodern/hyper-individualist era and its associated shifts in the
concept of personhood (p. 555). Drawing upon Furedis perspective that
society's prevalent therapeutic ethos ironically promotes self-limitation in its
insistence that the management of life requires the continuous intervention
of therapeutic expertise (p. 21), education scholars Ecclestone and Hayes
(2009) referred to therapeutic education as "profoundly anti-educational
(p. xii). Their belief that recognition and valuing of students emotions, well
being, and self-esteem within education ultimately "invites people to lower
their expectations of themselves and others" (p. xii) cannot be fully explicated
here. However, I will state that these authors promote a narrow perspective
of therapy as a profession and as a context for personal development, not to
mention a Cartesian view on human experience, limited in its veneration of
cognition above other forms of experience and expression (p. 164). Although
I acknowledge that approaches to therapy drawing upon traditional medical
models may risk promoting individuals' disempowerment and dependency
(Rolvsjord, 2010, p. 23), I remain committed to a philosophy and practice
of therapy that has as its primary aim the development of the individual's

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22[ 1} 2016, 22

full potential. The notion that such potential exists within education as well,
though generally associated with progressive education, is in fact rooted in
antiquity (Smeyers, Smith, & Standish, 2007). As Mintz (2009) asked, "Is there
not something that remains compelling about the Greek idea that therapy and
education are in some ways similar? (p. 634).

Wenger (1998), well-regarded for his scholarly work surrounding

social learning theory and the concept of communities o f practice, views
education and identity formation as deeply linked: "Education, in its deepest
sense... concerns the opening of identities exploring new ways of being that
lie beyond our current state" (p. 263). Wenger argued that education should
address issues of identity and belonging prior to the acquisition of skills and
information and, like Ockelford (2000), distinguished between training and
education:

Whereas training aims to create an inbound trajectory targeted at

competence in a specific practice, education must strive to open
new dimensions for the negotiation of the self. It places students in
an outbound trajectory toward a broad field of possible identities.
Education is not merely formativeit is transformative.
(Wenger, 1998, p. 263)

Although Wenger did not address the ways in which the identity
development or transformation that take place within education might be
similar or distinct from processes within therapy, his ideas about the potential
within education resonate with this study. The relationship between education
and therapy as it relates to musical contexts specifically, both in theory and in
practice, merits exploration as well.

Points of Distinction and Connection Between Music Education and

Music Therapy
Authors discussions of the distinctions between music education and
music therapy could generally be grouped into four main categories: goals,
focus, relationship, and training (Bruscia, 1998; Mitchell, 2007). With regards
to goals, authors described the purpose of music education as concerning
students achievement of musical skills or product-oriented goals, whereas
music therapy was characterized by clients' participation in a musical process
in order to achieve personal and developmental goals, typically nonmusical in
nature (Bunt, 2003; Gaston, 1968; Ockelford, 2000; Priestley, 1975; Schalkwijk,
1994; Shugar, 1984; Tyson, 1982; Woodward, 2000). Closely connected to
the area of goals, the content or focus of music education was described as
externally determined by factors such as standardized curricula or examination
requirements. On the other hand, music therapys content or focus is largely

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22{T) 2016, 23

dictated by each individual or group's unique needs (Bruscia, 1998; Bunt, 2003;
Gascho-White, 1996; Ockelford, 2000; Schalkwijk, 1994; Shugar, 1984). Authors
described the client-therapist relationship as distinct from the student-teacher
relationship in term s of responsibilities, level of intimacy, boundaries, content,
and dynamics (Bruscia, 1998; Gascho-White, 1996; Shugar, 1984; Waller, 1984).
Finally, the training that music therapists receive in areas such as facilitation
of the therapeutic relationship, developm ent of clinical musicianship, and
implementation of the therapeutic process, including assessment, treatm ent,
and evaluation was presented as significantly different from that which teachers
receive (Brodeur, 1990; Waller, 1984; Woodward, 2000).

