Toshiba International

Feature Report

Variable Frequency
Drives for Joseph T. Ramey
Westchase Design, L.L.C.

Centrifugal Pumps
FIGURE 1. A fan
A method to estimate the economics is the only mov-
ing part of a
of using variable frequency drives variable fre-
quency drive

he prices of low-voltage variable quency controls the speed of the motor. for pumps, Ref. 4 and 5 for hydraulics,

T frequency drives (VFDs) have

declined substantially since they
were introduced, while the cost
of power has increased. Normal proj-
ect economics will now justify these
For this reason, VFDs are sometimes
called variable speed drives (VSDs) or
adjustable speed drives (ASDs), but the
more common and fundamental term
VFD is used in this article. Varying the
or other standard references. Having
a control valve in the discharge of the
pump is used as the base case for the
comparison with a VFD case in this
article. Moreover, only services on a
VFDs which go up to 375 kW (500 speed of a centrifugal pump controls single operating curve with continu-
hp) or beyond for pumps over the the head and capacity of the pump. ous operation are considered. Shukla
largest part of the range of application If a VFD is not used, the conven- and others [6] describe the method
of the pumps. To efficiently evaluate tional method of controlling a centrifu- to calculate the power savings when
and apply VFDs, process engineers gal pump circuit is with a control valve there are two or more services on dif-
need to know certain elementary that throttles the discharge of the ferent operating curves, and may be
things about them. They also need to pump. The control valve consumes the consulted if necessary. The choices
know about the interactions of pumps excess head that the pump produces made for this article, however, cover
and hydraulics when the pumps run at the desired flowrate, thereby set- most of the pumping services that are
at variable speeds. Further economic ting the desired flowrate. An alterna- likely to be encountered.
evaluation beyond the approximate tive method, which places the control Although they saved energy, VFDs
method must be performed, but be- valve in a bypass from the discharge were so expensive when they were
cause low-voltage VFDs require only a of the pump to its suction, is typically introduced that their energy savings
small incremental capital investment, used for positive displacement pumps could not offset their costs in a time
their application cannot justify a very but is also used for centrifugal pumps period that would have been accept-
detailed evaluation. Usually, screen- sometimes. This method is only men- able in normal project evaluations.
ing level economics as presented tioned here but would have to be con- Prices have declined, especially for
here must be applied and some un- sidered in the evaluation of a specific low-voltage (480 V) VFDs, and energy
certainty must be accepted. case if it is the conventional method prices have increased. The perception
that would be used. These schemes of VFDs being uneconomical has per-
Introduction are shown in a simplified manner in sisted in the minds of many, however,
A VFD (Figure 1) comprises a rectifier, Figures 3A and 3B, and the scheme and that perception combined with the
which converts an alternating current for using a VFD is shown in Figure push to shorten design schedules has
into a direct current, followed by an 3C. When a VFD is used, the control frequently caused VFDs to not be con-
inverter, which converts that direct valve is deleted, and the speed of the sidered on a routine basis. They should
current into a coarse version of an al- pump is adjusted to provide the exact be. Low-voltage VFDs can now be jus-
ternating current. These operations head that is required, thereby saving tified by normal project economics
are depicted in a simplified manner the energy that would have been dis- throughout most of the range of their
in Figure 2, which represents a single- sipated across the control valve. application to centrifugal pumps.
phase current or one phase of a three- Except for what is necessary to dis-
phase current. The frequency of the cuss VFDs, this article does not cover VFD considerations
alternating current that is produced is the fundamentals of pumps and hy- To evaluate VFD applications for
set by the inverter, and when that cur- draulics. Readers wishing to review centrifugal pumps, process engineers
rent is fed to an electric motor, its fre- the fundamentals may consult Ref. 13 need to know a number of things
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012 31
 NOMENCLATURE
a.c. Alternating current PFD Process flow diagram
Feature Report API American Petroleum Institute Q Pump capacity, volume rate of
C1C6 Constants flow
d Inside pipe diameter VFD Variable frequency drive
EMC Electromagnetic compatibility VSD Variable speed drive
about them, but this knowledge does f Friction factor W Power
not need to be extensive. This is for- H Head P Differential pressure
tunate because some of the informa- HAZOP Hazards and operability M Motor efficiency
tion received on the electrical aspects analysis P Pump efficiency
is seemingly inconsistent and is as- L Equivalent length V VFD efficiency
sumed to be explained by the different n Rotational speed Density
recommendations and design practices
of the various manufacturers, owners contemplating using VFDs at the of starting capability and there is no
and engineering firms. A firms electri- time. Inverter-capable motors are an reason to have a separate starter. In
cal engineers will handle the electrical important, but minor, consideration an evaluation of the economics, a case
design, including the VFD selection, in for new installations, although they with a VFD has a credit for not having
accordance with the applicable design could be a major cost in retrofits. The to pay for a starter.
practices. Process engineers need only existing motors should be checked Location. In the CPI, VFDs are usu-
perform preliminary economic evalua- early in these projects. ally located in buildings, which reduces
tions accordingly and be aware of the Cable types. Motors operating on the costs for the VFDs because the
issues. The knowledge of the issues inverters require cables with better VFDs can have minimal enclosures.
will allow them to understand any in- insulation and shielding than if they Some designs have the VFDs and other
teraction with the process design, to were operating directly on a.c. circuits electrical controls for the motor in a
communicate effectively with the rest [7, 8]. An approximate cost for this up- single enclosure with slots for the vari-
of the project team, and to prevent the grade of the cables to go with a mid- ous components. In other designs the
unnecessary repetition of work. It will sized low-voltage VFD is $3/m ($1/ VFDs are separate or even in separate
also help in applying judgment to the ft). Some sources have said that they buildings. The choice of the design may
results of evaluation methods. would use heavier cables with VFDs, depend on the owners or the engineer-
Maintenance. VFDs are solid state but a published reference was not ing firms standards. It may also be in-
devices that require very little main- readily found. The cost of the cables fluenced by maximum cable lengths.
tenance. Above a certain size, they re- is a minor issue for new installations, Installation. There is no installation
quire a fan for cooling, which is the only but the suitability of existing cables cost, or a low installation cost, for a
moving part. In addition to requiring could be a significant issue for retro- VFD. This is easy to see if all of the
periodic cleaning, the fan is the most fits and should be checked early. For motor controls (including the starter
likely component to fail. An approxi- new applications, some firms design or the VFD) are in a single enclosure.
mate mean-time-between-failures for the cables to be capable of handling in- The connections to the enclosure would
VFDs has been given as 10 years. verters whether or not VFDs are being be the same whether it contained a
Motors. Not all electric motors are considered at the time. starter or a VFD. If the VFD is sepa-
capable of operating on an inverter, Cable length. With a VFD, the length rate, additional connections would be
but the severe-duty motors that are of the cable to the motor must be lim- required, but this is a minor cost. The
typically specified for CPI centrifugal ited. For certain types of motors, base cost for the connection of a control sig-
pumps are likely to be adequate. The maximum lengths as low as 50 m (150 nal to a VFD would be the same as that
potential problem is that a fan that is ft) have been mentioned. Some instal- to a control valve. If the cost estima-
directly connected to the shaft of the lation manuals [911] give more typi- tor uses a Guthrie-type factor on the
motor slows down when the speed of cal maximum lengths as 100300 m equipment cost of the pump and motor
the motor slows down and therefore (3001,000 ft) depending on several to calculate the installation cost, the
may not provide adequate cooling in parameters including switching fre- cost of the VFD must be excluded from
that situation. A large turndown may quency, electromagnetic compatibility the equipment cost or the factor must
require an auxiliary fan motor to keep (EMC) limits, and size. These lengths be adjusted to compensate. If some of
the fan turning adequately while the may be extended with external filters the items mentioned previously, such
speed of the main motor is reduced. at additional cost, but there are still as more expensive cables, will not be
Centrifugal pumps generally require limits that cannot be exceeded. the same for cases with and without
an approximate 4:1 turndown to cover Starter. A VFD has the capabil- VFDs, the cost differences may need to
their continuous operating range, ity to be a starter for the motor and be considered.
and require a greater turndown only does not require that the motor have Loss. Instead of stating an efficiency
briefly at startup. A severe-duty motor a separate starter. The VFD has a for a VFD, the manufacturers state a
will normally meet this requirement. mode that starts the motor at the loss. For each size, the manufacturer
Some pumps, such as positive dis- minimum speed and increases it at a gives a constant loss, which is split
placement pumps, can require a predetermined rate until the set speed into an internal loss in the VFD and
greater turndown to cover their con- is reached. This is called a soft-start an induced loss in the rest of the cir-
tinuous operating range. Many firms and is a desirable characteristic that cuit. Although they vary, the total
now specify that motors for centrifu- reduces the impact on the pump and losses are about 1.8% of the nominal
gal pumps be capable of operating the motor. Thus, the VFD not only has power of the drives.
on inverters whether or not they are starting capability, it has the best type Motor efficiency. Reducing the speed
32 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012
 Variable A. C

