American Journal of Immunology

Original Research Paper

Description of a Novel Probiotic Concept: Implications for the

Modulation of the Immune System
Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero

Silver Spring Sagl, Arzo-Mendrisio, Switzerland

Article history Abstract: It is estimated that the first processed food products consumed
Received: 30-12-2016 by humans pertained to the category of fermented foods and beverages such
Revised: 11-01-2017 as beer, wine, sauerkraut, fermented sausage as well as fermented milk
Accepted: 19-01-2017 derivatives such as yogurt and kefir. Thus, fermented foods are endowed
Corresponding Author:
with undisputed healthy properties due to the presence of probiotic
Marco Ruggiero microbes that not only help supporting the healthy human microbiota, but
Silver Spring Sagl, Arzo- also produce bioactive or bio-available metabolites that contribute to the
Mendrisio, Switzerland host's wellbeing. It is widely acknowledged that modulation of the immune
Email: pacini68@yahoo.com system is one of the beneficial effects associated with consuming fermented
food products rich in live probiotics and this effect is being exploited in the
field of natural immunotherapy. Here we describe the genesis and
development of a novel, non-dairy product that may represent a novelty in
the field of probiotic drinks since it combines the healthy properties of
dairy-based products with the properties of non-dairy probiotic drinks. The
major improvements over the existing non-dairy probiotic drinks consist in
the number and diversity of probiotic strains endowed with health-
promoting properties and in the presence of a glycosaminoglycan,
chondroitin sulfate, that is, at the same time, a newly identified prebiotic
and a supplement known to modulate the immune system.

Keywords: Probiotic, Immune System, Gut Microbiota, Bifidobacterium,

Chondroitin Sulfate

Introduction there is general consensus and solid scientific evidence

for an overall beneficial effect of probiotics even in areas
Although the colloquial use of the term "probiotic" that are not directly related with gut function and the
by the general public is relatively recent, the concept of immune system. For example, a very recent systematic
"useful" as opposed to "harmful" microbes is more than review on the effect of probiotics on central nervous
100 years old and dates back to Nobel Laureate lie system functions in animals and humans reported that
Metchnikoff who attributed the longevity of Bulgarian "probiotics showed efficacy in improving psychiatric
peasants to the consumption of fermented milk products disorder-related behaviors including anxiety,
such as yogurts and kefirs (Gasbarrini et al., 2016). A depression, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),
search for the term "probiotic" in the database PubMed obsessive-compulsive disorder and memory abilities,
performed in December 2016, yielded 17,741 papers in including spatial and non-spatial memory" (Wang et al.,
many different areas of research. Thus, the list of papers 2016). In this study, the Authors reviewed 38
on probiotic encompasses subdivisions as: "Probiotics randomized controlled trials, 25 of which were
antibiotic, probiotics prevention, probiotics diarrhea, performed in animals and 15 in humans. In the reviewed
probiotics immune, probiotics obesity, probiotics studies, the microbial strains most frequently used were
irritable bowel, probiotics children, probiotics atopic, Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, administered for 2
probiotics gut, probiotics urinary". weeks in animals and 4 weeks in humans.
Although a comprehensive review of the effects of Because of different regulations in different parts of
probiotics in human health is a monumental task - there the world, the term probiotic has not always the same
exist 4,285 reviews on the topic - it is worth noticing that identical meaning and also the claims that can, or cannot,

2017 Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero. This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) 3.0 license.
Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero / American Journal of Immunology 2017, (): .
DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2017..

