Chapter7 Human Memory become unavailable?

Or felt excited because capacity to store all information that we

Introduction you can now flawlessly recite lines of acquire through learning and experience. It
Nature of Memory a famous poem you had learnt as a child? was seen as a vast storehouse where all
Information Processing Approach : The Memory indeed is a very fascinating yet information that we knew was kept so that
Stage Model intriguing human faculty. It functions to we could retrieve and use it as and when
Memory Systems : Sensory, Short-term preserve our sense of who we are, maintains needed. But with the advent of the computer,
and Long-term Memories our interpersonal relationships and helps us human memory came to be seen as a system
Working Memory (Box 7.1) in solving problems and taking that processes information in the same way
Levels of Processing decisions. Since memory is central to almost as a computer does. Both register, store, and
Types of Long-term Memory all cognitive processes such as manipulate large amount of information and
Declarative and Procedural; Episodic and perception, thinking and problem solving, act on the basis of the outcome of such
Semantic psychologists have attempted to manipulations. If you have worked on a
Long-term Memory Classification (Box 7.2) understand the manner in which any computer then you would know that it has a
Methods of Memory Measurement (Box 7.3) information is committed to memory, the temporary memory (random access memory
Knowledge Representation and mechanisms through which it is retained or RAM) and a permanent memory (e.g., a
Organisation in Memory over a period of time, the reasons why it hard
Memory Making: Eyewitness and False is lost from memory, and the techniques disk). Based on the programme commands,
Memories (Box 7.4) which can lead to memory improvement. the computer manipulates the contents of its
Memory as a Constructive Process In this chapter, we shall examine all these memories and displays the output on the
Nature and Causes of Forgetting aspects of memory and understand screen. In the same way human beings too
Forgetting due to Trace Decay, Interference various theories which explain the register information, store and manipulate
and Retrieval Failure mechanisms of memory. the
Repressed Memories (Box 7.5) The history of psychological research on stored information depending on the task
Enhancing Memory memory spans over hundred years. that
Mnemonics using Images and Organisation The first systematic exploration of memory is they need to perform. For example, when you
Key Terms credited to Hermann Ebbinghaus, a are required to solve a mathematical
Summary German psychologist of late nineteenth problem,
Review Questions century (1885). He carried out many the memory relating to mathematical
Project Ideas experiments on himself and found that we do operations, such as division or subtraction
Contents not forget the learned material at an are
• understand the nature of memory, even pace or completely. Initially the rate of carried out, activated and put to use, and
• distinguish between different types of forgetting is faster but eventually it receive the output (the problem solution).
memory, stabilises. Another view on memory was This
• explain how the contents of long-term suggested by Frederick Bartlett (1932) analogy led to the development of the first
memory are represented and who contended that memory is not passive model of memory, which was proposed by
organised, but an active process. With the help of Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is known as
• appreciate the constructive and meaningful verbal materials such as stories Stage Model.
reconstructive processes in memory, and texts, he demonstrated that memory MEMORY SYSTEMS : SENSORY, SHORT-
• understand the nature and causes of is a constructive process. That is, what we TERM
forgetting, and memorise and store undergoes many AND LONG-TERM MEMORIES
• learn the strategies for improving memory. changes and modifications over time. So According to the Stage Model, there are three
After reading this chapter, you would be able there is a qualitative difference in what memory systems : the Sensory Memory,
to was initially memorised by us and what we the
The advantage of bad retrieve or recall later. There are other Short-term Memory and the Long-term
memory is that one psychologists who have influenced memory Memory. Each of these systems has
enjoys several times, research in a major way. We shall different
the same good things review their contributions in this chapter at features and performs different functions
for the first time. appropriate places. with
– Friedrich Nietzsche Introduction respect to the sensory inputs (see Fig.7.1).
132 Psychology Chapter 7 • Human Memory 133 Let
you perhaps learned during your early our sensory organs, it generates neural us examine what these systems are:
schooling. Memory is conceptualised as a impulses. These are received in different Fig.7.1 : The Stage Model of Memory
process consisting of three independent, areas Information
though interrelated stages. These are of our brain for further processing. In Sensory Memory
encoding, storage, and retrieval. Any encoding, incoming information is received Iconic (Sight)
information received by us necessarily goes and some meaning is derived. It is then Echoic (Sound)
through these stages. represented in a way so that it can be and other senses
(a) Encoding is the first stage which refers to processed further. Store Capacity -
a process by which information is recorded (b) Storage is the second stage of memory. large
and registered for the first time so that it Information which was encoded must also be Duration - less
becomes usable by our memory system. stored so that it can be put to use later. than one second
Whenever an external stimulus impinges on Storage, therefore, refers to the process Attention
NATURE OF MEMORY through which information is retained and Short-term
Memory refers to retaining and recalling held over a period of time. Memory
information over a period of time, depending (c) Retrieval is the third stage of memory. Store Capacity -
upon the nature of cognitive task you are Information can be used only when one is small
required to perform. It might be necessary to able Duration - less
hold an information for a few seconds. For to recover it from her/his memory. Retrieval than 30 seconds
example, you use your memory to retain an refers to bringing the stored information to Elaborative
unfamiliar telephone number till you have her/his awareness so that it can be used for Rehearsals
reached the telephone instrument to dial, or performing various cognitive tasks such as Long-term
for many years you still remember the problem solving or decision-making. It may Memory
techniques of addition and subtraction which be interesting to note that memory failure Permanent
All of us are aware of the tricks that memory can Store Capacity -
plays on us throughout our lives. Have occur at any of these stages. You may fail to unlimited
you ever felt embarrassed because you could recall an information because you did not Duration - upto
not remember the name of a known encode it properly, or the storage was weak a life time
person you were talking to? Or anxious and so you could not access or retrieve it when 134 Psychology
helpless because everything you required. Sensory Memory
memorised well the previous day before INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH : The incoming information first enters the
taking your examination has suddenly THE STAGE MODEL sensory memory. Sensory memory has a
Initially, it was thought that memory is the large
capacity. However, it is of very short the short-term memory is not a passive carried through silent or vocal repetition, this
duration, storehouse rehearsal attempts to connect the ‘to be
i.e. less than a second. It is a memory system but rather a work bench that holds a wide retained information’ to the already existing
that registers information from each of the variety information in long-term memory. For
senses with reasonable accuracy. Often this of memory materials that are constantly example, the task of remembering the
system is referred to as sensory memories or handled, meaning
sensory registers because informations from manipulated and transformed as people of the word ‘humanity’ will be easier if the
all the senses are registered here as exact perform meanings of concepts such as ‘compassion’,
replica of the stimulus. If you have various cognitive tasks. This work bench is ‘truth’ and ‘benevolence’ are already in
experienced called place.
