ON THE MANUFACTURE 01" IMPELLERS FOR TURBOCOMPRESSORS "

by
Klaus Boddenberg
Manager of Quality and Materials
Compressor Division
Mannesmann-DEMAG
Duisburg, West Germany

impellers can be produced by this method. In addition, the

Klaus Boddenberg received the degree vibratory behavior of such impellers is favorable due to system
"Diplom-Ingenieur" from the Technical inherent dampening. Moreover, riveted impellers will tolerate
University of Stuttgart, Germany (1960), high stresses when the Bauschinger effect is taken into account.
where he also received his Dr.-Ing. de The manufacture of highly stressed impellers for turbocom
gree (1965). T he title of his doctoral thesis pressors is based on the availability of suitable materials and
was "Tangential Loading of Spherical adequate test methods.
Shells." He is a Materials Specialist for
Design and Manufacture of Machines INTRODUCTION
with Mannesmann-DEMAG, Duisburg, The impeller is the most essential part of a radial-flow
and has been Manager of the Central turbocompressor. In view of the ever increasing importance of
Materials Testing and Welding Laborato- its performance, the geometrical design of an impeller is
ries since 1966. governed by the laws of aerodynamics, thermodynamics, and
For the last seven years, Dr. Boddenberg has, in addition, stress. Therefore, there is only a small choice of compromises to
been responsible for Quality Assurance and Quality Cantral the effect of altering of the geometrical data with the aim of
within the Compressor Division. adopting a specific manufacturing process. As a consequence,
special methods for the manufacture of turbocompressor impel
lers had to be developed or already known methods had to be
adjusted to satisfy the changing demands made of a turbocom
A B S TRACT
pressor impeller.
The efficiency of s::ompressor impellers, apart from the de These manufacturing methods, the criteria for their selection,
sign, depends on some features linked with their manufacture. and the resulting quality assurance measures are described
These features are the accuracy of geometry, the surface quality herein. The emphasis, however, is put on process compressors
obtained, and the blockages which are inevitable with covered of specific design and manufacture to meet customers' require
impellers and are attributable to the joining method applied, ments. Series-manufactured compressors will not be addressed.
e. g. , greater blade thicknesses in the case of riveting, or The field of application and the configuration of three
narrowed cross sections, due to weld seams, in the case of dimensional (3 D) geometrical turbocompressor impellers with
welding. As a result of the ever increasing importance of various types of the three-dimensionally curved blades is shown
efficiency, efforts have been made to further improve the in Figure 1 as a function of the impeller specific flow coefficient
manufacturing process.
The advantages and disadvantages of the various forming
methods for high-quality impellers, such as milling with a
relatively high accuracy, and involving high manufacturing
outlay, are discussed. The various casting processes with a
variety of possibilities to fulfill the requirements made with
regard to the dimensional tolerances, process-dependent blade
thicknesses and manual work for achieving certain specified
accuracies are described.
The efficiency of impellers with closed passageways, that is,
with a cover or shroud disc, is superior to that of impellers with
open passageways. This means that when no cast impellers are
used, suitable methods must be available for joining the blades
and the cover. For maximum accuracy and minimum blockage,
the high-vacuum brazing method has become more and more
accepted during the past few years. However, the manufacture
of impellers applying the brazing method becomes problematic
for large diameters. In addition to vacuum brazing, manual and
machine welding processes continue to be applied, including
slot welding for two-dimensionally curved blades.
Diffusion welding and electron-beam welding have not found
acceptance since high costs, unfavorable crevices, and sharp
edges, along with possible deformations, have a negative influ Q004 o.oo6 o.ooa omo oms o.o2 o.o3 OP4 ops 0,1 0)25

ence on the behavior of such impellers during operation. SPECIFIC FLOW COEFF. $ = l_
u,
O
It is true that the sophisticated riveting process of some
manufacturers for two-dimensionally curved blades requires Figure 1. Field of Application of T hree Dimensional Impellers in
great wall thicknesses; but, it is also true that high-accuracy Radial Turbocompressors.
9
10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

and of the impeller diameter. This diagram represents the latest necessitating any rework. For larger diameters of up to 1500 mm
impeller designs used in practice. Nevertheless, there still and larger, it is common practice to use a single ceramic core
exists a wide range of two-dimensional impellers. Therefore, containing all the blade faces involved (monobloc). The formerly
such impellers will also be discussed. used sand core is inadequate for producting sufficiently accurate
The manufacture of impellers involves complex technological impellers.
problems. There are several options to systematically deal with These two methods will be briefly described in the following
these problems and they will be discussed as follows: subsections. In the further course of discussion, the method of
The manufacture of the hub disc with the blades will be casting closed impellers is taken as being similar, as mentioned
discussed first, since manufacturing the blades and hub disc before, if the monobloc process is applied. Narrow passage
from one piece has become common. Next, special importance closed impellers manufactured using the investment casting
will be attached to the question of joining the cover to the process have not been produced with convincing results. Thus,
blades. Certain criteria for the selection of materials and for the closed impellers of smaller diameter also have been produced
heat treatment of the blanks or of the completed impellers using the conventional forming process, where this is possible
emerge from the variety of optional manufacturing methods. under the aspect of channel size. In addition to the lack of
The methods and the extent of quality assurance will be flexibility in designing impellers, the casting of impellers with
governed by the manufacturing process selected and by the covers features another drawback: channel side faults in the
special requirements of materials to be satisfied. cover, in the hub disc and in the blades which are difficult to find
The outlining of technical details regarding the sequence of and repair, depending on their size and their accessibility.
manufacturing operations then results in the criteria to be
selected for a specific case. When making this selection, one Investment Casting Method
must also bear in mind that the great number of technical The basis of casting impellers following the investment
options is to be reduced to such an extent that the continuous casting process is a pattern of low-melting wax, as shown in
application of a given manufacturing process in a workshop is Figure 2 . With regard to its dimension, this wax pattern is
ensured, taking into account the spectrum of impellers to be identical to the final casting produced in that it must consider all
manufactured. Only then can the know-how and practice in shrinking effects during solidification of the steel casting and all
working with a given process be kept on the highest standard changes to the contour which may occur on cooling or on heat
possible. treatment.