Recognizing that "the boundaries betw een education, developmental

growth and therapeutic change are easily and frequently blurred (Bruscia,
1998, p. 176), there were many examples of theory and practice that challenged
the existence of clear distinctions in the areas described above. For example,
with regards to goals, music-centered and resource-oriented music therapists
often set musical goals with their clients (Aigen, 2005; Rolvsjord, 2010). Several
authors proposed a continuum view of the relationship between the fields,
citing the qualities of and potential within music as an im portant commonality
(Bunt, 2003; Gascho-White, 1996; Gaston, 1968; Robertson, 2000; Warwick,
1995). Professional dialogue within the arts surrounding the relationship
between therapy and education is not limited to music education and therapy.
Waller (1984), for example, discussed art therapy and education as existing on
a continuum and described "a point around the middle where art therapy and
art education overlap" (p. 9).

Music Lessons as Music Therapy

Bruscia (1998) identified three areas within "didactic music therapy
practice" th at use private music instruction: therapeutic music instruction,
instructional music therapy, and instructional music psychotherapy. These
areas are particularly relevant here due to this studys focus upon private
music instruction. Therapeutic music instruction, defined as settings in which
"the private teacher or th erap ist w orks with non-handicapped students
who experience personal obstacles or problems with regard to musical self-
expression or the music learning process itself" (p. 180) was described by
Ostwald (1968) and Priestley (1975) who emphasized therapeutic teachings
positive effect on clients' quality of life. Within instructional music therapy,
"music learning is secondary to the accomplishment of therapeutic aims, yet
lays the foundation for it" (Bruscia, 1998, p. 184). Interestingly, three examples
of instructional music psychotherapy, described by Bruscia as "the use of
private music lessons as a context for individual psychotherapy (p. 189), use
voice instruction (Nichols-Rothe, 1995; Shields & Robbins, 1980; Tyson, 1982).
For example, Tyson (1982) drew a parallel between the process of learning to
sing and that of overcoming mental illness.

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22 ( 1) 2016 , 24

 Also related to singing, Austin (2008) recounted her growing realization
that "when I taught voice I felt like I was doing therapy" (p. 13). She traced the
evolution of her work from voice lessons to "therapeutic singing lessons with
a focus as much on self-expression and self-exploration as vocal technique"
(p. 13) to vocal music therapy. Austin attributed the safe, non-judgmental
nature of singing lessons, the "containing quality of songs" (p. 12), and the
deep breathing that singing requires to the creation of an environment in
which students could access and express emotions. Although she made a
clear distinction between voice lessons and vocal music therapy, Austin
acknowledged "therapeutic singing lessons as a middle ground.

From a resource-oriented perspective, Rolvsjord (2010) explained that

"teaching a client to play an instrument can be an acceptable therapeutic action
if the client wants to learn to play that instrument (p. 210). She described
musical skills as contributing to mastery, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and positive
emotions and noted that such development may allow clients to participate in
social contexts of music-making. Rolvsjords work presents a strong rationale
for music therapists to consider the use of educational techniques in their
practice.

Music Therapy and Special Music Education

Smeyers et al. (2007) noted that similarities between education and
therapy are evident in special education settings, where the teacher is
"confronted not only with the pupils particular difficulty . . . but also with
the damage that the difficulty has inflicted over many years on the childs
confidence and sense of his or her worth" (p. 3). Indeed, the most common
reference to the relationship between music therapy and music education
occurs in the context of special music education, whether within self-contained
or inclusive classrooms (Adamek & Darrow, 2010; Darrow, 1996; Martinson &
Montgomery, 2006; Nordoff& Robbins, 1983; Ockelford, 2000; Standley, 1991;
Twyford, 2012; Warwick, 1995; Wilson, 1991; Woodward, 2000). Recognizing
the overlap between the educational music therapist and the special musical
educator, Goodman (2007) and Adamek and Darrow (2010) discussed music
therapys role in aiding students to achieve Individual Education Plan (IEP)
goals. Several studies examined the demographics of music therapists in
school settings, as well as music educators and administrators knowledge
of music therapy and views on inclusivity (Darrow, 1996; Ropp, Caldwell,
Dixon, Angell, & Vogt, 2006; Scott, Jellison, Chappell, & Standridge, 2007;
Smith & Hairston, 1999). A common role for music therapists within special
education is that of consulting and collaborating with music educators (Bunt,
2003; Cornell, 1999; Hammel & Hourigan, 2011; Martinson & Montgomery,
2006; Rickson, 2010, 2012, 2014; Warwick, 1995) and also with general and
special educators (Adamek & Darrow, 2010). Rickson (2012) noted that music

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016, 25

therapists can assist educators in developing strategies for children to meet
developmental and academic goals through music, and Adamek and Darrow
suggested that progress in music therapy can assist students to succeed within
music education.