visual after-images (the trail of light that the working memory. The first component of The number of associations you can create
stays the around the new information will determine its
after the bulb is switched off) or when you working memory is the phonological loop permanence. In elaborative rehearsals one
hear reverberations of a sound when the which attempts to analyse the information in terms
sound Box 7.1 Working Memory of various associations it arouses. It involves
has ceased, then you are familiar with iconic holds a limited number of sounds and unless organisation of the incoming information in
(visual) or echoic (auditory) sensory rehearsed they decay within 2 seconds. The as many ways as possible. You can expand
registers. second the information in some kind of logical
Short-term Memory component visuospatial sketchpad stores framework, link it to similar memories or else
You will perhaps agree that we do not attend visual and can create a mental image. Figure 7.1, that
to all the informations that impinge on our spatial information and like phonological loop presents the stage model of memory, also
senses. Information that is attended to enters the depicts the arrows to show the manner in
the second memory store called the short- capacity of the sketchpad too is limited. The which information travels from one stage to
term third another.
memory (abbreviated as STM), which holds component, which Baddeley calls the Central Experiments, which were carried out to
small amount of information for a brief period Executive, organises information from test the stage model of memory, have
of time (usually for 30 seconds or less). phonological produced
Atkinson and Shiffrin propose that loop, visuospatial sketchpad as well as from mixed results. While some experiments
information in STM is primarily encoded the longterm unequivocally show that the STM and LTM
acoustically, i.e. in terms of sound and unless memory. Like a true executive, it allocates are indeed two separate memory stores,
rehearsed continuously, it may get lost from attentional resources to be distributed to other
the STM in less than 30 seconds. Note that various evidences have questioned their
the STM is fragile but not as fragile as informations needed to perform a given distinctiveness. For example, earlier it was
sensory cognitive shown that in the STM information is encoded
registers where information decays operation and monitors, plans, and controls acoustically, while in LTM it is encoded
automatically in less than a second. behaviour. semantically, but later experimental
Long-term Memory Chapter 7 • Human Memory 135 evidences
Materials that survive the capacity and memory stores. As suggested earlier, all show that information can also be encoded
duration limitations of the STM finally enter informations which our senses receive are semantically in STM and acoustically in LTM.
the long-term memory (abbreviated as LTM) not I. Try to remember the following list of digits
which has a vast capacity. It is a permanent registered; if that be the case, imagine the (individual digits)
storehouse of all informations that may be as kind 19254981121
recent as what you ate for breakfast of pressure that our memory system will Now try to memorise them in the following
yesterday have groups:
to as distant as how you celebrated your to cope with. Only that information which is 1 9 25 49 81 121
sixth attended to enters the STM from sensory Finally memorise them in the following
birthday. It has been shown that once any registers and in that sense, selective manner:
information enters the long-term memory attention, 12 32 52 72 92 112
store it is never forgotten because it gets as you have already read in Chapter 5, is the What difference do you observe?
encoded semantically, i.e. in terms of the first control process that decides what will II. Read out the lists given below in a row at
meaning that any information carries. What travel from sensory registers to STM. Sense the
you experience as forgetting is in fact impressions, which do not receive attention, speed of one digit per second to your friend
retrieval fade away quickly. The STM then sets into and ask her/him to repeat all the digits in
failure; for various reasons you cannot motion another control process of the same order:
retrieve maintenance rehearsal to retain the List Digits
the stored information. You will read about information for as much time as required. As 1 (6 digits) 2-6-3-8-3-4
retrieval related forgetting later in this the name suggests, these kinds of rehearsals 2 (7 digits) 7-4-8-2-4-1-2
chapter. simply maintain information through 3 (8 digits) 4-3-7-2-9-0-3-6
So far we have only discussed the structural repetition and when such repetitions 4 (10 digits) 9-2-4-1-7-8-2-6-5-3
features of the stage model. Questions which discontinue the information is lost. Another 5 (12 digits) 8-2-5-4-7-4-7-7-3-9-1-6
still remain to be addressed are how does control process, which operates in STM to Remember that your friend will recall the
information travel from one store to another expand its capacity, is Chunking. Through digits as soon as you finish the list. Note how
and by what mechanisms it continues to stay chunking it is possible to expand the capacity many digits are recalled. The memory score
in any particular memory store. Let us of STM which is otherwise 7+2. For example, of your friend will be the number of digits
examine if you are told to remember a string of digits correctly recalled by her/him. Discuss your
the answers to these questions. such as 194719492004 (note that the findings with your classmates and teacher.
How does information travel from one store number Activity 7.1
to another? As an answer to this question, exceeds the capacity of STM), you may 136 Psychology
Atkinson and Shiffrin propose the notion of create Shallice and Warrington in the year 1970
control processes which function to the chunks as 1947, 1949, and 2004 and had cited the case of a man known as KF who
monitor remember them as the year when India met with an accident and damaged a portion
the flow of information through various became of the left side of his cerebral hemisphere.