be made for probiotics are different in accordance with immunotherapy (Ruggiero et al., 2014a; 2014b;
local laws and regulations. Such differences render Thyer et al., 2014; Ward et al., 2014; Branca et al.,
sometimes difficult to compare results and may generate 2015; Schwalb et al., 2016).
confusion among researchers and consumers as well. For In the pursue of exploiting the probiotic features of
example, the term probiotic is used indifferently for microbial communities and their metabolites
lyophilized microbes that are ingested as powders as independently of the growth medium, we studied the
well as for fermented products where the live microbes feasibility of developing a formula similar in principle to
proliferate in their own liquid environment such as that described above, but without the use of milk and
yogurts, kefirs or fermented drinks or teas such as colostrum as media for fermentation.
kombucha (Greenwalt et al., 2000). Here, we describe the genesis and development of a
The two main forms of probiotics quoted above- non-dairy fermented product that it is based upon our
lyophilized microbes and fermented foods or drinks- previous experience with the probiotic fermented milk
differ greatly in their properties, in particular when their product described above. The starting point for the
effects on the immune system are considered. Thus, development of this product that may represent a
Irvine et al. (2010) demonstrated that consumption for novel concept in probiotic drinks, is the observation
about 3 years of a probiotic yogurt supplemented with- that eukaryotic and prokaryotic probiotic microbes are
that is in addition to the common fermenting strains of able to proliferate and ferment in media other than
yogurts -Lactobacillus rhamnosus, increased the number milk (Marsh et al., 2013).
of CD4 cells in subjects living with HIV/AIDS. These Since the benefits of non-dairy probiotic drinks are
very encouraging results, however, were not replicated well acknowledged and range from immunomodulation
when the same identical probiotic strain (Lactobacillus to anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities
rhamnosus) was administered as an encapsulated (Zamberi et al., 2016), we decided to further enhance
probiotic and not as a component of a yogurt. In other these positive aspects by using a known anti-
words, the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus appeared inflammatory and immune-modulating
to stimulate the immune system only when it was a glycosaminoglycan, chondroitin sulfate, endowed with
component of a yogurt, thus lending credit to the prebiotic properties as an addition to the array of
hypothesis that it was the yogurt with its array of probiotic microbes that had proven efficient in the
microbes and metabolites produced by the microbes and probiotic fermented milk product described above. The
not the single Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain, rationale for adding chondroitin sulfate lays in its dual
responsible for the immune stimulating effect role as a prebiotic synergizing with the probiotic strains
(Hummelen et al., 2011). comprised in the formula and as a supplement endowed
Such a striking difference could be explained with a number of healthy properties (Shang et al., 2016;
considering that during the fermentation of milk by Ruggiero et al., 2016).
the probiotic strains that compose a yogurt, several
newly formed peptides are generated and it is likely Materials and Methods
that the overall immune-reconstituting effect is due to
a combination of microbes and the products of their The non-dairy fermented product described in this
metabolism rather than to the microbes alone article is manufactured in Europe under the supervision
(Ebner et al., 2015). Consistent with this of the Swiss company Silver Spring Sagl that is the same
interpretation, the Authors concluded that: "The company that manufactures the probiotic fermented milk
inefficacy of the probiotic strains in preserving the product quoted in Schwalb et al. (2016).
immune function may be the result of using The individual components that are necessary to
encapsulated probiotics versus the use of probiotic prepare the non-dairy product are manufactured in Europe
yogurt with the same probiotic strains in previous by companies leaders in their respective fields. These
studies " (Hummelen et al., 2011). companies are quality certified in conformance with ISO
Taking into consideration these observation, in 2011 9001:2008 and, when applicable, in compliance with the
we developed the formula for a probiotic drink that was rules governing medical products in the European Union
based on the fermentation of milk and colostrum by a laid down in Commission Directives 91/356/EEC, as
proprietary array of microbes which included amended by Directive 2003/94/EC and 91/412/EEC
fermenting and non-fermenting strains as well as (GMP certification according to the European
gastro-resistant probiotics. The efficacy of this Pharmacopoeia and the Japanese Pharmacopoeia).
product in restoring the immune system was first It is well known that fermented drinks and foods may
reported in a preliminary study in 2011 (Pacini et al., contain alcohol (ethanol) that is an inherent by-product
2011) and subsequently the product was utilized in the of practically all types of fermentation. In order to
context of the integrated nutritional approach to precisely assess the amount of alcohol deriving from the

Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero / American Journal of Immunology 2017, (): .
DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2017..