Although prevalent within the special education literature, the relevance

of music therapy for students without diagnosed exceptionalities is hardly
recognized. This project proposes that all education may be enriched "by a
sufficiently nuanced appreciation of its connections with therapy" (Smeyers
et al., 2007, p. 18), and explores the relevance of principles of music therapy
for university music students. When asked whom she would hire if choosing
between a music therapist and educator, Woodward (2000), a music therapist
and special music educator, replied: "The therapy is more important than the
teaching because learning, and teaching opportunities, arise naturally from the
therapy" (p. 97). Without negating her clear stance regarding the distinctions
between music therapy and music education, her statement provides a perfect
segue for this study: Just as learning opportunities arise naturally in therapy,
what if opportunities for therapeutic growth arise naturally in teaching?

Methodology
Approved by the Research Ethics Board at Wilfrid Laurier University
and completed in 2007, this qualitative study was undertaken within a non-
positivistic epistemology, embracing a constructivist view of reality and
experiences. Such an interpretive framework recognizes each individuals
active role in constructing reality and the contextual and value-bound nature
of inquiry (Wheeler & Kenny, 2005). The research was based in principles
of phenomenology, which examines the meanings of lived experience and
recognizes that "self and world are inseparable components of meaning"
(Moustakas, 1994, p. 28). The aim was to describe the essence of therapeutic
music education based on six participants' perspectives. Data analysis
techniques were modified from grounded theory (Strauss 1987).

The project was also an example of first-person research (Bruscia, 2005),

or more specifically reflexive phenomenology, a category described by Colaizzi
(Tesch, 1990) to refer to phenomenological research in which researchers
use their own experiences as data. Bruscia sets first-person research apart
from "the kinds of self-inquiry that qualitative researchers regularly do as
an integral part of studying others (or third-person research)" (p. 379). This
distinction is important here, as in addition to the self-reflection that assisted
my emerging understanding of the data from the other participants, I also used
my own experiences as data. Because of the element of first-person research
in this study, the phenomenological concept of epoch, in which the researcher
"engages in disciplined and systematic efforts to set aside prejudgments"

Canadian jo u rn a l o f Music Therapy co Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016, 26

(Moustakas, 1994, p. 22), was not used at all times. At many points I strove
to put aside my own experiences and preconceived ideas in order to enter
more fully into the other participants worlds. Through self-inquiry, I also
acknowledged the significance of my experiences with the phenomenon of
therapeutic music education.

Research took place at the faculties of music at two universities in

Ontario, Canada, and involved six participants. The sampling of participants
was purposive (Lincoln & Guba, 1985); three participants were university
music educators who taught private lessons and who viewed music education
as a potential setting for therapeutic growth. My voice teacher, Jennifer, gave
permission for her name to be used in this study; she is referred to as J. The
other educators are identified as El and E2. The additional three participants
were university music students who had experienced personal growth within
their studio lessons. I was one of these participants, and the others are identified
as SI and S2. The data was collected during face-to-face, semi-structured
individual interviews with the three music educators and two of the music
students. My experiences were added to the data through a written reflection
that addressed each interview question. Using the software program NVivo,
the data was coded in a series of increasingly deeper levels; I systematically
searched for emerging themes and the connections between them.

From six participants emerged a wealth of data regarding therapeutic

music education. Three core categories emerged, representing the essence
of this phenomenon: teacher's awareness, music as medium, and student's
personal growth. Teachers awareness, the underlying influence in setting
therapeutic music education into motion, is discussed first.

Results

Teachers Awareness
A holistic awareness lay at the core of each therapeutic music educators
pedagogical approach. E ls assertion that "theres a whole person involved
in a lesson was echoed by each participant; educators discussed valuing
their students as whole beings, and students reflected upon the experience of
being regarded in this way. As E2 summarized, "Youre always thinking about
[students] as people as much as you are musicians.

