Pulhin, Amaro & Bacalla

PHILIPPINES
COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST
MANAGEMENT 20051

Juan M. Pulhin(i) , Marcial C. Amaro, Jr.(ii) and Domingo Bacalla(iii)

1. The Evolution of CBFM

Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) is currently the Philippines major
strategy for the sustainable development of the countrys forest resources and social
justice. Its evolution as a policy and practice in forest management may be gleaned
from the major government policies and programs that were initiated by both the colonial
and independent Philippine Government. Building on Rebugio and Chong-Javiers
(1995) classification, the historical development of CBFM may be viewed using four
loosely defined periods: 1) the colonial period, 2) pioneering period from 1971 to 1981,
3) integration and consolidation from 1982 to 1994, and 4) institutionalization and
expansion starting from 1995 up to the present. Table 1 presents a timeline of these
policies and programs as well as their brief descriptions.

1 A country report presented during the Community Forestry Forum organized by the
Regional Community Forestry Training Center (RECOFTC) held on 24-26 August 2005
in Bangkok, Thailand.
(i) Juan M. Pulhin ,Associate Professor, Department of Social Forestry and Forest
Governance, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines
Los Banos.
(ii) Marcial C. Amaro, Jr. Director, Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment
and Natural Resources, Philippines.
(iii) Domingo Bacalla ,Chief of Community-Based Forest Management Division, Forest
Management Bureau -Department of Environment and Natural Resources.Philippines.

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Table 1 Evolution of community forestry policies and programs in the Philippines

Year Policy/Program Features

Colonial Period
1863 Establishment of the The states forest agency declares the right to
Inspecion General de control forest access and utilization
Montes
1889 Definitive Forest Laws and Slash-and-burn cultivation or kaingin in the
Regulations (Royal Decree upland areas was prohibited with heavy
of the King of Spain) penalties awaiting violators.
1901 Kaingin Law (Act No. 274) Kaingineros and other forest occupants were
to be punished and evicted from forest areas.
1917 Forest Law of 1917 or Act Established communal forests and pastures
No. 2711. for the use of communities, but still under state
control.
1941 Revised Communal Forest The Secretary of Agriculture and Commerce
Regulation (Forestry set aside communal forests, upon the
Administrative Order No. 14- endorsement of the Director of Forestry and
1) the request of municipal councils. The
residents of the municipality were granted the
privilege to cut, collect and remove free of
charge, forest products for their personal use.
Pioneering Period
1971 Kaingin Management and Focused on the containment rather than
Land Settlement punishment of forest occupants. Kaingineros
Regulations (Forestry or slash and burn cultivators were allowed to
Administrative Order No. 62) remain in the public forestland provided they
undertake soil conservation and tree farming
activities in fixed sites.
1973 Family Approach to The Bureau of Forest Development entered
Reforestation (BFD Circular into short-term contracts with families to set up
No. 45, Series of 1973 tree plantations in public land.
1975 Forestry Reform Code Kaingineros, squatters, and other occupants
(Presidential Decree No. who entered forest zones before May 1975
705) shall not be prosecuted provided that they do
not expand their clearings and that they
undertake forest protection activities.
1976 Forest Occupancy Allowed bona fide forest occupants to develop
Management Program the lands they were occupying or cultivating
but with specific provision that the subject land
should not exceed 7 ha per occupant.
Renewable two-year forest occupancy permit
issued to participating kaingineros.
1979 Communal Tree Farming Every city and municipality on the country was
Program expected to establish tree farms. Reforestation
(Ministry Administrative in open and denuded forestlands was to be
Order No. 11, Series of undertaken through the involvement of forest
1979) occupants, civic organizations, and municipal
government units.