Rectifier Inverter
B. C
FIGURE 2. A simpliied diagram of how a variable frequency drive works !

of an electric motor with a VFD does ficiency point. The concept that pumps
not, on average, reduce the efficiency also have a minimum permissible
of the motor. A report by Burt and speed and a maximum permissible
others [12] of the Irrigation Training speed may be less familiar. A rule-of-
and Research Center at the California thumb for a typical centrifugal pump
C.
Polytechnic State University indicated states that the minimum permissible
that although there was variation speed (and flow) is approximately 25% C
among the motors tested, the average of that at the rated point. The rated
of the efficiency was almost precisely a point is usually placed at a lower flow
function of load only. than that at the best efficiency point.
Torque. VFDs can be supplied to Consequently, the rules-of-thumb sug- FIGURE 3. Shown here are three typi-
handle fixed-torque applications or gest that a typical pump operating at cal control schemes for A) a centrifugal
variable-torque applications. A fixed- a variable speed can obtain a lower pump using a control valve; B) A posi-
tive displacement pump using a control
torque application, such as a hoist or minimum stable flow than one oper- valve; and C) A pump using a variable
a conveyor, requires a more expensive ating at a fixed speed. The difference frequency drive
VFD, but a pump is a variable-torque might allow a pump operating at a
application. Consequently, it can use a variable speed to do without a mini- Looking at either Equations (1) and
less expensive VFD. mum flow bypass in a region where a (2) or at Equation (3) shows that the
Harmonics. VFDs can create har- pump operating at a fixed speed could head changes faster than the flowrate
monics in electrical circuits, and more not. The above approximations are when the speed is changed. Figure 4
expensive VFDs are required to miti- valuable for preliminary thinking, but illustrates pump curves for the case
gate harmonics if the VFDs are to op- the manufacturers values for the min- where all of the system pressure drop
erate on sensitive circuits. CPI pump imum stable flow, minimum permissi- is static pressure drop. A system curve
circuits are not sensitive and can use ble speed, and maximum permissible is the plot of the required head versus
less expensive VFDs. speed must be used for design. the flowrate for the pumps hydraulic
Turndown. The turndown on a VFD A centrifugal pump with a VFD con- circuit excluding any control valve. In
is about 120:1, which is more than ad- sumes less power than a centrifugal this case, it is the horizontal line shown
equate for centrifugal pumps. pump with a control valve, but the in red. The violet line shows the pump
Failure mode. The failure mode of amount of power saved differs mark- curve for a fixed-speed pump that uses
a VFD is to turn off. This generates edly with the type of hydraulic system a control valve. Point 1 represents the
a pressure-relief contingency simi- that produces the head requirement rated point for the pump, and the dou-
lar to that from the trip of the circuit for the pump. First, consider a system ble-headed arrow shows the excess
breaker on a pumps motor circuit. with all static head. The pump affin- head that must be consumed by the
Operating error. An operating error ity laws give the variation of the head control valve. The green line shows
on a VFD can lead to a pump being and capacity with speed of a centrifu- the pump curve for a pump with a
run at maximum speed. This gener- gal pump at a constant impeller diam- VFD whose speed has been adjusted,
ates a pressure-relief contingency eter as follows: in accordance with Equation (3), to
similar to that from an inadvertent Q2 n2 provide exactly the head required at
control valve opening with a fixed- = the rated point. Point 2 represents an
Q1 n1
speed pump. The contingency may or (1) operation turned down to a lower flow-
may not be more severe. rate. Again, the double-headed arrow
H 2 n22 shows the excess head that must be
=
Pumps at variable speeds H 1 n12 consumed by the control valve for the
(2)
Process engineers also need to know, fixed-speed pump. The blue line shows
or review, some concepts about cen- Where Q is the volumetric flowrate the pump curve for the pump with a
trifugal pumps that are operating (usually in m/h or gal/min), n is the VFD whose speed has been adjusted
at variable speeds. The concept of a rotational speed (usually in revolu- to provide exactly the head required
minimum stable flow for a centrifu- tions per minute, rpm), and H is head at the point. There is not much dif-
gal pump operating at a fixed speed (usually in m or ft). Combining Equa- ference between the operation of the
is a familiar one. A rule-of-thumb for tions (1) and (2) gives: pumps with and without a VFD. The
pumps with a discharge diameter of operating point backs up on the pump
25 mm (1 in.) or larger states that H 2 Q22 curve in both cases.
=
the minimum stable flow is approxi- H 1 Q12 Figure 5 illustrates an efficiency
(3)
mately 30% of the flow at the best ef- curve for a typical centrifugal pump,
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012 33
 Pump curves with all static head