Individual based. As stated earlier, a common distinction between

music therapy and music education pertains to the areas of focus and content.
Therapeutic music educators challenged this distinction through their focus
on each students personal process. For example, E2 stated that "music
education is n o t... just some grid that we follow.... Its all based on people and
personalities and our experiences," and El referred to the students personal

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016, 27

process as the "most fascinating p art of music education. I reflected that
"Jen wanted to facilitate a process of me finding my own voice, rather than
teaching me t o ... attain some epitome of ideal classical singing and, similarly,
S2 acknowledged that though his teachers might make different choices in
their own music, they value his unique sound. J explained her comfort "with
the ramifications of a process-oriented approach, [which] embraces people
as whole entities. She added: "The product, by default, is way better. Mary
Priestley (1975), founder of analytic music therapy, addressed this same
notion:

It is not an easy m etam orphosis for a musician trained in the

virtuoso class of a continental conservatoire to become a therapeutic
teacher__ But gradually as one shifts emphasis from the music to
the man[,] one sees with delight that the music, too, has blossomed
and developed, (p. 105)

The student-teacher relationship. Participants recognized parallels

between the student-teacher relationships developed in their educational
contexts and those within a traditional therapy setting. E2 described his
awareness of students' personal difficulties and his goal to "work through
[them] in a therapeutic w ay... making things less prickly so [they] can get to
the other side. El acknowledged that "sometimes it seems really important
to examine... somethingself-limiting thoughts, where we put ourselves into
boxes, and J stated emphatically, "You can deny what goes on in a studio on a
therapeutic level, but it happens. SI described studio teachers as potentially
having "more like a therapist kind of role, because they get to ... understand
you as a person.

Similar to a therapeutic alliance, these student-teacher relationships were

characterized by support and empathy. E2 recognized connections between
musical and personal support: "If they're insecure about the steps that it takes
to get to that point, then I have to bolster and support them. Not their fingers,
not their ears, but just them." J portrayed the teacher as "sensitized to the needs
of others and to the realities of others, and S2 described his teacher as "in tune
with him. Connected to support and empathy was the importance of bearing
witness: "As a teacher . .. Im just being present with what comes up" [El). It
is significant that Bunt and Hoskyns [2002a) stated: "At a most fundamental
level is the need for the therapist just to 'be with' the person who is coming to
therapy" [p. 36). This underlying role of the therapist was also suggested as a
characteristic of the therapeutic music educator.

Linking personal and musical awareness. These educators holistic

perspectives rendered impossible a view of music education as "skill for its
own sake" [Bruscia, 1998, p. 176), as they were constantly aware of the personal

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22( 1] 2016, 28

relevance of music-making. Critical of the isolation of skill development from
broader experience, E l stated that "everything we do as humans, its so that
we are ... self-actualizing more and more, and E2 reflected, "Im interested in
[students] growing both ways because I know that they feed off each other. SI
rem em bered her teachers recognition of the connections between a period of
personal struggle and her music-making: "He saw that it wasnt just about the
music__ It was a deeper challenge."

Im portant as well were educators perspectives regarding the personal

significance of musical sound. E ls belief that "our natures transcend in almost
everything we do speaks to the potential for hearing aspects of the self within
sound. For example, during a lesson that occurred during a time of personal
struggle, J remarked, "You cannot be spiraling downward and sing like that;
thats not what was in your voice." She challenged me on a personal level through
reflecting upon the sound of my voice. Certainly, the personal relevance of the
students sound relates partially to the affordances of music itself; however,
for this to hold significance within education, the teacher m ust be willing to
recognize this and respond. Aldridge (1996] described music therapy as offering
the "possibility of hearing, in a dynamic way, the individual as a whole self (p.
58). In these contexts, a similar dynamic hearing was apparent. Building upon
the teacher's awareness as a foundation, also of trem endous significance was
the medium: music.

Music as Medium
Therapeutic music educators recognize unique potential and affordances
within musical experiences and intentionally use music as a medium with which
to work towards personal growth in students. Music-making was indispensable
in students personal processes; as E2 stated, "It's hard to separate those things."

Significance of experience in music. Each participant acknowledged the

significance of the students relationship to music. E l sees music as "a template
for [her] life and expressed her goal that students "fall in love with music."
E2 described musical pursuits as "inherently life-affirming. During a time of
doubting my own musicianship, J challenged me to reconnect with my "inner
sanctum of artist girl. SI described a similar experience: " I... had to come to
a new understanding of my relationship with m usic. .. an understanding of it
being a more personal thing for me." Integral to students relationship to music
were the elements of creativity and self-expression.