fermentation process inherent to the present formula, the bakery products such as burger rolls or sweet milk rolls
analyses concerning the amount of alcohol were contain more than 1.2 grams of ethanol per 100 grams of
performed by the Swiss laboratory TIBIO Sagl that product (Gorgus et al., 2016).
represents SCITEC Research SA, Lausanne and is The measured pH of the product after 24 h
certified by Swiss Medic, State of New York Department fermentation, was 3.95 that is a value consistent with an
of Health, Swiss Testing Labs, Swiss Accreditation STS efficient process of fermentation.
0278 and is also quality certified ISO 17025. The microbiological analyses performed on this
The non-dairy fermented product was prepared novel, non-dairy fermented product showed that the
according to the following procedure. number of Colony Forming Units (CFU) after 24 h
One liter of non-chlorinated potable water was added fermentation was 1.2109 per 100 mL that corresponds
with 5 grams of sodium chondroitin sulfate, USP food to 12 billion CFU per liter. This value of course does not
grade, one sachet of ad hoc formulated fermenting starter take into account neither the number of non-fermenting
enriched in Bifidobacteria, one sachet containing 80109 Bifidobacteria nor the number of viable cells of gastro-
viable cells of gastro-resistant probiotics (comprising, resistant probiotics; thus, the total number of probiotics
among others, Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilli, including (CFU of fermenting microbes plus Bifidobacteria and
rhamnosus etc.) and maltodextrin (as one of the gastro-resistant probiotics) is close to 100109 per liter.
prebiotics of the formula), 18 grams of organic sucrose, Please notice that these numbers refer to probiotic
17 ml of organic lemon juice, one organic dry prune microbes that are the only microbes present in the
(approximate weight, 15 grams). This mixture was product. In fact, analyses carried out to ascertain the
mixed in a large glass bowl with an ample surface, presence of contaminating pathogenic microbes ruled out
loosely covered with a paper towel and incubated at their presence, thus confirming the safety of the formula
room temperature (22C) for 24 h. and of the fermentation procedure as reported in Table 1.
In detail, analysis for Enterobacteriaceae was
Results performed according to the method designated ISO
Alcohol (ethanol) production during the fermentation 21528-2:2004 and showed less than 1 CFU per ml. The
of sugar-based beverages may represent a problem for methods identified by the suffix "ISO" (International
drinks that are not intended as alcoholic beverages and Organization for Standardization) are those designed by
their influence on blood alcohol level has been the worldwide federation of national standards bodies
questioned in a legal proceeding (Rabl et al., 1994). (ISO member bodies). In particular, ISO 21528-2:2004
Thus, in 1994, experiments performed at the Swiss is a method for the count of Enterobacteriaceae
Institut fr Rechtsmedizin des Kantonsspitals, St. Gallen, without pre-enrichment. This method is performed by
demonstrated that a non-dairy probiotic drink counting colonies in a solid medium after incubation at
formulation, albeit very different from that presented 37C and it is used to assess the presence of pathogens
here, led to appreciable ethanol formation that would in products intended for human consumption as well as
have qualified the beverage as a bona fide alcoholic in the areas of food production and food handling. In
drink. Such a formulation was composed of 21 table this method, Enterobacteriaceae are defined as
spoons of water (approximately 310 mL), 6 table spoons microorganisms that form characteristic colonies on
of kefir granules (approximately 120 grams), 150 grams violet red bile glucose agar and that ferment glucose
of sucrose, 2 figs and one lemon. The Authors of this and show a negative oxidase reaction when the tests are
study found that one liter of this non-dairy kefir product carried out in accordance with the techniques described
contained up to 38 grams per liter of ethanol after 7 to 10 in ISO 21528-2:2004.
days (Rabl et al., 1994).
In order to avoid these potential problems, the Table 1. Analysis of pathogen contaminants
amount of sucrose in our formulation is much lower and Pathogen Result
the microbial strains were carefully selected in order to Enterobacteriaceae < 1 CFU/mL
avoid the production of ethanol and to guarantee Microbiology
stability. Analyses using gas-chromatography-mass ISO 21528-2:2004
Enterococci Zero CFU/100 mL
spectrometry demonstrated that the amount of ethanol
Membrane Filtration
present one week after the fermentation was below 0.1 ISO 7899-2:2000
grams per liter, thus well below the limit for alcoholic Escherichia Coli Zero CFU/100 mL
beverages and even below the level of ethanol found in Membrane Filtration
common foods. Thus, researchers at the University of ISO 9308-1:2000/Cor1:2007
Kaiserslautern in Germany, determined that orange, Listeria monocytogenes Absence in 25 mL
apple and grape juice contain significant amounts of Real-time PCR
ethanol (up to 0.77 grams per liter) and certain packed AFNOR BRD 07/10-04/05

Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero / American Journal of Immunology 2017, (): .
DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2017..

