:000

2226

FOREIGN RELATIONS OF BURMA t S LAST KING

by W. S. D~AI
Reprinted from INTERNATIONAL STUDIE,S
Quarterly Journal of the Indian School of International Studies
New Delhi, Vol. II, o. x, July 196o

FOREIGN RELATIONS OF
BURMA'S LAST KING *
W . S. D ESAit

THE principle underlying the maintenance of foreign relations through

diplomatic means was neither practised nor known in Burma under her
kings right up to the middle of the nineteenth century. In urope, this
principle came to be developed centuries earlier. There were Asian rulers
too who understood the need and value of such relations with countries
in the neighbourhood, and in some cases with those at a distance as well.
Chandragupta Maurya had his representative at the Bactrian Greek Court,
and Megasthenes was the Greek Ambassador at the Mauryan capital of
Patliputra. When Burma lost the first war ( r 82.4-2.6) to the British, by
the Treaty of Y andabo " it was agreed that accredited Ministers, retaining
an escort or safe-guard of fifty men, from each shall reside at the Durbar
of the other, who shall be permitted to purchase or to build a suitable
place of residence of permanent materials."1 In conformity with this
* This article is based almost entirely on the Government of India Records preserved
in the National Archives of India, New Delhi. The writer wishes to thank those in
charge of the Archives for readily placing the records at his disposal. Thanks are parti-
cularly due to Mr. Saksena, officer in charge of the Research Room, and to Mr. Ayyangar,
Librarian, for their help and courtesy. Unfortunately, the foreign dealings of Thlbaw
during the year x88j, before the outbreak of hostilities, could not be described in any
detail because at least 35 documents connected with the matter are mis.sing. Neither
the Archives nor the Government of India, External Affairs Ministry nor the Home
Ministry can account for them.
Abbreviations used in footnote references :

IFDP Indian Foreign Department Proceedings

ISC India Secret Consultations
BSP Bengal Secret and Political Consultations
IPC India Political Consultations

t Mr. Desai is Reader in South Asian History and Institutions at the School. He
was formerly Professor of History at Rangoon University. He is author of History of
the British Residenry in Burflla r8z6-r84o (Rangoon, 1939).
1 The Treaty ofYandabo r8z6, Article 7

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article, the Governor-General of British India appointed representatives

at the Burmese court: John Crawfurd in I826, Henry Burney, 1830 to
I 838, and Richard Benson, I 838-40. Mter Benson, for over a quarter of
a century no Resident was stationed at the Burmese capital. The Burmese
King did not depute his representative at the Governor-General's Court.
On the other hand, he and his people looked upon the British Residency
as a perpetual and humiliating reminder of their defeat in the war. The
British Resident gradually came to be neglected, especially during the
reign ofTharrawaddy (1837-46). Under the circumstances, the Governor-
General closed the Residency in I 840, and it was not reopened until 1867.
The second Residency was closed in 1879 in the reign of Thibaw because
the Resident found it impossible to discharge his duties as such.z During
the interregnum of 184o-67, however, the British did send several missions
to contract commercial treaties with Burma as well as to have their acquisi-
tion by conquest of the Pegu province in I852 recognized by the King. 3
Burmese kings did not want to maintain on a permanent footing
accredited envoys or ambassadors with the British or with any other
state. There were reasons for such an attitude. As far back as the ninth
century, the only ruler with whom Burmese princes' had some sort of
"foreign relations" was the Chinese Emperor, who considered himself
to be " the Elder Brother " of the King of Burma. In China, Burma was
looked upon as a part of the Chinese Empire, not only because some
petty princes of early Burma owed allegiance or, to make themselves
important, pretended to owe allegiance to the Chinese Emperor, but also
because according to the old Chinese theory all the kings of the earth
were tributaries of the Ruler of the Celestial Empire with its capital at
Peking. In the reign of Hsinbyushin (1763-76), Burma managed to repel
several Chinese invasions. A treaty was made which provided for decennial
missions between the two sovereigns. The Chinese looked upon this
arrangement as missions bearing tribute to the Emperor, but .it was not
so understood in Burma. Actually they were missions bearing and receiving
presents so that friendship between the two may be recognized as well
as maintained. An interesting account of the Decennial Mission (1874-6)
Not because of the Royal Massacres carried out by Thibaw's government as stated
1

in some books on the history of Burma : The Government of India Records do not
say so, nor is there- any such suggestion.
8 The Phayre Missions of 1855 and t86z, and of Fytche in 1867.

'Right up to the middle of the eleventh century, they were all petty princes. Burma,
politically, was a divided country.
VoL. II o. t
 FOREIGN RELATIO S OF BURMA'S LAST KI G 3

sent by Mindon to Peking is on the records of the Government of India. 5

The ambassadors did not even have audience of the Emperor on the
Chinese plea that their sovereign was very young. The presents were
therefore handed over to the Chinese Foreign Minister. 6 Almost imme-
diately after this the Burmese ambassadors began their journey back home
carrying return presents. Thus Burma never established a tradition as to
diplomatic relations with foreign countries. The kings did not feel the
need for it. Their national existence was almost entirely insular. They
had no oceanic trade of their own. The relations that Burmese kings had
with the nearest neighbour Siam were not diplomatic but hostile, directed
to incorporating that country in their own empire. Again, it was considered
unnecessarily expensive to maintain an ambassador at Calcutta or at any
other foreign capital. Burmese finances at that time were rather limited
and a permanent ambassadorial charge on the King's treasury would have
been a great burden. It was all to the benefit of the British and their
subjects to have a Resident in Burma, for they had a large trade with that
country and through Burma with China. On the other hand, Burmans
were not inclined to visit foreign countries with the exception of Buddhist
pilgrims coming to India or going to Ceylon. Burmese foreign trade
was almost entirely in the hands of foreigners -Indians, Armenians,
Europeans, and others. Again, Residents, Agents, Envoys and such
others were looked upon in Burma as mere messengers. They could
not therefore be permitted to negotiate with foreign states with any higl_l
degree of delegated authority. It would therefore be superfluous to
maintain embassies abroad. Burmese kings had a special objection to
maintaining diplomatic relations with Calcutta. The Governor-General
was not a king but merely an officer who accepted a salary, 7 so it would
be demeaning to accept him as an equal. If diplomatic and ambassadorial
relations had to be opened they could be honourably established only
with the British monarch. Finally, the presence of the British Resident
at the Burmese capital could ultimately undermine the sovereignty of
the King. The Residency system in India had succeeded in bringing
Indian princes under the fullest control of the British authority. A medi-
eval, backward and crudely organized state like Burma would be called
~ IFDP, No . 86, October 1892 (An Account of the Burmese Decennial Mission
to Peking, 1874-1876, by the Leader of the Mission).
8
Among the presents were three elephants which the ambassadors took with them
by the overland route.
7
Often called the Bingla-Myosa, i.e. the eater of the province of Bengal.
JuLY 1960
4 INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