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Year Policy/Program Features

Integration and Consolidation

1982 Integrated Social Forestry Participants in the program are granted the
Program (Letter of right to occupy and develop forest areas for a
Instruction No. 1260) period of 25 years, renewable for another 25
years, through the issuance of stewardship
agreement.
1989 General Rules and The Department of Environment and Natural
Regulations on the Resources shall encourage and promote the
Participation of NGOs in participation of NGOs in natural resources
Department of development, management and protection. A
Environment and Natural National NGO Desk is tasked to accredit
Resources Programs NGOs qualified to participate in Department of
(DENR Administrative Environment and Natural Resources
Order No. 120) programs.
1989 Community Forestry The Community Forestry Management
Program (DENR Agreement (CFMA) is awarded to organized
Administrative Order No. upland communities for a period of 25 years,
123) renewable for another 25 years. Forest
utilization privileges are given to the
communities which are expected to prepare a
development plan and adhere to the principles
of sustained-yield management.
1991 Local Government Code The implementation of social forestry and
(Republic Act No. 1760) reforestation initiatives, the management of
communal forests not exceeding 5,000 ha, the
protection of small watershed areas, and the
enforcement of forest laws are devolved to
local government units.
1993 Delineation of Ancestral Provincial Special Task Forces on Ancestral
Lands and Domain Claims Domains are mandated to meet with
(DENR Administrative indigenous communities for the purpose of
Order No. 2) verifying ancestral domain claims and
identifying forest boundaries. Once their claims
are approved, indigenous communities are
granted Certificates of Ancestral Domain
Claims
Institutionalization
1995 Adoption of Community- CBFM is the national strategy to achieve
Based Forest sustainable forestry and social justice.
Management (CBFM) as Organized communities may be granted
the National Strategy for access to forest resources under long-term
the Sustainable tenure provided they employ environment-
Development of friendly, ecologically sustainable, and labor-
Forestlands (Executive intensive harvesting methods. CBFM
Order No. 263) integrates all people-oriented forestry
programs and projects of the government.

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Year Policy/Program Features

Institutionalization
1996 Rules and Regulations for Local communities shall prepare their respective
the Implementation of Community Resource Management Frameworks
Executive Order 263, with the assistance of Department of
Otherwise Known as the Environment and Natural Resources, local
CBFM Strategy (DENR government units, NGOs, and other government
Administrative Order No. 96) agencies. The CBFM program shall apply to all
areas classified as forestlands including
allowable zones within protected areas. It
integrates all people-oriented forestry programs
of the government.
1997 Indigenous Peoples Rights Mandated the State to protect the rights of
Act (Republic Act No. 8371) indigenous cultural communities and their
ancestral domains to ensure their economic,
social and cultural well being. Also recognizes
the property relations in determining the
ownership and extent of ancestral domains.
Indigenous peoples whose ancestral domains
have been officially delineated and determined
by the National Commission on Indigenous
People shall be issued a Certificate of Ancestral
Domain Title in the name of the community
concerned, containing a list of all those identified
in the census.
1998 Manual of Procedures on This manual operationalizes and makes effective
Devolved and other Forest the devolution of forest management functions
Management Functions from the Department of Environment and Natural
(DENR-Department of Resources to the local government unit. It also
Interior and Local seeks to strengthen and institutionalize DENR-
Government (DILG) Joint DILG-local government unit partnership and
Memorandum Circular No. cooperation on devolved and other forest
98-01) management functions.
2003 Strengthening and Guidelines and instructions for Department of
Institutionalizing the DENR- Environment and Natural Resources, DILG and
DILG-local government unit local government units in accelerating
Partnership on Devolved collaboration, partnership, coordination and
and other Forest institutionalization of its working relations on
Management Functions forest management and related environmental
(DENR-DILG Joint concerns.
Memorandum Circular No.
2003-01)
2004 Promoting Sustainable Prescribed for the pursuit of sustainable
Forest Management in the management of forests and forestlands in
Philippines (Executive Order watersheds based on six key principles including
No. 318) community-based forest conservation and
development. CBFM shall remain the primary
strategy in all forest conservation and
development and related activities.
2004 Revised Rules and Improve on the 1996 CBFM Implementing Rules
Regulations for the and Regulations by allowing more flexibility to
Implementation of the CBFM participating communities such as the
Strategy (DENR requirement of a Five-Year Work Plan instead of
Administrative Order No. 29) Annual Work Plan, etc.
Source: Rebugio and Chiong-Javier (1995); Pulhin (1987); Guiang et al. (2001) Magno (2003).