In recent years, psychologists have independent, the year when the Indian Subsequently, it was found that his long-term
suggested that Constitution was adopted, and the year when memory was intact but the short-term
the short-term memory is not unitary, rather the tsunami hit the coastal regions of India memory
it may and was seriously affected. The stage model
consist of many components. This South East Asian countries. suggests that informations are committed to
multicomponent From the STM information enters the the long-term memory via STM and if KF’s
view of short-term memory was first longterm STM was affected, how can his long-term
proposed by Baddeley (1986) who suggested memory through elaborative rehearsals. memory be normal? Several other studies
that As against maintenance rehearsals, which have
are
also shown that memory processes are is not unitary because it contains a wide Perhaps, people put in greater effort in the
similar variety of information. In view of this, formation of these memories, and
irrespective of whether any information is contemporary formulations envisage highlighting
retained for a few seconds or for many years longterm details might lead to deeper levels of
and that memory can be adequately memory as consisting of various types. processing
understood without positing separate For instance, one major classification within as well as offer more cues for retrieval.
memory the LTM is that of Declarative and Autobiographical Memory : These are
stores. All these evidences led to the Procedural personal
development of another conceptualisation (sometimes called nondeclarative) memories. memories. They are not distributed evenly
about memory which is discussed below as All information pertaining to facts, names, throughout our lives. Some periods in our
the second model of memory. dates, such as a rickshaw has three wheels or lives
LEVELS OF PROCESSING that India became independent on August 15 produce more memories than others. For
The levels of processing view was proposed Chapter 7 • Human Memory 137 instance,
by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This view 1947 or a frog is an amphibian or you and no memories are reported pertaining to early
suggests that the processing of any new your friend share the same name, are part of childhood particularly during the first 4 to 5
information relates to the manner in which it declarative memory. Procedural memory, on years.
is perceived, analysed, and understood which the other hand, refers to memories relating This is called childhood amnesia. There is a
in turn determines the extent to which it will to dramatic increase in the frequency of
eventually be retained. Although this view procedures for accomplishing various tasks memories
has and skills such as how to ride a bicycle, how just after early adulthood, i.e. in the twenties.
undergone many revisions since then, yet its to make tea or play basketball. Facts Perhaps emotionality, novelty, and
basic idea remains the same. Let us examine retained importance of
this view in greater detail. in the declarative memory are amenable to Box 7.2 Long-term Memory Classification
Craik and Lockhart proposed that it is verbal descriptions while contents of events contribute to it. During old age, the
possible to analyse the incoming information procedural memory cannot be described most recent
at more than one level. One may analyse it in easily. For example, when asked you can years of life are likely to be well
terms of its physical or structural features. describe how the game of cricket is played remembered. However,
For example, one might attend only to the but before this, around 30 years’ of age, decline
shape of letters in a word say cat - inspite of if someone asks you how do you ride a in certain
whether the word is written in capital or bicycle, kinds of memory starts.
small you may find it difficult to narrate. Implicit Memory : Recent studies have
letters or the colour of the ink in which it is Tulving has proposed yet another indicated
written. This is the first and the shallowest classification and has suggested that the that many of the memories remain outside
level of processing. At an intermediate level declarative memory can either be Episodic the
one might consider and attend to the or conscious awareness of a person. Implicit
phonetic Semantic. memory is
sounds that are attached to the letters and Episodic memory contains biographical a kind of memory that a person is not aware
therefore the structural features are details of our lives. Memories relating to our of. It is
transformed into at least one meaningful personal life experiences constitute the a memory that is retrieved automatically.
word episodic memory and it is for this reason that One
say, a word cat that has three specific letters. its contents are generally emotional in interesting example of implicit memory
Analysing information at these two levels nature. comes from
produces memory that is fragile and is likely How did you feel when you stood first in your the experience of typing. If someone knows
to decay rather quickly. However, there is a class? Or how angry was your friend and typing
third and the deepest level at which what that means s/he also knows the particular
information can be processed. In order to did s/he say when you did not fulfil a letters
ensure that the information is retained for a promise? on the keyboard. But many typists cannot
longer period, it is important that it gets If such incidents did actually happen in your correctly
analysed and understood in terms of its life, you perhaps will be able to answer these label blank keys in a drawing of a keyboard.
meaning. For instance, you may think of cat questions with reasonable accuracy. Implicit
as an animal that has furs, has four legs, a Although memories lie outside the boundaries of
tail, and is a mammal. You can also invoke an such experiences are hard to forget, yet it is awareness.
image of a cat and connect that image with equally true that many events take place In other words, we are not conscious of the
your experiences. To sum up, analysing continuously in our lives and that we do not fact that
information in terms of its structural and remember all of them. Besides, there are a memory or record of a given experience
phonetic features amounts to shallower painful and unpleasant experiences which exists.
processing while encoding it in terms of the are Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence
meaning it carries (the semantic encoding) is not remembered in as much detail as our
the deepest processing level that leads to pleasant behaviour. This kind of memory was found in
memory that resists forgetting considerably. life experiences. patients
Understanding memory as an outcome of The study of memory is a fascinating field suffering from brain injuries. They were
the manner in which information is encoded and presented a
initially has an important implication for researchers have reported many new list of common words. A few minutes later
learning. This view of memory will help you phenomena. the patient
realise that while you are learning a new The following phenomena show the complex was asked to recall words from the list. No
lesson, you must focus on elaborating the and memory
meaning of its contents in as much detail as dynamic nature of human memory. was shown for the words. However, if s/he
possible and must not depend on rote Flashbulb Memories : These are memories was
memorisation. Attempt this and you will soon of prompted to say a word that begins with
realise that understanding the meaning of events that are very arousing or surprising. these letters
information and reflecting on how it relates Such and two letters are given, the patient was
to other facts, concepts, and your life memories are very detailed. They are like a able to
experiences is a sure way to long-term photo recall words. Implicit memories are also
retention. taken with an advanced model camera. You observed in
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY can people with normal memories.