Feature Report 120

2 1
110 FIGURE 4.
100 Pump curves for
but not the same pump whose curves the case of all

Head, m
90 static pressure
are shown in Figure 4. Pumps are usu- drop show the
ally selected such that the rated point 80 limited opportu-
falls at a lower flowrate than the best 70
nity for energy
efficiency point of the pump. Accord- savings (violet
ingly, when the operating point backs 60 is fixed speed
0 1 2 3 4 5 pump, green and
up on the pump curve, the efficiency blue are with a
decreases. The operating point for the Rate, m3/h VFD and red is
pump with the VFD is a little closer to the system curve)
the best efficiency point than that of
the pump operating at fixed speed, so kPa, kg/cm, or psi); C2 replaces the to the system curve. Equation (10) is
the pump with the VFD is predicted to numerical constant to make the equa- identical to Equation (3), the affinity
have a slightly higher efficiency. The tion independent of a set of units. The law; consequently the same equation
formula for the hydraulic power of a subscript merely emphasizes that the also connects corresponding points on
pump is given [13] as follows with the constant is numerically different from the pump curves for different speeds.
numerical constant replaced by C1 to other constants; f is the friction fac- The pump curves and system curve,
make the equation independent of a tor; L is the length or the equivalent shown in Figure 6, illustrate the
specific set of units: length, (usually m or ft); is density greater potential for energy savings
(usually kg/m or lb/ft); and the inter- when the head loss is all frictional.
( P )Q nal diameter is d (usually mm or in.). As with the curves for the situation
W=
C1 The formula for converting pressure with all static loss, the violet pump
(4)
drop to head loss, which will be used curve represents the case with a fixed
Where W is power (typically kW or in pump calculations, is: pump speed and a control valve. The
hp) and P is pressure drop (typically green pump curve represents the case
kPa, kg/cm or psi). Equation (4) is re- H with a VFD reducing the speed of the
P =
stated with efficiencies introduced to C3 pump. The red curve represents both
(7)
give electrical power. the system curve and the curve that
Where H is the head loss (usually m connects corresponding points on the
( P )Q or ft). Combining to state the pressure pump curves. Point 1 is an operation
W=
C1 P M V drop as head loss gives: at a reduced flowrate, where the dou-
(5)
ble-headed arrow indicates the head
Where P is pump efficiency, M is
C4 fLQ 2 loss being consumed by the control
motor efficiency and V is VFD effi- H= valve as in the case with the con-
ciency. The VFD loss has been restated d5 (8)
trol valve. The operating point has
as an efficiency for consistency with
The friction factor is constant for well- backed up on the pump curve, like
the other terms. Equation (5) shows
developed turbulent flow, which is the the case with the all-static pressure
why the advantage for the VFD is
usual situation for pump circuits. The drop, and the pump efficiency has
small. The difference in pressure drop
length is used as the equivalent length declined similarly. In the case with
between the two cases is small. Note
of all pipe, fittings and equipment. It the VFD, the operating point at the
that the zero in Figure 4 has been sup-
is constant for a given circuit and so is lower speed corresponds to the rated
pressed to show the differences clearly.
the diameter of the pipe. Equation (8) point, therefore the pump efficiency
The pump with the VFD has a slightly
reduces to: is about the same.
higher efficiency. However, the con-
An examination of the efficiencies
stant loss of the VFD translates into a
H = C 5Q 2 of a few API 610 pumps at standard
decreasing efficiency when the power (9)
fixed-speeds showed that the effi-
is reduced. This works against the two
Which is a familiar relationship. ciency declined by less than 2% for a
advantages of the VFD case. In any
When the flow is reduced, the head 50% reduction in speed and less than
event, the differences are small.
loss, or P, is reduced by the square of 3% for a 75% reduction. Given the few
Now, consider the case of all-fric-
the flow. This provides an excellent op- points considered and the considerable
tional pressure drop and small differ-
portunity for saving power as shown scatter, a linear relation through the
ences are most emphatically not the
by Equation (5). Also, if Equation (9) points stated is as good of a represen-
case. The Darcy equation for frictional
is applied at two points and the equa- tation as is justified in this range, but
pressure drop in pipe [14] is used to
tions divided, the result is: it seems obvious that the relationship
calculate the system curve and is
could not be approximately linear over
stated as follows: H 2 Q22
= a longer range. The percent reduction
H 1 Q12 stated is a percentage of the percent
C2 fL Q 2 (10)
P = efficiency. The reduction in efficiency
d5 (6) Where the subscripts indicate the agrees roughly with Shukla and oth-
Where P is pressure drop (usually points. Equations (9) and (10) apply ers [6] who cite a 34% reduction for
34 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012
 Pump efficiency Pump curves with all frictional head
140
80
120 1
Efficiency, %