upon to put right so many matters as to the disturbed frontiers, treatment

of British subjects, observance of treaties, etc. that ultimately the Resident
would develop into an adviser whose counsel must be received. Hence
King Tharrawaddy's outburst, " I shall not be dictated to in my capital
by an English Bo."s
Although Burmese kings were not willing to establish embassies in
foreign countries, they were constrained to send their agents to India and
even to Europe because of the serious loss of territory in the first two
wars, the great object being to get back the lost territory by friendly
means and to maintain friendship. In I 826, Bagyidaw's two envoys had
audience of Lord Combermere, Vice-President of the Governor-General's
Council. 9 In I 8 30, Bagyidaw again despatched two ambassadors to Calcutta
to make representations to the Governor-General concerning certain
disputed territories on the British-Burma frontier. In I 856, Mindon sent
a :tviission to Europe accompanied by Manook, an Armenian. The envoys
met apoleon Ill of France. The idea was to appeal to the British Queen
through the French Emperor so that the lost provinces of Arakan, Pegu
and Tenasserim could be returned to the Burmese King. Nothing however
came out of it, only the Mission was received hospitably by the French
Emperor. In I872, a Burmese :Mission, led by Kinwun Mingyi (U Gaung)
visited Europe. It was welcomed by the Royal Courts of Britain, F ranee,
and Italy. King :tviindon's object again was to get back the lost provinces
through the friendly services of Italy and France, and to appeal directly
to the British Queen. The Mission was welcomed by the British Govern-
ment, but when the question of restoration of territory was raised, the
envoy was advised to have dealings with the Governor-General of India.
Letters of courtesy were received by Mindon from the British Queen,
the British Prime Minister, and from the Governor-General.
Thus Burma, because of the contact with the British Government in
India and observing the Governor-General's practice of sending agents
to Burma, began to see the usefulness of accredited Ministers visiting
foreign courts. Still there was no move on the part of the King to station
his ambassadors at any of the capitals of states with which he wished
to be on friendly relations and which he hoped would be of use to him.
Under Thibaw, as under his father Mindon, the outstanding foreign
dealings of Burma were with the British. Relations with other Eu.ropean
s ISC, vol. 15 (Resident Benson's Journal), paras ro6r-ro64. Bo: a Burmese general
term for a military officer.
'BSP, Vol. 345, No. 51, Aprilr8z7.
VoL. II No. 1
 FOREIGN RELATIO S OF BURMA'S LAST KI G 5

states were of a subsidiary nature. From the British point of view, and
correctly so according to international usage, the King of Burma, and so
Thibaw, was in treaty relations with the Governor-General of India by
agreements signed by the plenipotentiaries of the two powers, and duly
ratified by the heads of the two countries. These were the Treaty of
Yandabo 1826, and the commercial treaties of 1826, r862, and r867. The
last mentioned treaty however contained an important non-commercial
clause. It conferred on the British Resident at the Burmese capital certain
civil jurisdiction in Upper Burma over cases in which British subjects
were involved. 1 o
Besides the treaties, there was another important matter over which
an agreement was reached. Mter the second war (r8p), King Mindon
refused to sign a treaty recognizing the cession of the province of Pegu
to the British. Governor-General Dalhousie, therefore, settled the matter
by fixing the boundary between Upper and Lower Burma along a certain
parallel of latitude. But when the British surveying party, charged with
the duty of fixing the boundary, reached the Western Karenee, they were
stopped by the local authorities on the ground that they were independent,
and that their independence was respected by the Burmese King. Dalbousie
agreed to it, but on the condition that the King of Burma continued
to respect their independence. But Burmese frontier officers did not
cease to claim their King's sovereignty over the Karenees so that there
was constant friction between the two authorities over this matter.
All the kings of Burma, from Bagyidaw to Thibaw, found the treaties
and engagements with the British galling, and looked upon them as
limiting their sovereignty. Mindon was a man of prudence; he put up
with the situation as best as he could and maintained friendly relations
with the British in spite of his failure to recover the lost provinc s. Under
Thibaw a new situation developed which ultimately led to his
dethronement and the annexation of his state to the British Empire.
Soon after Thibaw came to the throne, a large number of Burmese
princes and princesses were, according to custom, put to death so that
the new King may be able to keep his crown without uneasiness. The
news of this massacre could not be kept hidden now that he was such
a close neighbour of the British. Whether responsible directly for the
massacres or not, Thibaw got a bad name throughout the civilized world.
10
IFDP, o. 311, July 1879 (Letter from the Government of India to the Secretary
of State for India, 7 March 1879); also Lt. Col. A. Fytche, "Burma Past and Pre$ent,"
The Calcutta Review, 163 (January 1886).
JuLY 1960
6 I l'ERNAl'IO AL Sl'UDIES

He thought it wise therefore to maintain amicable relations with the

British. He wrote a friendly letter to Queen Victoria. 11 The following
is a literal translation of the letter together with his Wungyis' heading
to it:

[Royalletter given by (His) Most Great and Excellent Majesty, who has sovereignty
over all the umbrella-bearing rulers of Thunaprant,11 Tampa-dipa, 13 and other great
realms and countries and over the dominions of Burmah. The Excellent Burmese
Ruler, the Rising Sun King, to (Her) Most Great and Excellent Majesty, who has
sovereignty over the great dominions of Britain and the Island of Ireland, who is
"Empret" (i.e. Empress) of the dominions of India.]

Queen Victoria

Royal Friend ! Whilst between the Burmese royal dominions and the English ruler's
royal dominions the state of a continuous Raja-Mahamit (great friendship of sovereigns)
between the two great countries was firm and lasting, sickness (or suffering) fastened
upon His Most Great and Excellent Majesty (my) Royal father the Excellent Rising
Sun King against which, notwithstanding that (his) Ministers (or nobles) in consultation
with physicians prescribed various medicines (he) could not be free (or get rest), and
on the 6th day of the waning moon Thadingyut 1240 of the Burmese era migrated
to the country of the Gods-profoundly regretted and mourned by his queens, royal
sons and daughters, ministers (or nobles), and by all the people of the country. (I)
believe and hope that the mind of (Her) Most Great and Excellent Majesty (the) Queen
will be thus (i.e. will share in the regret).
In the year 2422 of the sacred era and 1240 of the Burmese Koze era, on the 14th
day of the waning moon Thadingyut (corresponding with) the year 1878 of the hat-
wearing (nations) era, on the 24th day of October, I (a term used among equals), in
the Royal Golden Palace of the capital city, Ratna Bon" of the Burmese dominions,
do affix (my) signature.
(His) Most Great and Excellent Majesty, who has sovereignty over the dominions
of Burmah, the Excellent Burmese ruler, the Rising Sun King Agga-Maha- enapati,
Royal Minister, Lord of Legaing, Thenat Wun, Kin Wun Mengyee, Men-Thado-
Mengyee-Maha-Menhla-tsithu-gyaw, Burmese Minister for Foreign Affairs.