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It is clear in the timeline that CBFM emerged as a major approach to the allocation
of forests and forestlands to communities and indigenous peoples with the issuance
of Executive Order (E.O.) 263 in 1995 and the passage of the Indigenous Peoples
Rights Act in 1997. To date, close to 6 million hectares of forests and forestlands are
in the hands of local communities compared to less than 200,000 hectares in 1986.
On the other hand, many erring Timber License Agreement holders were cancelled
while those whose licenses expired were no longer renewed after the 1986 EDSA
Revolution and the subsequent amendment of the Philippine Constitution. As a result,
there are now barely 13 Timber License Agreements remaining covering a total area
of 543,939 hectares of forest land. This represents a drastic departure from the earlier
forest management approach, which placed 8-10 million hectares of forest land
around one-third of the countrys total land area of 30 million hectares under the
control of the social elite, particularly the relatively few timber license operators (Pulhin
2003).

E.O. 263 and its implementing rules and regulations stipulate the basic policy
objectives that CBFM intends to pursue. These are to: 1) protect and advance the
rights of the Filipino people to a healthy environment; 2) improve socio-economic
conditions through the promotion of social justice and equitable access to and
sustainable development of forestland resources; and 3) respect the rights of
indigenous peoples to their ancestral domains by taking into account their customs,
traditions and beliefs in the formulation of laws and policies.

To achieve these objectives, the CBFM Program was established through

Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 96-29
that integrated and unified all the people-oriented programs of the government including
the Integrated Social Forestry Program; Upland Development Project; Forest Land
Management Program; Community Forestry Program; Low Income Upland
Communities Project; Regional Resources Management Project; Integrated Rainforest
Management Project; Forestry Sector Project; Coastal Environmental Program; and
Recognition of Ancestral Domains/Claims.

Despite the above-cited policies and programs, there is as yet no single legislated
policy that provides a stable legal framework to guide the smooth implementation of
the CBFM Program. This has created a highly uncertain policy environment that
continues to derail CBFM implementation. In particular, Department of Environment
and Natural Resources vacillation on the issuance of Resource Use Permits to
participating Peoples Organizations as demonstrated in the series of national
suspensions/cancellations of Resource Use Permits by three Department of
Environment and Natural Resources Secretaries has greatly affected CBFM operations
at the field level, upsetting the major source of livelihood of the participating
communities. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is continuously
working towards the legislation of the proposed Sustainable Forest Management Act
which incorporates CBFM as the core management approach in its effort to create a
more stable forest policy environment.

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2. Institutional Arrangements
Formal Arrangements

There are at least three major institutional stakeholders formally involved in

CBFM implementation: the local communities or Peoples Organizations; the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources; and the local government units.

Local Communities
At the community level, CBFM is being implemented by duly organized
communities, known as Peoples Organizations. As the major CBFM stakeholder,
Peoples Organizations are entitled to certain incentives and privileges as
stipulated in the Community-Based Forest Management Agreement which
serves as a land tenure instrument issued by Department of Environment and
Natural Resources. Foremost of these are the rights to occupy, possess, utilize
and develop the forest lands and resources in a designated Community-Based
Forest Management Agreement area and claim ownership of introduced
improvements. Other privileges include exemption from paying land rental for
use of the CBFM areas and the right to be properly informed and consulted on
all government projects implemented in the area.
The Peoples Organizations major responsibilities include planning,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all activities in accordance with
the agreed upon Community-Based Forest Management Framework and Five-
Year Work Plan geared to promote the sustainable management of the
Community-Based Forest Management Agreement area. Specifically, Peoples
Organizations are expected under the Community-Based Forest Management
Framework and Five-Year Work Plan to protect, rehabilitate and conserve the
natural resources in the CBFM area and assist the government in the protection
of adjacent forest lands. They should also develop and implement equitable
benefit-sharing arrangements among Peoples Organization members, observe
transparency in financial transactions, and promote participatory management
and consensus building in all CBFM-related activities.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is the primary
government agency responsible for the management, development and
administration of the countrys forestlands and resources. The Department of
Environment and Natural Resources Secretary is in charge of the issuance of
various Administrative Orders, Memorandum Circulars and related regulations
that guide the implementation of CBFM. At the operational level, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources in partnership with the concerned Peoples
Organizations and local government units, facilitates the smooth implementation
of CBFM following a four-stage process: the preparatory stage, the Peoples
Organization formation and diagnostic stage, the planning stage, and the
implementation stage. The over-all management of the CBFM program including
its monitoring and evaluation is also the main task of Department of Environment
and Natural Resources field units, including the Regional Environment and
Natural Resources Office, Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office,
and the Community Environment and Natural Resources Office.