THE MANUFACTURE O F
HUB DI S CS WITH BLADE S
There are two principle methods of manufacturing the blank
of the hub disc, i.e., casting and forging. Compared to closed
impellers made from forgings, with the cover always being a
separately manufactured part (except where the channels are
manufactured using the electro-erosion process which is applied
relatively seldom), the cover can be integrally cast when
producing closed impellers by casting. This, however, implies
that adjusting the impeller geometry to the requirements of
thermodynamics necessitates a costly modification of the pat
tern. Compared to the impeller with a fixed contour of the cover
that has been in use for quite some time, the principle of the
impeller with a variable contour of the cover has been gaining in
importance lately. In this latter case, the impeller consists of a
cast hub disc with blades of maximum dimensions. By turning
the blades to the required contour, it is then possible to realize
with one single pattern a great number of impellers, with
different flow coefficients, with and without a cover. This
Figure 2. Wax Pattern for Investment Casting.
method will be described in more detail in the following
discussion. One should, however, always bear in mind that
casting of closed impellers, apart from those with extremely
This wax pattern is normally made in a high precision steel
small blade channels, is possible over practically the entire mold. The surfaces of this mold, which are especially important
range of dimensions up to 1500 mm diameter and more and has because of the blade geometry, are made of aluminium on a five
been practiced with great success for two decades. axis milling machine. They are used for making cores of low
melting metals, which represent the channels in the mold that is
Casting of Impellers shown in Figure 3. The pattern must be designed so that
The demands made on the accuracy of cast impellers are opening the mold and forcing out the part is possible after
independent of the forming or casting process applied. They are pressing in and solidification of the wax.
merely governed by the requirements of aerodynamics and Specially selected ceramic masses of different grain sizes and
thermodynamics. On the other hand, the question of whether a composition are now applied layerwise, with the aid of
cast impeller in its as-cast condition is within the dimensional manipulators which are usually computer controlled to ensure a
and contour tolerances, particularly regarding blade faces, or uniform layer thickness (Figure 4). During the burning of this
whether the specified accuracy can be achieved only by grind ceramic mass, the wax melts out, thus creating the mold for the
ing, is only a matter of costs and not of quality. turbocompressor impellers. Casting takes place at such high
Where smaller impellers with outer diameters of up to ceramic temperatures that even thin cross-sections flow out
approximately 500 mm are involved, the investment casting well. Allowances on the blade surfaces are, therefore, not
process is able to satisfY the tolerance requirements, without necessary. Apart from occasional straightening operations, the
 ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IMPELLERS FOR TURBOCOMPRESSORS 11

highly accurate ceramic core of one single piece (monobloc) is

obtained, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5. Blade Made from Wax and Mold Used.

Figure 3. Die from Steel for Producing Wax Patterns.

Figure 6. Monobloc Core for Two Dimensional Impeller with

Outer Diameters over 500 mm.
The sequence of casting is not any different from conventional
casting. Since the mold, however, is relatively cold before
casting, and does not flow out so well, as in the case of the
investment casting process, it is necessary to make allowance,
especially on the thin blade inlet edges. In addition, the effect
on the casting surface cannot be ruled out, because of the
extended influence of the atmosphere and of the mold materials
during solidification and cooling of large impellers. Impellers
cast with a monobloc core will thus obtain their final dimensions
only with 100 percent grinding of all faces not machined on the
subsequent turning. The accuracy thus obtained, however, is,
Figure 4. Covering of Wax Pattern with Ceramic on a Computer relative to the size of the castings, equal to that of small
Controlled Manipulator. impellers made using the investment casting process. Some cast
impellers in the as-cast condition and in the ready-for-delivery
condition are shown in Figure 7.
blades and the hub disc need no furher machining in the channel
area after casting.
Casting with Monobloc Cores
For larger impellers, it is no longer possible to make wax
patterns of one single piece. 'Wax patterns assembled from
individual segments or a core of solid ceramic must contain all of
the impeller channel, including the blade surfaces. The meth
od, using wax patterns from individual segments, has not been a
general success, since improving of the accuracy is not possible,
in contrast to the monobloc core method.
A condition for making a monobloc core is blades of a material
that melts out or gasifies on burning of the ceramic material.
Consequently, these blades, shown in Figure 5, must be made of
wax or of plastics with a process that is very similar to the
investment casting process.
The blades are inserted into a pattern of wood or of plastics, Figure 7. Three Dimensional Impellers in the As-Cast Condition
and are located in their exact position in such a manner that a and Ready for Final Machining.
12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

Manufacture of the Hub Disc from Forgings

I Thermodynamics
I NC

:=:_ll
I I
Component family
Thanks to the advanced steel making technology, it is nowa Output
Programming
days not necessary to use single forgings as raw material for the
fabrication of hub discs, as was common practice in the past. ...
Data file Data f i le
Rather, it is possible to take the hub disc raw meterial from a Blade surface Definition
long forged rod of appropriate diameter. In addition to a cost RZBS .. of impeller
1
effective production, this method offers the benefit of shorter 2
. . . . .
. . . .
Blade surface
Copy RZBS ....
delivery times, as stocking is possible. Depending on the 1 .. . .. . . ..
material, this rod, which may have a diameter of up to 1000 mm, 2 .. . . . . . .

may already be finally heat treated, if a high-alloyed material is

used. If low-alloyed steels are used, the cut or pre-turned hub
disc must be subjected to final heat treatment, because of the
lower hardenability.
Processing
For smaller impellers with an outer diameter of up to 600 mm EUKLID
to 700 mm, the blade profile is produced by milling. This is Processor
S imulation/check
always done using the plain milling process, with the tool on screen
Postprocessor
cutting only with its outer diameter in the circumferential
direction. For this reason, the blade faces assembled from the
NC-Program
line elements are advantageous, since as in this case the tool
cutting edges are used over their entire length, as shown in L i s t+ tape

Figure 8.
Figure 9. Steps of Programming for NC-milling of Three
Dimensional Impellers.
cover are identical in both cases. Such impellers, however, may
also be used as open impellers if the compressor design so
permits.
There is another way to manufacture the blades which is
normally used for larger impellers with an outer diameter of
more than about 700 mm. In this case, the blades are made from
sheets with the thickness of the final blade. Depending on the
degree of complexity of the profile, simple bending tools or
complicated dies are used for the hot forming process.

JOINING OF DI S CS AND B LADE S

There are various methods of mounting the discs to the
blades. These methods can be classified without restriction into
the following principle groups:
welding method

brazing method

riveting method

The principles of these manufacturing processes are generally

known from other sectors. However, they must be adjusted to
the special requirements of the turbocompressor impeller with
its poor accessibility, the high stresses to which it is subjected,
and to the resulting demands made of the manufacturing quality.
Figure 8. Milling of a T hree Dimensional Impeller on a Five-Axis Whereas the hub disc may be cast or forged, as described
Milling Machine. previously, the cover is normally made only from a forged blank.
Accordingly, the manufacturing processes must be suitable to
handle castings as well as forgings which, although of same
The milling of two and three dimensional impellers is, in chemical basic composition, may differ in their reaction to the
principle, identical. Of course, the milling of two dimensional input of heat, e. g. , due to welding, brazing, and post heat
impellers does not make such a high demand of the degrees of treatment.
freedom of the machine tools as does milling of three dimen
sional impellers. A schematic drawing of the procedure for Welding
generating a numerically controlled (NC) milling program Wherever possible, it is attempted to have the actual welding
appears in Figure 9. The output of a thermodynamic calculation process take place within the blade channel so that a solid cover
consists of a data file which describes the blade surface in polar is directly joined with the blades by fillet welds. Of the great
coordinates. These values are entered into the NC program for number of different welding methods, the shielded metal arc
the selected impeller family, where they are converted into the welding (SMAW) and the gas tungsten arc welding-pulsed arc
NC program of the machine tool to be used via an electronic (GTAW-P) methods are normally applied. If the blade channel is
processor. It is possible to check the program by simulation on a not accessible due to its small width, it is attempted to join the
monitor before starting the expensive milling process. cover with the blades by applying "slot welding" or 'electron
Hub discs with blades of the same geometry could be beam (EB) welding" through the cover. Diffusion welding has
successfully produced this way by casting, and by forging and also been studied for its suitability for welding of narrow
milling, so that the subsequent operations for mounting of the channels.
 ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IMPELLERS FOR TURBOCOMPRESSORS 13