The British Secretary of State for India drew up a reply15 to Thibaw,

dated the 7th August, r879 The Queen" had some reluctance in signing
this letter addressed to one who has rendered himself notorious by his
11 IFDP, Political A, No. 430, September 1879.
u Sonapranta. 13 Jambu-dvipa.
u Bon means Glory; hence the epithet means the Glorious Jewel, Mandalay.
15 IPC, Political A, No. 78, February 188o. The letter unfortunately is missing.

VoL. II o. I
 FOREIGN RELATIONS OF BURMA'S LAST KING 7

cr.imes,16 but acting on the advice of the Secretary of State that an official
recognition of the Ruler of Burmah was necessary, the Queen has affixed
her signature thereto." 17
The objects behind Thibaw's foreign dealings may first be summed up
in a few words. His father Mindon's policy, as noticed above, was to get
back the lost provinces by friendly means, and if possible through the
friendly mediation of some European rulers. Thibaw adopted a double
line of attack without the intention to go to war. He and his Ministers
knew full well the utter futility of drawing the sword. Since the British
were in no mood to return the lost territory as friends, he adopted the
poli~y of ignoring their Resident stationed at his capital. This was also
the attitude of his grandfather Tharrawaddy, so that the Residency had
to be closed .in 1 840. Second, Th.ibaw began to toy with the idea of treaties
with certain uropean powers, particularly France. It was a fatal policy,
almost playing with fire . Great Britain then, whether under a Conser-
vative or a Liberal government, was pursuing relentlessly a policy leading
to the expansion of the Empire. Thibaw may not have meant anything
more than just to annoy the British ; but it is quite possible that there was
an underlying motive, namely, to look for an opportunity for the recovery
of the lost territory in case hostilities broke out between England on the
one side and France or any other European countries on the other.
Prince Nyoung-Yan, who had taken refuge .in the British Residency
in order to escape death at the hands of his half-brother the new king,
was, however, of a different view. In the course of his conversation with
the British Resident, the Prince said :

You should not consider yourself perfectly secure from an attack by the Burmese.
It is true that the English are powerful, but the Burmese Ministers may act unwisely.
The Burmese Government is anxious to regain the Taline18 Provinces, and the chiefs
of the army and the subordinate Ministers are eager for war. My Royal Father being
no more, and as I have made up my mind to spend the rest of my life in British territory,
I may as well inform you, as it will be for the benefit of both the countries, that the
Burmese Government had a scheme for regaining the lower Provinces during the
recent Turko-Russian \Var. 18 About March last year, three missions were sent to
Europe; the first started under the leadership of Maung Shoay, and the two others
18 The massacres. 17 JPC, Political A, o. So, February x88o.
18 Talaing: referring to Lower Burma, the original home of the Talaings, also
called the Mons.
11 x877-8. There was a prospect of British intervention in this war on behalf of

Turkey.
}ULY 196o
8 I TER ATIONAL STUDIES

were despatched secretly. 10 They conveyed a present of a lakh of rupees to the Russian
Government. The pay of the Ministers and the allowances of the Princes were stopped
to make up this amount. I have heared that our Government has since sent two lakhs
more,10 but I cannot vouch for the truth of this. The object was to gain the goodwill
of the Russian Government, as it was supposed they were about to conquer Turkey
and take possession of the Suez Canal. The Russian Government was informed that
if they could prevent the English from sending reinforcements through the Suez Canal,
the Burmese Government could easily capture Rangoon and obtain possession of a
large quantity of arms and ordnance ; and that the English would be quite discomfited
as other serious difficulties would also arise in the Indian Empire. n

The Prince also said that the Burmese Government always had its
emissaries in British territory, and that the King had in his possession
accurate plans of British fortifications and the strength of their garrisons. 21
Prince Nyoung-Yan's picture of things was more conjectural than
real. What he reported was indeed not a fabrication but mere bazaar
talk. Thibaw's Ministers understood quite well their King's inability to
stand up against the might of the British so well established in India.
There were rumours that the new King would fight to regain the lost
territory. A report appeared in Calcutta newspapers that King Thibaw
had " announced in full council that heretofore fear had prompted his
yielding to all British demands, but that he would henceforth neither hear
nor speak of proposals of accommodation with the British."22 The
British Resident Shaw immediately took up the matter with the Burmese
Foreign Minister and was informed that the report was untrue, and that
the new King's desire was "to increase the mutual affection and estee.m
between the two in a Grand Friendship." 23
The Viceroy however wanted to be on the safe side and sent reinforce-
ments from Calcutta to strengthen the frontier. 241 Besides reinforcements,
the new British Resident, Col. Horace Browne, who was a bold and able
officer, finding himself a nonentity, withdrew from the Burmese capital.
The Indian Government Records do not mention these secret missions. The
10

one or two lakhs of rupees mentioned by Prince young-Yan loomed large before
him, but neither Russia nor France could be tempted thus.
11 IFDP, Secret, o. 78, March 1879 (Letter from the British Resident to the Foreign
Secretary, Government of India, 5 October 1878).
11 Ibid., o. 5 (i), August 1879 (Telegram from the Foreign Secretary, Government
oflndia to the British Resident in Mandalay, 21 April 1879).
n Ibid., No. 436, July 1879 (Letter from the B~rmese Foreign Minister to the British
Resident, z6 April 1879).
u Ibid., No. 337 (Telegram from the Viceroy to the Secretary of State for India).
VoL. II o. 1
 FOREIGN RELA'I'IONS OF BURMA'S LAS'I' KI G 9

The Viceroy abolished the Residency, and almost all Europeans, fearin g
danger to life and property, also left the capital. The Resident found his
position at Mandalay very undignified. He was not permitted to have the
usual bodyguard of fifty men as stipulated in the Yandabo Treaty, and
which his predecessors, Benson and Burney, had been allowed to keep.
Besides he was unable to transact any real business with the Burmese
Government on the various questions at issue as to the commercial
treaties and frontier disputes .25 In one of his letters to the Government
of India the Resident wrote, "I. feel very sure that the most skilful diplo-
matist in the world would never succeed by diplomacy alone in making
any impression on the old spirit of arrogance and exclusiveness which
since the commencement of the new reign has come over the Burmese
Government. The Burman is but an inferior type of Chinaman, and the
policy of Burmah is modelled upon that of China." 2 6
Conditions at the King's Court were fast deteriorating as to the attitude
towards the British. The Resident reported that the " one great object of
Burman diplomacy is to increase the prestige of its own government in
the eyes of hs people by showing them that though the Burmese Govern-
ment in the fullness of its charity and generosity may tolerate the presence
of the British Resident in its capital, such Resident is after all of very
little account."27 The King and the Queen were for all public purposes
arrogant. Some thought that left to themselves they would have committed
aggression; but the Kinwun Mingyi understood well the weakness of
Burma and kept them in check. The Alenandaw D owager Queen, who
contrived to place the new King on the throne and hoped to play the
part of the factotum of the Empire, gradually found herself under neglect
both by her daughter, the Qu een, as well as by Thibaw. 1other and
daughter came to be on bad terms with each other. 27 More than once,
according to the Resident's report, the old lady sent messages to him
"suggesting the opening of a secret communication between us .. ..
A letter from me was suggested, but that of course I have refused."
28