60 100

Head, m
80
40 60
40
20
20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Rate, m3/h Rate, m3/h

FIGURE 5. An efficiency curve for a typical FIGURE 6. These pump curves show the greater potential for
centrifugal pump energy savings when the head loss is all frictional compared
with static (compare Figure 4)

the entire pump range from rated flow Basis information what voltages are to be used for what
to minimum flow. The owner usually sets the bases for motor sizes, this information needs to
These considerations show that an economic evaluation because many be supplied.
the efficiency declines a little when of the bases represent business deci- Approved vendors. If purchases
the speed is reduced, but it does not sions rather than engineering deci- must be limited to approved vendors,
decline to the extent that it does in sions. However, an engineering firm the list must be supplied.
the case of reduced flow at constant may make recommendations if re- Existing equipment. Information on
speed. In addition, the red curve rep- quested to do so. In a formal project, existing equipment that is to be con-
resenting the system curve shows the owner provides the basis docu- sidered for the project needs to be sup-
that the required pump head de- ments such as the basic engineering plied as well as the cost to be charged
creases rapidly with decreasing flow. design data and the process design for the equipment, if any.
This is also shown by Equation (9), basis. The owners engineering stan- Owners costs. Engineering firms
which indicates that the head de- dards, safety standards and operat- typically exclude from cost estimates a
creases as the square of the flow. The ing procedures will also usually apply. category of costs termed owners costs.
power required in the case with the Engineering firms should be ready For a design alternate study of a VFD
VFD is less for three reasons: (1) the to solicit whatever information or al- in a new pump service, these costs
pump does not back up on its curve, ternative directions that the owner offset. For a retrofit, however, they
(2) the pump nearly maintains its ef- wants to supply if they are not already do not and would have to be supplied
ficiency when the speed is reduced, offered. If the evaluation is being done if they are to be considered. Owners
and (3) the pump requires less head within the owners organization, it is costs that might apply include costs
when the flow decreases. still a good idea to have the bases set, for management of change, revision
Equation (9) shows that the head perhaps more informally, before start- of records, process safety reviews such
(or pressure drop) is a function of the ing the evaluation. Some of the items as HAZOPs, training, startup and the
square of the flowrate. If the head is to be considered are as follows: owners project team. Some costs, such
stated as pressure drop (P) and sub- Power cost. If there are different power as procurement and receiving, may be
stituted into Equation (5), the result is sources, the cost will be the marginal owners costs on small projects.
Equation (11): cost for increasing or reducing power. In addition to the basis issues al-
Any escalation or de-escalation to be ready discussed, there is one issue
Q3 applied also needs to be supplied. that may or may not be part of the
W=
C6 P M V Payout time. Simple payout time is basis, but which the owner may want
(11)
used for the criterion in this article to decide or approve. In pump services
Which shows that the power is pro- and as an example. The general pay- with a pump and a spare, there is a
portional to the cube of the flow for out time that is specified for the proj- question of whether to use one VFD or
frictional pressure drop. This equation ect may be used, or a longer payout two if there is not a set policy. Answer-
and Figure 6 illustrate the concept time may be allowed for power sav- ing two subsidiary questions about the
that different flowrates cannot be av- ings. Some owners consider that util- service will help answer the question.
eraged linearly to calculate the power ity savings are more certain than the The first question is: how will the
at an average flowrate. general project economics based on spare pump be started? If it is to be
This section has shown that two pa- marketing projections, and therefore started manually, there will be time
rameters, the percentage of the total are deserving of a less stringent pay- to make whatever changes are neces-
pressure drop that is frictional (as out criterion. sary to the control of the circuit, and a
opposed to static) and the turndown Turndown pattern. If, for example, single VFD could be considered. If the
in the flow, are important in evaluat- a project is expected to operate at a spare must be started quickly or auto-
ing the case for using a VFD with a lower capacity in the initial period of matically, having a VFD on each pump
centrifugal pump. Like any economic its operation, this information needs would be favored.
evaluation, the basis for the evalua- to be supplied. The second question is: what are the
tion must be established first. Voltages. If the owner is specifying consequences of an error or problem
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012 35
 TABLE 1.
VFD cost
Differential Capital Costs
Feature Report + VFD cost
Starter cost
Control valve station