Analysis for Enterococci using membrane filtration to the number of non-fermenting microbes (e.g.,
according to ISO 7899-2:2000, showed the absence of Bifidobacteria) and gastro-resistant probiotics.
Enterococci; in other words, there was no formation of The presence of gastro-resistant probiotics, including
CFU. ISO 7899 is a method for the detection and count Bifidobacteria, that are intended to colonize the gut after
of intestinal Enterococci in water or in other drinkable having passed undamaged the stomach barrier. Please
liquids by membrane filtration. It is worth noticing that notice that most non-dairy probiotic drinks do not
this method was originally intended for examination of contain Bifidobacteria neither in their fermenting
drinking water, water from swimming pools and other formulas nor as gastro-resistant probiotics. It is known
disinfected or clean waters that is for the examination of that Bifidobacteria are among the first microbes to
large volumes of water containing only a few intestinal colonize the human gastrointestinal tract and there is
Enterococci, thus highlighting the sensitivity and ample consensus that they exert positive health benefits
specificity of the method. In this method, intestinal on their host with particular reference to the immune
Enterococci are defined as bacteria which are able to system (OCallaghan and van Sinderen, 2016).
reduce 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride to formazan The presence of eukaryotic microbes endowed with
and to hydrolyze aesculin at 44C. probiotic features. Among these, we focused our
Analysis for Escherichia coli (ISO 9308- attention on the Kluyveromyces marxianus. Thus, this
1:2000/Cor1:2007), showed no CFU. ISO 9308- microbe is known to decrease the production of pro-
1:2000/Cor1:2007 is a method for the count of inflammatory cytokines in human enterocyte-like cells as
Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria that is based on well as in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells,
membrane filtration, followed by culture on a thus reducing local and systemic inflammation
chromogenic coliform agar medium and count of the (Maccaferri et al., 2012). Kluyveromyces marxianus
number of target organisms in the sample. Because of its favors growth and colonization of the human colon by
characteristics, this method is particularly suitable for Bifidobacteria, thus synergizing with these probiotics
waters or drinkable products with low bacterial numbers that are highly represented in the product described here.
that will cause less than 100 total colonies on In addition, it increases the production of the short-chain
chromogenic coliform agar. fatty acids acetate and propionate (Maccaferri et al.,
Analysis for Listeria monocytogenes using real-time 2012). Kluyveromyces marxianus also modulates human
PCR according to AFNOR BRD 07/10-04/05, showed dendritic cell function in vitro and induces a response
absence of the microbe. This method follows the dominated by Foxp3+ T regulatory lymphocytes
guidelines of the French Association for Standardization; (Smith et al., 2016). Such a response may bear positive
(Association Franaise de Normalisation or AFNOR) consequences in those conditions characterized by
that is the French national organization for excessive inflammation or uncontrolled proliferation.
standardization and it is in accordance with the Thus, the protein designated Foxp3 (forkhead box p3)
International Organization for Standardization. This plays a role not only in regulatory T cell differentiation,
technique is based on real-time PCR, where specific but also in cancer, inhibiting tumorigenesis and increasing
cancer cell apoptosis (Tan et al., 2014).
probes are used to detect the DNA during the
The presence of a glycosaminoglycan, chondroitin
amplification, by hybridizing to the amplicons. This
sulfate, that is endowed with a number of healthy
method allows a simple determination of the presence of
properties and it is now also considered a prebiotic.
Listeria monocytogenes in a sample and it is recognized
Thus, although chondroitin sulfate has been used for
by certification bodies as suitable for the detection of the
decades as a dietary supplement and a symptomatic slow
pathogen in foods or drinks for human consumption.
acting drug, only recently it has been demonstrated that
it is readily degraded and fermented in vitro by human
Discussion gut microbes, suggesting that it may act as a prebiotic
The non-dairy product described in this study may (Shang et al., 2016). In addition, it is well acknowledged
represent a novelty in the field of probiotic drinks since that chondroitin sulfate negatively regulates cancer cell
it combined the healthy properties of dairy-based signaling (Willis and Klppel, 2014) and enhances the
products with the properties of non-dairy probiotic activity of conventional chemotherapeutics (Ferro et al.,
drinks. The major improvements over the existing non- 2012), a finding that is consistent with the observation that
dairy probiotic drinks are the following. sulfated motifs of chondroitin sulfate inhibit triple
The amount of live microbes; typically, a commercial negative breast cancer (Poh et al., 2015). In a peculiar
non-dairy probiotic drink contains about 1109 probiotic synergism with Kluyveromyces marxianus, chondroitin
microbes per serving, whereas the product described sulfate inhibits inflammation (Vallires and du Souich,
here contains more than 9109 probiotic microbes as 2010) and is endowed with immune-stimulating properties
calculated by adding the number of fermenting microbes consisting in the activation of macrophages without

Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero / American Journal of Immunology 2017, (): .
DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2017..

inducing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines Author's contribution

(Wrenshall et al., 1999). The number of potential
preventive and therapeutic effects of chondroitin sulfate is The Authors equally contributed to the genesis and
widely acknowledged. Thus, the prestigious Mayo Clinic development of the project described in this study and to
reports that there exists scientific evidence for the clinical the writing of the manuscript.
use of chondroitin sulfate in conditions characterized by
inflammation such as osteoarthritis, coronary artery Ethics
disease, psoriasis, muscle soreness or interstitial cystitis. This article is original and contains unpublished
In addition, the same institution presents a long list of the material. The corresponding author confirms that the
uses for chondroitin sulfate that are based on tradition or other author has read and approved the manuscript.
scientific theories. Such a list reads:
aging, allergies, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic Conflict of Interest
lateral sclerosis, antioxidant, antiviral, blood clots, bone
healing, breast cancer, burns, cervical disc disease, chest Stefania Pacini, MD PhD, is a consultant for the
pain, chronic venous ulcers, clogged arteries, colorectal company Silver Spring Sagl that produces and
cancer, diabetes, gout, gum disease, headaches, heart distributes the probiotics described in this study.
attack prevention, heart disease prevention, HIV/AIDS, Marco Ruggiero, MD, PhD, owns shares in the
hyperglycemia, high cholesterol, inflammation, company Silver Spring Sagl that produces and
inflammatory bowel disease, joint problems, kidney distributes the probiotics described in this study. Marco
stones, leukemia, lung cancer, malaria, mouth and throat Ruggiero is consultant for the company dr. reinwald
infections, multiple sclerosis, nerve damage, nerve healthcare. Marco Ruggiero is member of the Editorial
regeneration, neuroblastoma, osteoporosis, pain, Board of The American Journal of Immunology and is
Parkinson's disease, premature birth prevention, quality
waived from the Article Processing fee for this
of life (osteoarthritis), rheumatoid arthritis, snoring,
contribution; he receives no remuneration for his
soft tissue injury, spinal cord injury, spine problems,
surgery, systemic lupus erythematosus, editorial work.
Temporomandibular Joint Disorder (TMJ), transplants,
wound healing (Ruggiero et al., 2016). References
In addition to this long list, it should be noticed that
Branca, J.J., S. Pacini and M. Ruggiero, 2015. Effects of
supplements containing chondroitin sulfate could be
pre-surgical Vitamin D supplementation and
considered in the prevention and treatment of autism
ketogenic diet in a patient with recurrent breast
spectrum disorders that are conditions associated with
increased urinary excretion of glycosaminoglycans cancer. Anticancer Res., 35:5525-32.
(Endreffy et al., 2016). Thus, it has been demonstrated PMID: 26408720
that chondroitin sulfate, as proteoglycan, is a major Ebner, J., A. A Arslan, M. Fedorova, R. Hoffmann
component of the peri-neuronal nets that control and A. Kketin et al., 2015. Peptide profiling of
plasticity (Sorg et al., 2016). bovine kefir reveals 236 unique peptides released
from caseins during its production by starter culture
Conclusion or kefir grains. J. Proteom., 117: 41-57.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.01.005
Here we describe a product that may be considered a Endreffy, I., G. Bjrklund, F. Dics, M.A. Urbina and
novel concept in the category of probiotics since it E. Endreffy, 2016. Acid Glycosaminoglycan
contains a number of microbial strains that are not (aGAG) excretion is increased in children with
commonly found in non-dairy probiotic drinks as well as autism spectrum disorder and it can be controlled
a glycosaminoglycan, chondroitin sulfate, that is at the by diet. Metab. Brain Dis., 31: 273-8.
same time a powerful supplement and a prebiotic DOI: 10.1007/s11011-015-9745-2
synergizing with the probiotic strains contained in this
Ferro, M., G. Giuberti, S. Zappavigna, S. Perdon and
product. We hypothesize that this novel product may
G. Facchini et al., 2012. Chondroitin sulphate
find application in all those conditions where natural
enhances the antitumor activity of gemcitabine and
modulation of the immune system is sought after.
mitomycin-C in bladder cancer cells with different
mechanisms. Oncol. Rep., 27: 409-15.
Acknowledgement DOI: 10.3892/or.2011.1526
The Authors wish to thank Ms. Fulvia Gianetta of Gasbarrini, G., F. Bonvicini and A. Gramenzi, 2016.
Silver Spring Sagl for her relentless support and Probiotics history. J. Clin. Gastroenterol., 50:
insightful advice. 116-S119.

Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero / American Journal of Immunology 2017, (): .
DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2017..

Gorgus, E., M. Hittinger and D. Schrenk, 2016. Ruggiero, M., J.J.V. Branca, D. Noakes, M. Gulisano
Estimates of ethanol exposure in children from food and M. Morucci et al., 2014b. Glycosylated oleic
not labeled as alcohol-containing. J. Anal. Toxicol., acid/vitamin D-binding protein suppresses HER2
40: 537-42. DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw046 oncogene expression in human breast cancer.
Greenwalt, C.J., K.H. Steinkraus and R.A. Ledford, Anticancer Res., 34: 5845-5847.
2000. Kombucha, the fermented tea: Microbiology, Ruggiero, M., H. Reinwald and S. Pacini, 2016. Is
composition and claimed health effects. J. Food chondroitin sulfate responsible for the biological
Protect., 63: 976-81. effects attributed to the GC protein-derived
DOI: 10.4315/0362-028X-63.7.976 Macrophage Activating Factor (GcMAF)? Med.
Hummelen, R., J. Changalucha, N.L. Butamanya, T.E. Hypotheses, 94: 126-31.
Koyama and A. Cook et al., 2011. Effect of 25 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2016.07.012
weeks probiotic supplementation on immune Schwalb, M., M. Taubmann, S. Hines, H. Reinwald
function of HIV patients. Gut Microbes, 2: 80-5. and M. Ruggiero, 2016. Clinical observation of a
DOI: 10.4161/gmic.2.2.15787 novel, complementary, immunotherapeutic
Irvine, S.L., R. Hummelen, S. Hekmat, C.W. Looman approach based on ketogenic Diet, chondroitin
and J.D. Habbema et al., 2010. Probiotic yogurt sulfate, vitamin D3, oleic acid and a fermented
consumption is associated with an increase of CD4 milk and colostrum product. Am. J. Immunol.
count among people living with HIV/AIDS. J. Clin. DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2016
Gastroenterol., 44: e201-5. Shang, Q., J. Shi, G. Song, M. Zhang and C. Cai et al.,
DOI: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e3181d8fba8 2016. Structural modulation of gut microbiota by
Maccaferri, S., A. Klinder, P. Brigidi, P. Cavina and A. chondroitin sulfate and its oligosaccharide. Int. J.
Costabile, 2012. Potential probiotic Kluyveromyces Biol. Macromol., 89: 489-98.
marxianus B0399 modulates the immune response in DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.04.091
Caco-2 cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells Smith, I.M., A. Baker, J.E. Christensen, T. Boekhout
and impacts the human gut microbiota in an in vitro and H. Frkir et al., 2016. Kluyveromyces
colonic model system. Applied Environ. Microbiol., marxianus and Saccharomyces boulardii induce
78: 956-64. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.06385-11 distinct levels of dendritic cell cytokine secretion
Marsh, A.J., O. O'Sullivan, C. Hill, R.P. Ross and P.D.
and significantly different T cell responses In
Cotter, 2013. Sequence-based analysis of the
Vitro. PLoS One, 11: e0167410-e0167410.
microbial composition of water kefir from multiple
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167410
sources. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 348: 79-85.
Sorg, B.A., S. Berretta, J.M. Blacktop, J.W. Fawcett and
DOI: 10.1111/1574-6968.12248