Some Italians and Armenians were egging the King on to war, and one
Scala, an Italian, promised to manufacture torpedoes which would destroy
15
Ibid., Nos. 55, 57, 61, August 1879.
25
Ibid., No. 54, July 1879.
27
Ibid., "Keep With" No. 2 (Letter from the Resident to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India, 30 June I 879).
28
Ibid., Nos. 53-63 (The British Resident to the Chief COmmissioner of British
Burma, 7 July 1879, also 30 June 1879).
jULY 1960
IO INTERNATIONAL STUDI E S

British warships in the Irrawaddy.29 An attempt was also made by Thibaw,

through his agents in Italy, to buy war material in that country, parti-
cularly torpedoes. The Government of India therefore kept a close watch
at all the Indian and Burmese ports with a view to intercepting any such
material meant for the Burmese King. 30 It is certain that Italy sent no
such material for Thibaw. On the other hand the Italian Government
declared that their former cordial relations with Burma must cool down
because of the massacre of the King's kinsfolks. 31 The Italian Govern-
ment even "instructed its Consul at Mandalay to remonstrate about the
late massacres."s2
The withdrawal of the British Resident and the despatch of reinforce-
ments by the Viceroy came as a rude shock to the King and his Queen.
They feared an invasion of the country. It was therefore immediately
decided to send an envoy who was to proceed to Calcutta with a letter
of friendship to the Viceroy together with presents. 33 The embassy left
Mandalay on 23 October 1879 and arrived at Thayetmyo on the frontier
on 2. 7 October. The envoy carried with him a letter of credence, but was
not vested with any powers of an ambassador. He told the British Deputy
Commissioner of Thayetmyo that the object of the Mission was to testify
the King's desire for trade and friendship. The Deputy Commissioner
however did not allow him to proceed to Rangoon and waited for orders
from the Chief Commissioner. 3 ' The envoy waited at Thayetmyo in his
own boat for over two months, and was ultimately told that both the
Chief Commissioner of British Burma as well as the Viceroy considered
it out of order for him to proceed to Calcutta since the British Resident
had not been received at the Royal Court of Burma. 3 u There is no evidence
of any resentment on the Burmese side over this episode.
Burmese relations with the British remained in a state of drift for
nearly three more years. The Viceroy instructed the Chief Commissioner

28 Ibid., Nos. 53-63 (Letter from the Chief Commissioner to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India,; May 1879).
30 Ibid.,
Nos. 79-12.6; "Keep With" No. 7, August 1879.
31 Ibid., (Telegram from the Resident
to the Foreign Secretary, Simla, 2.2. May 1879).
31 Ibid., (Telegram
from the Chief Commissioner to the Foreign Secretary, Simla,
24 May 1879).
38 Ibid., November 1879 (Secret: Note by Foreign Secretary A. C. Lyall,
II November
1879); C. U. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagement! and Sanads Relating to India
and Neighbouring Cotmtries, VI (Calcutta, 1909).
' Ibid.,
3
os. 235-240; also" Keep With." u a n. 33
VoL. ll No. J
 FOREIG N RELATIO NS OF BURMA' S LAST KING li

to address the Burmese Foreign Minister direct whenever necessary,

since there was no British representative now at Mandala y; but he was
warned to do it in such a way as not to give an impression that there was
no need of a Resident. 35 No serious developments of any kind took place
however ; but there were constant rumours of hostilities about to break
out. One of the most alarming reports was that the Burmese Governm ent
was sending 3,ooo bravos, in batches, to Lower Burma, to create trouble
or revolt in case of war. They were to enter British territory as immigrants
and bide their time. 36 Another report was that the King insisted upon
his right of sovereignty over the Eastern Karenee . without regard to the
Meaday parallel fixed by Dalhousie.37 Nothing was however openly done
to bring this region under the King's control.
Although the King and his Ministers did not really look upon the
British as friends, it was thought best to maintain a semblance of friendly
relations with them. The Ministers particularly, and those who had been
abroad, understo od full well that the British were a mighty world power
and that their King was no match for them. To be on the safe side,
therefore, a second attempt was made to send an embassy to confer with
the Viceroy. This time the Indian Governm ent allowed the Mission to
proceed to Calcutta. The embassy consisted of three members, an attache
and about twelve followers. They left Mandalay on 2 April I 882, and
arrived in Simla on 30 April. The leader of the Mission was the Kyauk
Myaung Atwinwu n (formerly Pangyet Wundauk ). He could speak both
English and French. 3 8 This attempt to restore cordial relations failed
completely. 39 The reason was that the Viceroy looked upon the Burmese
King as a petty prince possessing no power, and unable even to control
his own people and dominions. There were at that time Indian Princes
ruling over not only richer but also much larger populations than the
King of Upper Burma, and these Rajas and awabs were fully controlled
by the British Viceroy. On the other hand, although Thibaw had no
control over Lower and Western Burma, he still stood upon the tradi-
tional greatness achieved by his ancestors Alaungpaya the Conqueror,
36
IFDP, Secret, os. 146, 147.
38
Ibid., Political A, No. 216, January 188o (Letter from Secretary to the Chief
Commissio ner to the Foreign Secretary, Governme nt of India, zz November 1879).
37
Ibid., o. 134 (Telegram from the Viceroy to the Secretary of State for India,
z; August 1879).
38 Ibid., A-Political-E, Nos. 8, II, ~o, November r88z.
38 Aitchison, n. ;;.

}ULY 196o

12 I TERNATION AL STUDIES

and Bodawpaya the Grand Monarch. The Viceroy, though feared, was
still looked upon as merely a paid officer of the British Queen. Under the
circumstances it was not possible for the two rulers to have relations
based on the principle of equality. The King was still anxious to recover
the lost territory, while the British policy was to expand the Empire
missing no opportunities. Dalhousie might as well have conquered Upper
Burma when he annexed the Pegu province in 18p, but it was not politic
at that time to do so. His policy was being severely criticized in the
British Parliament.
The one great obsession with the King and his Ministers was to recover
the lost provinces. This could not be achieved by an appeal to arms.
Mindon's friendly policy had borne no fruit in this direction. Thibaw
now u;ied a new l:iut a risky device. He desired to cultivate friendship
with France and was ready to enter into treaty relations with this power.
The French had already established themselves in Cambodia and were
enlarging their empire at the expense of Siam. Again, at that particular
time England and France were imperialistic rivals . Britain may, it was
thought in Mandalay, get involved in a war in Europe or elsewhere,
so that in the case of her defeat England's rival would be of help in respect
of the recovery of the lost provinces. It was a strategy of despair, neither
the King nor his Ministers being able to gauge the world situation in the
rivalry of great powers who were seeking to enlarge their empires and
interests wherever there was an opportunity whether in Asia or Mrica,
in Australasia or the Americas. The Burmese policy was an infantile one.
Siam was saved from absorption into a European empire not because it
was in any way superior to Burma, but because it lay between French and
British territory, and these two powers agreed to live in peace with each
other in Asia by recognizing Siam as a convenient buffer state. As to
Upper Burma, there did not seem to be any way out of annexation to the
British Empire except perhaps turning the King into a tributary ruler
like one of the many Indian Princes.
In keeping with the new strategy the King decided to send a Mission
to Europe. It was declared to be a Scientific Mission so as not to create
alarm in Calcutta. o regular Burmese Mission could leave the shores
of Burma without British permission since the King had no ports of his
own. The Burmese Foreign Minister informed the Chief Commissioner of
British Burma (1883) that the King would like to build steam carriages
and steam boats, would like to work gold, silver and coal mines, manufac-
ture silk, cotton and other fabrics, and desired to carry out improvements
VoL. II No. 1