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The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is also the sole

government agency with the legal mandate to issue land tenure instruments in
all classified forest lands. Under CBFM, two types of tenure instruments are
issued: Community-Based Forest Management Agreement and Certificate of
Stewardship. The Community-Based Forest Management Agreement is entered
into, by and between the government and the local community, represented by
the Peoples Organization as forest managers, which has a term of twenty-five
(25) years and is renewable for another twenty-five (25) years. On the other
hand, Certificate of Stewardship is an agreement entered into, by and between
the government and individuals or families actually occupying or tilling portions
of the forest lands covered by a Community-Based Forest Management
Agreement.
Under the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative
Order No. 2004-29, the Forest Management Bureau which is one of the staff
bureaus of Department of Environment and Natural Resources, is mandated to
serve as the National Coordinating Office of the CBFM Program. It is tasked to
review CBFM programs, projects and activities; draft CBFM policies, guidelines
and procedures; prepare and monitor implementation of the national CBFM
program; and liaise with the government and NGOs for support and/or participation
in the program. The Forest Management Bureau is also expected to assist in the
development and preparation of project proposals for financial support by donor
agencies; develop and maintain improved management information systems on
the CBFM Program within Department of Environment and Natural Resources;
and provide other technical support for smooth program implementation.

Local Government Units

The enactment of Republic Act 7160, otherwise known as the Local
Government Code of 1991, led to the active involvement of Local Government
Units in CBFM implementation. The Code devolved certain environmental
functions of Department of Environment and Natural Resources to local
government units including the implementation of community-based forest
management projects, particularly the Integrated Social Forestry projects. The
local government units in turn include forest management and protection in the
formulation of their local ordinances and or policies (Pulhin 2004).
In pursuance of the Local Government Code, the Department of Interior and
Local Government (DILG) issued three circulars in the period of 1995 to 1996,
enjoining all local government units to help strengthen the forest devolution
program of the government. In addition, two memorandum circulars were issued
jointly with Department of Environment and Natural Resources in 1998 and 2003
to strengthen the implementation of forest devolution. To date, some local
government units in Luzon and Mindanao have passed provincial/municipal
resolutions appropriating funds to finance CBFM projects in their localities. Some
of the successful initiatives on forest devolution that have been backed up by
local government unit legislation include those established by the provincial
governments of Nueva Vizcaya in Northern Luzon and Bukidnon in Mindanao.
Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No.
2004-29 reaffirms the role of local government units in CBFM implementation.
The Order stipulates that it is the responsibility of the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources to collaborate with local government units (as well as

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other agencies and entities) to provide the enabling environment to support and
strengthen local communities involved in CBFM activities.