These five welding processes and their suitability for the special qualification of the welders and their continuous training
manufacture of turbocompressor impellers are briefly described to ensure a weld of perfect quality under such unfavorable
in the following subsections so that conclusions can be drawn on conditions. The aim is to weld with one pass, or with two passes
their merits and drawbacks. at the most, a fillet weld that already forms a fillet weld radius,
and thus requires only roughirregularities in the weld surface to
Welding in the Channel be ground. Undercuts in areas of highdynamic stresses must be
worked out to improve the fatigue strength (Figure 12 ).
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW ). SMAW is still being
used where the use of automatic manipulators is not practical
because of the intricate contact line between the blade and the
cover. This is particularly true where three dimensional impel
lers are concerned.
The dimensions of the outlet area of the impeller are the main
limitation of this welding process. In the author's experience,
not less than about 15 mm are needed in this area, if the
accessibilitv within the channel is relativclv filVorahle. The
length of th e blades may also cause a limitation, because only
electrodes of300 mm to a maximum 450 mm length arc suitable
for welding in the channel.
The weld preparation consists of slight grinding of the blade in
the weld area, where blades of a thickness of more than,j mm are
concerned, with not less than 60 percent of the blade thickness
being maintained as the bearing ftce for the cover. Complete
through-welding is not a goal, the reasonfor which is shown in
Figure 10. The higher the degree of penetration, the higher the
shrinkage during welding, and the scattering of this shrinkage.
Accordingly, the tolerances of the channel height, which are
normally in the range of one percent of this height, can only be
maintained in the case of a lower degree of through-welding.
Studies have shown that a lack of penetration of at least .50
percent is required for maintainin).!; the necessary tolerances.
Such welded areas of up to 90 percent of the blade thickness,
however, still do not affect the quality, and are beneficial to the
Figure 11 . Wdding with SMAW Process of a Cast T hree
accuracy of the impeller.
Dimensional Hub Disc and Forged Cover Disc.

2,5

2.0

'E 1.5
E

10

Blade Thickness lmml

Figure 10. Influence of Weld Penetration on Shrinkage and

Accuracy.
Figure 12. Three Dimensional Impellerfrom Cast Hub Disc and
Knowledge of the welding process proper is assumed. Some
Forged Cover Disc in the As Welded Condition.
aspects of the manufacture are: The impeller is mounted on a
welding table, followed by heating up the former to the If the blades are made separately from sheets, these blades
necessary preheating temperature, by using an induction heat will be welded first to the cover disc, because it is evident that
ing system, with the temperature continuously being controlled the accessibility to the area of welding is better in the channel on
via thermocouples (Figure 11). The electrodes must, of course, the hub disc side than on the cover side. As shown in Figure 13 ,
be positioned muchflatter in the channel than recommended by the blades are held by special devices for welding on the cover
the electrode suppliers as the favorable position. This requires a disc side. After welding, grinding, eventual repair work, and
14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

heat treatment, the contour of the blades on the hub disc side is
turned, and the final welding can be done.

Figure 15. GTAW-P Welded Impeller.

Since no suitable torches were available on the market,
Figure 13. Welding of Three Dimensional Blades to the Cover special torches had to be developed for the actual process to
Disc for Fully Fabricated Impellers. permit welding of two dimensional impellers with an outlet
width of only 16 mm. This was a particularly problematic task,
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding-Pulsed Arc (GTAW-P). Of the because the torch tube not only carries the electric current to the
machine welding processes available, the GTAW-P process is tungsten electrode, but it also must accommodate passages for
characterized by a great penetration depth that can be achieved inert gas, for wire feeding and for the cooling water. Thanks to a
by the upper current burning only for a short time, with the heat useful combination of manipulators for the workpiece, and for
input being relatively low. Further, it is possible to form the the torch, it is now possible to realize, with the power sources
weld surface to a nearly ideal radius, by the appropriate control being process computer controlled, even and accurate welds of
of the welding parameters, as shown in Figure 14. In addition, high quality and toughness of the weld metal, as shown in
the weld surface shows such a fine scattering that no grinding is Figure 16.
required (Figure 15).

Programmer
;!
..
I

Workp1ece
Manipulator

Figure 16. Equipment for GTAW-P Welding of Impellers.

Welding Through the Cover

The process described under Welding the Channel features
the drawback that the channel must be of a certain minimum
size, as otherwise there would be no access for the electrode or
for the GTAW-P torch. Other methods, including welding
Figure 14. Weld joint of Blade and Cover Disc after GTAW-P methods, were developed to overcome this drawback and to
Welding. permit joining the blade with the cover by welding through the
 ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IMPELLERS FOR TURBOCOMPRESSORS 15

solid or slotted cover. "Slot welding" and "electron-beam Electron-Beam Welding. The electron-beam process has
welding" are two of these methods. reached a very high standard during recent years. Therefore,
Slot Welding. For slot welding, a slot is provided in the cover, frequent attempts have been made to apply this method to the
as shown in Figure 17. The blade is arranged under this slot, welding of impellers. The impeller being manufactured is
with appropriate overlapping. Depending on the geometry of shown in Figure 19. The blade was almost completely connect
the impeller, the weld cannot start immediately at the blade ed with the cover by three passes side by side of the electron
inlet edge, because of the inlet ring of the cover. It is therefore beam (Figure 20) . The gap between cover and blade, however,
necessary to provide a fillet at some distance past the blade inlet, cannot be completely closed, let alone produce a transition
to avoid a sharp stress raiser. Further, the aim of welding is to radius at this point. Such joint welds feature distinct drawbacks
achieve full penetration from the inside . The radius shown in with regard to fatigue strength and corrosion. Impellers welded
Figure 18 is sufficient. It definitely ensures that no welded.areas to this process can, therefore, not be considered equal in quality
with lack of penetration cause a gap between the cover and the to those manufactured to other processes such as brazing.
blade, which would be of great disadvantage, as far as strength
and corrosion is concerned. The actual welding is carried out
using the GTAW-P process, as described previously, by using a
workpiece and torch manipulator, with induction heating.

--02 700-11501-------eo-l

Gap

Figure 19. EB-welded Two Dimensional Impeller.

allong

Figure 17. Preparation of Cover, Blade and Hub Disc for Slot
Welding.

Figure 20. EB-welding of Impellers.

Diffusion Welding
Diffusion welding is another option for the manufacture of
narrow impellers. The application of this process, however,
requires that the faces to be joined are flat. The blades, which
have to be milled from the hub disc and from the cover, as shown
in Figure 21, are split approximately in the middle. The welding
process takes place under a pressure of approximately 10 N/mm2
by diffusion over the contact surfaces, at temperatures of
approximately 1000C, and under low vacuum. As shown in
Figure 21, the hub and cover disc have such shapes that, over
Figure 18. Slot Welding joint (Cover Disc and Blade) in the As the outer plane faces, which are parallel to the joints of the
Welded Condition . blades, constant pressure is achieved during welding.
16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

Figure 21 . Preparation and Welding of Impellers to the Diffu Figure 23. Defect in a Diffusion Welded]oint.
sion Welding Process.