Creativity and expression. Music therapist Carolyn Kenny (1982]

and music educator Benjamin Bolden (2014] both describe a "dearth of
creativity within education systems. Participants challenged this through
their acknowledgement of creativity as integral to music study and implicated
in personal development. E2 recognized that when students achieve creativity
Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016, 29
within music, "they've fulfilled their human potential. Similarly, J explained
that her goal to help students become "their most expressive selves was not
limited to music: "Creativity is the thing that makes us all tick. Kenny cited the
capacity for self-expression as a benefit of creative experiences, a view echoed
by participants: "Being expressive can really fix problems for m e.... If 1hadnt of
been ... expressive of what I was going through, nothing would have changed
(SI). El also recognized the importance of students' musical self-expression,
and I wrote about Js encouragement to use singing as an expressive vehicle
during times of personal struggle.

Regarding the previous discussion of boundaries between music therapy

and music education, it is vital to note E ls and E2s recognition of constraints
within their workplaces: "In this contextuniversity, classical musictheres a
kind of box At times, I feel like I could encourage creativity more" (El). Such
limitations render educational systems distinct from contexts of music therapy.
However, these educators also viewed technical development as a foundation for
creative and expressive freedom: "1 don't know if my goal is a specific technical
element, but I guess on one level it is, because... thats going to be the resource
that sets them up to be . . . their most expressive selves (]). When the overt
focus cannot rest on creativity and expressivity, the therapeutic educator still
recognizes these as broader goals. Kenny (1982) asserted that "creativity cannot
be separated from the processes of life" (p. 11) and that self-expression in music
is a step towards healing; significant not only to music therapy, this is integral
to therapeutic music education.

A parallel process: Musical growth leads to personal growth. As

described earlier, the therapeutic music educator views the students musical
being and personal being as connected. It is not a far leap then to note
connections between musical and personal growth. Contrary to a perspective
that views skill development as opposed to the aims of therapy (Schalkwijk,
1994), this studys participants recognized a parallel process between musical
and personal growth: "I want to help them be the best they can be, and the
vehicle is through the [instrument] (El). The musical and personal realms were
undoubtedly connected.

This parallel process was significant even when musical aims were the
overt focus. J emphasized the potential for personal growth within musical
development:
How wonderful to be able to say, "You letting go enough to be able to
have flexibility to sing that coloratura easily is the same thing that is
going to open your eyes to your own potential to deal with that abusive
man. (])

Canadian Journal of Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22 ( 1] 2016 , 30

 Aigen (2005) described a similar connection: "Musicians ... understand
th a t w orking on th eir craft is sim ultaneously w orking on them selves,
w hich... can be a prim ary focus of therapy (p. 89). Each participant recognized
this connection betw een craft and self.

Students Personal Growth

The students personal growth is the final element of therapeutic music
education; however, the three elements are inextricably linked. Many aspects
of the students personal growth have been touched upon already; likewise,
this section will include reflections upon the musical medium and the teachers
awareness.

The stu d en ts unique sound. Several participants discussed the

significance of valuing the individuals unique instrum ental or vocal sound.
S2 described his teachers quest to find each students individual voice: "I got
a new [instrum ent] a couple years ago, and he spent a lot of time working
on getting my sound out of it. J linked this to personal em powerm ent, and
I recognized parallels between finding my musical voice and a new sense of
myself: "As we stripped away pretenses, false boundaries and limits . . . and
found the voice th at was within me, so I acknowledged a parallel process in
my personal life." One's musical sound is like a fingerprint, entirely unique.
Speaking of music therapy, Borczon (1997) recognizes th at "to understand
one's tim bre is to have a glimpse into ones soul" (p. 19). Significant within
therapeutic music education as well, recognition and developm ent of the
students unique sound was connected to the achievem ent of potential.

Achieving potential. E ls ultimate goal in teaching relates to potential:

"I w ant to help [students] be the best they can be . . . to find the edges of
themselves. Js aim that students become their "most expressive selves is linked
to fulfillment of potential: "Creativity, expressivity, imagination, and potential
are all synonymous. For me, voice lessons involved an "unleashing of a new, less
boxed-in view of myself, and E l and E2 referred to self-actualization as the aim
of music study. The promotion of health, defined as "the process of becoming
ones fullest potential for individual and ecological wholeness" (Bruscia, 1998,
p. 84) is vital to Bruscias definition of music therapy. Therapy and potential
are undoubtedly connected. In therapeutic music education, too, students are
given the opportunity to reach their potential and find the edges of themselves.