Informal Arrangements

It should be noted that in addition to formal arrangements that characterize

government-initiated CBFM projects, self-initiated CBFM initiatives also exist at the
local level independent of government formal arrangements. Some of the noted
examples are the muyong system of the Ifugaos and the saguday of the municipality
of Sagada, both located in Northern Philippines (Guiang, et al. 2001).
The muyong system of the Ifugao is a land ownership and forest management
system unique to the Tuali tribe of Ifugao Province in the Cordillera Region of the
island of Luzon. The term muyong is the general Ifugao word for forest. Most
muyongs are located in the upper portion of the stratified agricultural lot and are
generally thought of as an extension of the payoh (rice field.) The forested areas help
conserve water for the payoh and serve as source of firewood for cooking the harvest
from the field (IRDC 1996), and of raw materials for house construction and
woodcarving.
The Ifugao customary laws confine the cultivation of the muyong to clan members
as it is considered to be clan or family-owned (See 2000), owners are expected to
maintain their muyong. To the users of this system, it is a disgrace to pass the muyong
to their heirs with few trees. Maintenance practices include weeding, tree thinning or
release cutting, enrichment planting, and stem bending. The Ifugao also employ
sprouting/pruning, rejuvenation, compost piling, root cutting, and collapsing. Moreover,
trees are girded and thinned to regulate the intensity of light reaching the undergrowth
(Serrano 1990). Huge trees in a muyong, especially those near creeks and large
rocks, are not cut because these are believed to be the homes of the Ifugao earth
spirits (IRDC 1996). To date, the remaining forests in the Ifugao and Banaue areas
are managed mostly under the muyong system.
On the other hand, the saguday involves the management of a piece of forestland
by a clan with a land size between 0.5 to 10 hectares and a clan size ranging from 1
to 20 families. Big clans may include members from several generations. Only the
clan members have direct access to the saguday, and they share equal rights to the
resources found therein. Five objectives of living govern the management of the
saguday, namely, health, prosperity (gabay,) abundance (sika,) nature, and peace.
The saguday is maintained not only for the wood requirements of the owners but also
for food, medicine, clean water, and cultural values.
Decision-making concerning the saguday is the sole responsibility of the council
of elders and their designated caretakers. The caretakers manage the saguday and
implement the indigenous rules concerning its use. In exchange, they are free to use
the resources and stay in the area. However, the elders can replace them if they are
deemed to not be doing their jobs. The elders and caretakers allow the use of trees
based on necessity. If the need is for fuel, only the branches and dead trees can be
harvested. If the wood will be used for house construction, the caretaker chooses the
tree to be cut, usually the mature trees and the ones that bear fewer cones. The
number of trees cut also depends on the caretakers assessment of the wood
requirements of the requesting party.
Both the muyong and the saguday systems are living testimonies that
demonstrate that learning from informal arrangements can help point the way towards
sustainable forest management.

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3. Current Management Practices

Forest Land Allocation

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources has the sole authority
to allocate classified forest lands for various purposes. In accordance with DENR
Administrative Order 2004-29, Department of Environment and Natural Resources in
coordination with the local government units may designate, using updated control
maps, suitable areas in uplands and coastal lands of the public domain as CBFM
sites except for the cases described below.
1. Areas covered by existing prior rights except when the lessee, permit or
agreement holder executes a waiver in favor of the Peoples Organization
applying for the CBFM Agreement. Upon termination of any pre-existing
permit for non-timber forest products however, the permit shall not be
renewed and any new permit shall be given to the Community-Based Forest
Management Agreement holder.
2. Protected areas as mandated in Republic Act 7586 (National Integrated
Protected Area Systems or NIPAS Law) and the implementing rules and
regulations.
3. Forest lands which have been assigned by law under the administration
and control of other government agencies, except upon written consent of
the government agency concerned.
4. National Council for Indigenous Peoples certified ancestral lands and
domains, except when the Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous
Peoples opt to participate in CBFM.

CBFM projects are designated in areas where there are communities residing
within or adjacent to forest lands and who are largely dependent on forest resources
for their livelihood. Areas adjacent or adjoining to existing CBFM projects are also
given priority in the selection process to promote more effective management and
protection of these sites, including the possibility of future integration.