Cost, $/kW
cost
in the switch to the other
Other capital costs
pump (including a failure
= Subtotal capital cost
of the VFD)? If the conse-
quences are minor, such Differential Operating Costs
as a temporary increase Power savings
in power consumption or a Other operating costs
0 100 200 300 400
spill of water onto the pad, = Subtotal operating cost
Power, kW
one VFD would be accept- Total Differential Costs
able. If the consequences FIGURE 7. The approximate cost of variable frequency Grand Total
are not minor, having a drives versus power
VFD on each pump would
be favored. of VFD costs with power is key to Even ending at 110 kW (150 hp), the
the development of the approximate low-voltage range covers the greatest
Economic evaluation evaluation method. Single-source bud- number of pump services.
Once the basis is set, the economic get-grade quotes that are based on a Although there is a smaller number
evaluation is straightforward and is medium-sized project were obtained of services requiring medium voltage
preferably done as the simplest pos- in mid 2010. They are plotted in Fig- (for instance, 4,160 V), those services
sible analysis, which is a simple pay- ure 7 as $/kW versus the VFD power, may be more important because there
out calculation. This is performed in with the scale for the costs omitted is more cost involved and more power
the manner of a differential analysis to avoid disclosing the exact quotes. to be saved. The range from 150 kW
considering the case with the control The costs were spot-checked for a few (200 hp) and higher shows that the
valve to be the base case. The cost of sizes in the first quarter of 2012 using cost per kilowatt for medium-voltage
the VFD and any other costs are re- a different source and manufacturer. VFDs is not constant and that the cost
duced by the savings for eliminating These costs varied from +5% to 25% is much higher than the cost of low-
a separate starter, a control valve sta- of the original costs, showing no clear voltage VFDs. As a result, the evalu-
tion, and any other savings to give the trend and thereby illustrating the ap- ations of medium-voltage VFDs need
net capital cost. Note that there is little proximate nature of the costs. The plot to be done on a case-by-case basis and
or no installation cost for the VFD but shows three ranges of interest. The do not lend themselves as well to an
there is an installation cost for the first range, where the power is less approximate method. However, their
control-valve station and that installa- than 5.5 kW (7.5 hp), is misleading on higher costs justify a more thorough
tion cost needs to be estimated. In the this plot and will be discussed later. evaluation from the start.
simplest case for a new pump service, The range from 5.5 through 110 For the evaluation of low-voltage
which will be used for the development kW (7.5150 hp) shows that the cost VFDs, one needs the net cost of the
of the approximate evaluation method per kilowatt is nearly constant; there VFD less the cost of the starter that
to be described later, the three specific is no economy of scale. The VFDs in would not be needed. Figure 8 shows
items mentioned are the only capital this range are low-voltage (480 V for a plot similar to Figure 7 but of this
cost items that are needed. The sizes example). Although it is counterintui- net cost rather than the cost of the
required to estimate the costs for these tive, the nearly constant cost in this VFD alone. The plot shows that the
items are available from the process range suggests that an approximate net cost for VFDs of 2.2 kW (3 hp) or
hydraulic calculations for the pump. evaluation could be performed for low- less is approximately zero. The cost of
The process calculations for the voltage VFDs independent of their the starter is about the same as that
pump will also give the difference size. The rounded cost in this range is of the VFD in this range. At 4 kW (5
between the power required by the an especially round number of $100/ hp), the net cost is about half of the
base case during the evaluation pe- hp in English units ($125/kW). Low- cost at 5.5 kW (7.5 hp) and higher.
riod and that required by the VFD voltage VFDs are manufactured in Consequently, it is expected that an
case. This gives the cost of the power sizes to at least 375 kW (550 hp), but evaluation of a VFD at 4 kW (5 hp)
saved, which is the primary operat- the maximum power of motors on low- or less would meet almost any pay-
ing cost item that is needed to com- voltage circuits is set by the owners out criterion. However, no one would
plete the evaluation. policy or by the electrical design. It is actually perform such an evaluation
When the cost of the power savings not available as a parameter for op- in this range where the costs are so
is subtracted from the net capital cost, timization in the evaluation of VFDs. small; one would just choose the con-
as summarized in Table 1, the result is The highest power for a low-voltage trol method that one wanted.
the total differential cost. If it is zero VFD in the quotes is 110 kW (150 For low-voltage VFDs of 5.5 kW
or negative, the payout period crite- hp), which is near the lower end of (7.5 hp) and higher, Figure 8 shows
rion for the use of a VFD is met. the range at which the switch would that the variability of the net costs is
be made to medium voltage. Accord- greater than that of the VFDs alone.
VFD cost ingly the cost line for the low-voltage The trend line, shown dashed, is flat
The first cost item needed is the cost VFDs is shown extrapolated to higher when judged by eye and the variabil-
of the VFD; moreover, the variation powers as a dashed line in Figure 7. ity is almost contained within 30%
36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012
 VFD cost minus starter cost
3
Flow
2.5 90%
70%

Payout, years
Cost, $/kW

2 50%
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Frictional drop, % of pump head
Power, kW

FIGURE 8. The cost of VFDs minus the cost of a starter FIGURE 9. The payout time for cases
with two pumps and two VFDs