As you have read in Box 7.1, the short-term push the button, and after one minute you 138 Psychology
memory is now seen as consisting of more have a for various other classifications of long-term
than recreation of the scene. You can look at the memory.
one component (working memory). In the photograph whenever you want. Flashbulb 1. Think about your early school days. Write
same memories are like images frozen in memory down two separate events that occurred
way it is suggested that long-term memory and during
too tied to particular places, dates, and times. those days, and which you remember vividly.
Use separate sheets for writing about each ‘elaphant’ is misspelt. Unlike episodic memorise and after some time they are
event. memory asked
2. Think of the first month in Class XI. Write this kind of memory is not dated; you to recall them in any order. The more they
down perhaps are able to recall, the better their memory is.
two separate events that occurred during the will not be able to tell when you learnt the In recognition, instead of being asked to
month, and which you remember vividly. Use meaning of non-violence or on which date generate items, participants see the items
separate sheets for each event. you that they had memorised along with
Compare these in terms of length, felt came to know that Bangalore is the capital of distracter items (those that they had not
emotions, Karnataka. Since the contents of semantic seen)
and coherence. memory relate to facts and ideas of general and their task is to recognise which one of
Activity 7.2 awareness and knowledge, it is affect-neutral those they had learnt. The greater the
Write the sentences given below on separate and not susceptible to forgetting. See Box 7.2 number of recognition of ‘old items’, better is
cards. Invite some junior students to play this Chapter 7 • Human Memory 139 the memory.
game with you. Seat her/him across a table KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION AND b) Sentence Verification Task (for measuring
in front of you. Tell her/him “In this game you ORGANISATION IN MEMORY semantic memory) : As you have already
will In this section we will take a look at the read,
be shown some cards one by one at a steady organisational structure that the contents of Box 7.3 Methods of Memory Measurement
pace, you have to read the question written long-term memory acquire over a period of semantic memory is not amenable to any
on time. Since long-term memory holds a very forgetting because it embodies general
each card and answer it in yes or no”. large amount of information which is put to knowledge
Note down the answers. use with amazing efficiency, it would be very that we all possess. In sentence verification
1. Is the word written in capital letters? BELT useful to know how our memory system task,
2. Does the word rhyme with the word crew? organises its contents so that the right the participants are asked to indicate
grew information is available at the right moment. whether the
3. Does the word fit in the following It is important to note at this point that many given sentences are true or false. Faster the
sentence? ideas relating to organisation of the content participants respond, better retained is the
“____________ study in school”. Students of long-term memory have resulted from information needed to verify those sentences
4. Does the word rhyme with the word gold? experiments that have employed semantic (see
mood retrieval tasks. You will perhaps agree that Activity 7.3 for use of this task in
5. Is the word written in capital letters? bread there cannot be any error in recalling the measurement of
6. Does the word fit in the following contents of semantic memory. For anyone semantic knowledge).
sentence? who c) Priming (for measuring information we
“The son of my uncle is my ____________.” knows that birds fly will not make a mistake cannot
cousin in answering a question — Do birds fly? The report verbally) : We store many kinds of
7. Does the word fit in the following answer will be in affirmative. But people may information that we can’t report verbally - for
sentence? take variable lengths of time in answering instance, information necessary to ride a
My _________ is a vegetable. home questions, which require semantic bicycle
8. Does the word fit in the following judgments. or play a sitar. Besides, we also store
sentence? While responding to question ‘Do birds fly?’ a information
“__________ is a piece of furniture”. Potato person will take not more than a second but that we are not aware of, which is described
9. Is the word written in capital letters? answering a question ‘Are birds animals’? as
TABLE may implicit memory. In priming method,
10. Does the word rhyme with the word take longer. Depending upon how much time participants
wears? bears people take in responding to questions such are shown a list of words, such as garden,
11. Is the word written in capital letters? as these, the nature of organisation in playground, house, etc. and then they are
marks longterm shown
12. Does the word rhyme with the word memory has been inferred. parts of these words like gar, pla, ho, along
clear? five The most important unit of representation with
13. Does the word fit in the following of knowledge in long-term memory is a parts of other words they had not seen.
sentence? concept. Concepts are mental categories for Participants complete parts of seen words
“Children like to play __________ .” games objects and events, which are similar to each more
14. Does the word fit in the following other in one or in more than one way. quickly than parts of words they had not
sentence? Concepts once formed get organised in seen.
“People usually meet __________ in the categories — a category itself is a concept When asked, they are often unaware of this
bucket.” friends but and
15. Does the word fit in the following it also functions to organise similarities report that they have only guessed.
sentence? among 140 Psychology
“My class room is filled with ________.” shirts other concepts based on common features. get organised in schema. They are mental
16. Does the word fit in the following For frameworks which represent our knowledge
sentence? example, the word mango is a category and assumptions about the world. For
“My mother gives me enough pocket because different varieties of mangoes can example, think of a schema of a drawing
__________.” money be room.
After completing the task of reading the subsumed within it and it is also a concept It will have different objects/things, like a
cards, ask the students to recall the words within the category of fruit. Concepts may sofa
about which also set, center table, paintings, etc., which are
the questions were asked. Note down the There are many ways in which memory is found in a drawing room and where they are
words recalled. Count the number of words measured experimentally. Since there are found in the drawing room.