Management Planning

The principal participants in the CBFM Program are the local communities as
represented by their organizations otherwise known as the Peoples Organizations.
In order to qualify to participate in the Program, Peoples Organization membership
should be restricted to Filipino citizens. In addition, members should possess the
following qualifications: 1) actually tilling portions of the area to be awarded with
Community-Based Forest Management Agreement; 2) traditionally utilizing the
resource for all or a substantial portion of their livelihood; or 3) residing within or
adjacent to and developing portions of the areas to be awarded.
The identification of land uses within the Community-Based Forest Management
Agreement area, including the designation of forest for community use, depends on
the CRMF developed by the Peoples Organization with the assistance of the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources and local government units. The
CRMF is a strategic plan of the community on how to manage and benefit from the
forest resources on a sustainable basis. It describes the community's long-term vision,
aspirations, commitments and strategies for the protection, rehabilitation, development
and utilization of forest resources.
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Rules and regulations for group management and forest operations may be
formally defined such as those stipulated in the Peoples Organizations Constitution
and By-Laws including the roles of Peoples Organization Officers and members in
forest management. Management arrangements may also be informally negotiated
and agreed upon by the officers and members especially those pertaining to the day-
to-day CBFM operations.
Forest products harvested from forest plantations established using government
funds or plantations established by former Timber License Agreement holders are
subject to a sharing agreement negotiated between the Community-Based Forest
Management Agreement holder and Department of Environment and Natural
Resources pursuant to existing rules and regulations. In general, 70% of the proceeds
go to the Peoples Organization and the remaining 30% goes to the government.
Within Peoples Organizations themselves, different types of sharing arrangements
exist. In general however, certain percentages of the benefit are divided among Peoples
Organization members; some are allocated for livelihood projects, and some for forest
rehabilitation and protection. Some Peoples Organizations may also allocate part of
the income from forest utilization for infrastructure development such as road
maintenance.
In terms of monitoring and evaluation, the recently issued Department of
Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 2004-29 stipulates the
creation of a composite team to conduct an annual participatory monitoring and
evaluation of CBFM sites to assess the various issues, problems and constraints
related to the development and strengthening of the CBFM implementation. The
composite team includes representatives from Regional Environment and Natural
Resources Office, the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office and the
Community Environment and Natural Resources Office as well as from the local
government unit, Assisting Organization/NGO, and other concerned sectors. In
addition, regular monitoring and evaluation is being conducted by the CBFM staff of
the mentioned Department of Environment and Natural Resources units. Some
Peoples Organizations also conduct their own internal monitoring to keep track of the
progress of their CBFM activities. In almost all cases, however, the conduct of regular
monitoring and evaluation activities at various levels is constrained by the limited
budget available for this purpose. In reality, due to limited funds CBFM staff at the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources field level can hardly visit all the
CBFM sites once a year to conduct monitoring and evaluation.

Technical Support Arrangements

Other than the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and local
government units, thirteen other government agencies are also mandated under
Executive Order No. 263 to constitute the National CBFM Steering Committee to be
headed by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. The Committee
was tasked to formulate and develop policy guidelines that will create incentives and
conditions necessary to effectively carry out CBFM strategy. However, owing to the
respective priorities of the different agencies, the Committee has met only a few times
since its creation and hence was not able to achieve its purpose. At the field level,
however, some government agencies like the Department of Agriculture, Department
of Science and Technology, and Cooperative Development Authority are able to provide
some technical assistance and support to CBFM participants within their institutional

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mandate and priorities. For instance, some local Department of Agriculture offices
provide technical and financial assistance to CBFM sites in terms of agro-forestry
development and livestock dispersal. On the other hand, the Department of Science
and Technology assists in the establishment of forest-based livelihood projects like
small-scale furniture and handicraft making. Likewise, the Cooperative Development
Authority assists in the registration of Peoples Organizations into cooperatives.
Non-government organizations also perform vital roles in providing various forms
of assistance to CBFM participants. These include community organizing and training,
establishment of livelihood projects, and technical support in actual forestry activities
like plantation establishment and maintenance. Some NGOs also provide assistance
in conducting monitoring and evaluation of CBFM activities as well as in linking Peoples
Organizations with government and other service-providing institutions.
Moreover, international organizations also provide considerable technical and
financial support to advance CBFM policy and practice, and hence the achievement
of its objectives. The current policies, strategies, procedures and methods being
employed under the national CBFM program are to a large extent refinements of the
ideas from the technical assistance provided by key international organizations that
supported the implementation of different CBFM projects. One example is the use of
community organizing and the various participatory techniques including agro-forestry
farm planning pioneered by the Upland Development Program of the Ford Foundation,
which has been continuously refined and is now being widely applied in different
CBFM sites. Another example is the idea of providing the local communities the right
to commercially utilize timber through the issuance of resource use permits, a concept
that evolved from the 1982 World Bank-supported social forestry project in the Central
Visayas Region and was further developed through the technical assistance of the
United States Agency for International Development under its Natural Resources
Management Program.
At present, the Government of Japan, under its bilateral agreement with the
Philippine Government, is implementing a five year technical cooperation in CBFM
through the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA). Commencing in June 2004, the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources-JICA Project for Enhancement of Community-
Based Forest Management Program (DENR-JICA E-CBFMP), has four major
components: model site development, training, information management, and policy
recommendations. These components also build on the experiences of previous CBFM
programs and projects such as the Integrated Social Forestry Program and the
Community Forestry Program.