 FOREIGN RELATIO S OF BURMA'S LAST KING 13

in agriculture and horticulture, so that his country may prosper. Hence

the despatch of the mission. 40
The members of the fission were : Atwinwun Myothit Myosa NI.in
Mingyi Mahayaza Thingyan ; Wundauk Daw Thangyet Wun NI.in Mingyi
Minhla Mahasithugyan; Sayedawgyi Min Maha Minhla Thinkaya; and
Byedikethan Dawzin Min Naymyo Minhla Sithu. The Chief Commissioner
was told that these officers would visit the great Western nations of
Europe, carry out inspections, and make a record of all their visits and
experiences. He was requested to assist them and look after them. 40 The
Chief Commissioner readily agreed to assist the gentlemen.41 The
Atwinwun, who was the leader of the Mission, h~d no knowledge of
English, but the Wundauk and the Sayedawgyi knew English well and
had been to Europe before. 42
Although the Chief Commissioner agreed to render all assistance to
the envoys, suspicions were immediately roused as to the real object of
the Mission. When the envoys arrived in Thayetmyo, Pilcher the Deputy
Commissioner met them. They told him that they would go to America
too. Pilcher reported that the real object of the Mission was political. 48
The Mission was accompanied by a Frenchman, Comte de Travelec,
a French cavalry officer: a gentleman, Filcher says, but eccentric, and
that he had resided in Mandalay for eight years as cavalry instructor. The
Chief Commissioner also came to the conclusion that it was a make-
believe Scientific Mission, but that the idea was that France may some
day prove to be of use to the King."
The Mission remained in Paris for well over four months, was received
by the French President, and held prolonged conversations with the
French Foreign Minister.45 This development set in motion British
authorities both in India and in Great Britain. The Viceroy telegraphed
to the Secretary of tate for India :
' IFDP, A-Political-E, No. 82, June 188; (Letter from the Burmese Foreign
0

Minister to the Chief Commissioner, z6 April 188;).

n Ibid., o. 8; (The Chief Commissioner's reply to the Burmese Foreign Minister,
14 May 188;).
42
Ibid., o. SI (Letter from the Chief Commissioner to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India, dated Rangoon, I7 May 188;).
43
Ibid., os. 79-84,}une I88; (Pilcher'slettertotheChiefComr nissioner, IoMay188;).
"Ibid., (Letter from Chief Commissioner Crosthwaite to the Government of India,
17 May 188;).
"Ibid., May I884 (Letter from Lord Lyons, British Ambassador in Paris to the
British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 7 ovember I 88 ;).
}ULY 196o
I4 I TERNATIONAL STUDIES

I am anxious to receive latest information as to what is going on at Paris with Burmese

Embassy. There are rumours that the King of Burmah is about to re-establish mono-
polies, and that he is encouraged to do so by success at Paris. It is also said that French
Consul will be established at Mandalay. This, in absence of English Resident, would
certainly be unfavourable to our interests, especially if M. Vossion, now at Rangoon,
were sent there. He is said to be very anti-English. Can you find out what
French Government is likely to do about shoe question if they send a Consul
to Mandalay. 41

In the meanwhile the British Minister at Paris was trying his best to
discover what the Burmese envoys were about. An English firm, Messrs.
Smith, Carter & Tutson, approached the Burmese Mission and invited
them to do business in England where they would get material for Tele-
graphs, Railways, Canals, etc. at concession rates. But the envoys were
very reticent and anxious to have as little communication as possible
with the British firm. The agents of the firm reported that "they under-
stood the Mission will remain two or three months, and that endeavours
are being made by the French to obtain concessions, and otherwise
acquire influence in the country with a view to using Burmah against
India in case of complications with Great Britain." 47
Rumours were afloat and reports were received at Westminster that
the envoys had signed a treaty which contained not only commercial
clauses, but also concessions of territory made by Burma to France.'s
Lord Lyons the new British Ambassador at Paris in an interview with
M. Lacour the French Foreign Minister told him that " in consequence
of the vicinity of British India and of its political relations with that
empire, Burmah occupied a peculiar position with regard to Her Majesty's
u Ibid., No. 376 (Telegram dated 5 December 1883). Since it is a cablegram, the
article " the " is omitted in places in the original.
All who wished to appear before the King had to remove their shoes at the palace
gate and walk bare-foot sometimes over rough ground. This was a sore point with
British envoys and residents. In 1875 the Viceroy declared that as Burmese envoys
were not required to hwniliate themselves thus at his court, but were rather provided
with chairs, retained their head-wear, and kept their shoes on, his envoys at the Burmese
court would not in future take off their shoes nor kneel before the Burmese monarch.
The result was that after 1 875 King Mindon never granted audience to British officers.
t7 Ibid., A-Political-E, No. 24, December 1883 (Letter from F. R. Plunkett, Her

Majesty's Minister at Paris, to Earl Granville, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,
dated Paris, 21 August 1883). Lord Lyons succeeded Plunkett as Ambassador in Paris.
u United Kingdom, House of Commons, Parliamentary D ebates, vol. 194 (1884-5)
1743
VoL. II o. 1
 FOREIGN RELATIONS OF BURMA'S LAST KI G 15