The following figures reflect the problems resulting from this

process. It is extremely difficult to always make the blades on
the hub disc and cover side perfectly match (Figure 22) . Where
this is possible, there will always be undesirable notches at the
weld location. Further, it is not always achieved to coordinate
pressure and temperature such that perfect welding results are
obtained; however, a deformation of the blades is definitely
avoided.

Figure 22. Diffusion Welded Two Dimensional Impeller. Figure 24. Three Dimensional Impeller in the Furnace Ready
Areas in the weld which have no contact due to soiling or due for Brazing.
to surface finish problems will keep occurring, so that no I
diffusion welding takes place (Figure 23) . Such defects can I
hardly be detected by non-destructive examination. They affect I
the fatigue strength quite considerably, the same as the previ
I
I
ously described notches. I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
Brazing
I
I
I I
I
A completely different type of connection between blade and
I
cover, no matter how narrow the impellers and how difficult the '
' I
I

shape of blades, is the brazed joint. For brazing, the cover is
..
placed upon the blades which have been appropriately prepared -- I
for brazing, such that a gap of 50J.Lm up to 100J.Lm remains. The -- - --------- , :
tt
- . ..,
brazed alloy, a gold-nickel bases in the majority of cases, ..... ,' -

designated BAu-4 according to American Welding Society

(AWS) specification A 5. 8 [1], is placed in the form of a mixture of
metal powder and plastics material near the brazing gap or in the Vac. Gas

form of foils into the gap.

Warm up Cooling
As can be seen in Figure 24, the impeller prepared for brazing
is placed into a special type furnace where brazing takes place. Brazing

The principle temperature and pressure patterns for this process Figure 25. Temperature-time-curve and Pressure-time-curve
are shown in Figure 25. In this process, the vacuum of w-4 for Brazing of Impellers.
 ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IMPELLERS FOR TURBOCOMPRESSORS 17

mbar serves not only to avoid oxidation of the surfaces, but at the can be regained only by subsequent heating to not less than
same time to clean these faces from any soiling by evaporation 300C. The recovery of the yield strength for a low alloyed
and to activate them for wetting by the brazing alloy. chromium nickel steel and for an austenitic chromium nickel
The liquid brazing metal joins the two faces not only by molybdenum steel is shown in Figure 27. This principle pat
bonding, but the partners "brazing alloy" and "steel" penetrate tern, however, applies to all metallic materials.
each other by diffusion and thus form a tough connection of high
strength. However, this joint is tough enough only if the 600

!---::::;::::,.. o1.
ngma tw11re

/
selected brazing alloy does not lead to brittle intermetallic
phases, due to elements like boron, phosphor or silicon, which

/w
are added to the brazing alloy to lower the melting temperature.
This kind of brazed joint offers adequate safety in operation for
550
turbocompressor impellers operating at relatively low tempera
tures only if BAu-4 or equivalent brazing alloys are used.
lloy c,-N;..,.,;
Although there are no physical limits to the application of the

---.... Rlx .... ..

brazing process, the maximum diameter is approximately 700
mm for two dimensional impellers, and approximately 500 mm
E
N

E
for three dimensional impellers, according to the findings.
The quality of the brazed impeller is practically independent 500 __ ____.
z

)" .
of the operating personnel and the percentage of defects is
.
OJ
extremely low, because the brazing process is computer con
"'

0
?f!.
trolled. The necessity of ensuring maximum gaps of 50f,Lm to
lOOf.Lm the process calls for a pre-treatment of the material and '""'' ''"'' ,
for a process control so that no deformation can occur. This 450
0

kI
automatically leads to geometrical quality of the impellers,
which satisfy the highest accuracy requirements.

Riveting
Riveting is the oldest method of connecting the cover with the 400
blades. This method was replaced in the past by other
processes, for various reasons. Riveting, however, is still in use
0 20 100 200 300 400 500
in the manufacture of two dimensional impellers. Its merit is
that high precision impellers can be manufactured without any
heat input. Rivets of high accuracy are inserted into precision Tempering Temperature C
holes through the hub disc, blade and cover and are clinched on
the cover side in a hydraulic press (Figure 26). Figure 27. Influence of Small Plastic Deformation in T hrust
Direction on Yield Strength in Tension (Bauschinger Effect) on
Rivets.

S E LE CTION OF MATE RIALS

-3
The selection of materials for turbocompressor impellers
must, in the first place, consider the future operating condi
tions. Some examples of such conditions which have an effect on
the impeller are presented in Figure 28.

Figure 26. Riveting of Two Dimensional Impellers.

Some damages in the past were partly due to not considering

the "Bauschinger effect" in the operation of such impellers. Due
Shrink forces
to the one to three percent axial plastic deformation of the rivet Gas forces
Centrifugal forces
in the thrust direction (Figure 27), the yield strength is dramati
cally reduced due to residual stresses, which are the result of
that deformation. The necessary strength characteristic values Figure 28. Influences on Material Selection of Impellers.
18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

The corrosive effect of the medium to be compressed may be 30

negligible, as in the case of nitrogen, or it may be critical, as in
X5CrNi 134
0 WeldMetal
the case of chlorine or hydrogen cloride. In extreme cases, the

presence of, for example, hydrogen sulphide may lead to 0 Parent Metal
disastrous fractures of an impeller within a few hours. HRC

Service temperatures of down to - 196C have a great impact,

particularly in view of the cmbrittlement of ferritic steels. On
the other hand, higher temperatures play an important part, in
conjunction with the corrosion and the lowering of the strength 25
\
values.
The mechanical stresses due to shrinkage forces, gas forces,
) .' 't [\
23