Financial Support and Disbursement Mechanisms

Over the last five years (2000-2004,) CBFM has had a total budget allocation of
PhP388.128 million (around US$ 7,187,555) from the General Appropriation of the
Philippine Government (Forest Management Bureau). This constitutes only around
5.13% of the total allocated budget of the Forest Management Sector. Over the last
couple of decades, the CBFM budget has been largely provided by the different donor
organizations under bilateral or multi-lateral agreements. Eight of the ten government
programs and projects integrated and unified under the CBFM Program which were
implemented between 1982 and 2003 were foreign-funded, either in the form of loans
or grants. Among the past major international CBFM donors are the Ford Foundation,

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United States Agency for International Development, German Society for Technical
Co-operation or GTZ, the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, and the Japanese
Bank for International Cooperation.
Financial disbursement mechanisms to support CBFM vary depending on the
source of funds. For funds provided by the Government of the Philippines under the
General Appropriations Act, finances are disbursed following the normal government
channel from the Department of Budget and Management, to the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources Central Office, to the Regional Environment
and Natural Resources Office, then the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources
Office, and finally to the Community Environment and Natural Resources Office. Almost
the same funds flow is observed for loan money from multi-lateral funding institutions
like the ADB, World Bank and JBIC. Grant monies such as those provided by United
States Agency for International Development, GTZ and JICA have some flexibility in
the sense that they could be directly disbursed by the granting institutions to the
project office or to a certain entity that can manage the funds without going through
the normal bureaucratic channels. Similarly, projects implemented by NGOs from
non-government sources have some flexibility in terms of disbursement mechanism
in the sense that money can flow from the funding agency directly to the NGO to be
used directly for CBFM implementation.

4. Overall Progress and Achievements

Figure 1 presents the overall status of CBFM implementation in terms of coverage
and area under various forms of land tenure instruments. In terms of area coverage,
CBFM now encompasses a total of 5.97 million hectares that constitute 66.33% of its
9 million hectares target for 2008 as stipulated in the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources Strategic Plan for CBFM. The 5.97 million hectares involved 5,503
sites, with a total of 690,687 participating households. Most, if not all the 5,503 sites

Source: FMB 2004

Figure 1. Status of CBFM implementation

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have an existing Peoples Organization. The Peoples Organizations may also be a

member of a local, regional, and/or national CBFM Federation.

In terms of CBFMs performance vis-a-vis achieving its stated policy objectives,

findings from the previous CBFM assessments and studies reveal several important
points.

1. The degree to which socio-economic objectives have been achieved varies

from one site to another. Socio-economic improvement has been attained
in some areas especially when CBFM received external financial support,
although only a selected group of Peoples Organization members have so
far benefited.
2. The issue of promoting social justice has been addressed by CBFM at the
national level by transferring management rights and responsibilities over
5.97 million hectares of forestland to local communities, a privilege which
used to be the monopoly of the well-off Timber License Agreement holders.
At the local level, however, social equity/benefit sharing continues to be a
major concern requiring strategic interventions.
3. CBFM, if properly implemented, has the potential to realize the objective of
sustainable forest management. An FAO-supported assessment of six case
studies on CBFM (Pulhin 2005) reveals an increase in forest cover at most
sites, the practice of sustainable farming technologies like agro-forestry,
and sustained collective action in forest protection. However, threats to
sustainability also exist including: 1) continuing pressure to engage in
destructive practices in the absence of consistent policies that enable
sustainable forest utilization; and 2) the pressing need to install effective
local management and institutional support systems that contribute to
sustainable forest management.
4. There are some indications that CBFM contributes to a healthy environment
in a number of sites. Positive signs include the adoption of soil and water
conservation and the provision of other environmental services like improved
water supply, soil fertility and good microclimate. However, while detailed
studies on the CBFM-environment link are still limited, it is clear that the
positive contributions that CBFM can make to the environment can be further
enhanced across the CBFM sites nationwide with appropriate support and
incentives (Guiang et al. 2001, Pulhin and Pulhin 2003, Rebugio 2001, and
Pulhin 2005).

5. Lessons Learned
Some of the major lessons that may be gleaned from the Philippine experience
in its more than two decades of CBFM implementation are presented below.

1. Sustainability of livelihood is the core issue of CBFM. Unless a level of

sustainable livelihood is achieved by participating forest-dependent
communities, State and externally-initiated CBFM initiatives will not work
on the ground.