Self-aw areness and self-identity. Therapeutic music education was

a setting in which students explored and developed self-awareness and self-
identity. E l views the process of music study as a "vehicle with which you
have a relationship with yourself; through voice lessons I tried on a new
way of seeing myself, exploring myself through exploring my instrum ent.

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016, 31

Developing self-awareness through music was also linked to resolving inner
conflicts. El discussed guiding students in "learning about that judgmental
se lf. . . then going beyond it and described the significance of overcoming
limiting self-perceptions: "Its like someone just had a curtain and opened it,
and some sun came in . . . illuminating the self." My voice lessons held many
moments of illumination: "I had to give myself permission to surprise myself,
rather th a n ... always fitting into some pre-determined notion of what I could
and could not do. From a challenge that involved "questioning a big part of
[her] identity, SI worked with her teacher and developed a renewed "resolve
and relationship with music. S2 felt similarly about the magnitude of the shift
in his identity: "I feel like a different person than 1 was in first year. And so
much of that is just the experience of having those teachers. These students
in therapeutic music education attributed shifts in self-identity and awareness
to both the music itself and also to their teachers' guidance and presence, and
they noted that in this context their musical development held both musical
and personal relevance. These key elements of the studys emerging model
demonstrate therapeutic music educations parallels with music therapy, as
will be explored in the following section.

Results: An emerging model

Inextricably Linked: Parallel Processes

The notion that one's musical expression is connected to the self is
fundamental within the music therapy literature (Aigen, 2005; Aldridge,
1996; Austin, 2008; Bruscia, 1987; Lee, 2003; Tyson, 1982], A recognition
of similar connections emerged from this study, including the existence
of a parallel process between students musical and personal growth. In
discussing creative music therapy, Bruscia (1987] stated, "Musical growth
is therapeutic growth, and the musical process reveals the therapeutic
process" (p. 59], Each participant acknowledged similar beliefs about the
significance of musical experiences within lessons. The connection between
musical experiences and personal growth, and the presence of a holistically
minded educator, were vital to participants descriptions of therapeutic music
education, validating the notion that the fields of music therapy and music
education lie on a continuum.

An Emerging Model: Therapeutic Music Education

The essence of therapeutic music education, a link between personal
and musical growth contingent upon the teacher's holistic awareness, is best
represented with a triangle (see Figure 3], All levels of interaction occurring
within the therapeutic private music lesson environment are represented:
between student and music, music and teacher, and teacher and student.

Canadian Journal of Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1} 2016, 32

 parallel process
music as __________ between musical _______ . students
medium ^ ^ and personal 1 iX personal growth
growth

teachers
awareness

Figure 3. An emerging model of therapeutic music education.

This image that emerged from the data is particularly relevant due to its
resonance with music therapy theory in which the term triadic is often used
to describe the relationships between the music, client, and therapist and to
recognize that the therapeutic relationship and the music are both mediums
for change (Bruscia, 1998; Bunt & Hoskyns, 2002a; Priestley, 1975; Wigram,
Pedersen, & Bonde, 2001], Significantly, a similar model emerged here. Within
therapeutic music education, personal growth can be attributed to the student-
teacher relationship and the music itself.

Discussion

The model of therapeutic music education that has been presented

here undoubtedly has limitations, and it is vital to acknowledge these as well
as to discuss caveats. The exploration of caveats leads naturally into a brief
examination of future research possibilities surrounding the connections
between therapeutic music education and music-centered music therapy.

Caveat: Professional and Relational Boundaries

The topic of therapeutic education brings up areas of potential ethical
concern, particularly concerning professional and relational boundaries. It will
be helpful here to recall the definitions of therapy and therapeutic articulated
earlier. Therapists are defined by "qualification and intent" (Bruscia, 1998,
p. 38); their clinical training distinguishes their practice from educators' and
prepares them to navigate sensitive issues and work towards clients' growth
and well-being in various domains. Most educators have neither the training nor

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22{ 1} 2016,33

the mandate to work in this capacity, and such work would be inappropriate
and potentially unsafe. Educators have the responsibility to recognize these
limits and to recommend that students seek outside professional guidance
when material beyond their training or capacity arises. With regards to overt
emotional or psychological content, the depth and breadth of the potential
territory to be covered within education is undoubtedly of lesser scope than
within therapy.