bounds. This is sufficiently accurate proportional to the predicted effi- lower motor size and the selected
for an approximate method. ciency at the operating capacity for motor size. This assumption simpli-
the fraction that is static drop and fies the base correlation by elimi-
Approximate evaluation method the predicted efficiency at the rated nating the power consumption as a
There are a number of assumptions capacity for the fraction that is fric- variable and may be approximately
and simplifications that apply to the tional drop correct as the required power moves
approximate cost evaluation method. The same sizes of pump and motor across motor sizes, but is not strictly
The method strictly covers only new apply to both cases. A correction correct. The power consumption as
installations with low-voltage VFDs. for having a difference will be dis- a fraction of the motor power obvi-
The evaluation will be a differential cussed later ously varies as the required power
analysis of a case using a VFD against An inverter-capable motor will be changes within a motor size from
a base case using a control valve throt- used in both cases so there is no just exceeding the power of the
tling the pump discharge. cost difference next smaller motor to barely being
The pump will be a centrifugal The same cable and enclosure will within the power of the selected
pump, has a single service, and op- be used in both cases or the cost dif- motor. A correction factor based on
erates continuously. This actually ference will be ignored the operating power consumption is
describes most pump services in the Any difference in the required build- provided so that the user can refine
CPI. Operating the pump at differ- ing space is ignored the base correlation to account for a
ent rates during the evaluation pe- Maintenance costs will be the same more-accurate power consumption
riod does not violate the concept of in both cases or the cost difference The method covers: (a) non-critical ser-
a single service, but either the dif- will be ignored vices with one pump and one VFD, and
ferent rates must be averaged for The engineering costs and owners (b) critical services with one pump, one
use in the evaluation, or each rate costs are assumed to be the same spare and two VFDs. It does not cover
must be calculated separately. It has for both cases. More electrical critical services with one pump, one
previously been mentioned that dif- drawings and specifications are spare and only one VFD, but this case
ferent flowrates cannot be averaged required for the VFD, but fewer is between the cases that are covered.
linearly without losing accuracy. piping drawings and control valve The method predicts a simple payout
The pump may have more than one specifications are needed time from two parameters that were
circuit with the VFD replacing the The piping is carbon steel, utilizes shown previously to be significant: the
control valve in the controlling cir- 150 psig flanges, and is the same size flowrate as a percent of rated capacity
cuit. A brief operation of the pump for both cases. Two methods were and the frictional pressure drop as a
at different flowrates, such as might available for estimating the piping percent of the total pressure drop. The
happen at startup or shutdown, costs; the method chosen gave the frictional pressure drop for this corre-
does not affect the economics signifi- lower costs lation excludes the control valve. The
cantly and may be ignored The motor overdesign is 15% method was developed by calculating
A particular set of design criteria The base power cost is 7.2/kWh cases following the stated assumptions
is used to set the pressure drop for Instrument air, which is required with a spreadsheet and plotting the re-
the control valve at the pump rated in the control valve case, is ignored. sults. The maximum normal capacity is
capacity. The more conservatively Other utilities, except power, are as- usually called 100%, and the rated ca-
this pressure drop is set, the better sumed to be the same pacity becomes a number above 100%.
a VFD evaluates, and vice versa The base correlation considers the Here it is more convenient to call the
The pump follows the affinity laws power consumption to be a constant rated capacity 100% and state the
Pump efficiency is predicted by cor- fraction of the nominal power of the other rates as numbers less than 100%.
relation. The small decline in pump motor. The required power at rated Using this convention, the maximum
efficiency with reduced pump speed pump capacity including the overde- normal capacity is taken as 90%.
is neglected. For VFD cases with sign (as opposed to the operating For the non-critical service with one
both static and frictional pressure power consumption) is set approxi- pump and one VFD, the worst case was
drop, the efficiency is assumed to be mately midway between the next calculated first; it had an operating
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012 37
 Correction factor to payout time for operating power
2
Feature Report
1.5

Correction factor
1
capacity of 90% and a frictional pres- FIGURE 10. A
sure drop of 0%. That is, there was no plot of the correc-
0.5 Factor = 4.5 XW + 4.06 tion factor to pay-
turndown from the maximum normal out time for operat-
capacity and the pressure drop was all 0 ing power
static drop. The result was a payout 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
period of 0.76 yr or 9.1 mo. This worst Normal operating power of VFD case
as fraction of motor power
case would probably meet any payout
criterion, therefore, further cases were
not calculated. in Figure 10 where the x-axis (XW) motor to be reduced, the VFD case
For the critical service with two is the ratio of the operating power at will be the minimum capital cost
pumps and two VFDs, the results are normal capacity for the VFD case to case. The power saving will be en-
presented in Figure 9, which shows the nominal power of the motor. The tirely a bonus
that any VFD case above 25% fric- correction factor, which can be can Even if the corrections help the accu-
tional drop would have a payout period be up to 50% on the payout period, racy, the results are still approximate
of 2 yr or less. In the region shown in is given below in equation form and must be considered preliminary.
the figure, the lines are nearly linear However, with a preliminary evalu-
Correction Factor
but cannot continue to be so toward a ation, a process engineer can judge
= 4.5 XW + 4.06 (12)
zero payout period. A zero payout pe- whether to proceed with a second
riod would indicate that the base case A correction may be applied for the stage of evaluation and involve other
and the VFD case have equal capital cost of power with the payout period engineering disciplines. In the sec-
costs. This result is independent of the being inversely linear with the cost ond stage the engineer needs to con-
turndown and the percent of frictional of power. As would be expected, sav- sider those points that might make
drop. Any case with a capital cost dif- ing more expensive power requires a significant difference and that are
ference to be offset by power savings less time to recover the investment insufficiently accurate, are ignored
would need to have a positive payout than does saving less expensive or are assumed incorrectly in the
period regardless of the turndown or power. The correction factor is: preliminary evaluation. Conceivably,
the percentage of frictional pressure the preliminary evaluation could be
Correction Factor = 7.2/PC (13)
drop. Anyway, the region of short pay- considered final if it is so conclusive
out periods does not need be defined Where PC is the cost of power in cents that none of the points could change
accurately because any cases in this per kilowatt hour (/kWh) the conclusion. On the other hand,
region would obviously meet any rea- If the service is intermittent, the re- the consideration of how much of a
sonable payout criterion. sult is the operating time required change the various points could make
for payout, not the calendar time might itself be considered the further
Adjustments The author is not aware of any cost evaluation that is required.
There are many assumptions and sim- index that would track VFD cost. Be-
plifications involved in the base evalu- sides, the payout period is not a lin- An example makes it clear
ation method just presented, but this ear function of VFD cost so a simple Use the approximate method to de-
produces a simple correlation that correction could not be applied. The termine if VFDs would be economical
the process engineer can apply before best procedure may be to use the for a case with a pump, a spare and
he or she performs the pump process results of second stage evaluations, two VFDs where the requirement is
calculations. He or she needs only to which have been done previously, to a simple payout before taxes of 2 yr
know the capacity as a fraction of the give a range of overall adjustment or less. The frictional pressure drop
rated capacity and to estimate the factors that include updated costs is 25% of the total pump head for the
percentage of the pressure drop in the and also correct for assumptions that VFD case, and the operation is at 70%
pump circuit that is frictional. He or do not conform to the policies or de- of the rated capacity. The power con-
she can have an indication of whether sign standards being used sumption is 35 kW, and motors of 55
or not a VFD should be shown in early If the use of the VFD allows the elimi- kW (75 hp) have been selected. The
documents, such as the PFD. When nation of a minimum flow bypass, the cost of power is 7.6 /kWh.
the pump process calculations have capital cost of the VFD case will ap- From Figure 9 for 25% frictional
been completed, some corrections can proach that of the base case. The power pressure drop and 70% capacity, the
be applied to refine the estimate: saving will be almost entirely a bonus base payout period is 1.3 yr. The cor-
The prediction of the payout period If the piping is made of an alloy such rection factor for power consumption
can be refined by making a correc- as type 316 stainless steel, the capi- is calculated as follows:
tion for the power required at the tal cost of the VFD case will be ap-
XW = 35 kW/55 kW = 0.64.
normal capacity of the pump in the proximately the same as that of the
VFD case rather than accepting the base case. The power saving will be From Equation (12) (or Figure 10):
constant percent of the motor power almost entirely a bonus Correction Factor = 4.5(0.64) + 4.06
that is built into in the base evalu- If the use of the VFD allows the = 1.2
ation. The correction factor is given size of the pump or the size of the The correction factor for the cost of
38 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012
power from Equation (13) is: station will frequently be located near justments to the operator at the VFD.
Correction Factor = 7.2 /kWh the instrument that is displaying the If a mobile data readout is available,
7.6 /kWh = 0.95 variable that is being controlled so and if the problem that is requiring the
The corrected payout period is: that a single operator may observe the manual operation does not affect it, a
Payout = 1.3 yr 1.2 0.95 = 1.5 yr readout and adjust the control valve second operator would not be required.
Since this is less than 2 yr, the pre- or its bypass. A VFD is usually located
liminary conclusion is that VFDs in a windowless room, which may re- Management of evaluations
would be economical and worthy of quire that a second operator transmit Low-voltage VFDs are sufficiently in-
further evaluation. by telephone or radio the required ad- expensive that highly detailed evalu-