Government, and one which gave them a special interest in all that
concerned it."49 He also appealed to the French Government not to have
any agreement with Burma containing stipulations beyond those which
were purely commercial. 50
Burmese negotiations with the French Government produced one
concrete thing. Mindon had in 1872 sent a Mission to Europe. Kinwun
Mingyi (U Gaung) the leader of the Mission had signed a treaty (18 73)
with France by which the French were to be allowed to mine rubies in
Burma. Mindon refused to ratify the treaty since rubies were his monopoly.
TheKinwunMingyiwentagaintoFrancewith the treaty thus amended, but
the French Government refused to agree to it if they were not allowed
to mine rubies. The French Government now told the so-called cientific
Mission that as a prelude to the negotiations for further conventions,
the Burmese envoys should accept the old treaty which was authorized
by the French National Assembly in 1873. 51 According to the report of
Lord Lyons, the envoys ratified the old treaty. M. Ferry, the new French
Minister of Foreign .Affairs, assured Lord Lyons that the British " need
not feel any anxiety whatever respecting the present negotiations between
France and Burmah." 62 He also said that any new conventions or treaties
agreed to would be entirely commercial, and that no facilities would be
given to Burma to obtain arms. Lyons begged him to see that nothing
political slipped into any conventions or treaties concluded. "M. Jules
Ferry repeated that I might be perfectly at ease respecting tbe
negotiations. " 52
The Burmese envoys ultimately agreed to a new treaty, and the French
Government furnished the British Foreign Office with a copy of the same.
The terms were found to be identical with those of the commercial
treaties existing between ngland and Burma. 53 One of the stipulations
however was the recognition of" a mutual right to accredit Diplomatic
and Consular Representatives. " 5 "' After this the Burmese envoys visited
Italy. The first and second members of the embassy returned to Mandalay
on 12 May 1885 after halting in Rangoon for a week. The third member
had returned earlier. " othing of any political importance transpired
49
IFDP, A-Political-E, o. 38o, May 1884 (Letter from Lyons to the Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs, 7 ovember 1883).
60
Ibid., o. 386 (Lyons to Secretary of State, 13 December 1883).
61
Ibid., o . 392 (Lyons to Secretary of State, dated Paris, 6 April r884) .
62
Ibid., No. 393 (Lyons to Secretary of State, ro April 1884).
63 64
n. 48, 295 (1885) 1038. Ibid., 194 (t884- 1885) u6z.
Juu 1960
 IN'I'ERNA'I'I ONAL S'I'UDIES

at the Chief Commissioner's interviews with the embassy. The members

seem to have enjoyed themselves in Europe where tliey stayed nearly
two years." 65
The British Government was not satisfied with the situation. Answering
a question in the House of Commons, the Secretary of State for India
said, "Reports have reached Her Majesty's Government to the effect
that concessions of territory have been made by Burmah to France; but
they are entirely inconsistent with positive assurances which have been
given by the French Government to Her Majesty's Ambassadors at
Paris/' 6 and are therefore not credited by Her Majesty's Government."56a
The Chief Commissioner of British Burma and Lord Dufferin the Viceroy
were however convinced that there was a secret engagement between
the two governments. The Italian Consul in Mandalay also made a confir-
matory report on the strength of some secret papers that he said he had
seen. 57 British suspicions were further roused because although the
Burmese Mission had been in Paris for about six months, they did not
contact the British Ambassador. :;s
A number of documents concerning the aftermath of the Burmese
cientific Mission are missing in the National Archives of India and the
Indian Home Ministry as well as the External Affairs Ministry. It appears
however that the Franco-Burmese Treaty provided for the establishment
of a French Bank at Mandalay which would lend money to the King at
12 per cent interest. The King was certainly sorely in need of money
since his revenues were d1-ying up because of maladministration. The
French were also to manage the ruby mines and have the monopoly of
pickled tea. These concessions were meant to be securities for the money
to be lent. The French were to build a railway from Mandalay to
Tongking ; and as security for this railway, France was also to control
the river customs and earth-oil dues.
An engagement of this nature would have undoubtedly terminated in
Upper Burma becoming a French protectorate. Siam might also have
been roped in together with Upper Burma, and France would thus have
become the mistress of the greater part of Indo-China. British position
u IFDP, External A, No. 86, June 188~ (Letter from the Chief Com.missioner's
Secretary to the Foreign Secretary, Government of India, ~~ May 188~).
51 F. R. Plunkett, and Lord Lyons who succeeded him. na n. 48 .
61 n. 48, vol. 3oz (Speech by Mr. J. M. Maclean).

18 IFDP, No. 389, May 1884 (Lyons to the Secretary of State dated Paris z6 December

1883)
VoL. II No. 1
 FOREIGN RELA'I'IONS OF BURMA'S LAS'I' KI G I7

in Lower Burma would have become precarious. One hundred and

twenty-five years earlier the British had put an end to French imperialism
in India ; but now there was a danger of France driving a wedge between
British India and British Burma. The British decided to intervene and
forestall the French. The Viceroy had broken off diplomatic relations
with Mandalay in I 879, but the French action and the complaints of
British trading companies in Upper Burma were enough reasons for the
intervention. The British also desired extra-territorial rights in Upper
Burma which the King was not willing to grant. Then there was the
running sore of frontier disputes and outrages. Above all, according to
the then prevailing ideas, imperial Britain wished to round off her posses-
sions in Farther India by acquiring all Northern Burma. As to the imperial
policy it made no difference whether the Tories or the Liberals were in
power. There was n.o .lack of valid reasons for intervention in the affairs
of a backward state like Upper Burma where administration at the centre
and in the country was fast breaking down.
Early in I 88 5 the Burmese Government claimed several lakhs of
rupees from the British Burma Trading Corporation which was a concern
chiefly of British merchants. They had extensive dealings in Thibaw's
dominions. Bernard the Chief Commissioner of British Burma addressed
the Burmese Government suggesting an impartial investigation into the
Corporation's complaint. He met with a point blank refusal, and the
Corporation was fined 2 3o,ooo. On the orders of the Viceroy the
Chief Commissioner protested and invited the Burmese Government
to stay proceedings against the Corporation and refer the matter
to an arbitrator appointed by the Viceroy. The King rejected the
demand. 5 9
Under instructions from Calcutta, the Chief Commissioner now sent
an ultimatum to the King requiring him to suspend execution of the
decree against the Corporation, to receive a British envoy at Mandalay
honourably, to afford facilities of trade through Upper Burma to British
subjects wishing to do commerce with China; and last, to submit the
external relations of Upper Burma to the discretion of the Government
of India. This letter of ultimatum was sent by steamer to Mandalay on
2.2. October I885, and the last date fixed for reply was 10 November I88 5.
59

It was a secret communication, but the news leaked out even before the
ultimatum was sent, and the Rangoon Times Daily announced it. 60 On
61 Aitcbison, n. 33.
10 IFDP, External No. 12.4, Part B, October 1885 .
)ULY 196o
 I TERNATIO AL STUDIES