recalled in many So far we have examined the concept as
the structural, phonological, and semantic kinds of memories, any method appropriate the basic level at which knowledge is
types of processing required by the question. for represented in the long-term memory and
Discuss results with your teacher. studying one type of memory may not be the
Activity 7.3 suited notions of category and schema as the first
Semantic memory, on the other hand, is for studying another. The major methods level at which concepts are organised. Let
the memory of general awareness and which us now look at a higher level of organisation
knowledge. All concepts, ideas and rules of are used for memory measurement are being that concepts acquire in the long-term
logic are stored in semantic memory. For presented here : memory.
instance, it is because of semantic memory a) Free Recall and Recognition (for In the year 1969, Allan Collins and Ross
that we remember the meaning of say measuring Quillian published a landmark research paper
‘nonviolence’ facts/episodes related memory) : In free in which they suggested that knowledge in
or remember that 2+6=8 or the STD recall long-term memory is organised hierarchically
code of New Delhi is 011 or that the word method, participants are presented with and assumes a network structure. Elements
some words which they are asked to of this structure are called nodes. Nodes are
concepts while connections between nodes generate images and the knowledge related such study carried out by Garry, Manning
are to and Loftus
labelled relationships, which indicate them is encoded both verbally as well as in 1996 and understand the features of false
category visually. This is known as dual coding memory.
membership or concept attributes. hypothesis, originally proposed by Paivio. Initially they presented before the
In order to verify the proposed network According to this hypothesis, concrete nouns participants
structure of long-term knowledge, and information related to concrete objects of their experiments, a list of events that
participants are could have
of experiments were asked to verify the truth encoded and stored in the form of images occurred in their lives. In the first phase of
of the statements such as ‘canary is a bird’ or while this
‘a canary is an animal’ (answer was in Yes/ information related to abstract concepts experiment, they rated the likelihood that
No). These were generally class-inclusion assume a verbal and a descriptive code. For each of
statements in which the subject was word example, if you are asked to describe a bird, these events actually took place in their lives
‘canary’ (perhaps, you know, it is a bird) and the first thing that happens is that an image to the
the predicate took the form ‘is a’. A critical of a bird is generated and based on this best of their childhood memories. Two weeks
finding of such experiments was that as the image, later,
predicate became hierarchically more remote you describe a bird. But, on the other hand, they were invited again to the laboratory and
from the subject in a sentence, participants the meanings of concepts like ‘truth’ or were
took longer time to verify that it is true or ‘honesty’ will not have such accompanying asked to imagine those events and visualise
false. images. So, any information which has been as if
Thus, people took longer to verify that a encoded verbally as well as in the form of they actually happened to them. In
‘canary is an animal’ compared to that which images is recalled with greater ease. particular, events
said ‘canary is a bird’ because bird is an Eyewitness Memory which were rated low in terms of their
immediate superordinate category in which Court procedures followed in criminal trials, likelihood of
canary is subsumed while animal is a use occurrence, were chosen for the task of
superordinate category which is more distant the testimony given by the eyewitness of the visualising
and remote from the concept canary. offense. It is considered to be the most and imagining. This was the second phase of
According to this view, we can store all reliable the
knowledge at a certain level that ‘applies to evidence for or against the accused. Some experiment. Finally, in the third phase, the
all the members of a category without having experiments carried out by Loftus and her experimenters pretended that they had
to repeat that information at the lower levels colleagues during the mid-seventies showed misplaced
in the hierarchy’. This ensures a high degree that the event likelihood ratings which they had
of cognitive economy, which means the eyewitness’s memory is susceptible to obtained
maximum and efficient use of the capacity of many during the first phase and therefore
long-term memory with minimum flaws. requested the
redundancy. The experimental procedure followed by participants to respond to the list, once
Fig.7.2 : The Hierarchical Network Model Loftus again.
Can bite Is dangerous was very simple. A film clipping of an event Interestingly, events which were rated low on
Animal (usually likelihood in the first phase but were later
Has skin a car accident) was shown to the visualised
Can move around participants. This and imagined as real were now rated high.
Eats food was followed by some questions, which The
Breathes interferes participants reported that those events
Has wings with encoding of the event. One of the actually took
Has feathers questions place in their lives. These findings suggest
Can fly was “how fast were the cars going when they that
Can sing Is yellow smashed into each other”. In another memory can be induced and implanted
Canary question the through
Ostrich verb smashed was replaced with the verb imagination inflation — a finding that
Has long thin legs contacted. Those who were asked the first provides useful
Can’t fly question insights into memory processes.
Is tall (which included the word ‘smashed’) 142 Psychology
Swims upstream estimated the Information which has been encoded and
to lay eggs speed of the cars as 40.8 mph. Those who stored in the form of images leads to the
Is pink were development of mental models. There are
Is edible given the second question (i.e. with the word many
Shark ‘contacted’) estimated that the speed of the routine tasks which require mental models.
Bird cars For example, following a road direction,
Fish Can swim was only 31.8 mph. Clearly, the nature of assembling a bicycle or even preparing to
Has fins leading cook
Has gills questions changed the memory. In fact, the an exotic dish from instructions given in a
Salmon encoding of the event was ‘overwritten’ by cookery book require that spatial mental
Chapter 7 • Human Memory 141 misleading questions. Some of these errors models are created from verbal descriptions.