,,
and centrifugal forces in the rotating impeller can be deter
... , v
22
mined with relatively high accuracy, using the "finite element
method" of calculation. Local plastic deformation in small areas,
however, cannot always be definitely mled out. '\
The requirements of the manufacturing processes, as de
scribed in JOINING OF DISCS AND BLADES, also influence 20 - --
the selection of material. It is assumed in principle that in
addition to an adequate COJTosion resistance and strength at any
service temperature, the toughness, for example, measured to
the notched bar impact test method, is of exceptional impor
tance for the safety in operation of impellers. The material
selection and the performance of heat treatment which will he
described later are, therefore, governed by this requirement for
I
675 600 675 600 675 600
maximum toughness.
There are two basically difl'crent routes which can be fi:.1llowcd
in the selection of mater ials. The first route leads to selecting the Temperature '"C
absolute optimal material for any application. This, however, Figure 29. Comparison of Different Response of Parent Metal
will lead to a great number of different materials used in and \Veld Metal on Heat Treatment.
manufacturing of impellers. As a result, only a relatively vague
know-how of the workshop people in a specific case will be flnishcd impeller is just as important. An example of the effect
available, s.ince most of the many alternatives will ramly occur. which preheating hef(He welding and of postweld heat treat
The second route, and in the author's opinion the more favor ment has on the lifetime of the weld joints of the impeller
able and more direct one, is to confine oneself to relatively few rnaterial l4 CrMoV G H under sour gas service is shown in Figure
materials and to create favorable conditions for as many applica 3 0. The results obtained from weld joints properly heat treated
tions as possible, by adopting appropriate treatment methods and fiom such joints \Vith improper heat treatment are entered
f(Jr these materials. in a scattering curve whieh indicates the service life of the
The selection of filler metal f(Jr welding and brazing tnay be various materials in sour gas, in the presence of chlorides. The
more difficult. Filler metal of the same or of similar composition influences are so serious that the service lives differ hy a factor of
can be found relatively easy f(n "normal" service conditions. more than ten.
Where the service conditions are particularly adverse, such as
operation in sour gas service or at low temperatures, some
special criteria for selection have to be taken into consideration.
For example, when using the electrodes recommended by
the suppliers for SMAW welding of the material l4 CrMoV 6 9
(similar to American Society for 1esting and vlaterials (ASTM) A
470 Class 8) [2], the resistance to H2 S achieved will be po01 if
welding is merely f(J!lowed by tempering. In this case, the
service life under test conditions according to National Associa
tion of Conosion Engineers (NACE) standard Tt-01-77 [3] will
then only he approximately ten hours, although hardness and
yield strength comply with the requirements of American
Petroleum Institute (API) standard 6 17 [4]. An adequate service
life can only be achieved by quenching and tempering of the
finish welded impeller. The same applies to welding of the
materialX5 CrNi 13 4, equivalent to ASTM A 182 Grade F 6NM L ifet i me h
[5] with electrodes of the same composition. As shown in Figure
29, it is much more difficult to get a hardness of maximum 23 Figure 30. Influence of Heat Treatment of Welded]ointsfrom 14
HRC, which is the upper limit according to NACE standard CrMoV 6.9 on Lifetime under Sour Gas Conditions 3.
MR-01-75 [6] in the weld deposit. In this case, there is only one
HEAT TREATMENT
option: to make the response of the base material and that of the
weld material more alike on heat treatment, by the pin-pointed The heat treatment of blanks for impellers and of finished
selection of batches. impellers is governed by the materials selected, by the manufac
However, just knowing the optimal materials and the optimal turing processes applied and by the serviee conditions. It is
methods of their most efficient processing is not enough. impossible to cover herein the complete range of influencing
Knowing the effects which any deviations from the specified factors. Some examples, however, shall be dealt with in more
manufacturing conditions may have on the quality of the detail.
 ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IMPELLERS FOR TURBOCOMPRESSORS 19

For riveted impellers, the blanks for the hub disc and cover N/mm'
1 X5 CrNi 134
are subjected to final heat treatment before machining. Post

Tempering
riveting heat treatment is merely required to compensate for the
f,
lowering o the yield strength of the rivets due to the "Bauschin TemPeratre
ger effect. 600C

For welded impellers, adequate toughness characteristic 600oC

600C
values in the weld metal and in the heat affected zone can
normally be achieved by one or two postweld tempering
675C
operations, when disregarding special materials, and if no 675C
special requirements are to be satisfied in respect to low 675C
HRC
temperature toughness or in respect to resistance to stress 30
corrosion cracking.
Low temperature toughness, however, requires optimization
400
of the heat treatment. The unaffected base material, the heat 25

affected zone and the weld metal react differently to postweld

heat treatment. The optimum energy values at - 40C, for 200

example, are achieved for the material 14 CrMoV 6 9 only by a

20 ---- ---------- ----

special postweld heating, as can be seen in Figure 3 1. This

"intercritical" tempering treatment, at which the weld metal as
well as the base material is initially tempered in the two-phase
zone at approximately 760C, is followed by a tempering 0

Austenit
treatment at 650C. Parallel to this optimization of the notched 0 10 20 30 40
%
bar impact strength, it must be investigated, of course, to what
extent the yield strength, which is of equal importance to safety Figure 32. Influence of Special Heat Treatment Cycles for High
in operation, is affected by an intercritical heat treatment. Resistance under Sour Gas Conditions for X 5 CrNi 1 3 4.
100 When brazing is applied, the sequence of operations is chosen
wherever possible, so that the brazing temperature and cooling
after brazing coincide with the requirements for the heat

treatment of the material. Brazed joints of the material X 5 CrNi
"
140
(,)
13 4 or G-X5 CrNi 13 4 (equivalent to ASTM A 743 Grade CA-
0 cT
Sf Parent etal

I 6NM (7]), thus need tempering only after brazing, to achieve
120
...,
the optimum toughness at the yield strength specified. This is
e'
> dMetal
not always possible where low-alloyed materials are involved. In
cf/
"'
c this case, just tempering the material quenched from the
tJ
\
w 100
0 brazing temperature produces inadequate toughness values. It
"'

E
c.
Fusion Line
is necessary to reheat the impeller to the optimum quenching
.<:: 80 temperature of the material after cooling to room temperature
0
\
"' from the brazing temperature, to achieve optimum toughness
values after subsequent tempering, as is illustrated in Figure 3 3.
>
z

60
e-
>

"'
.<:: 14 CrMoV 6 9
(,)
40
C 14CrMoV69

X C
980 1h/Oil
Tempering Temperature
1h/Oil 650 C

20 650 C 15h/Oil

0
700 750 800

lntercritical Tempering Temperature C

Figure 31 . Heat Treatment for Optimizing Toughness of Welded

Joints from 14 CrMoV 6 9.
The necessity of a complete new heat treatment after welding
instead of only tempering has been covered in SELECTION
OF MATERIALS, in connection with the material 14 CrMoV 6 1050

9. The relation between the response of the base material and of Hardening Temperature C

the weld metal is illustrated in Figure 3 1.

The application of the material X5 CrNi 13 4 in sour gas makes Figure 33 . Influence of Hardening Temperature on Toughness of
a particularly complicated heat treatment necessary. The Low Alloy Steel.
changes of the tensile strength Rm, the yield strength Rpo,2, and
of the hardness HRC as a function of the tempering treatments
QUALITY ASSURANCE
at 675C and at 600C in one or more cycles, and the change of
the total content of austenite in the base material are illustrated The impeller of a turbocompressor is a part that is subjected to
in Figure 32. exceptionally high stresses. A failure of this part will caus
20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM

stoppage of the complete train. For this reason, utmost impor normally cannot be used, since they have not been adjusted to
tance is to be attached to quality assurance measures during the special conditions for manufacturing turbocompressor im
design and manufacture. The most essential basic principles to pellers. For this reason, a special test coupon was developed, for
be adhered to are as follows: example, for repair welding on cast impellers (Figure 36). This
Each quality assurance measure must be completely trace
test coupon permits the specific difficulties involved in welding
able. The performance of destructive tests and of non in a hole to be simulated easier as compared with a standardized
destructive examination must be marked on the impeller or test coupon.
indicated in the manufacturing route sheets so that any mixing
up is ruled out, and that conducting of all specified inspections
and tests is ensured.
The standards for testing procedures, indicated in Figure

34, can merely be considered as a basis for destructive and non

destructive material testing. The special demands made of the
impeller must be satisfied by appropriately adjusted supply
specifications for the blanks and by drawing up detailed in
process inspection/test plans. -Cast -Cast -Cast/Forged
-Forged/Milled -Forged/Milled Welded
Welded