9 ovember an unconditional refusal of the demand was received by the

Chief Commissioner. Thibaw, in traditional style, issued a proclamation
calling upon his subjects to rally round him and to resist the unjust
demands of the British. He also threatened to " efface these heretic
foreigners and conquer and annex their territory." 6 0a The invasion and
annexation of Thibaw's dominions was an affair planned between the
Indian and the Home Governments. It was looked upon under Gladstone's
Liberal Ministry to be a humanitarian measure.
General Henry Prendergast was placed in charge of the operations.
It was not a bloodless war however, as it often is considered to be. On
14 November x885, two British armed steamers crossed the frontier and
went into action 28 miles above Thayetmyo engaging the Burmese
batteries near Nyaung-ben-Maw, and brought away after a smart skirmish
the King's steamer. Barges with which the Burmese troops were trying
to block the river, opposite their batteries, were also captured. On the
16th a Brigade was landed which took the Nyaung-ben-Maw batteries on
the right bank of the river, while another Brigade took the stockade of
Shing-baung-Weh on the left bank. On both sides Burmese troops retired
without a fight. Prendergast took the guns and destroyed the
fortifications. u
On 17 November an Indian Brigade was sent to attack the Wundauk's 62
house and a redout at :Nfinhla. The rest of the force advanced eight miles
round from Patanago to assault the eastern front of the strong redout of
Gwe-gyaun-Kamyo. The armed steamers bombarded the redouts and the
batteries. Burmese troops put up a resistance at the barricade, and when
driven out made a stand at the Pagoda. From the Pagoda they fell back
upon the Governor's house, and :finally entered the redout of Minhla:
but this redout too was lost in no time. It was an unequal fight. One
hundred and seventy men of the Burmese Army were killed and 2 76 taken
as prisoners. Scores of Burmese soldiers were drowned in the river, and
many were shot while trying to escape, while large numbers were wounded.
The victorious troops took x 5 pieces of ordnance.62 a Prendergast in his
letter said that the Gwe-gyaun-Kamyo redout was a strong fortification

eoa Aitchlson, n. 33.

n IFDP, (Letter from General Henry Prendergast to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India, 13 October 189o).
u This Wundauk was the Governor of the town or district. Wundauk stood next
in rank to the Wungyi. Wungyis were the King's Ministers who exercised legislative,
executive and judicial powers in the name of the monarch. ua n. 6x.
VoL. II No. 1
 FOREIGN RELATIONS OF BURMA'S LAST KING 19
designed and built by the Italian Barbieri. It had a command of 250 feet
over the river, and was provided with a broad deep ditch having masonry
scarp and counter-scarp. Two tiers of guns bore ?n the reach of the river
towards Mallown, and another battery was constructed to fire westwards
towards Minhla. The eastern front was weaker, commanded by high
ground to the east of it. From the gorge wall on the north the ground
fell precipitously. The redout was furnished with casemated barracks and
magazines, and was in good order. It had 21 guns and a garrison of x,7oo.
As early as 1883 Prendergast had carefully reconnoitred the fort, so that
both its strength and weakness were known to him. He now directed
the attack personally. He landed his troops three hours march from the
redout and made for its eastern front . The Burmese garrison was sur-
prised and fled panic-stricken. The fort was captured without the loss
of a man. Thibaw had set his trust on this redout to stop a British invasion
up the river. 63
On 22 November a Burmese battery at Nyangoo was attacked and xr
guns captured. On the 24th troops landed to take the batteries near
Pakokku which commanded the river. The same evening the naval
brigade advanced towards Myingyan. When within half a mile of this
town, Burmese shore batteries opened fire. In return the British battery
afloat opened heavy fire and kept it up till sunset, "the enemy," according
to Prendergast, "standing to their guns and entrenchments bravely."
The next morning the General landed his troops, but found the entrench-
ment deserted, all Burmese defenders having retired during the night
leaving behind 21 guns in the batteries. 63
On 26 November Burmese envoys arrived to negotiate peace. As
instructed by his Government, Prendergast demanded unconditional
surrender : that Thibaw should surrender himself, also his army and his
capital to the British. But the General promised that "if the European
residents at Mandalay were found uninjured in person and in property,
he would spare the King's life and would respect his family." 63 Of course
the Burmese peace delegation had no power to accept such drastic terms.
On 27 November the invading force advanced on Ava; but before the
fleet reached this old capital the envoys appeared again bearing the King's
surrender and an order that Burmese troops were not to fire on the
British. Prendergast demanded the surrender of the armaments of the
forts in and around A va. The envoys declared that owing to the high
ea IFDP, (Letter from General Henry Prendergast to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India, 13 October 1890).
juLY 196o
2.0 INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

rank of the officer commanding at A va it would be necessary to obtain

orders from Mandalay. Prendergast agreed to grant them respite. In the
meanwhile, British suryey officers reconnoitred the barrier placed across
the river, cease fire being now in force. The survey officers prepared a
channel through the obstacle and placed buoys to indicate it to the fleet.
The General again demanded surrender of the arms, and his warships
took station some for landing troops and others for engaging the batteries.
But before the hostilities could be recommenced orders arrived from
the King approving of the surrender of the armaments.

Troops at once landed, and many rifles, fowling pieces, spears and swords were
laid down: j46 muzzle-loaders and 87 breach-loaders at Ava, 390 muskets at Sagaineaa
Fort, also heaps of swords and spears at Ava, Sagain and Thabyadun, not to mention
the 90 pieces of ordnance that were in batteries commanding the river and the two
great walled cities" and 3 forts of scientific European construction, that were in the
power of the British troops.'"'

At Ava the King's troops could have delayed the advance of Prender-
gast and done damage to his fleet, but Thibaw decided to surrender under
the advice of the Kinwun Mingyi who from the beginning had realized
the futility of resistance. As to the Burmese defence establishment at and
near Av~, Prendergast said :

It would have been impossible to invest the enemy's force, for the Irrawaddy was
blocked, and Ava, Sagain Fort and Thabyadun were protected by inundations. If it
had been determined to take A va fort by coup de main, the assaulting columns, restricted
to a narrow strip of dry land, would have advanced on a very narrow front, over ground
swept by cross-fire from Ava walls and Ava redout. If the enemy had stood as they
did at Minhla and Myingyan our losses would have been very heavy, the advance
on Mandalay would have been delayed, and all the Europeans at Mandalay might
have been destroyed by the King of Burma.'"'

However, no opposition was offered and the way to Mandalay lay

open. While the invading army was advancing on Mandalay, the Chinese
began to mass their troops on the Sino-Burmese frontier. Prendergast
n a Sagaing, situated on the right bank of the Irrawaddy, almost opposite Ava which
lay on the left bank: of the river.
"Ava and Sagaing. They could scarcely be called "great cities." Prendergast was
perhaps thinking of them as the one time capitals of Burma.
ua IFDP, (Letter from General Henry Prendergast to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India, 13 October x89o).
VoL. Il No. x
 FOREIG RELA 'I' IONS OF BURMA'S LAS'I' KING .21

therefore first seized Shwebo being traditionally a town of great political

importance. On .28 November Thibaw became a prisoner of the British .
The next day he was deported from Mandalay and the city occupied.
Thus ended the Konebaung Dynasty of Alaungpaya : and, in the words of
Prendergast, "the designs of France were frustrated." 66 In the meanwhile
reports arrived that the Chinese had occupied Bhamo. Hence on r 8
December Prendergast himself embarked with a thousand men for Bhamo
and on the 28th occupied the town, thus, as the General remarked,
" quashing the ambitious projects of China." 65
At the opening of the Parliament the British Queen made the following
speech to the two Houses on the war with Thibaw:

Greatly to my regret I was compelled in the month of November to declare war

against Theebaw, the King of Ava. Acts of hostility on his part against my subjects
and the interests of my Empire had, since his accession been deliberate and continuous.
These had necessitated the withdrawal of my Representative from his Court, and
my demands for redress were systematically evaded and disregarded. An attempt to
confiscate the property of my subjects trading under agreement in his dominions,
and a refusal to settle the dispute by arbitration, convinced me that the protection
of British life and property, and the cessation of dangerous anarchy in Upper Burmah,
could only be effected by force of arms. The gallantry of my European and Indian
forces, under Lieut. General Sir Harry Prendergast, rapidly brought the country under
my power, and I have decided that the most certain method of insuring peace and
order in those regions is to be found in the permanent incorporation of the Kingdom
of A va with my Empire. ua

The war cost more than 3oo,ooo and the British Cabinet decided
to charge it upon the revenues of India .. Hunter a Member of Parliament
from Aberdeen made a vigorous speech in the House of Commons
opposing the decision and pronounced it "mean and cruel." India, he
said, was a Ward while Great Britain was a Guardian ; India was poor
while the Guardian was rich; hence it was unjust to burden the Indian
tax-payer. Besides, he said, the Indian people had no say in the matter
and they had no representative in the Parliament. The voice of this noble
soul was however a voice in the wilderness. The Liberal Party Govern-
ment of Britain stuck to its decision. Hunter also drew the attention of
the House to the fact that India had been made to pay the expenses of
85
IFDP, (Letter from General Henry Prendergast to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India, I 3 October I 89o).
ua n. 48, vol. 302 (I886).
)ULY 1900
2.2. INTER ATIONAL STUDIES

the first war amounting to no less than r 5 millions, while the revenue
of British Burma was only 67o,ooo; but that on the other hand trade
between British Burma and Upper Burma during r874-8 was 3,o6r,174
which rose to 3,2.2.4,814 during 1879-83 which meant a large increase
during the reign of Thibaw. 6 6
The Viceroy visited Burma in February 1886 and found the country
peaceful. But soon the complexion of things began to change. In the
following month a large Burmese force appeared north of Yamethin,
but it accomplished nothing. It was scattered in no time by the Indo-
British troops. By 3I March the military occupation of Upper Burma
was complete. Mandalay was strongly held with a cordon of posts round
it. Military posts at convenient distances were placed along the Irrawaddy
from Thayetmyo to Bhamo, also at Alon on the Chindwin, and from the
railway terminus at Toungoo to Myingyan and Mandalay. All the strong
forts of Thibaw were occupied, also his arsenal and rifle factory. All his
war-boats were captured. Besides his transport animals, Prendergast took
charge of r,86r pieces of ordnance, about 7,300 rifles and muskets, and
37,000 spears and swords. 67 The Royal Army melted away.
Burma was unified once again but this time under a foreign ruler.
However, mere conquest or annexation does not necessarily mean unifi-
cation. Dalhousie in r 852., and later Charles Bernard, the Chief Commis-
sioner of British Burma (r88o-7), had declared that although Arakan,
Tenasserim and Pegu had been quickly conquered and pacified, the
Kingdom of Upper Burma would offer prolonged resistance. In 1879
the General Officer Commanding at Rangoon had said that he could take
Mandalay with 5oo men, but would need 5,ooo men to subdue Upper
Burma. These fears came now to be too true. Although it was a loosely
knit state, it bristled with village stockades. Besides there was a crude
but strong sense of nationality which evinced even in defeat a tenacious
vitality, the monarch, whether the one banished or a new aspirant to
the throne, being the rallying centre. Such a ruler was automatically
looked upon as the Defender of the Faith. This vitality now expressed
itself in several rival aspirants to the throne of Burma who tried to imitate
the great Alaungpaya of the r8th century. These "patriots," either
supposed to be fighting for Thibaw or for themselves played the part of
dacoits, or for the purpose in hand took to dacoity. It was nothing strange.
Ibid., 944 ff.
n IFDP, (Letter from General Henry Prendergast to the Foreign Secretary,
Government of India, 13 October 1890).
VoL. n o. I
 FOREIGN RELATION S OF BURMA'S LAST KI G 2.3

Dacoity was not only endemic to Burma, and especially to Upper Burma,
but it had become an institution in itself. In past history, rivals to the
Burmese throne did not hesitate to enlist the help of dacoits, and on
mounting the throne gave Ministerships to their friends the dacoit chiefs.
A glaring example is Tharrawaddy who dethroned his brother Bagyidaw
in r 837 and usurped the throne.
Under Thibaw the government was powerless to suppress dacoity.
Some of his Ministers at times protected dacoits and shared their booty
leaving district governors unsupported. Villages often submitted to
their exactions in return for protection against other dacoits, protection
which Thibaw's government could not provide. In 1884 the Kachins had
even captured Bhamo and plundered villages half way down to the
royal capital.
Although Thibaw had issued a grandiose proclamation threatening to
exterminate the "foreign heretics," he was unable to lead his army
against the invader. It is possible that the army as well as many of his
subjects thought that the British would depose Thibaw and place one of
his brothers on the throne. The British however did not hesitate to annex
the Burmese kingdom to their Empire. In the hour of the monarchy's
dissolution, many Burmese soldiers went home with their arms and
joined the dacoits. Their patriotism did not rise to a sense of unity against
the new foreign ruler. They not only fought other dacoit chiefs but also
plundered their peaceful countrymen in the villages and towns. The
harassed villagers therefore welcomed the British who offered them peace
and safety. The new rulers took almost ten years to pacify the country,
and gave it a unity which Burma had never enjoyed in the past. D uring
this period of pacification the country was visited by renowned British
soldiers, such as Sir George White, Sir George Wolsely, and Sir Frederick
Roberts the Commander-in-Chief of India. At one time no fewer than
32.,000 troops, mostly Indians and Gurkhas, were employed to deal with
the situation.
Thus ended the reign of Thibaw, his foreign dealings, and the dynasty
of Alaungpaya. Under old Burma, foreigners and foreign states, with the
exception of the Chinese, were looked upon as far inferior to themselves
and their own country. The Burmese capital was to them the centre of
the world. There was nothing that they needed to learn from foreign
countries. Later, during the reigns of the last two kings, when embassies
were sent to foreign countries, the supreme object was just to get back
the territory lost as a result of the first two wars.
}ULY I96o
 INTERNATIONA L STUDIES

Under British rule, with the spread of modem education, and the
establishment of the rule of law; the Burmese people began gradually to
widen their vision of the world. The link with the British brought into
being, as also in India, a new nationalism and the desire to maintain the
rule of law in the country. It is clear from the current history of the
country that the policy of New Burma as to foreign relations is just the
opposite of the policy of Thibaw and his forbears.

VoL. II No. t

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