Qualitative pros and cons

In addition to the items in the eco-
nomic evaluation, there are some ad-
vantages and disadvantages that are
not easy to quantify.
Advantages. First, experience with Vanton solid thermoplastic pumps to
pumps running at fixed speeds has stainless, high alloy, plastic-lined and
convinced some firms that, where fiberglass pumps for water, wastewater
they are applicable, pumps running at and corrosive treatment chemicals:
lower speeds require sufficiently less
maintenance that their higher capital ZERO CORROSION
(unlike stainless and alloys)
cost is justified. VFDs control pumps
ZERO CONTAMINATION
by reducing their speed, so they also (unlike stainless and alloys)
reduce the maintenance to the extent
ZERO CHEMICAL ABSORPTION All wet end components
that they reduce the speed. Second, OR WICKING of Vanton centrifugal
pumps are molded of
VFDs start the pumps at a slow speed (unlike fiberglass reinforced plastics) solid PVC, PP or PVDF,
and increase it steadily to the required ZERO TEARING, CRACKING, and handle flows to
1450 gpm (330 m3/h),
speed. This is a desirable method OR PEELING heads to 400 ft (122 m)
of starting pumps that minimizes (unlike plastic linings) and temperatures to
275F (135C).
the impact on both the motors and ZERO OR NEAR-ZERO
ABRASION
the pumps, and minimizes the wear. (unlike stainless, alloys,
Third, the engineering and construc- and fiberglass)
tion schedule may be shortened a little
by eliminating some control-valve sta-
tions. The piping design and construc-
tion work is usually on the critical Vanton molds all wet end components SUMP-GARD
path, while the electrical design and of solid, homogeneous thermoplastics Vertical
that are 100% inert to the caustic Centrifugal Pumps
construction work may not be. There- Standard, bearing-
and acidic treatment chemicals you
fore, reducing some piping work at the handle, such as alum, ferric chloride,
less, low headroom,
wash down, integral
expense of increasing some electrical hydrofluosilicic acid, polymer, sodium motor/shaft and
work may improve the schedule. hydroxide, sodium hypochloride, vortex

Disadvantages. There are also two sulfuric acid and others. CHEM-GARD
Horizontal
qualitative disadvantages for VFDs, It means you can say good-bye Centrifugal Pumps
the first of which is a potential pip- to pumping problems you now Standard, ANSI,
DIN, mag drive,
ing vibration problem. The piping of experience with chemical transfer, close coupled
disinfection, dosing, effluent and self priming
a pump running at variable speeds is collection, lift stations, odor
subject to multiple exciting frequen- control, recirculation and other FLEX-I-LINER
cies and may vibrate at frequencies process applications. Rotary Peristaltic
Pumps
where the piping of a pump running Dosing/feeding
at a fixed speed would not. Some VFDs liquids and
viscous fluids
can be programmed to skip speed to 6000 SSU
ranges, which may be an easy solution .com Non-metallic
if the pump does not have to operate at Pump/Tank Systems
the speeds that are causing problems. Tanks from 60 to
5000 gal (227 to
Otherwise, additional piping support 18,900 liter) with
at additional cost will be necessary. pumps and auto-
Z-0419