Standard
Test Procedure ASTM, ASME, API DIN/ISO, SEP, SEL, AD

chemical analysis ASTME 30 Handbuch fUr das

EisenhUttenlaboratorium

tension test ASTM A 370 DIN 50125/DIN 50145

notched bar impact test ASTME 23/ A 370 DIN 50115

hardness test
-Vickers ASTME 92/E 384 DIN 50133 -Cast/Forged -Forged/Milled - Forged/Milled
- Brinell ASTME 370/E 1 0 DIN 50351 Brazed Brazed Riveted
-Rockwell ASTM A370/E 18 DIN 50103T.1

ultrasonic examination Location of Specimen for Mechanical Propenies

-procedure ASTME 114 DIN 54126T.2
-of forgings ASTM A388 SEP 1921 Figure 35. Specimen for Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of
-of ferritic cast ASTM A609 SEP 1922/DIN 1690 T.2
steel parts Impellers.
magnetic particle exam.
-procedure ASTME 709 DIN 54130
-forgings ASTM A275
-of steel castings ASTME 709/E 1 25 SEP 1935

liquid penetrant exam.

-procedure ASTME 165 DIN 54152 T.1
-of steel castings ASTME 433 SEP 1936/DIN 1690T.2

overspeed test API617

Figure 34. Standards for Inspections and Tests for Impellers

(U.S.-system and German System 4, 8 to 37.

As mentioned before in the sections on SELECTION OF

MATERIALS and HEAT TREATMENT, heat treatment is
always governed by the requirement to ensure at any time
maximum safety in operation under every service condition, by
achieving maximum toughness of the impeller material.
Each manufacturing process, including casting and forging
operations, must be subjected to procedure qualification tests,
before it is applied, to furnish proof that the specified quality
data can be clearly verified by the proposed tests/inspections
and to make sure that the manufactured impellers are up to
specified operating conditions in any respect.
To ensure complete traceability, a test specimen must be
taken from each impeller after its final heat treatment, which has
been subjected to all in-process heat treatment operations,
together with the impeller. Where welded impellers are con
cerned, the necessary test rings may remain on the impeller
parts proper during the entire manufacturing process, as shown
in Figure 3 5. Brazed impellers require a specimen to be taken
from the cover before brazing, because of better brazeability. Its
size depends on the cross section of the parts represented by the
specimen. The quality assurance system must ensure that the 1,2 3.4
Location of notch: Specimen 1, 2 centre of weld metal
specimen and the impeller are always subjected to the same
Specimen 3, 4 fusion line
heat treatment cycles.
Specimen 5, 6 fusion line+ 2 mm
In view of the special conditions which apply to the welding of
impellers, the standardized procedure qualification tests, for
example to ASME Section IX or to AD-code of practice, Figure 36. Welding Procedure Test Sample for Cast Impellers.
 ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IMPELLERS FOR TURBOCOMPRESSORS 21

The tests and inspections currently i n use for the different

impeller variations are summarized in Figures 37, 38, and 39.
For these examinations, it may become necessary to develop
new test and inspection methods. A test facility to be used for
inspecting brazed impellers is shown in Figure 40. This permits
the automatic detection of defects as small as 0. 8 mm diameter
in the brazed joint of an impeller, and to display such defects
graphically. The ultrasonic examination is affected by moving
the probe over the rotating impeller so that the entire brazed
surface is scanned in the shape of a spiral. The movement of the
probe is controlled by a process which is connected with the
central computer.

CASTINGS FORGINGS

Dimensional check pattern

Radiographic examination Ultrasonic examination

first impeller

Dimensional check casting

Chemical analysis
Tension test
Impact test
Surface crack examination
Figure 40. Ultrasonic Test Facility for Brazed Impellers.
Figure 37. Inspections and Test of Impeller Materials.
Another example concerns checking for fulfillment of the high
demands made of the dimensional accuracy of the blade faces.
This cannot be accomplished with conventional inspection
BRAZED WELDED RIVETED facilities, because they produce such a tremendous amount of
figures that it would be impossible to follow them up and to use
Before Dimensional check
them for the assessment of the quality of an impeller. Only after
joining Surface crack examination
introduction of the multi-coordinate measuring systems which
During Temperature permits the continuous scanning of curves, as shown in Figure
joining 4 1, it has become possible to draw qualified conclusions about
Pressure
process
Voltage the useability of the impeller from the graphical display of the
check of Vacuum
Current measured results, via the indicated deviations from shape,
location and size.
Brazing alloy Filler metal Material of rivets

After Ultrasonic
joining examination

Dimensional check
Surface crack examination

Tension test
Impact test
Hardness test

Ready Balancing test

machined Overspeed test
impeller Dimensional check
Surface crack examination

Figure 38. Inspections and Tests of Fabricated Impellers.

CAST MILLED

Ready Balancing test

machined
Overspeed test
impeller
Dimensional check Figure 4 1. Measuring of Blades on a Multicoordinate Measur
ing Machine.

Surface crack examination The necessary traceability of the manufacture of impellers

includes the requirement for documenting the quality inspec
Figure 39. Inspections and Tests of Unfabricated Impellers. tions. Such documentation is to be made out for each impeller.
22 PROCEEDINGS OF T HE FIFTEENTH T URBOMAC HINERY SYMP OSIU M

CRI TERIA GOVE RNING THE S E L E CTION O F using the SMAW process or the GTAW-P process are under
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS practically all aspects superior to welding through the cover,
except the blocking effect of the fillet welds in the channel.
For the specific case of manufacturing a certain impeller, the
optimal manufacturing process must be selected from a great
Comparison of the processes for welding within the channel.
Contrary to the universally applicable SMAW which, above all,
variety of manufacturing processes. Of course, such a selection
is practically independent of the impeller geometry, the
must particularly take into account the conditions prevailing in
mechanized GTAW-P process is still restricted to two dimen
the specific workshop. Nevertheless, some criteria can be
sional impellers. By contrast, the blocking by the fillet weld, its
discussed, by which the individual processes are impartially
surface finish and the accuracy to size of the complete impeller is
evaluated in respect to their usability.
superior in the case of GTAW-P. This superiority can be
explained, among other things, by the fact that GTAW- P permits
The most essential criteria appear to be:
The impeller geometry, including the absolute dimensions

welding of the fillet weld over its entire length in one pass, i. e. ,
and the accessibility in the channel. no surface irregularities occur at the points of starting a new
The choice of material, which is partly restricted by the