O'Callaghan, A. and D. van Sinderen, 2016. H. Kitagawa et al., 2016. Casting a wide net: Role
Bifidobacteria and their role as members of the of perineuronal nets in neural plasticity. J.
human gut microbiota. Front Microbiol., 7: 925-925. Neurosci., 36: 11459-11468.
DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00925 DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2351-16.2016
Pacini, S., T. Punzi, G. Morucci and M. Ruggiero, 2011. Tan, B., M. Anaka, S. Deb, C. Freyer and L.M. Ebert et al.,
Macrophages of the Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid 2014. FOXP3 over-expression inhibits melanoma
Tissue (MALT) as key elements of the immune tumorigenesis via effects on proliferation and
response to vitamin D binding protein-macrophage apoptosis. Oncotarget, 5: 264-76.
activating factor. Ital. J. Anat. Embryol., 116: PMID: 24406338
136-136. DOI: 10.13128/IJAE-10160 Thyer, L., J.J.V. Branca and M. Taubmann, 2014.
Poh, Z.W., C.H. Gan, E.J. Lee, S. Guo and G.W. Yip et al., Clinical experience of immunotherapy based on
2015. Divergent synthesis of chondroitin sulfate oleic acid bound to glycosylated vitamin D-
disaccharides and identification of sulfate motifs binding protein in localized and metastatic
that inhibit triple negative breast cancer. Sci. Rep., adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Anticancer Res.,
5: 14355-14355. DOI: 10.1038/srep14355 34: 5847-5849.
Rabl, W., B. Liniger, K. Sutter and T. Sigrist, 1994. Vallires, M. and P. du Souich, 2010. Modulation of
[Ethanol content of Kefir water]. Blutalkohol, 31: inflammation by chondroitin sulfate. Osteoarthritis
76-9. PMID: 8204224 Cartilage, 18: S1-6. DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2010.02.017
Ruggiero, M., E. Ward, R. Smith, J.J. Branca and D. Wang, H., I.S. Lee, C. Braun and P. Enck, 2016. Effect
Noakes et al., 2014a. Oleic acid, deglycosylated of probiotics on central nervous system functions in
vitamin D-binding protein, nitric oxide: A molecular animals and humans: A systematic review. J.
triad made lethal to cancer. Anticancer Res., 34: Neurogastroenterol. Motil., 22: 589-605.
3569-78. PMID: 24982371 DOI: 10.5056/jnm16018

Stefania Pacini and Marco Ruggiero / American Journal of Immunology 2017, (): .
DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2017..

Ward, E., R. Smith, J.J.V. Branca, D. Noakes and G. Wrenshall, L.E., R.B. Stevens, F.B. Cerra and J.L. Platt,
Morucci et al., 2014. Clinical experience of cancer 1999. Modulation of macrophage and B cell
immunotherapy with oleic acid complexed with de- function by glycosaminoglycans. J. Leukoc Biol.,
glycosylated vitamin D binding protein. Am. J. 66: 391-400. PMID: 10496308
Immunol., 10: 23-32. DOI: 10.3844/ajisp.2014.23.32 Zamberi, N.R., N. Abu, N.E. Mohamed, N. Nordin and
Willis, C.M. and M. Klppel, 2014. Chondroitin sulfate- Y.S. Keong et al., 2016. The antimetastatic and
E is a negative regulator of a pro-tumorigenic antiangiogenesis effects of kefir water on murine breast
wnt/beta-catenin-collagen 1 axis in breast cancer cancer cells. Integr. Cancer Ther., 15: NP53-NP66.
cells. PLoS One, 9: e103966-e103966. DOI: 10.1177/1534735416642862
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103966