I am not suggesting that the educators in this study were acting as

therapists, or that the teacher-student relationships were therapeutic
relationships in the sense of those between client and therapist. Rather, it is
noted that there are certain similarities between the qualities and significance
of the relationships in both settings as well as in the outcomes experienced by
clients and students. In speaking of personal traits required to be admitted to
music therapy training, Bunt and Hoskyns [2002b] list the ability to empathize
first, a quality of the therapeutic educators described in this study as well. The
fact that there are personal qualities required of therapists prior to training
speaks to the likelihood that some educators will have similar traits. While
recognizing unequivocally that educators are not therapists, unless of course
they have sought out additional training, it is not surprising that music students
may experience therapeutic benefits from music lessons with particular
educators, as human relationships and musical experiences often provide
affordances for personal growth. These experiences provide points of theoretical
and practical connection between music therapy and music education. Although
I recognize that it is potentially problematic to use the term therapeutic too
readily to describe experiences within education, it is also problematic to avoid
acknowledgement and engagement in dialogue surrounding the therapeutic
potential within music education for fear of saying the wrong thing. Music
therapists do not have a monopoly on musics therapeutic potential and
affordances.

Caveat: Limitations and Constraints Within Music Education Contexts

The intent in presenting this research is primarily to describe a
phenomenon that already exists within certain contexts of music education;
it is not to propose a single ideal for music education or to suggest the advent
of a separate category of educative training or practice. I recognize that, like
music therapists, music educators have their own unique training, mandate,
and professional identities and that many teachers will view their practice
differently than these participants. Also, many students will not wish to
address personal development within music study. Acknowledgement of
the therapeutic potential within music education is intended to validate the
experiences of those educators and students for whom this model resonates
and also the transformative potential within educative settings. Rather than

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22 ( 1) 2016 , 34

negating music instruction and skill development, this research celebrates
their importance. Instructional techniques, given their potential implications
for personal growth, are presented as relevant to clinical settings as well.

In addition to acknowledging that not all students will wish to address

personal development within music study, it also vital to recognize that,
depending on factors such as age, psychological readiness, or the presence
of developmental disability, individuals will vary with regard to the sort
of personal goals that hold relevance to them and also to whether overt
exploration of the personal significance of music-making is appropriate or
possible. Therapeutic music education will look different depending on its
context, just as music therapy does. In music therapy work with young children,
for example, changes within the music itself are often the primary indicator of
change, and it is not necessarily appropriate or necessary to verbally reflect
upon experiences. Referring to creative music therapy practice with children,
Bruscia (1987) explains that "it is through the music that the child experiences
the 'new' self and persuades the 'old' self to change" (p. 58). On the other
hand, in music therapy with adolescents or adults who are able to use words,
these individuals too may experience changes and growth within the music
itself and additionally may wish to verbally reflect upon the significance of
the experience. The presence or extent of such verbal processing depends on
both the clients ability to do so and also the therapists approach, but within
a music-centered framework, the musical experience itself is significant either
way (Aigen, 2005). I propose here that the musical and relational experiences
within music education afford therapeutic potential, regardless of whether or
not student and teacher choose to reflect overtly upon this. Thus, the concept
of therapeutic music education has potential relevance to a variety of music
education contexts.

As previously discussed, a common distinction between music education

and music therapy is the fact that education necessitates attainm ent of
predetermined standards. A potential critique of therapeutic education then
would be that it is unrealisticthat music educators, despite willingness
and ability, cannot interact therapeutically with students due to systemic
constraints. 1 recognize that this is likely true in many circumstances. I also
recognize that classroom education is different from private instruction and
that this model does not account for the demands and dynamics of large-
group settings. However, although studio instructors have more freedom
with regards to goals and focus than classroom teachers, in the university
context there are still high standards that students are expected to achieve.
Both ethically and practically speaking, university educators are not free to
focus solely upon therapeutic matters; the product needs to be addressed.