So far we have discussed concept as unit are also Mental models, therefore, refer to our belief
of representation of knowledge in the committed because of affective nature of the about the manner in which our environment
longterm event is structured and such beliefs are formed
memory and looked at various ways in itself. For example, events depicting violence with
which concepts get organised. Does this or a the help of concrete images as well as verbal
mean tragedy tend to arouse strong emotions, the descriptions.
that knowledge is encoded only in word-like eyewitnesses get overwhelmed and do not MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
format or can there be other ways of pay If you were to carefully examine the initial
encoding? attention to details while encoding. explorations about memory processes, you
It has been shown that information can be Box 7.4 Memory Making : Eyewitness and will
coded in a perceptual format or in terms of False Memories perhaps conclude that memory primarily
images. An image is a concrete form of False Memory consists of reproduction of stored materials.
representation which directly conveys the An interesting phenomenon called false This view was held by Ebbinghaus and his
perceptual attributes of an object. If you were memory can followers who emphasised the quantity of
to come across the word ‘school’, an image be induced by powerful imagination of information that can be stored in the memory
of events that did and judged its accuracy by matching the
your own school will get generated. In fact, not take place at all. Surprised? Let us look contents of storage and reproduction. If the
almost all concrete objects (and concepts) at one reproduced version of the stored material
showed any deviation, it was seen as an error
and a case of memory failure. This storage Chapter 7 • Human Memory 143 Trace decay (also called disuse theory) is the
metaphor of memory implied that the decay due to disuse, then people who go to earliest theory of forgetting. The assumption
memory sleep after memorising should forget more here is that memory leads to modification in
was a passive occurrence of learnt material compared to those who remain awake, the central nervous system, which is akin to
that has been transported to its long-term simply physical changes in the brain called memory
storehouse. This position was challenged by because there is no way in which memory traces. When these memory traces are not
Bartlett in the early thirties who contended traces can be put to use during sleep. used for a long time, they simply fade away
that memory is an active process and all that Results, and become unavailable. This theory has
we have stored undergoes continuous however, show just the opposite. Those who been
change remain awake after memorising (waking proved inadequate on several grounds. If
and modification. What we memorise is condition) show greater forgetting than those forgetting takes place because memory
influenced by the meaning we assign to the who sleep (sleeping condition). traces
stimulus material and once it is committed to Because trace decay theory did not explain 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 30 31 100
our memory system, it cannot remain in forgetting adequately, it was soon replaced Fig.7.3 : Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting
isolation from other cognitive processes. by 20 min.
In essence, therefore, Bartlett saw memory another theory of forgetting which suggested 1 hr.
as a constructive and not a reproductive that new information that enters the long- 8.8 hrs.
process. Using meaningful materials such as term Amount
texts, folk tales, fables, etc. Bartlett memory interferes with the recall of earlier forgotten
attempted memories and therefore, interference is the Amount
to understand the manner in which content main cause of forgetting. retained
of any specific memory gets affected by a Forgetting due to Interference Amount retained (per cent)
person’s knowledge, goals, motivation, If forgetting is not due to trace decay then Amount forgotten (per cent)
preferences and various other psychological why Time since learning (in days)
processes. He conducted simple experiments does it take place? A theory of forgetting that 75 50 25 0
in which reading of such stimulus materials has perhaps been the most influential one is 25 50 75 100
was followed by fifteen minutes break and the interference theory which suggests that 144 Psychology
then forgetting is due to interference between the recall of your subsequent learning or
the participants of his experiment recalled various informations that the memory store retroactive (backward moving) which refers
what contains. This theory assumes that learning to
they had read. Bartlett used the method of and memorising involve forming of difficulty in recalling what you have learnt
serial reproduction in which the associations between items and once earlier because of learning a new material. In
participants acquired, other words, in proactive interference, past
of his experiments recalled the memory these associations remain intact in the learning interferes with the recall of later
materials repeatedly at varying time memory. People keep acquiring numerous learning while in retroactive interference the
intervals. such associations and each of these rests later learning interferes with the recall of
While engaging in serial reproduction of independently without any mutual conflict. past
learned material his participants committed However, interference comes about at a time learning. For example, if you know English
a wide variety of ‘errors’ which Bartlett of retrieval when these various sets of and you find it difficult to learn French, it is
considered useful in understanding the associations compete with each other for because of proactive interference and if, on
process of memory construction. His retrieval. This interference process will the other hand, you cannot recall English
participants altered the texts to make them become equivalents of French words that you are
more consistent with their knowledge, clearer with a simple exercise. Request your currently memorising, then it is an example
glossed friend to learn two separate lists of nonsense of retroactive interference. A typical
over the unnecessary details, elaborated the syllables (list A and list B) one after the other experimental design that is used to
main theme and transformed the material to and after a while ask her/him to recall the demonstrate proactive and retroactive
look more coherent and rational. nonsense syllables of list A. If while trying to interference has been presented in Table 7.1.
In order to explain such findings, Bartlett recall the items of list A, s/he recalls some of Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure
invoked the term schema, which according the items of list B, it is because of the Forgetting can occur not only because the
to him ‘was an active organisation of past association formed while learning list B are memory traces have decayed over time (as
reactions and past experiences’. Schemas interfering with the earlier association which suggested by the disuse theory) or because
refer were formed while learning list A. independent sets of stored associations
to an organisation of past experiences and There are atleast two kinds of interferences compete at the time of recall (as suggested
knowledge, which influence the way in which that may result in forgetting. Interference by
incoming information is interpreted, stored, can the interference theory) but also because at
and later retrieved. Memory, therefore, be proactive (forward moving) which means the time of recall, either the retrieval cues
becomes an active process of construction what you have learnt earlier interferes with are
where information is encoded and stored in etc.) and then measured the number of trials absent or they are inappropriate. Retrieval
terms of a person’s understanding and within he took to relearn the same list at varying cues are aids which help us in recovering
her/his previous knowledge and expectations. time information stored in the memory. This
NATURE AND CAUSES OF FORGETTING intervals. He observed that the course of view was advanced by Tulving and his
Each one of us has experienced forgetting forgetting follows a certain pattern which you associates who carried out several
and can see in Figure 7.3. experiments to show that contents of
its consequences almost routinely. Why do As the figure indicates, the rate of memory
we forgetting is maximum in the first nine hours, may become inaccessible either due to
forget? Is it because the information we particularly during the first hour. After that absence or inappropriateness of retrieval
commit to our long-term memory is somehow the rate slows down and not much is cues
lost? Is it because we did not memorise it forgotten that are available/employed at the time of
well even after many days. Although recall.