electrode, as is the case with SMAW.
manufacturing process to be applied. The costs involved in these two welding processes are
The mechanical properties of the impeller, including the
practically identical, but the risk of defects during manufacture
joint between the blade and the cover under static or fatigue is higher for the SMAW process.
loading. Comparison of the processes of welding through the cover. In
The effect which design, manufacturing method, and work the author 's opinion, EB-welding is not suitable for use in the
manship have on corrosion in service and at standstill. manufacture of turbocompressor impellers, because of serious
shortcomings, i. e. , the low strength under fatigue stresses and
The risk of defects during manufacture, including the
the negative response to corrosion. These drawbacks have their
possibility of carrying out any repairs, and considering the
origin in the inevitable sharp crevices between the blades and
methods of checking the quality of the construction.
the cover.
The accuracy of size and surface finish which has an Likewise, slot welding is not quite suitable with regard to the
extraordinarily great impact on the aero-thermodynamic per geometry for three dimensional impellers and with respect to its
formance of the impeller, especially in areas exposed to the mechanical properties under fatigue loading. The most serious
medium. aspect of slot welding, however, is the high risk of manufacturing
The total costs of manufacture. defects, as there is practically no way of repairing any defects
In the following subsection, the various manufacturing which have possibly occurred in the first pass. Consequently,
processes will be briefly dealt with in the light of these criteria. the costs involved are relatively high. Slot welding is, therefore,
used only in cases where no other joining process can be used.
Criteria for the Selection of Criteria for judging the diffusion welding process. Not only
the Disc and Blade Manufacturing Process for the manufacture of the hub disc and cover, but also for
As outlined in THE MAN UFACTURE OF HUB DISC cleaning and for the welding process, diffusion welding requires
BLADES, the selection is to be made between casting of open exceptionally expensive facilities, which is one of the reasons
impellers, milling of blades out of forgings, or welding blades that this welding process will remain restricted to impellers of
from sheets to forged cover disc. smaller diameter. Besides, its use would be logical only in the
The choice of materials is limited by the named criteria, manufacture of two dimensional impellers.
especially when casting is concerned, since there are few The strength of a diffusion welded impeller and its resistance
materials available for this process. In practice, only the follow to corrosion is restricted by the inevitable notches in the
ing two materials are used: G-X 5 CrNi 13 4, equivalent to welding zone. The manuacturing safety is not really high, there
ASTM A 743 Grade CA-6NM, and G-X 5 CrNiCuNb 17 4, is practically no way of doing repair work, and inspecting
equivalent to 17-4 PH cast. Other materials might also be possibilities are severely restricted. As far as accuracy to size is
suitable; however, the experiences with those materials are concerned, plastic deformation may, under certain circum
inadequate. stances, lead to substantial deviations from size.
The accuracy of the size of cast impellers and of impellers with It can thus be concluded that diffusion welding is not a very
blades from sheets is somewhat less favorable compared with attractive manufacturing method, either under the aspect of
milled impellers. In every case, however, it satisfies the design properties of the built impeller or under the cost aspect.
requirements.
The costs of manufacture are greatly influenced by the
number of pieces manufactured. An impeller cast to the invest Comparison of Welding Processes
ment casting process is less expensive to manufacture than the with Other Joining Processes
forged-milled impeller would be, if the number of pieces Compared with the welded impeller, the choice of materials is
exceeds a certain quantity, which depends on the diameter of limited in the case of casting closed impellers, as described
the impeller. For larger impellers, the minimum quantity for previously, and the response to corrosion may be somewhat less
economic casting is even less, though the impeller with blades favorable compared with forged versions. Manufacturing prob
from sheets is not as expensive as the milled version. This is true lems are to be expected for cast impellers of extremely small
because the manufacture of the patterns and molds for the size, and the performance of repairs will be difficult, because of
monobloc is not as difficult as for the investment casting. the poor accessibility. These threshold geometries, however, are
the same for cast and for welded impellers.
Criteria for the Cover Joining Process Compared with these two variations, brazing and riveting
offer the merit of particularly high accuracy of size. Further, the
Comparison of the Welding Processes manufacturing safety is significantly higher, and the choice of
As practice has shown, it never makes sense to try to assemble materials is practically unlimited for the applications under
the impeller by welding through the cover when welding within review. In the author's opinion, these processes should thus be
the channel is possible. Welds produced within the channel given preference over welding.
 ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IMP ELLERS FOR TU RBO COMPR ESSORS 23

Brazed impellers have the additional great advantage of being 3 D w i t hout 3 D with 2 D with

practically independent of the impeller or blade geometry. With shroud disc s h roud d isc shroud d i s c

regard to their size, however, they are still restricted by their e

outer diameter. On the other hand, much thinner blades can be

attained by brazing, which is an advantage of this process over Casting + +

the riveting process. Passage restrictions can thus be reduced

.g
:.0 M i l l i ng + + +
and the number of blades can be increased, which has an F orging
I B lades
exceptionally positive effect on the performance of the impeller. from plate + + +

The comparison of resistance to corrosion indicates that under

Casting of
+ +
certain circumstances some problems may occur with the closed i mp ell ers

brazing alloy base material combination of brazed impellers, g Q) SMAW + +

. GTAWP
'ii
when exposed to certain corrosive media (for example, sulfuric "' "'
.<: C
"'
. I +
acid or nitrous gases). On the other hand, however, the riveted e 31
...
impeller is susceptible to crevice corrosion, due to the gap. The ;;; ? 0
s0
Slot welding

loaded element, the rivet, however, is not affected, since it has 0
2'
EB -

,g
E
no such gap. -
c: D i ffusion weld i ng
The statements made on the criteria for selecting manufactur
Braz i ng + +
ing processes are summarized in Figure 42.
R iveting +

Strength -
Usable w i thout I i m i ts

1s l dI
Legende: + Usable w i th l i m i ts

J l i h
,.
c
0 0 Usable ? N o t jet performed

g li
c

:! i l
'a 1
.I!

! e u

! Figure 43 . Fields of Use of Manufacturing Methods .

! 0 cS i d
Casting + - + 0 0 + + 0

:E
0
Mill ing + + + + + + +
Forg i ng
Blades
0 0 + + + 0 0 0
from plate

Casting of
0 - + + 0 0 0 0
closed impellers

SMAW 0 0 + + + 0 0 0
.&: C
'ii
. .E . GTAW P

- 0 + + + + + +
'0

e

:2
... 3 Slot - - -
0 + 0 - 0
welding

0
::

2'
- - -
0 EB 0 + 0 0 -

,g
E
c: D i ffusion - - -
+ + 0

- -
welding

Brazing + + + 0 0 + + +

R iveting 0 + + + 0 + + +

Legende: + Good
0 Acceptable
- Not acceptable

Figure 42 . Evaluation of Manufacturing Methods .