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016 , 35

 In addressing how it might be possible to maintain a holistic awareness
of the student while also achieving the required musical product, I return to
the study's data and the notion of a parallel process between musical and
personal growth. If musical and personal outcomes are interconnected, then
a therapeutic approach would not result in a decline in musical proficiency
for a student who is willing, able, and interested in engaging in such a process.
Rather, it would open the potential for the student to grow both musically and
personally. This counters criticism that a focus on the "therapeutic" within
education leads to a watering-down of core subject matter (Ecclestone & Hayes,
2009). Every participant in this study spoke to the inseparability of musical
and personal growth and in fact attributed enhanced musical abilities to the
therapeutic environment. Js perspective bears repeating: Im very comfortable
with the ramifications of a process-oriented approach .. . because it actually
embraces people as whole entities The product, by default, is way better.

Music-Centered Music Therapy and Therapeutic Music Education

As the study's model emerged and validated the connections between
musical and personal growth, I repeatedly returned to Aigens (2005)
perspective on music-centered music therapy:

Many music therapists define music therapy as the use of music to

achieve non-musical goals.... However, this approach renders the actual
musical experience dispensable.. . . In contrast to this position, the
goal of music-centered work is the achievement of experiences and
expression specific and unique to music.... The clinical and the musical
are not separable.... Implicit in this idea is that musical experience and
expression are inherently beneficial human activities that are legitimate
ways to address the reasons for which people come to therapy, (p. 56)

Aigens statement, "The clinical and the musical are not separable, is
strikingly similar to Js: "The therapeutic and the artistic potential. . . I see
them as so similar. Furthermore, if as Aigen says, musical experience is a
"legitimate [way] to address the reasons for which people come to therapy,"
then would it not follow that within music education lies at least potential for
therapeutic growth? Perhaps the heartbeat of music-centered music therapy,
"the achievement of experiences and expression specific and unique to music,"
resonates also for therapeutic music education.

Aigen's (2014) observation that "in some contexts there are strong
continuities between clinical and nonclinical musicing that greatly outweigh
their differences (p. 87) is particularly relevant. Considering that some music-
centered therapists view their role primarily as one of bringing clients into
relationship with music, rather than focusing upon verbal processing or the
development of the therapeutic relationship (Aigen, 2014), it follows that

Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016 , 36

there could be parallels with the work of some educators. The development
of theoretical and practical connections between these areas, music-centered
music therapy and therapeutic music education, holds much potential for future
investigation and stands to benefit practitioners and researchers in both fields.

Conclusion
The stories emerging from the participants speak to the potential for
profound personal growth within the music education context, sparked by the
educators holistic awareness and qualities of musical experience. If musical
growth and personal growth can truly represent a parallel process, and the
teachers awareness is a principal key required in unlocking this, then music
educators can acknowledge the personal significance of music study and can
work towards personal growth in their students without feeling as though
they are neglecting musical achievement. Though this would not resonate with
every educators philosophy of music education, it is likely that many already
conceptualize their work in this way.

On the other hand, if music therapists, whose work already acknowledges

the personal significance of musical experiences, recognize the potential for
therapeutic growth within music education, then music instruction from
a trained music therapist can be viewed as an entirely viable method of
approaching music therapy. Many music therapists already acknowledge
therapeutic teaching as a method of music therapy (Bruscia, 1998; Ostwald,
1968; Priestley, 1975; Rolvsjord, 2010; Shields & Robbins, 1980; Tyson, 1982).
Through further collaboration with their colleagues in music education,
educational techniques within music therapy could be developed. Both
therapeutic and educational potential could be maximized.

The potential within music therapy and music education is as vast and
immeasurable as are music and the dynamics of human relationships. To deny
the possibility for therapeutic experiences within music education is to deny
this potential. If artistic and human potential are truly inseparable, then this
holds no fewer implications for music education than it does for music therapy.

Acknowledgements

I wish to extend a deep and heartfelt thank you to two individuals whose
support and mentorship was invaluable during the course of this research:

To my research advisor, Dr. Colin Andrew Lee, for your

remarkable insight and expertise and the honour of learning
from you.
To my voice teacher, Jennifer Moir: I will forever be grateful.
I have found my Voice.
Canadian Journal o f Music Therapy oo Revue canadienne de musicothrapie, 22(1) 2016, 37
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