enough? Is it because we did not encode the Ebbinghaus’s Retroactive Interference Phase 1 Phase 2
information correctly or is it because during experiments constituted initial explorations Testing Phase
storage, it got distorted or misplaced? Many and were not very sophisticated yet they Experimental participant/group Learns A
theories have been forwarded to explain have Learns B Recalls A
forgetting and now you will read about those influenced memory research in many Control participant/group Learns A Rests
that seem plausible and have received important ways. It is now upheld, almost Recalls A
considerable attention. unanimously, that there is always a sharp Proactive Interference
The first systematic attempt to understand drop in memory and thereafter the decline is Experimental participant/group Learns A
the nature of forgetting was made by very gradual. Let us now examine the main Learns B Recalls B
Hermann theories, which have been advanced to Control participant/group Rests Learns B
Ebbinghaus, who memorised lists of explain Recalls B
nonsense forgetting. Table 7.1 Experimental Designs for
syllables (CVC trigrams such as NOK or SEP Forgetting due to Trace Decay Retroactive and Proactive Interference
Some individuals undergo experiences that your memory. Some of these mnemonics first visualise objects/places that you know
are involve use of images whereas others well in a specific sequence, imagine the
traumatic. A traumatic experience emphasise self-induced organisation of objects
emotionally learned information. You will now read about you want to remember and associate them
hurts a person. Sigmund Freud posited that mnemonics and some suggestions given for one
such memory improvement. by one to the physical locations. For
experiences are repressed into the Mnemonics using Images example,
unconscious Mnemonics using images require that you suppose you want to remember bread, eggs,
and are not available for retrieval from create vivid and interacting images of and tomatoes, and soap on your way to the
memory. around the material you wish to remember. market,
It is a kind of repression — painful, The two prominent mnemonic devices, which you may visualise a loaf of bread and eggs
threatening, make interesting use of images, are the placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on a
and embarrassing memories are held out of keyword method and the method of loci. table and soap in the bathroom. When you
consciousness. (a) The Keyword Method : Suppose you want enter the market all you need to do is to take
In some persons, traumatic experiences may to learn words of any foreign language. In a mental walk along the route from your
give rise to psychological amnesia. Some keyword method, an English word (the kitchen to the bathroom recalling all the
individuals experience crisis, and are utterly assumption here is that you know English items
incapable of coping with such events. They language) that sounds similar to the word of of your shopping list in a sequence.
close a foreign language is identified. This English Mnemonics using Organisation
their eyes, ears and mind to such harsh Given below are two lists of words. First Organisation refers to imposing certain order
realities memorise the list in such a way that you are on the material you want to remember.
of life, and take mental flight from them. It able to Mnemonics of this kind are helpful because
results recall the words without any error. Now you the framework you create while organisation
Box 7.5 Repressed Memories take up the second list and memorise it to makes the retrieval task fairly easy.
in highly generalised amnesia. One of the the (a) Chunking : While describing the features
results of criterion of correct recall error. Forget about of short-term memory, we noted how
such flights is the emergence of a disorder the list and read something else for an hour. chunking
known as Now can increase the capacity of short-term
‘fugue state’. Persons who become victims of recall the words in the first list and write memory. In chunking, several smaller units
such a them down. Note the total number of words are combined to form large chunks. For
state assume a new identity, name, address, correctly creating chunks, it is important to discover
etc. recalled and the number of words incorrectly some organisation principles, which can link
They have two personalities and one knows recalled. smaller units. Therefore, apart from being a
nothing List 1 control mechanism to increase the capacity
about the other. Goat Sheep Leopard of short-term memory, chunking can be used
Forgetfulness or loss of memory under stress Jackal Monkey Camel to improve memory as well.
and high anxiety is not uncommon. Many Mule Deer Squirrel (b) First Letter Technique : In order to employ
hard Horse Cheetah Wolf the first letter technique, you need to pick up
working and ambitious students aspire for Snake Rabbit Parrot the first letter of each word you want to
high List 2 remember and arrange them to form another
scores in final examinations and to achieve Pig Elephant Donkey word or a sentence. For example, colours of a
such Pigeon Cobra Tiger rainbow are remembered in this way
ends they put in long hours in studies. But Mynah Lion Calf (VIBGYOR- that stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue,
when Bears Fox Crow Green, Yellow, Orange and Red).
they receive the question paper, they Buffalo Mouse Mnemonic strategies for memory
become Get the cooperation of one of your friends enhancement are too simplistic and perhaps
extremely nervous and forget everything and request her/him to memorise the words underestimate complexities of memory tasks
they had of List 1 and difficulties people experience while
prepared well. to the criterion as stated above. Request memorising. In place of mnemonics, a more
Chapter 7 • Human Memory 145 her/him to sing a song and have a cup of tea comprehensive approach to memory
Let us understand this with the help of an with you. improvement has been suggested by many
example. Suppose you have memorised a list Keep her/him engaged in some conversation psychologists. In such an approach, emphasis
of meaningful words like hut, wasp, cottage, for an hour or so. Then request her/him to is laid on applying knowledge about memory
gold, bronze, ant, etc. in which words write processes to the task of memory
belonged down the words s/he had memorised earlier. improvement.
to six categories (like places of living, names Compare your recall with the one made by Let us examine some of these suggestions.