CONCLUS I ONS
As the evaluation of the individual manufacturing processes
made in the previous section shows, and according to the
practice adopted worldwide, certain manufacturing processes
are preferable for certain impeller types . The attempt is made in
200
o.o3 o.o4 o.os o.1 ms
Figure 43 to show this in the form of a matrix. The question
o.oo4 o.006 oilos o.oo o.o15 o.o2
marks indicate where new processes may be applied in the
future under certain circumstances . This graph also shows that SPE C I F I C F L OW C O E F F = y__
O -
u2
high-quality and low-cost processes are available for the entire
range of application, as indicated in Figure 1. 'fransformed to the Figure 44. Field of Application of T hree Dimensional Impellers
representative of Figure 1, Figure 44 shows the fields of and the Optimal Manufacturing Methods.
application of the manufacturing processes for the various types
of impellers as a function of their outer diameter. ment of weld follow-up systems, as the precise positioning of the
Summing up, it can be stated that, due to the high quality torch is a condition for producing high-quality welds.
standard, casting is generally superior to forging, where greater
numbers of pieces are involved. For smaller impellers, brazing
will make a breakthrough, while SMAW will be given prefer REFERENCE S
ence in the manufacture of larger impellers, with the number of
impellers with three dimensional blade designs on the increase. 1. American Welding Society (AWS), "A 5. 8 Specification for
It depends on the outer diameter, whether the blades then are Brazing Filler Metal" (August 1981).
milled (diameter below about 700 mm) or are made from sheet. 2. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) A 470-
Whether there will ever be an automatic welding process for 82, "Specification for Vacuum-'freated Carbon and Alloy
such impellers depends on the progress made in the develop- Steel Forgings for Turbine Rotors and Shafts" ( 1982).
24 PROCEEDING S OF THE FIFTEENTH TU RBOMACHINE RY SYMPO SIUM

3. N at ional Associat ion of Corro sion E nginee rs (NACE ) , TM- Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 709-80 ,
01 -77 , "Te st Met hod , Te st ing of Met als for Re sist ance t o " P ract ice for M agne t ic P art icle E xaminat ion" (1980) .
Sulfi de St re ss Cracking at Ambie nt Te mpe rat ure s" (1977) .
Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate r ials (ASTM) , A 275-83 ,
4. Ame rican Pet role um Inst it ute (API) , "Ce nt rifu gal Com " Met hod for M agne t ic P art icle E xaminat ion of Stee l Forg
pre ssors for Ge ne ral Re fine ry Se rvice s" API 6 1 7 , Fourt h ings" (1983) .
E dit ion (1979) .
Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 125-63
5. Ame rican Socie ty for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , A 182- "Re fe re nce P hot ographs for M agne t ic P art icle Indicat ions o
82 a, " S pe cifi cat ion for For ge d or R olle d Alloy-Stee l P ipe Fe rrous Cast ings" ( 1963) .
Flange s, Forge d Fitt ings, and Valve s and P art s for H igh
Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate r ials (ASTM) , E 165-80 ,
Te mpe rat ure Se rvice" (1982) .
"P ra ct ice for L iquid Pe net rant Inspe ct ion Met hod" (1980) .
6. N at ional Associat ion of Corrosion E ngine e rs (NACE ) , MR-
Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 433-71
01-75 , " M ate rial Re quire me nt s, Sulfi de St re ss Cracking ;
"Re fe re nce P hot ographs for L iquid Pe net rant Inspe ct ion,
Re sist ant Met allic M ate rials for O il Fie ld E quipme nt" E di
(1971) .
t orial Re vision (1984 ) .
H andbuch fii r das E ise nhiitte nlab orat orium. Ve rlag S t ahle ise n
7 . Ame rican Socie ty f or Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , A 743-
mbH , Du sse ldorf, R e vise d ( 1 985) .
83 , " Spe cifi cat ion for Cast ings, Iron-Chromium, Iron
Chromium-N icke l, N icke l-B ase , Corrosion Re sist ant , for D IN (De ut sche sInst it ut fu r N or mung) 50125 , P rii fung met allis
Ge ne ral Applicat ion" (1983) . che r We rkst offe , Z ugprobe n, R ichlinie n fii r die H e rste llung
(April 195 1 ) .

D IN 50 145 , P rii fung met allische r We rkst offe , Z ugve rsuch ( M ay

1975) .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D IN 50 115 , P rii fung met allische r We rkst offe , Ke rbschlag
Ame rican Socie ty for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 30-77 , bie ge ve rsuch (Fe bruary 1975) .
Met hod for Che mical Analy sis of Stee l, Cast Iron, O pe n
D IN 50 133 , P rii fung met allische r We rkst offe , H a rte priifu ng
H e art h Iron, and %- ought Iron (1977) .
nach Vi cke rs B e re ich HV 0 , 2 his HV 100 (Fe bruary 1985) .
Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , A 370-77 ,
D IN 5035 1 , Prii fung met allische r We rkst offe , H a rte prii fung
" Met hods and De finit ions for Me chanical Te st ing of Stee l
nach B rine ll (Fe bruary 1985) .
P roduct s" (1977) .
D IN 50103 Te il 1 , P rii fung met allische r We rkst offe , Ha rte p
A e rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 23-82 ,
riifu ng nach R ockwe ll, Ve rfahre n C, A, B , F ( M ar ch 1984 ) .
Met hods for N ot che d B ar Impact Te st ing of Met allic M ate
rials" (1982) . D IN 5 4 1 2 6 Te il 2 , Z e rsto rungsfre ie P rii fung, Re ge ln z ur
Prii fu ng mit Ult raschall, D urc hfii hrung de r P riifu ng (O ct obe r
Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 92-82 ,
1982).
"Te st Met hod for V icke rs H ard ne ss of Met allic M ate rials"
(1982) . SE P (St ahl- E ise n- P rii fb latt) 192 1 , Ult raschallprii fung von
S chmie de stii cke n und ges chmie dete m St abst ahl ab 100 mm
Ame rican Society f or Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 384-84 ,
D ur chme sse r ode r Kante nla nge , l , Ausgabe ( D e ce mbe r
"Te st Met hod for M icrohar dne ss of M ate rials" (1984) .
1984) .
A e rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 1 0-78 ,
SE P 1922 , Ult raschallpriif ung von G uj3 stii cke n aus ferrit ische m
Te st Met hod for B rine ll H ar dne ss of Met allic M ate rials"
St ahl, 3, Ausgabe (J uly 1985) .
(1978) .
Ame rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , E 18-79 D IN 1690 Te il2 , Te chnische L ie fe rbe dingunge n fii r G uj3 stii cke
"Te st Met hods for R ockwe ll H ard ne ss and R ockwe ll Supe rfi aus met allische n We rkst offe n, St ahlguj3 stii cke ; E inte ilung
nach Giite st ufe n aufgrund ze rsto rungsfre ie r P rii fung (J une
cial H ardne ss of Met allic M ate rials" (1979) .
1985) .
A e rican Society for Te st ing and M ate rial s (ASTM) , E 114-75 ,
D IN 54 130 , Ze rsto rungsfre ie P rii fu ng, M agnet ische St re ufl uj3-
Re comme nde d Pr act ice for Ult rasonic P ulse-E cho St raight
Ve rfahre n, Allge me ine s (April 1 974) .
B e am Te st ing by t he Cont act Met hod" (1975) .
SE P 1935 , O be rfla che nrij3 prii fu ng von G uj3 stii cke n aus St ahl,
A e rican Society f or Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , A 388-80 ,
M agnet pulve rpriifu ng (J une 1 982) .
P ract ice for Ult rasonic E xaminat ion of H e avy Ste e l Forg
ings" (1980) . D IN 54152 Te il 1 , Z e rsto run gsfre ie P rii fung, E indringve r
fahre n, D urc hfii hrung ( M arch 1 979) .
A e rican Socie ty for Te st ing and M ate rials (ASTM) , A 609-83 ,

Spe cifi cat ion for Stee l Cast ings, Carbon and L ow-Alloy, SE P 1936 , O be rfla che nrij3 prii fung von G uj3 stii cke n aus St ahl,
Ult rasonic E xaminat ion The re of" (1983) . E indringpriifu ng (J une 1 982) .