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2. The externally-initiated CBFM process takes time and requires sufficient

support-systems to succeed, including enabling policies, commitment and
political will from the different key actors, sufficient knowledge base and
appropriate resources to initiate and sustain the process, presence of CBFM
champions, strong social capital and local organizational capacity, and visible
positive outcomes are some key ingredients for success.
3. Considering the multiple stakeholders and their varied interests and priorities,
there is a need to develop responsive institutions that will promote collective
action to advance the CBFM objectives. Such institutions should develop
acceptable rules, implement and enforce sanctions, and forge workable
conflict resolution mechanisms.
4. Some communities such as the Ifugaos and the Sagadas already have
successful traditions of forest management and some degree of control
over their forest resources. Externally-initiated CBFM processes should
enhance these systems.
5. Strong social capital and local organizational capacity are needed to enable
local communities to mobilize resources and negotiate better benefits.
6. Provision of land tenure security is necessary but not a sufficient condition
for success. The presence or absence of stable policy on forest utilization
that guarantees that communities can use the trees that they have planted
and protected is of paramount importance and will ultimately determine the
success or failure of the entire CBFM program.
7. Past CBFM initiatives have focused on tenure reform and other support
services but neglect to integrate principles of good governance (i.e.,
transparency, accountability and participation) in forest management. Such
principles should now be operationalized and institutionalized at all levels
to ensure the success of the CBFM program.
8. Capacity building should not be limited to local communities but should also
include efforts to enhance the capacity of Department of Environment and
Natural Resources and local government units to better serve the needs of
local communities.

6. Key Challenges
The following are some of the key challenges confronting the implementation of
CBFM at the policy, program and field operations levels:

1. At the policy level, there is a need to: a) strengthen the political capacity of
the Peoples Organizations including the National CBFM Federation and
democratize the policy-making process to enable meaningful and active
participation in CBFMrelated concerns; b) urgently pass a law which
embodies the philosophy, objectives and methods of CBFM; c) continue to
simplify policies and procedures and provide for stable policy implementation
especially in the aspect of timber use; and d) put more emphasis on the
monitoring and evaluation of existing policies rather than simply focusing
on policy formulation.
2. At the program level, it is important to: a) promote a common understanding
and appreciation of the philosophy and concept of CBFM among the various

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sectors and actors and correct the seemingly widespread view of CBFM as
a Department of Environment and Natural Resources project instead of a
forest management strategy; b) prioritize CBFM objectives since they are
hard to address concurrently; c) direct more human and financial resources
towards the implementation of the CBFM strategy; d) seek financial and
technical support from different sectors by activating the multi-agency CBFM
Steering Committee; e) strengthen the CBFM Program monitoring and
evaluation, including the existing management information system; f) promote
the principles of good governance such as participation, transparency, and
accountability in all levels of CBFM implementation; and g) actively engage
the academic and research institutions to support CBFM through relevant
studies.
3. At the field operations level, challenges include: a) for Department of
Environment and Natural Resources to strengthen collaboration with the
local government units and other institutions/sectors to provide support for
livelihoods and other needs; b) to sustain flow of socioeconomic benefits
and spread benefits to a greater number of the people particularly the poor;
c) replicate success with fewer financial inputs especially from external
sources; d) enhance capability building through training of Department of
Environment and Natural Resources staff, local government units and
Peoples Organizations; and e) incorporate learning from indigenous
management systems to improve the implementation of the different CBFM
projects.

References
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Implementation of Executive Order 263, Otherwise Known as the Community-
Based Forest Management Strategy. Quezon City: Department of Environment
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Executive Order No. 263. Adopting Community-Based Forest Management as the

National Strategy to Ensure the Sustainable Development of the Country's
Forestlands Resources and Providing Mechanisms for its Implementation. Quezon
City: Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Manila: Office of the
President of the Philippines.

Forest Management Bureau. 2004. Community-Based Forest Management: A National

Strategy to Promote Sustainable Forest Management (Background Information.)
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Environment and Natural Resources Undersecretary for Field Operations on
November 17, 2004 at Forest Management Bureau Conference Room, Department
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Guiang E., S. Borlagdan and J. Pulhin. 2001. Community-Based Forest Management

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