of insects, types of metal, etc.). If after a your friend. It is suggested that one must :
while Activity 7.4 (a) Engage in Deep Level Processing : If you
you are asked to recall those you may recall 146 Psychology want to memorise any information well,
a word will function as the keyword. For engage in deep level processing. Craik and
couple of them but if during the second recall example, Lockhart have demonstrated that processing
attempt, you are also provided with category if you want to remember the Spanish word information in terms of meaning that they
names, then you may find that your recall is for convey leads to better memory as compared
near total. Category names in this example duck which is ‘Pato’, you may choose ‘pot’ as to attending to their surface features. Deep
act as retrieval cues. Besides category the keyword and then evoke images of processing would involve asking as many
names, keyword questions related to the information as
the physical context in which you learn also and the target word (the Spanish word you possible, considering its meaning and
provides effective retrieval cues. want examining its relationships to the facts you
ENHANCING MEMORY to remember) and imagine them as already know. In this way, the new
All of us desire to possess an excellent interacting. information
memory You might, in this case, imagine a duck in a will become a part of your existing
system that is robust and dependable. Who, pot full of water. This method of learning knowledge
after all, likes to face situations of memory words framework and the chances that it will be
failures that lead to so much of anxiety and of a foreign language is much superior remembered are increased.
embarrassment? After learning about various compared to any kind of rote memorisation. (b) Minimise Interference : Interference, as
memory related processes, you certainly (b) The Method of Loci : In order to use the we
would method of loci, items you want to remember have read, is a major cause of forgetting and
like to know how your memory can be are placed as objects arranged in a physical therefore you should try to avoid it as much
improved. There are a number of strategies space in the form of visual images. This as possible. You know that maximum
for improving memory called mnemonics method is particularly helpful in interference is caused when very similar
(pronounced ni-mo-nicks) to help you remembering materials are learned in a sequence. Avoid
improve items in a serial order. It requires that you this.
Arrange your study in such a way that you do and link parts of the study material to these
not learn similar subjects one after the other. cues. Cues will be easier to remember
Instead, pick up some other subject compared to the entire content and the links
unrelated you have created between cues and the
to the previous one. If that is not possible, content will facilitate the retrieval process.
distribute your learning/practice. This means Thomas and Robinson have developed
giving yourself intermittent rest periods while another strategy to help students in
studying to minimise interference. remembering more which they called the
Chapter 7 • Human Memory 147 methods of PQRST. This acronym stands for
Key Terms Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and
Chunking, Cognitive economy, Concepts, Test. Preview refers to giving a cursory look
Control process, Dual coding, Echoic at
memory, the chapter and familiarising oneself with its
Encoding, Episodic memory, Elaborative contents. Question means raising questions
rehearsals, Fugue state, Information and seeking answers from the lesson. Now
processing approach, Maintenance start reading and look for answers of
rehearsals, Memory making, Mnemonics, questions
Schema, Semantic memory, Serial you had raised. After reading try to rewrite
reproduction, Working memory what you have read and at the end test how
Summary much you have been able to understand.
• Memory is seen as consisting of three At the end, a note of caution must be
interrelated processes of encoding, storage sounded. There is no one method that can
and retrieval. solve all problems related to retention and
• While encoding is registering the incoming bring about an overnight memory
information in a way that it becomes improvement. In order to improve your
compatible memory, you need to attend to a wide
to the memory system, storage and retrieval variety
refers to holding the information over a of factors which affect your memory such as
period your health status, your interest and
of time and bringing the information back to motivation, your familiarity with the subject
one’s awareness, respectively. matter and so on. In addition, you must learn
• The Stage Model of Memory compares to use strategies for memory improvement
memory processes with the working of a depending upon the nature of memory tasks
computer you are required to accomplish.
and suggests that incoming information is 148 Psychology
processed through three distinct stages of 1. What is the meaning of the terms
sensory ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’?
memory, short-term memory and long-term 2. How is information processed through
memory. sensory, short-term and long-term memory
• Levels of processing view of memory systems?
contends that the information can be 3. How are maintenance rehearsals different
encoded at any from elaborative rehearsals?
of the three levels, namely, the structural, 4. Differenciate between declarative and
the phonetic and the semantic. If an procedural memories?
information 5. Describe the hierarchical organisation in
is analysed and encoded semantically, which long-term memory?
is the deepest level of processing, then it 6. Why does forgetting take place?
leads to better retention. 7. How is retrieval related forgetting different
• Long-term memory has been classified in from forgetting due to interference?
many ways. One major classification is that 8. What evidence do we have to say that
of ‘memory is a constructive process’?
declarative and procedural memory and 9. Define mnemonics? Suggest a plan to
another is that of episodic and semantic improve your own memory.
memory. Review Questions
• Contents of long-term memory get 1. Recall and write down an event of your life
represented in terms of concepts, categories that you remember very clearly. Also request
and images others (those who were participants of that
and are organised hierarchically. event such as your brother/sister, parents or
• Forgetting refers to loss of stored other relatives/friends) to do the same.
information over a period of time. After a Compare the two recalled versions and look
material is learnt, for
there is a sharp drop in its memory and then discrepancies and similarities. Try to reason
the decline is very gradual. why there are similarities and discrepancies.
• Forgetting has been explained as resulting 2. Narrate a story to your friend and ask
from trace decay and interference. It may her/him to write it down after an hour. Also
also request
be caused due to absence of appropriate her/him to narrate what s/he had written to
cues at the time of retrieval. another person. Continue this process till
• Memory is not only a reproductive but also you have at least 5 versions of the original
a constructive process. What we store story. Compare the various versions and
undergoes identify constructive processes in memory.
change and modification within one’s past Project Ideas
knowledge and schema.
• Mnemonics are strategies for improving
memory. While some mnemonics use
images, other
emphasise organisation of the learnt
material.
(c) Give Yourself enough Retrieval Cues :
While
you learn something, think of retrieval cues
inherent in your study material. Identify them