1-908-688-4216 mated controls

The second disadvantage is that an mkt@vanton.com
additional operator may be required
for manual operation. A control-valve
Circle 27 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/40273-27
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012 39
 Feature Report

ations cannot be justified for typical evaluate such small net investments. retrofits; therefore the evaluations are
new applications because the engineer Generally, the pump offerings of all more complex. This article can serve
or manager would be facing something vendors will be similar and will also as a preliminary checklist of items
like an economic version of Heisen- be similar to the engineers prelimi- that might contribute cost. The invest-
bergs uncertainty principle. Attempt- nary pump selection because every- ment is likely to be higher for retrofits,
ing to model many cases, to account for one would be thinking alike about the thereby justifying more time for eval-
the costs of minor items, or to estimate selection. An outlying offering would uation, but the evaluation must still
the costs to high accuracy can cost probably be eliminated in a bid tabu- be limited. Only items that contribute
enough, in itself, to alter the results of lation. However, it is possible that a enough cost to affect results should be
the evaluation. The methods used and significantly different offering could selected, and they should be evaluated
the items considered must be limited to be viable or that a usable, surplus without going into great detail.
those that are appropriate to the size of pump could be available that is not Medium-voltage VFDs require a
the investment being considered. close to what would be selected new. more thorough evaluation. The need
For example, two 37 kW (50 hp) VFDs Shukla and others [6] give an example to spend very little time in the evalu-
would cost approximately $10,000. of evaluating multiple options. Such ation, as discussed for low-voltage
Allow credits of approximately $2,000 possibilities might require evaluating VFDs, does not apply to medium-
for the starters and $4,000 for the more than one case, but it would still voltage VFDs. Also, the approximate
control valve station. If there were be necessary to limit the time spent on evaluation method does not apply to
no other costs to consider, the net in- the evaluation. them, although it may be a starting
vestment would be about $4,000. It Like the cases mentioned above, point. Unlike their low-voltage coun-
would obviously be unwise to spend retrofits may require a more exten- terparts, medium-voltage VFDs are
$4,000, or any significant fraction of sive analysis. More items may be in- expensive and will justify a more thor-
it, doing an evaluation. It would be volved because items, such as motors ough evaluation.
better to spend the money on the VFD. or cables may have to be replaced. The Although there are the excep-
A lot of time cannot be justified to associated costs would not offset for tions mentioned, little time can be

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40 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012
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Circle 11 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/40273-11
 Feature Report

rationally devoted to the economic neer, the manager and the owners Author
evaluation of low-voltage VFDs. This personnel need to be in agreement on Joseph T. Ramey is a mem-
ber and manager at West-
applies only to the study to choose the need to avoid unjustified cost on chase Design L.L.C. (9449
whether or not to use a VFD; it does the economic evaluation. They, like Briar Forest Drive #2312,
Houston, TX 77063-1043.
not apply to the design itself. That, Heisenberg, must be ready to accept Email: jtramey1@comcast.
of course, must be thorough and take some uncertainty. net) and does process engi-
neering on a consulting or
whatever time is required. The engi- Edited by Gerald Ondrey contract basis. He has done
both basic process design and
detailed engineering, and his
References most recent engagement has
1. Green, Don W., Ed., Perrys Chemical En- 8. Goricke, Bastian and Grunwald, Stefan, been with Commonwealth
gineers Handbook, 8th Ed., McGraw Hill, Challenges and Requirements in VFD Cable Engineering and Construction. Prior to forming
New York, pp. 1024 to 1039, 2007. Design, Version 1.1, Lutze, Inc., http://www. Westchase Design, he had worked for several
2. Kelly, J. Howard, Understand the Funda- emspartnersinc.com/images/VFD_White major engineering and construction companies.
mentals of Centrifugal Pumps, Chem. Eng. paper_Lutze_Driveflex.pdf. He is a member of the AIChE., and received
Progress, 106(10), October 2010, pp. 2228. 9. ABB, ACS550 Users Manual Rev. G, ABB a B.Ch.E. from the University of Virginia, a
3. Rase, Howard F. and Barrow, M. H., Project Oy, Helsinki, Finland, July 7, 2009, p. 284. M.S.Ch.E. from the Georgia Institute of Technol-
Engineering of Process Plants, John Wiley 10. Toshiba, P9 ASD Installation and Opera- ogy, and is a registered professional engineer in
& Sons, New York, pp. 248296, 1957. tion Manual, Document Number 64054-002, New Jersey and Texas.
4. Kern, Robert, Practical Piping Design 12 Toshiba International Corp., Industrial Divi-
Parts, Chem. Eng., December 23, 1974, sion, Houston, June 2011, p. 20.
through November 10,1975. 11. Eaton Corp., 9000X AF Drives User Man- Acknowledgements
5. Crane Company Engineering Division, ual, MN04001004E / Z10673, Eaton Corp., The author wishes to thank the South Texas
Technical Paper 410 Flow of Fluids Through Cleveland Ohio, May 2011. Section of the American Institute of Chemi-
Valves, Fittings, and Pipe 13th Printing, 12. Burt, Charles, Piao, Xianshu, Gaudi, Frank- cal Engineers for the opportunity to have
Crane Co., New York, 1973. lin, Busch, Bryan and Taufik, N.F.N., Electric presented much of the material in this ar-
6. Shulka, D. K., Chaware, D. K. and Swamy, R. Motor Efficiency under Variable Frequen- ticle in one of their pre-meeting workshops.
B., Variable Frequency Drives: An Algorithm cies and Loads, ITRC Report No. R 06-004, The article benefited from the questions
for Selecting VFDs for Centrifugal Pumps, Irrigation Training and Research Center, and comments during the discussion. Also,
Chem. Eng. 117(2), Feb. 2010, pp. 3843. California Polytechnic State University, San thanks to Toshiba International Corp. for
7. Shuman, Brian, Building a Reliable VFD Luis Obispo Calif., October 2006, www.itrc. permission to use the photo of its Model P9
System, Belden Document VFDWP, 2009, org/reports/vfd/r06004. ASD (Figure 1).
http://www.belden.com/docs/upload/VFD_ 13. Rase, Howard F. and Barrow, M. H., op. cit., p. 259.
Choosing_WP.pdf. 14. Crane Company, op. cit., p. 3-2

Circle 3 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/40273-03
42 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM NOVEMBER 2012